None
In the absence of sufficiently precise data, we can do little more than point out various possibilities :— (a) Changes due to Environment (= Environmental Modifications). There is abundant proof that changes in surrounding pressure, in the chemical composition of the medium, in food supply, in heat, light, etc., may be followed by changes in the organism upon which these influences play. Changes in the body of the organism follow changes in the environ- ment. But (z) it is difficult to discriminate between changes which may be spoken of as the direct results of 772 THEORY OF EVOLUTION. environmental influence, and those to which the organism was already definitely predisposed, and to which the environmental change supplied only the stimulus. (2) We have not at present sufficient data to enable us to state that changes arising in or acquired by the Jody of an individual organism as the result of surrounding change, do as such in any degree specifically affect the reproductive cells. In other words, we cannot at present say that “environmental modifications” are transmissible. And if they are not, their importance in evolution is only indirect. (6) Changes due to Function (= Functional Modifications). It is an undoubted fact that the bodily structure of an animal may be changed by the increased use of certain parts, or the disuse of others,—in short, by some change of function. This change of or in function may be directly prompted by some change in the external conditions of life, or it may be the expression of a deeper variation in the animal’s material constitution or mental character. But important as these functional changes and their results are to the zzdividual, we are uncertain as to their importance for the vace, for we do not know to what extent (if any) the results are transmissible. (c) Variations due to Changes in the Gerin Cells, In many cases of variation, particularly those which appear in early life, it is not possible to suggest any environmental or functional condition which may be regarded as the stimulus or the cause. We are led in such cases to believe that the variation in bodily structure or habit is the ex- pression of some novelty in the protoplasmic constitution of the germ cells. Then, hiding our ignorance, we say that the variation is germinal, constitutional, congenital, or blasto- genic. It seems to lead to clearness if we call these germinal changes and their results variations, keeping the term modifications for those changes [(@) and (4)] wrought upon the body as the result of environmental or functional influences. But why should there be changes in the germ cells? Perhaps because living matter is very complex and unstable, and because it is of its very nature to differentiate and integrate ; perhaps because the immediate environment of SECONDARY OR DIRECTIVE FACTORS. 773 the germ cells (blood, body cavity fluid, sea water, etc.) is complex and variable. But it may be more important to recognise that every multicellular organism, reproduced in the usual way, arises from an egg cell fertilised by a spermatozoon, and that the changes involved in and preparatory to this fertilisation, or “amphimixis,” make new permutations and combinations of living substances or vital qualities not only possible but necessary. Secondary or directive factors.—1. Vatural Selection.— The distinctive contribution which Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace made to etiology was their theory of Natural Selection. By natural selection is meant that process whereby, in the ordinary course of nature, certain organisms, e.g. certain members of the same species, are more or less rapidly eliminated, while others are allowed to survive longer. That some forms, eg. in one family, should succeed less well than others, depends obviously on the fact that all are not born alike,—depends, in other words, on the fact of variation. That there should be elimination is necessary—(a) because a pair of animals usually produce many more than a pair, and the population tends to outrun the means of subsistence ; and (4) because organisms are at the best only relatively well adapted to their conditions of life, which are variable. These two primary facts and their subsequent consequences, e.g. that some animals feed upon others, that there may be more males than females, etc., render some struggle for existence necessary, though this phrase must be used, as Darwin said, “in a wide and metaphorical sense,” including all endeavours for the well-being, not only of the individual, but of its offspring. The facts then are—that variations constantly occur, that some members of a species or family are necessarily less fitly adapted than others, and that the course of nature is such that these relatively less fit forms will tend to be eliminated, while the relatively more fit will tend to survive. As many variations re-appear generation after generation, and may become gradually increased in amount, the continuance of the selective or eliminating process will work towards the origin of new adaptations and new species. 