None
2. Long a and w ending a syllable may not be doubled. Therefore vraag , question, is written in the singular with aa, but in the plural only with one a: vragen not vraagen, because the first syllable ends in a. In the same way we write: zaakj thing. za-ken, things. muurj wall. mu-ren^ walls. ik slaap, I sleep. wij sla-pen we sleep, ik stuur J I steer, wij stu-ren we steer. ^). Zij may be 1° personal pronoun she or they, 2^ substantive silk, 3° substantive side (in both the latter cases zy is contracted for zijde). Zei contracted for zeide is a verbal form meaning said (impf.t.). 26 3. The same rule, which is applicable to a and ?/, should also , according to analogy , be applicable to e and o; but this is only partly the case. Etymology demands, that the e and o should be doubled in several words, even when at the end of a syllable, as: bleeken, to bleach, koopeUj to buy ^), in others not. Exx. bre-kerij to break. ho-pen, to hope. ge-verij to give. lo-gen^ falsehood. The following words have a different meaning, accor- ding as they are written with oo or o, or ee or e. geene, none. gene, those. heelenj to heal. helen, to conceal. toonefij to show. tonen, tones. reede, roads. rede, speech. steenen, stones. stenen, to groan. weeken, to soften, weken, weeks, weezen, orphans. wezen, to be. (or a being) genootettj partners, genoten , enjoyed. hoopen , heaps. hopen , to hope. hooren, to hear. horen, horn. nooten, nuts. noten, notes. pooten, paws. poten, to plant. 4. Several stems of words ending in short a , e , ^ , o or w followed by a single consonant retain the short vowel even then, when an element is added beginning with a vowel. In that case the final consonant of the stem is doubled, Exx. 2) At the end of this grammar the student will find a list of the most usual words , written with oo and with ee. As a general rule [ it may be observed that all verbs having au in German are written with the double o in Dutch, as kaufen, koopen, to buy laufen, loopen, to run and words having ei in German with ee, as k)£ine, geene^ no, Beine, heenen, bones. 27 man J man. mes, knife. pilj pill. stokj stick. A;ri/A:, crutch. mannen, men. messeUj knives. pillen, pills. stokken, sticks. krukken, crutches. Stems of words ending in a long vowel followed by a single consonant are written with a double vowel , in all forms, where no derivatory element, beginning with a vowel, is added. spe-len, to play. vra-gen, to ask. hopen^ to hope. stu-ren , to steer. ik speel, I play. ik vraag J I ask. ik hoop, I hope. ik stuiir , I steer. 5. If to a stem ending in f ov s a derivatory element is added beginning with a vowel, these letters, if not doubled , are changed , the f into v and the s into z. korf, basket. korven , baskets. brief J letter. brieven, letters. huis, house. huizen, houses. haaSj hare. hazen, hares. ^) Formerly if a syllable ending in i was followed by another beginning with a vowel , a j was interpola- ted, as ik draai, I turn, wij draaijen, we turn; — this is no longer the case. All nouns are written in Dutch without capitals, except personal proper names and those of countries, towns, rivers, sciences, and titles before names. ^) An exception to this rule is formed bij a few words ending in ts, in which the s does not change into z, because the soft z cannot come after the hard t: spits, point; spitsen, points. THEORETICAL PART. GRAMMAR. CHAPTER L THE SUBSTANTIVE (hET ZELFSTANDIG NAAMWOORD). 1. The number. The plural is generally formed bij adding -en to the singular and only -n when the word ends in e. dier, animal. meeningy opinion. straat, street. muur , wall. Up J lip. stukj piece. wolf, wolf. diefj thief, huts J house. bode, messenger. gave, gift. dieren, animals. meeningen, opinions. straten, streets. | muren walls. J lippen, lips. j stukken, pieces. I wolven, wolves, j dieven^ thieves. > huizen, houses. ) boden, messengers. gaven, gifts. 1). According to the above mentioned general rule 29 nouns, of which the vowel is short in the singular, must double their final consonant to form their plural, as: pen., pen. pennettj pens. katj cat. katten, cats. 2). Several nouns are excepted from this rule and have a long vowel in the plural, though in the singular the vowel is short. bad J bath, haden. hoi., cavern, holen. Mad J leaf, bidden. lot, lot, Idtett, dag , day , ddgen. pad , path , pdden. dak J roof ddken. rad, wheel, rdderen. dalj valley, ddlen. slag, battle, sldgen. gat, hole, gdten. slot, lock, sloten. glas, glass, glazen. staf, staff, stdven. god, god, goden. spel, play, spelen, graf, grsLYe , graven. vat, tub, vdten. 3). Nouns ending in -el , -er , -aar , and -ier in the singular may take either -s or -en in the plural, -s is mostly used in the familiar style. regel, rule. regels, regelen. vader, father. vaders, vaderen, 4). Substantives ending in -em and -en, and all dimi- nutives in -je exclusively form their plural in -s. bodem, bottom. bodems, bottoms. degen, sword. degens, swords. brief je , note. brief jes , notes. 5). Nouns ending in -heid change this ending into heden : waarheid, truth, waarheden. dwaasheid, folly, dwaasheden. Smid , blacksmith , has in the plural smeden , lid , mem- ber, leden, schip, vessel, schepen and stad, town, steden. 6). Those ending in man change man into lieden. 30 koopman, merchant, JcoopUeden. Jcrijgsman , warrior , hrijgsUeden ^). 7) Some nouns have a double and a few even a triple plural: hoen, fowl. hoenders ^ hoenderen. volkj people. volkeren^ volken. kleedj dress. kleederen , dresses , kleeden j covers, kalf, calf. kalveren, kalven. bladj leaf. bladeren, leaves of a tree, (in poetry hladers) , hladen , leaves of a book. heen^ leg, bone, beenderen, bones, beenen^ legs. 2. TAe gender. Masculine are: 1. Proper names of men, as: Jan, John, Jacobus^ James, Hendrik, Henry, except the diminutives in -je, which are neuter, as Hendrikje, little Henry. 2. Common nouns expressing the conditions of men , as: tuinman, gardener, A^oojpwaw, merchant, A:iiec/i^, man- servant ; 3. The names of all stones , as : agaat , agate , diamant y diamond. Names of trees , except spar , fir, andZmtZe, lin- den. Names of mountains and coins. 4. Nouns ending in dom, expressing a rank or condi- tion, as: adeldom nobility, ouderdom old age, 7'ijkdom wealth. Het heiligdom, the sanctxisirj , smd het vorstendom ^ the principality, het Cm ^m^^om , Christendom , are neuter. 4. Nouns ending in -el , -em , -sem , -Im and -rm , as : adel , ^) Except names of natives of certain countries , as : Fransch'nian Frenchman, plur. Franschen; Engelschnian Englishman, plur. Engelschen and words, in which te syllable-man at the end has no- thing to do with the word man : kaaiman (crocodile) kaaimannen. 31 nobility , adem breath , balsem , balsam , halm , stalk , darm bowel, with some exceptions. 6. Nouns ending in -aar -aard and -er , as : luiaard , sloth , leugenaar ^ liar, snuiter ^ snuffers. Feminine are: 1. Proper names of females, as: Anna, Ann, Louise, Louisa; except all diminutives in -je, which are neuter, as: Jansje. Jane, Mietje, little Mary. 2. Common nouns signifying a feminine state or occu- pation, as: zusteTj sister, naaister ^ seamstress, except het wijfj the low woman, and all diminutives in -je, as: zusje, little sister, which are neuter. 3. Nouns ending in -schap , derived from adjectives , as : hlijdschap joy; also nouns with the same ending im- plying an association as : priesterschap clergy , hroederschap fraternity. But when these nouns signify a dignity, an office, they are neuter, as: het hroederschap the brother- hood , het priesterschap , the priesthood, het stadhouderschap the dignity of a stadholder. Het gezelschap , the company , and het genootschap , the association , are also neuter. 4. Nouns ending in -ing derived from verbs , as : heloo^ ningj reward, vermaning ^ reprimand. 5. Nouns ending in -ij as: hoovaardij , pride, dieverij y theft; except words beginning with ge-^ which are neu- ter: het gerij , driving, het getij , the tide. 6. Nouns ending in -is, as: geliJkeniSj likeness, hegra- fenis, funeral, except het vonnis, the sentence, and het verniSj the varnish, which are neuter (vernis has the accent on the last syllable). 7. All dissyllables ending in -te as: duiirte dearness, schaamtCj shame, also many trisyllables derived from verbs as: begeerte, desire, from hegeeren to desire, gC' dachte , remembrance , from denken to think. 32 8. All nouns ending in -held, as: ivijsheid wisdom, domheid stupidity. 9. The letters of the alphabet and of the figures , as : eene A, an A , eene 3 , a three. Names of ships. 10. Nouns ending in -st, as: gunst favour, winst profit. But dienst service, herfst autumn are masculine. 11. Derivatives in -age as: stellage a scaffolding, from stellen to place, bosschage a grove or copse, from bosch a wood. Neuter are: 1. Proper names of countries, cities and villages, as: Holland, Amsterdam. 2. Infinitives of verbs and adjectives used as nouns, as: het eten eating, het drinken drinking, het kwade evil. 3. All diminutives of nouns in -je, -ke (ske) and-Ze/w, as: het boekje or boekske, the little book. 4. Nouns ending in -sel , as: het voedsel the food, een deksel a lid , etc. 5. Many nouns beginning with ge- derived from other nouns, as: het gebergte, the mountain, het geboomte, the trees; and all nouns beginning with ge- derived from verbs, as: geschrei crying, from schreien to cry. 6. Dissyllables beginning in be- , ge- , he?-- , ont- or ver- , as: het bedrog the deceit, het geloof the heiiet, het ontslag the dismissal, het verslag the report; except verkoop sale, herdruk reprint, and venvant relation, which are masculine, and ontvangst receipt, bekomst fill, which are feminine. 7. The names of metals , as : het goiid gold , het ijzer , iron , het koper copper , also the names of many productions when the species only is signified, as: het taken the cloth, het papier the paper. 33 8. All words ending in -dom, signifying a body or collection of persons , as : het priesterdom , the priesthood. Many nouns designating persons are of the epicene gender , i. e. they may be taken ad libitum either in the masculine or in the feminine and so with all adjectives used as substantives, as: de arms, the poor (man or woman); de armen, the poor men or women. bediendOj servant. weetniet, ignoramus. vreemde, stranger. gevangene, prisoner. kennisj acquaintance. gids, guide. getuigey witness. zieke, patient. 3. Compound substantives. The following different kinds of compound nouns may be distinguished in Dutch : 1.) Nouns formed from two substantives , as : huisvader , father of a family , vruchtboom^ fruittree. 2.) Nouns formed from a substantive and an adjective, as: grootvader, grandfather, hoogmoed, pride, literally : high mind. 3.) Nouns formed from a substantive and a verb, as: drinkgeld, drinkmoney. 4.) Nouns for- med from a substantive and a pronoun, as: zelfmoord, selfmurder, suicide, etc. In compound nouns formed of two substantives either both nouns remain unaltered , as : huisvader , father of a family , vruchthoom , fruittree ; or the first noun takes an s or e, as: levensbeschrijving ^ biography , ^mwemes , penknife. 