774 THEORY OF EVOLUTION. The importance of natural selection as a secondary factor in evolution will vary according to stringency of the eliminating process, and it must be noted that the “struggle for existence” varies in intensity within wide limits, that it requires to be investigated for each case, and cannot be postulated as a force of nature. The importance of the factor will also depend on the number, nature, and limits of the variations which occur. Thus a new species might arise, either by the occurrence of a discontinuous variation of considerable magnitude, or by the eliminating process acting for many generations on a series of minute continuous variations. Darwin also believed in the importance of sexual selection, in which the females choose the more attractive males, which, succeeding in reproduction better than their neighbours, tend to transmit their qualities to their numerous male heirs. But this and other forms of reproductive selection may be regarded as special cases of natural selection. 2. “Lsolation.”—Under this title, Romanes, Gulick, and others include the various ways in which free intercrossing is prevented between members of a species, eg. by geographical separation, or by a reproductive variation causing mutual sterility between two sections of a species living on a common area. Without some “isolation” tending to limit the range of mutual fertility within a species, or bringing similar variations to breed together, a new variation is liable, they say, to be “swamped” by intercrossing. But definite facts as to this ‘‘swamping,” and in many cases as to the alleged “ isolation,” are hard to find, nor can we say that a strong variation will not persist unless it be “isolated.” Romanes’ view, however, was that, “‘without isolation, or the prevention of free inter- crossing, organic evolution is in no case possible. Isolation has been the universal condition of modification. Heredity and variability being given, the whole theory of organic evolution becomes a theory of the causes and conditions which lead to isolation.” It may also be noted that some forms of isolation may lead to inbreeding, and this to “prepotency,” which often implies the persistence of in- dividual variations, Primary (Originative) Factors. Secondary (Directive) Factors. SUMMARY OF EVOLUTION THEORIES. SUMMARY OF EVOLUTION THEORIES. (Axiom or Truism, ) Changes are all ultimately due to the External Influences and the Nature of the Organism, 7.¢. of Protoplasm. (Enotronment.) (Organism.) Changes in the; Constitutional, environment are| congenital, or ger- followed by changes | minal variations in the organism, arising from the either — | or (4) in| nature of proto- (a) in its | its germ | plasm, or from the body, cells, | changes necessarily or (¢c) in (4) through | associated with fer- (a) (?). tilisation, may be continuous or dis- continuous, quanti- tative or qualitat- ive, etc. (Znaironmental ee yee Modifirations. ( Fartasions.) Degree of trans- esercis Transmissible. missibility unknown. Such environ- Such variations mental sodifica/ions, | probably supply the IF transmissible, and | usual material for if the originating con- | the origin of new ditions persist for| species, for the some time, might | establishment — of perhaps give rise to | which, more or less new species, especi- | natural selection ally if favoured by | (elimination) and natural selection and | isolation must be isolation. In _ the | necessary, according individual lifetime | to the nature of the they may serve to | variation. shield the incipient stages of vartafzozs in a similar direction. (Functton.) Use and disuse of parts, or change of function (due to change of environ- ment or to ger- minal change), are followed by changes in—(a) the body of the organism, or {4) in the germ cells, either directly or (?) through (a). (Functional Modifications.) Degree oftransmis- sibility unknown, Such functional modtfications, IF transmissible, and if the originating conditions _ persist for sometime, might perhaps give rise to new species, espe- cially if favoured by natural selection and isolation. In the individual life- time they may serve to shield the in- cipient stages of variations in a similar direction. 