4. Formation of diminutives. Diminutives are formed by adding -je, -ske (or -sken), and in poetry sometimes 4ijn to the noun. The ending -je after certain letters may assume the form of -tje or -pje. 3 34 draadj thread, draadje. brief y letter, briefje. vUeg, fly, vliegje. daky roof, dakje. vischj fish, vischje. boekj book, boekje, or boekskein), maagd, girl, maagdelijn. When the noun ends in a vowel or in one of the consonants Z, w, r, or e<;, a ^ is placed before -Je, as: koe^ cow, koetje. vogely bird, vogeltje. steen, stone, steentje. kamer, room, kamertje. vrouw, wife, vrouwtje. "When the noun ends in w , a /> is placed before -je , as : boom, tree, boompje. bloem, flower, bloempje. Monosyllabic nouns ending in a short vowel followed by / , m or w, place et instead of t before -je, and double the consonant, as: schely bell, schelletje. man, man, mannetje. kom, basin, kommetje. 5. Formation of the feminine. In order to form the feminine ofnouns designating male persons or male animals the Dutch generally add -in to the masculine and the stress is laid on this last syllable, as: een keizer, an emperor, eene keizerin, an empress. een herder, a shepherd, eene herderin, a shepherdess. een graaf, an earl. eene gravin, a countess. een wolf, a wolf. eene wolvin, a she-wolf. There are however many nouns of living beings. 35 that have but one form for both genders , as arend (eagle) , haas (hare) etc. (masculine) ; — duif (dove) muis (mouse) (feminine) ; — paard (horse) , schaap (sheep) , kind (child) (neuter). Nouns, derived from verbs and ending in -er, gene- rally form their feminine by changing -er into -ster, as: een bedrieger , a deceiver. eene bedriegster , a female de- ceiver. een inwoner, an inhabitant, eene inwoonster^SL female in- habitant. een vleier , a flatterer. eene vleister , a female flatterer. Of some other nouns the feminine is formed by adding -es to the masculine, with the stress on this last syl- lable, as: een dienaar , a servant. eene dienares , a maid servant. een lezer , a reader. eene lezeres, a female reader. een baron, a baron. eene barones, a baroness. een profeet , a prophet. eene pro fetes , a prophetess. The feminine of natives of countries is expressed by the subst. vrouwj (woman) preceded by an adjective derived from the name of the country as: een Hollander ^ a Dutchman. eene hollandsche vrouWy a Dutch woman. een Franschmati, a Frenchman, eene fransche vrouw, a French woman. Vrouw may be omitted and the adj. used as a subst., eene Fransche j a French woman. Some nouns ending in man form their feminine by changing man into vrouw , as : koopman , merchant , koop- vroiiw; buurman, neighbour, buurvrouw. Irregular in the formation of the feminine are abdis, abbess, from abty abbot; dievegge, female thifef, from dief, thief. 36 CHAPTER II. THE ADJECTIVE (hET BIJVOEGELIJK NAAMWOORD). 1. Formation and derivation of adjectives. Adjectives are either original words, as: grooty great, goed, good, schoon, beautiful, or formed from nouns, by the addition of a terminational particle, as: moedig^ courageous, menschelijk human, or composites formed from two nouns, as: liefderijk^ rich in love, vrijwillig , voluntary. The principal terminational particles of Dutch adjec- tives are: -baar^ -loos, 'UJk, -zaam ^ -en ^ -ig ^ -sch ^ -haftig and -achtig, as: vruchthaar^ fertile. deugdzaam^ virtuous. eetbaafy edible. leerzaanij docile. hlijkbaar ^ apparent. hemelsch^ heavenly. gouden, golden. hollandsch, Dutch. steenen, (of) stone. ernstig, serious. moedig y courageous. heldhaftig , heroic. levendig , lively. 'loos and -lijk are equivalent to the English -less and 'like, or -ly ^ as: vaderloos, fatherless. goddelijk, godlike. geldeloosy moneyless. doodelijkj deadly. The termination -en generally means : made of, as : gouden, made of gold. The termination -achtig has the same signification as 'haftig, in words with this termination the accent gene- rally falls on the first syllable, as: wit J white. steen, stone. witachtig J whitish. steenachtig , stony. 37 In waardchtig , truthful , the stress falls on the second syllable, likewise in woondchtig , residing, deeldchtig, partaking of. 2. Declension of Adjectives. The rules for spelling given hereabove are also to be applied to the adjectives, as: zwaar, heavy, de zware arheid^ the heavy labour. ) zuur^ sour, de zUre vrucht^ the sour fruit. J snel^ quick. eene snelle vlucht, a quick flight. dik, thick. een dikke hoom^ a stout tree. dor^ withered, een dorre tak^ a withered branch. grof^ rough. grove trekken^ rough features. wit^ white. witte wol, white wool. lief J dear. lieve moeder, dear mother. \ braafj good. brave vrouw, good woman. > wi)Sy wise. de wijze man, the wise man. ) lui, idle. de luie leer ling j the idle pupil, I fraai, beautiful, fraaie hloemen, beautiful flowers. J Adjectives in -en or derived from the names of towns remain unaltered, as: een houten lepel, a wooden spoon. een wollen kous, a woollen stocking. een Groninger koek , a cake baked at Groningen. but een lakensche jas , a cloth coat, (lakensch). If an adjective is used as a noun, it takes in the genitive singular -n or -en; the other cases have no termination. de geleerdcy the learned man. des geleerden , of the learned man , (comm, van den geleerde). den geleerde J to the learned man. den geleerde, the learned man. 38 But if the adjective stands alone, and the noun is understood, it follows the general rule, as: WiJ zijn alien sterfelijk , We are all mortal , the zoowelderijkenalsdearmen. rich as well as the poor. 3. Degrees of comparison. Lang long, ?an^er longer , de ^aw^s^e the longest. In the same manner: groot, great. grooter. de grootste. zwaky weak. zwakker. de zwakste. hraafj brave. braver, de hraafste. boos J wicked. boozer, de booste (i.sLoi boosste), mooi, handsome, mooter. de mooiste. Adjectives ending in r take d before the termina- tion -er of the comparative, as: zwaar ^ heavy. zwaarder^ heavier. duur ^ dear. dtmrder, dearer. dor J dry. dorder, drier. ver^ far. verder, farther. Sometimes the comparative is formed by placing the adverb meer, more, and the superlative by placing meest, most, before the adjective, as: doordrongen j ^ene- trated, tneer doordrongen, more penetrated, meest door- drongen , most penetrated. This is generally the case with adjectives having three or more syllables. The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the comparative and superlative, in Dutch as well as in English: tveinig J little, minder^ minst. goedj good, beter, best. veelj much, meer ^ meest. kwaadj evil, erger^ ergst. (in the meaning of angry: kwader^ kwaadst.) 39 With comparatives dan is used in the same way as than in English, as: De roos is schooner dan The rose is more beautiful vele andere bloemen. than many other flowers. Wie was welsprekender Who was more eloquent dan Cicero? than Cicero? The Dutch comparatives zoo , evenzoo , niet zoo — als are translated in English by so — as , and not so , — as , Exx. Mijn vriend is zoo {even- My friend is as learned zoo) geleerd als gij. as you. Gij zijt niet zoo geleerd You are not so learned als mijn vriend. as my friend. CHAPTER III. THE VERB. (HET WERKWOORD). 1. ASSONANT VERBS (weak conjugation). A verb is called assonant when its stem does not undergo any alteration in conjugation. Of assonant verbs the imperfect indicative ends in -de or -te^ and the past participle in -d or -t. PARADIGM OF AN ACTIVE OR TRANSITIVE VERB. Infinitive mood. Present tense. beminnenj to love. Present partic. beminnende, loving. Past part. bemindj loved. 40 Indicative mood. Present. ik hemin, I love. wij beminnen, we love. gij bemint, thou lovest. gij bemint, you love. hif bemintj he loves. zij beminnen, they love. Imperfect. ik beminde^ I loved. wij beminden^ we loved. gi) bemindet J thouloYedst. gij bemindety you loved. hi) bemindSj he loved. zij beminden, they loved. Past indefinite. Pluperfect. ik heb bemind , I have loved, ik had bemind , I had loved. Future. ik zal beminnen, I shall love. Future anterior. ik zal bemind hebben, I shall have loved. Conditional. ik zou beminnerij I should love. Conditional anterior. ik zou bemind hebben^ I should have loved. Imperative mood. bemin, love thou. bemintj love ye. The third person singular and the first and third persons plural of the imperative are formed in Dutch as in English by the verb laten, to let, and the present infinitive of the verb to be conjugated , as : laat hem be- minnen, laat ons beminnen, let him love, let us love. Subjunctive mood. Present tense. dat ik beminne, that I may love. dat gij bemint, that thou mayst love, etc. 41 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. Infinitive mood. Present tense. hemind worden^ to be loved. Pres. participle. bemind wordende, being loved. Past participle. hemind geworden^ been loved. Indicative mood. Present tense, ik word hemind^ I am loved. Imperfect. ik werd hemind, I was loved. Past indefinite. ik hen hemind geworden, I have been loved. Pluperfect. ik was hemind geworden, I had been loved. Future. ik zal hemind warden , I shall be loved. Future anterior. ik zal hemind geworden zijn, I shall have been loved. Conditional. ik zou hemind warden, I should be loved. Past Conditional. ik zou hemind zijn, I should have been loved. Imperative. word hemind, be thou loved. wordt hemind, be ye loved. 42 Subjunctive mood. Present. dat ik hemind worde, that I may be loved. Imperfect. dat ik hemind werde^ that I might be loved. Past indefinite. dat ik hemind geworden zij , that I may have been loved. Pluperfect. dat ik hemind geworden ware , that I might have been loved. Neuter verbs. Some neuter verbs are conjugated with hebhen and others with zijn ; with zijn are conjugated such verbs as express rather a state of existence or suffering than an action, as: hlijven^ to stay; sterven, to die '^ontwakenj to awake; zinken^ to sink; with hebhen those, which imply an action, as: hrullen^ to roar; leven, to live; vluchten, to take flight; etc. Many neuter verbs signifying motion may be conju- gated either with zijn or with hebhen. Zijn is used when the place, where the action occurred, is desig- nated; hebhen^ when merely the action is indicated, without allusion to the place, as: hij heeft veel gezwom- men, he has swum a great deal; hij is over de rivier gezwommen^ he has (is) swum over the river. Reflective verbs. Reflective verbs are conjugated with the personal pronouns mij , w, ons and zich. 43 CONJUGATION OF A REFLECTIVE VERB. ziCH SCHAMEN, to be ashamed. ik schaam mij , I am ashamed. gij schaamt u, thou art ashamed. hij schaamt zicli^ he is ashamed. wij schamen ons, we are ashamed. gij schaamt w, you are ashamed. zi^ schamen zich, they are ashamed. ik schaamde mij ^ I was ashamed. ik heh mij geschaamd, I have been ashamed. ik zal mij schamen ^ I shall be ashamed. schaam w, be thou ashamed, schaamt u, be ye ashamed. There are in Dutch some verbs, which are exclusively reflective , as : zich hezinnen , to recollect ; zich onderstaan , to venture; other reflective verbs are formed from active verbs, as: zich wasschen, to wash one's self; zich veree- nigen, to come together (wasschen to wash, vereenigen to unite). Impersonal verbs. Some neuter verbs expressing general facts or the state of the elements, are only used in the infinitve mood and in the third person singular with het for subject. They are called impersonal verbs; such are: het hageltj it hails. het dooit^ it thaws. het sneeuwtj it snows, het waait^ it blows. het dondertj it thunders, het geheurt^ it happens. het hliksemt, it lightens, het past^ it beseems. In Dutch, like in English, er (there) is often used with an impersonal verb instead of it, as: 44 Er is een groot onder- There is a great difference scheid tusschen deze kinderen. between these children. Er zijn vele menschen, There are many people die dat niet qelooven, who do not believe that. CHAPTER IV. DISSONANT VERBS (strong Conjugation). A verb is called dissonant, when the radical vowel is changed in the imperfect, and the past participle ends in -en instead of -d or -t, as: drijven, to drive, dreef, gedreven. All the other tenses are conjugated like those of the assonant verbs. The dissonant verbs, as we mentioned above, are divided into ten classes: First Class. binden (to bind) , blinken (to blink) , ding en (to bargain) , dringen (to throng), drinken (to drink), dwingen (to compel), beginnen (to begin) ^glimmen (to glitter) , klimmen (to climb) , klinken (to sound), krimpen (to shrivel), {ver)slinden (to swallow) , spinnen (to spin) , spring en (to spring) , stinken (to stink), vinden (to find), winden (to wind), winnen (to win) , wringen (to wring) , zingen (to sing) , zinken (to sink) , {ver)zinnen (to invent), {ver)zwinden (to disappear). bergen (to lock up) (comp. to bury), delven (to dig), gelden (to be available or to be worth) , kerven (to carve) , melken (to milk) , schelden (to scold) , schenden (to violate) , schenken (to pour or to endow) , smelten (to melt) , zwelgen (to revel) (comp. to swallow) , zwellen (to swell) , zwemmen (to swim). 45 Verbs departing from the rule. (be)derven (to spoil), -dierf, -dierven^ -dorven. helpen (to help), Melp, Melpen, geholpen. sterven (to die), stierf, stierven, gestorven. werpen (to cast), wierp^ wierpen, geworpen. werven (to recruit), wierfj wierven, geworven. zwerven (to rove), zwierf, zwierven^ gezworven. warden (to become), werd, werden, geworden. Second Class. (be)velen (to command), nemen (to take), spreken (to speak), steken (to pierce), stelen (to steal), wreken (to revenge) (Impf. t. weak wreekte, wreekten). Verbs having departed from the rule: komen (to come) (i st. of kwemen) kom (i st. of kweem) , kwam , kwamen , gekomen (i. st. of gekwomen). scheren (to shave) , schoor , schoren , geschoren. treffen (to hit), trof^ troffen^ getroffen. bersten (to crack) , berst or borst , Impf. t. borst , borsten or (weak) berste^ bersten or barstte, barstten^ Past Part. geborsten or gebarsten. Third Class. bidden (to beg), liggen (to lie down), zitten (to sit). e^m (to eat) , (ver)geten (to forget) , geven (to give) , lezen (to read), me^ew (to measure), (ge)nezen (to hail), ^recfew (to step). * Verbs h. dep. f. t. rule: zien (i. st. of zihen) (to see) , zie , zag , zagen , gezien. (be)wegen (to move), -^^oo^ -wogen, -wogen. wegen (to weigh) «<?oop', wogen, gewogen. weven (to wove), weefde^ wee f den ^ geweven. 46 Fourth Glass, hijten (to bite) , hlijken (to appear) , hlijven (to remain) , dijen (to thrive) {dij or dijg ^ Imp. t. deeg ^ degen. Part. gedegen), {ver)dwijnen (to disappear), glijden (to glide), grijnen (to cry) , grijpen (to snatch) , hijgen (to pant) (the Impf. tense also weak : hijgde , hijgden) , hijschen (to hoist) (Impf. tense may have the weak form), kijken (to look), kijven (to quarrel), knijpen (to pinch), krijgen (to get), krijschen (to cry sharp) (the Impf. t. may have the weak form), krijten (to cry), kwijten (to acquit), /^;(^ew (to suffer), {over)lijden (to decease) (litterally: to pass by), lijken (to be like) , mijden (to avoid) , nijgen (to curtsey) , nijpen (to pinch) , prijzen (to praise) , rijden (to ride , to drive) , rijgen (to lace) , rijzen (to mount) , rijten (to tear) , r^/ve?^ (to rate , to rasp) , schijnen (to shine , to seem) , schrijden (to stride) , schrijven (to write) , slijpen (to wear out) , smijten (to throw) , snijden (to cut) , spijten (to dis- please), (impersonal verb, only het spijt), spUjten (to slit) , stijgen (to mount) , stijven (to stiffen) (may also be conjugated as a weak verb), strijden (to fight), strijken (to stroke), ^e/^ew (to indicate, to accuse), wijken (to retreat), wijten (to reproach), wijzen (to show), wrijven (to rub) , zijgen (to sink) , zwijgen (to be silent , (be)zwijken (to give way), bezwijmen (to faint). Bkden (to offer), (he)driegen (to deceive), {ver)drieten (to sadden), ^«e^e?? (to pour), kiezen (to chose), klieven (to slit, to cleave) (often weak kliefde^ gekliefd^ (ver)- liezen (to lose), {ge)nieten (to enjoy), schieten (to shoot), /«;^ew (i. st. of tiehen) (to proceed), vlieden (to fly, run away), vliegen (to fly, as a bird), ?;Z«e^ew (to flow) , ^?m2;e?^ (to freeze) (often ?;roor , gevroren i. st, of rroos , gevrozen) , 47 zieden (to boil) (Impf. t. commonly weak : ziedde , ziedden), Buigen (to bend), druipen (to drip), duiken (to duck), fluiten (to whistle), kluiven (to gnaw a bone), kruien (to transport) (commonly weak), kruijpen (to creep), luiken (to shut), pluizen (to ravel), schuiven (to push), schuilen (to take shelter) (also weak) , sluiken (to smuggle) , sluipen (to sneak) , sluiten (to shut) , snuiten [to snuff ( a candle) or to blow (one's nose)], snuiven (to take snuff), spm- ^ew (to spout) , spruiten (to sprout) , stuiven (to raise dust) , zuigen (to suck) , rieken or ruiken (to smell) (rieken pass. , ruiken act.), zuipen (to quaff), spuwen (to spit) (spuug, spoog J gespogen or (weak) spuWj spuwde^ gespuwd). Sixth Class. Dragen (to bear), graven (to dig), ?acAew (to laugh) (Imp. t. lachte , form. ZoecA) , laden (to load) (Imperf. laadde, form. Zoe(^, malen (to grind) (Impf. maalde, form, moel). Verbs h. dep. f. t. rule. heffen (to heave), ^*e/", hieven, geheven. scheppen (to create), schiep ^ schiepen^ geschapen. wasschen (to wash), wiesch^ wieschen, gewasschen. wassen (to grow), mes^ wiessen, gewassen. . -IS i'^^oei , woeien or 1 waaien (to blow : the wind) ^ . -, . -, f gewaata, ^ ' ywaaide^ waaiden) ^ Seventh Class. Hang en (to hang) , houden (to hold) (in st. of holden , Impf. hield, hielden), vallen (to fall) (Impf. t. we? , «;ie?m) , vangen (to catch). FerJs /i. f^ep. f. t. rule. bannen (to bannish), bande, banden, gebannen. spannen (to stretch) spande, spanden, gespannen. 48 spouwen (to split), spouwde, spouwden^ gespouwen (in st. of spalden). vouwen (to fold) vouwde, vouwden^ gevouwen (i. st. of valden), zouten (to salt) , zoutte , zoutten , gezouten , (i. st. oizalten). Eighth Class. hlazen (to blow) , laten (to let) , raden (to guess) (Impf. commonly raadde)-, slapen (to sleep). Dep. f. t. rule: hraden (to roast), braadde, hraadden^ gebraden. Ninth Class. loopen (to run), stooten (to push, to knock), houwen (to hew). Tenth Class. heeten (to be called), scheiden (to separate). The strong verb roepen cannot be brought to any of the ten classes. Its forms are: roep^ riep, riepen, geroepen. IRREGULAR CONJUGATIOIT. The Dutch language has the following nineteen irregular verbs: 1. Kunnen (can). (This verb and the four following ones have a present tense, that formerly was an imper- fect and is conjugated as such. Nevertheless they all form a new imperfect in the common way). Pres. tense {ik^ hij) kan (I, he) can, gij (zij) gijlieden [jelui) kunt wij J zij, kunnen. Impf. t. ik konde, commonly kon. Inf. kunnen. Pres. part, kunnende. In stead of the past part. gekund we use the form of the Inf. Exx. dat heb ik 49 kunnen doen I have been able to do that. (Nevertheless we may say without Inf. ik heb het vroeger gekimd I have been able to it formerly). 2. Moeten (must) Pres. t. moet (1 an 3 p. S.), moet (i. st. of moett) (2 p. S. and P.) , moeten (1 and 3 p. PL). Imp. moest, moesf, moesten). Inf. moeten. Pres. Part moetende. In st. of the past part, we always use the form of the inf. moeten. 3. Mogen (may) Pres. t. mag (1 and 3 p. S.), moogt (2 p. S. and PI.), mogen (1 and 3 p. PI.). Imperf. mocht, mocht, mochten. Inf. mogen. Pres. Part, mogende. In st. of the past participle gemoogd we generally use the form mogen of the Inf. 4. Weten (to know , comp. the Old Eng. / wot) Pres. t. weet (1 and 3 p. Sing.) weet (i. st. of weett) (2 p. Sing, and PL), weteji (1 and 3 p. Plur.). Imperf. wist, tvist, wisten. Inf. weten ^ Pres. Part, wetende. Past Part, gewe- ten (before an infinitive with te we generally use weten in st. of geweten). 5. Zullen (shall , will) See the „most elementary prin- ciples of grammar." 6. Diirven (to dare) may be conjugated as a regular verb, but the Imperfect tense has both forms dnrfde (regular) and do7'st (irregular). 7. Gaan (to go) makes in the Impf. tense ging , gingt, gingen and in the Past Part, gegaan. 8. Staan (to stand) makes in the Impf. tense stond, stondty stonden and in the Past Part, gestaan. 9. Doen (to do) makes in the Impf. t. deed (i. st. of dede)y deedt , deden and in the Past Part, gedaan. 10. Zijn (to be) see the „M. e. p. of g." 11. Willen (will) having no Pres. t. of the Infinitive mood properly, uses the Subjunctive mood in stead of 4 50 t, so that the 3 pers. Sing, has not the termination -t. Pres. t. wil^ wilt^ willen. Imperf. t. wllde (comm. wou)^ wildet (comm.^'e woiidt or je woii) , wllden (comm. wou(d)en). Past Part, gewild. 12. Hehhen (to have) See the „M. e. p. of g." 13. Plegen (to use, to be accustomed) is regular in the first meaning , in the other it takes plag or placht {plachtj plachfen) for its Impf. tense. 14. Werken (to work, to produce) has in the latter meaning for its Imperfect tense wrocht, wrochty wrochten and gewrocht for its Past Part. In the former it has the regular forms werkte, werktet, werkten^ gewerkt. 15. Koopen (to buy) has in the Impf. t. kochtj kochty kochten and in the Past Part, gekocht. 16. Zoeken (to seek) makes zocht ^ zocht^ zochten and gezocht. 17. Brengen (to bring) makes brachtj hrachty brachfen and gehracht. 18. Denken (to think) makes dacht, dacht^ dachten and gedacht. 19. Dunken (Impers. verb , (me) thinks) has in the Impf. t. docht and in the Past Part, gedocht. VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. All verbs when used interrogatively take the nominative after the verb , as : leert gij , do you learn ? schrijven zij ^ do they write? In the compound tenses of verbs the subject is placed between the auxiliary and the principal verb , as : heeft hij gelezen , has he read ? zullen wij gaan, shall we go? Verbs when used negatively take the adverb nietj not, after them, as: hij slaapt niet , he does not sleep ; het regent niet , it does not rain. In the compound 51 tenses niet is placed between the auxiliary and the principal verb , as : wij Jiebben niets gedaan , we have done nothing. In" verbs used interrogatively and negatively the nominative is placed after the verb and niet after the nominative, as: eet hij niet? does he not eat? In the compound tenses the nominative and the adverb are placed between the auxiliary and the verb, as: heb ik niet geaniwoord J have I not answered? COMPOUND VERBS. In the conjugation of compound verbs the adjunct is sometimes separated from the verb and someti- mes not. Verbs compounded of a noun and another verb, are inseparable , as : beeldhouwen , to carve ; brandmerken , to brand ; dagvaarden , to summon , etc. ex. gr. ik hebgebeeld- houwd I have carved, ik heb gedagvaard I have summo- ned. But the compounds brandstichten put fire (to), houthakken to hew wood, woordhouden to keep word, are separable because the verbs, stichten to put, hakken to hew , hoiiden , to keep , convey a distinct idea leading to a comprehension of the compound idea. In the simple tenses of the indicative of such verbs the noun is placed last, as: ik sticht brand I put fire (to), ik houd woord I keep my word. In tenses compounded of the past participle the noun is placed between the auxiliary and the participle, as: ik heb brand gesticht, etc. § 40. Most verbs compounded of an adjective or adverb and a verb are separable, and follow the same forms as those of the noun and verb, as: nadoen, to imitate , ik heb nagedaan; except liefkozen to caress , weer- lichten to lighten , which are inseparable , as : gij hebt ge- 52 liefkoosd , you have caressed ; het zal geweerlicht hebhen , it will have lightened. The initial particles of verbs be- , er- , ge- , her- , mis- , ont-, ver- never admit ge- in the formation of the past participle , and are always inseparable , ex. gr. betalen to pay, ik heb betaald I have paid (not gebetaald)^ er- varen to experience, ik heb ervaren, gelooven to believe, ik heb geloofd , herhalen to repeat , ik heb herhaald , ontvangen to receive, ik heb ontvangen, verwijten to reproach, ik heb verweten. Verbs taking a preposition as an adjunct, are some- times separable and sometimes not; prepositions which may be prefixed in this way are : door- , mis- , over- , om- , on- der- , over- , and vooy^-. The same may be said of verbs begin- ning with the adverb weder. Practice alone can make the student acquainted with the distinctions, but as a general rule it may be said that, when the preposition is separable, the stress falls upon it. CHAPTER V. THE NUMERAL AND THE ADVERB. (het telwoord en het bijwoord). The numerals. Numerals are divided into two classes, definite and indefinite numerals. The definite are subdivided into cardinal and ordinal numbers. 53 1. The cardinal numbers. een, een. (pr. ain). zeventien, seventeen. twee, two. achttien^ eighteen. drie, three. negentien , nineteen. vier, tour. twintig , twenty. vijf, five. een en twintig , twenty one. zes^ six. negen en twintig , twenty nine. zeven, seven. dertig J thirty. achtj eight. veertig J forty. negen^ nine. vijftig, fifty. tien^ ten. zestig , sixty. elf J eleven. zeventig , seventy. twaalf^ twelve. tachtlg J eighty. dertieuj thirteen. negentig , ninety. veertien. fourteen. honderdj hundred. duizend, thousand. vijftien^ fifteen. zestienj sixteen. The numeral een is declined like the indefinite article een. All the other numerals are indeclinable , except when used as nouns; in that case they take -en in plural. Een zeSj one six. Drie zessen, three sixes. 2). The ordinal numbers. They are formed from the cardinal numbers by ad- ding -de or -ste, as: de achtste, the eighth. de negendej the ninth. de tiende, the tenth. de twintigste^ the twentieth. de tachtigstej the eightieth. de honderdste^ the hundreth. de duizendste , the thousandth. de eerste^ the first. de tweede, the second. de derdej the third. de vierde, the fourth. de vi^fde, the fifth. de zesde, the sixth. de zevende, the seventh. From the cardinal and ordinal numbers are formed: 54 1). Words of repetition; as: eenmaal, one time or once; tweemaal^ twice; driemaal, thrice; fienmaal ten times, etc. 2). Words of division, as: een half a half, een derde a third ; een vierde , a fourth ; een twaalfde , a twelfth part etc. 3). Words of multiplication, as: dubbel double, drie- voudig threefold , zesvoudig sixfold , tienvoudig tenfold , etc. 4). Appellative numbers , as : eenerlei one sort , twee('rlei , two sorts, vijfderlei five sorts, tienderlei ten sorts, etc. The indefinite numerals are: al^ alle all, eenige a few, sommige some, veel^ vele much, many, ieder each, elk each, every one, menig many a, geen none, weinig little. Al, alle is often substituted for gansch, geheel, whole, and is then only used in the singular, as: alle hoop op herstel van mijn geluk is verdwenen , all hope of recovering my happiness is lost; al het volk^ the whole people ;^aZ de wereld , the whole world. If al is used as a noun , it takes in plural -en^ as: alien zeggen het ^ all say so. Elk , ieder each , eenig some , menig , many , are declined like adjectives when connected with nouns; geen none, is declined like een and must not be mistaken for the pronoun gene (yon). Veel much , and weinig little , remain unchanged as ad- verbs, but when used as adjectives they are declined. Used as nouns they take in the plural -en , as : velen willen dit, many desire it; weinigen gelooven het, few believe it. The Adverbs. Adverbs are divided into original and derivative. 1). The most usual original adverbs are: wanneer, when. heden, to day. (commonly gisteren, yesterday. ran daag). 55 m07-gen, to morrow. straks, immediately. weldra^ soon. nimmer, never. ooitj ever. nooitj never. nu^ now. thans, now.' toen, then. gmiw, quickly. hier, here. daar, there. mjt^ ergenSj somewhere. K nergens, nowhere. mL gindSj yonder. ^H elders, elsewhere. ^^ hinnen, within. buiten, without. K» boven, above. ^ beneden, beneath. 2). The most usual terstond , immediately. dagelijks, daily. somwijlen, sometimes. altijdj always. somtijds, sometimes. dikwijls , often. gedurig , continually. eerfijds, formerly. nauwelijks, hardly. overal, everywhere. langSj along. duSj thus. ja, yes. neen , no. niet, not. imrners J indeed, nay. gaarne , willingly. alreede, alreeds, already. telkens, everytime. misschien .] , H perhaps. wellicht , ^ schier, quite. tevens, at the same time. «efe, something. w«ete, nothing. hoe, how. «?ee^, much. genoeg , enough, meer, more. weinig , little, derivative adverbs are: geheel, wholly. tamelijk, tolerably. waarlijk, truly. geenszins, in no manner. zeker, certainly. schielijk, quickly. voor zeker , surely. insgelijks , likewise. allengskens, by degrees. naderhand, a terwards. 56 CHAPTER VI. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. (VOORZETSELS EN VOEGWOORDEN). The Prepositions. Nearly all prepositions in Dutch govern the accu- sative case; they are: aan^ to, on, against, of, as: aan mij , to me; aan alle kanteUj on all sides; het hangt aan den mimr^ it hangs against the wall; aan zijn geluh wanhopen, to despair of one's fortune. achteTj behind, as: achter de kamer , behind the room. behalve , except , as : behalve de kinderen , except the children. beneden, beneath, as: beneden mij ne waarneming jhenesith my notice. benevens , including , as : een huis benevens een tuin , a house with, or including a garden. binnen , within , as : hij is binnen bereik , he is within reach. bovenj above as: niemand is boven de wet, no one is above the law. buitenj out of, as: wij zijn buiten de stad, we are out of town. bij y by, near, at, in, as: bij gelukj by chance; bij het paleis wonen y to live near the palace; hij woont- bij mijne moeder , he lives at my mother's ; bij ge- brek aan geld, in want of money. door J by, through, as: door mij j by me; door de rivier waden, to wade through the river. in, in, into, as: in het boek , in the book; in wanorde komeUy to fall into disorder. I 57 jegens , towards , as : jegens mij , towards me. met, with, by, as: ga met hem, go with him; met list, by cunning. na^ after, as: na den maaltijd, after dinner. naar , to , according to , for , after , as : ik ga naar Londen , I go to Londen; 7iaar het nieuws, according to the news; hij zoekt naar zijn zoon, he looks for his son ; naar een model schilderen , to paint after a model. naast next to , as : hij zit naast mij , he sits next to me. om , for , round , in consequence of, as : om ^s He- mels tail , for Heaven's sake ; om de stad rijden , to ride round the town; om zijne misdaden, in con- sequence of his crimes ; hij viel hem om den hals , he fell upon his neck. omtrent, about, as: het is omtrent acht uren, it is about eight o' clock. onder, under, during, among, between, as: onder het paard vatlen, to fall under the horse; onder den maaltijd, during dinner ; onder mijne hrieven, among my letters ; onder ons gezegd , between ourselves. op, on, upon, in, to, as: op de tafel, on the table; leg het op de tafel, lay it upon the table; op een ernstigen toon, in an earnest tone; op een maaltijd noodigen, to invite to a dinner; hij is boos op u, he is angry with you. over , over , as : over mij , over me. rondom, roundabout, as: rondom het land, roundabout the country. . , since, as: sedert dien tijd. since that time. smds J ' , ie, at , on : te Amsterdam , at Amst. , te paard , on hor- seback. 58 fegen^ against, at, as: teg en den 7nimr , against the wall; tegen een gulden het pond , at a guilder the pound. tot J to, for, as: van Bright07i tot Parijs, from Brighton to Paris; het is tot uiv best^ it is for your best. Instead of tot deti or tot het we often use ten (especially in the written language) so with ter in st. of tot de (Sing.). The former is a contraction for te den^ the latter for te der. Observe , that the preposition te formerly was more generally made use of in the same meaning as tot and governed the Dative case. tusschen , between , as : tusschen twee gevaren , between two dangers. nit J out, from, as: hij komt uit het hiiis, he comes out of the house; uit hoofde van , on account of; tiit alle macht schreeuiven\, to cry with all force; ik zie nit uwe verzen ^ I see from your verses. van^ from, of, as: van Engeland komen, to come from England ; van iemand spreken , to speak of some- body; van buiten leeren, to learn by heart. voorj at, for, to, of, as: hij is voor alien gestorven , he died for all; voor iemand wijken^ to give way to any one; wacht u voo?' hetn, beware of him. voor J before, as: voor twee uur, before two o'clock; voor het paleis , before the palace. voorbij J past, as: Mj ging voorbij mij, he went past me. wegenSj on account of, as: wegens zijne moeder ^ on ac- count of his mother. zonder^ without, as : hij is zonder geld, he is without money. There is a difference between na and naar; the latter is used in the sense of to, as naar Amsterdam; na is only used in the sense of after with regard to time ; as na hem , after him ; but 7iaar het model teekenen , to draw after a model, and in all other phrases where I 59 after does not relate to time. lu the spoken language we always use na and never naar. Jegens and tegen are used, like towards and against, as: hij is vriendelijk jegens mij ^ he is friendly towards me; hij is trotsch en onbarmhartig tegen gering en en behoeftigen, he is proud and merciless with (against) inferior and poor people. The Conjunctions. The principal Conjunctions are: al , though. maar , but. * en , and. nochtans , yet. * ook , also. * toch , yet , still. * daarenboven, besides. of, or. nochj neither, nor. schoon, though. nog , yet', also. * hoewel , though. alzooj thus.* terwijlj as, while. dat, that. inmiddels, \ in the mean. hoe meer , the more. intusschen , f while. * des te meer, so much the more. * nadat , after. omdatj because. indien, if. opdaty in order. der halve, therefore.* verder , further. * dewijl , because. namelijk , namely. * doch , but. * O'ls, as. «z;<?w«^'eZ, nevertheless. * (*) echter , however. * tenzij , provided. Doch is not to be mistaken for toch, the former is a conjunction signifying but, however, the latter an adverb meaning yet, still, nevertheless^ When noch is repeated in a phrase it must be translated into English by neither — nor, as: hij is (^) The conjunctions mai-ked with an asterisk are adverbial conjunctions. 