775 ‘sadueyy jo uisucC, ‘sorvads jo WISUG, APPENDIX. SOME ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS. INTRODUCTORY :— F. ares Bell, ‘Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. Lond. 1887). C. Lloyd Morgan, ‘‘ Animal Biology” (Lond. 1889). T. H. Huxley and H. N. Martin, “‘.\ Course of Elementary Instruction in Practical Biology” (Lond. 1888 ; revised edition by G. B. Howes and D. H. Scott). A. Milnes Marshall and C. H. Hurst, ‘‘.A Course of Practical Zoology (5th ed., Lond. 1899). T. Jeffrey Parker, ‘‘ Elementary Biology” (2nd ed., Lond. 1893). J. Arthur Thomson, ‘‘ The Study of Animal Life” (3rd ed., Lond. 1896). B. Lindsay, ‘‘An Introduction to the Study of Zoology” (Lond. 1895). TEXT-Books OF ZOOLOGY :— T. H. Huxley, ‘‘ Anatomy of Invertebrates” (1877), and ‘‘ Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals ” (1871). T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, ‘‘ Text-book of Zoology ” (2 vols., Lond. 1898). C. Claus, ‘‘ Grundziige der Zoologie” (4th ed., 1880-82), and his smaller ‘‘Text-Book of Zoology” (translated by Sedgwick, 1884-85). Hatchett Jackson’s edition of Rolleston’s ‘‘ Forms of Animal Life” (Oxford, 1888). A. Sedgwick, ‘‘Student’s Text-Book of Zoology,” Part I. (Lond. 1898). Text-Books (mostly with similar titles) by Boas, R. Hertwig, Kennel, H. A. Nicholson, A. 5S. Packard, R. Perrier, Shipley. J. Ritzema Bos, ‘‘ Agricultural Zoology” (translated by Davis, Lond. 1894). Books as GuIDES TO PRACTICAL WORK :— C. Vogt and E. Yung, ‘ Traité d’Anatomie Comparée pratique” (Paris, 1885-95) ; also in German. 778 APPENDIX. T. J. Parker, ‘‘Zootomy ” (Lond. 1884). Huxley and Martin, of. ¢77. A. Milnes Marshall and C. H. Hurst, of. c7¢. , W. K. Brooks, ‘‘ Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology for Laboratories and Seaside Work” (Boston, 1882). P. Girod, ‘‘ Manipulations de Zoologie”’ (1879-81). A. Bolles Lee, * Microtomist’s Vade-Mecum ” (4th ed., 1896). An .Atlas will help the student greatly, if he does not use it too much, ¢.¢. :— G. B. Howes, ‘“ Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology ” (Lond. 1885). W. R, inh and J. S. Norwell, ‘Illustrations of Zoology ” (Edin. 1889). rere A. de Vayssiére, ‘‘ Atlas d’Anatomie Comparée des Invertébrés’ (Paris, 1889). C. B. Briihl, ‘‘ Zootomie aller Thierklassen ’’ (Wien). GENERAL MORPHOLOGY :-— Ernst Hacckel, ‘‘ Generelle Morphologie” (Berlin, 1866). Herbert Spencer, ‘‘ Principles of Biology’ (Lond. 1864-66). W. His, ‘‘ Unsere Korperform ” (1875). G. Jaeger, ‘‘ Allgemeine Zoologie ” (1878). P. Geddes, article ‘‘ Morphology ” (‘‘ Encyclop. Brit.”). CLASSIFICATION, see— E. Ray Lankester, article ‘‘ Zoology” (‘‘ Encyclop. Brit.”). W. A. Herdman, ‘‘ Phylogenetic Classification of Animals.” H. Gadow, ‘Classification of Vertebrata” (1898). Works ON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY :— Besides the classic works of Cuvier, Meckel, Milne Edwards, etc.— Richard Owen, ‘‘Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals” (4th ed., 1871). T. H. Huxley, of. cit. C. Gegenbaur, ‘‘ Elements of Comparative Anatomy” (trans. by F. Jeffrey Bell, Lond. 1878. New edition in German, 1898). A. Lang, ‘ Text-Book of Comparative Anatomy” (trans. by H. M. and M. Bernard). R. Wiedersheim, ‘‘ Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrata” (trans. by W. N. Parker, Lond. 1886; new ed. 1898) ; and a larger work untranslated. B. Hatschek, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Zoologie”’ (1888). F, Leydig, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Histologie ”” (Comparative) (1857). WorKS ON COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY :—- Claude Bernard, Phénoménes de la Vie Commune aux Animaux et aux Végétaux ” (1878). Paul Bert, ‘‘ Légons sur la Physiologie comparée de la Respira- tion *’ (1870). SOME ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS. 779 C. I. W. Krukenberg, ‘* Vergleichend-Physiologische Studien ” and ‘ Vortrige ” (1881-89), F. ae Bell, ‘‘ Comparative Anatomy and Physiology ” (Lond. 1887). A. B. Griffiths, ‘“ Comparative Physiology ” (1891). Talliburton, ‘‘ Physiological Chemistry ” (1891). Bunge, ‘* Physiological and Pathological Chemistry ’’ (translated 1890). M. I. Newhigin, ‘‘ Colour in Nature” (Lond. 1898). EMBRYOLOGY :— F. M. Balfour, ‘‘ Comparative Embryology” (2 vols., Lond. 1880-81). M. Foster and F. M. Balfour, revised by A. Sedgwick and W. Heape, ‘‘ Elements of Embryology ” (Lond. 1883). A. C. Haddon, ‘Introduction to the Study of Embryology” (Lond. 1887). O. Hertwig, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der Wirbelthiere” (translated by E. L. Mark, 3rd ed., 1893). . Korschelt and Kk. Heider, ‘Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbellosen Thiere ” (Jena, 1890-93 ; translated). L. Roule, ‘‘ Embryologie Générale ” (Paris, 1892), and “ Embryo- logie Comparée”’ (Paris, 1894). A. Milnes Marshall, ‘‘ Vertebrate Embryology” (1893). C. S. Minot, “* Human Embryology ” (1892). ey) PAL-EONTOLOGY :— II. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker, ‘‘ Manual of Palzeontology ” (2 vols., Lond. and Edin. 1889). K. A. von Zittel, ‘* Handbuch der Paleontologie ” (completed 1893). A. Smith Woodward, ‘‘ Vertebrate Palceontology ” (1898). M. Neumayr, ‘‘Die Stimme des Thierreichs” (vol. i., Wien und Prag, 1889). Gaudry, ‘‘ Les Enchainements du Monde Animal” (1889-90). Carus Sterne (Ernst Krause), ‘‘ Werden und Vergehen ” (3rd ed., Berlin, 1886). Also text-books by Bernard (1893), Koken (1893). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION :— A. R. Wallace, ‘‘ Geographical Distribution” (2 vols., Lond. 1876). aA. Herrin, ‘* The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals ” (Lond. 1887). R. Lydekker, ‘‘ Geographical Distribution of Mammals” (Cam- bridge). F. E. Beddard, ‘‘ Geographical Distribution ” (Oxford). 780 APPENDIX. Trouessart, ‘“‘ La Geographie Zoologique”’ (Paris, 1890). W. Marshall, in Berghaus’ ‘‘ Physikal Atlas” (Leipzig, 1887). Books OF NATURALIST TRAVELLERS, €.2. :— Charles Darwin, ‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle’ (Lond. 1844; new ed., 1890). H. W. Bates, ‘‘ Naturalist on the Amazons” (new ed., Lond. 1892). T. Belt, ‘‘ Naturalist in Nicaragua’’ (2nd ed., 1888). A. R. Wallace, ‘‘ Malay Archipelago” (1869), ‘‘ Tropical Nature ” (1878), ‘‘Island Life’ (1880). Wyville Thomson, ‘‘ The Depths of the Sea” (1873), ‘‘ Voyage of the Challenger’ (1885). H. N. Moseley, ‘‘ Naturalist on the Challenger’ (1879, new ed., 1892). W. H. Hudson, ‘‘ Naturalist in La Plata.”’ A. E. Brehm, ‘‘ From North Pole to Equator” (translation, edited by J. Arthur Thomson, with bibliography, 1895). COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY :— G. J. Romanes, ‘‘ Animal Intelligence” and ‘‘ Mental Evolution of Animals.” C. Lloyd Morgan, ‘‘ Animal Life and Intelligence” ; ‘‘ Introduction to Comparative Psychology” (Lond. 1894); ‘‘ Habit and Instinct” (Lond. 1897). GENERAL NaturRAL HIstTory :— Brehm’s ‘‘ Thierleben’”’ (3rd ed., by Pechuel-Leesche, 10 vols., Leipzig und Wien, 1890-93). Cassell’s ‘‘ Natural History” (edited by P. Martin Duncan, 6 vols., 1882). j ‘‘Standard or Riverside Natural History” (edited by J. S. Kingsley, 6 vols., 1888). ‘Royal Natural History” (edited by R. Lydekker, 6 vols.),. Books ON EVOLUTION :— Charles Darwin, ‘‘ Origin of Species ” (1859, etc.). Alfred Russel Wallace, ‘‘ Darwinism ”’ (1889). Herbert ae “Principles of Biology” (1866. New ed., vol. i,, 1898). Ernst Haeckel, ‘‘ Generelle Morphologie ”’ (1866, etc.). For more recent books, see my ‘‘ Study of Animal Life.’ To the list there given must be added three books in particular, Weismann’s “‘Germ-Plasm ” (1893), Bateson’s ‘‘ Materials for the Study of Varia- tion ”’ (1894), and Delage’s ‘‘ d’Hérédité” (1895). GENERAL WorKS OF REFERENCE :— W. Hatchett Jackson’s edition of Rolleston’s ‘‘ Forms of Animal Life”? (Oxford, 1888). A very valuable work, with special bibliographies. SOME ZOOLOGICAL BOOKS. 781 Leunis, ‘‘ Synopsis des Thierreichs’’ (re-edited by Ludwig, Hanover, 1886). Bronn, ‘‘ Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs’’ (1859-95). E. Ray Lankester and others, ‘‘ Zoological Articles reprinted from ‘Encyclop. Brit.’ (Lond. 1891). Yves Delage and others, ‘‘ Traité de Zoologie Concréte” (Paris, many vols. ). Shipley and Harmer, ‘‘ Cambridge Natural History.” MONOGRAPHIC SERIES, ¢.g. :-— ‘* Reports of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger.” “Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel.” ““Catalogues of the British Museum—Natural History.”’ “Ray Society Publications.” RECORDS OF RESEARCH :— Journal of Royal Microscopical Society (6 parts in the year). Zoological Record (yearly). Zoologisches Jahresbericht (Naples ; yearly). elnatomische Ergebnisse (Merkel & Bonnet ; yearly). L’ Année Biologique (Paris; yearly). Natural Science (monthly). History oF ZOOLOGY :— W. Whewell, ‘‘ History of Inductive Sciences’’ (1840). J. V. Carus, ‘* Geschichte der Zoologie (1872). E, Perrier, ‘‘ La Philosophie Zoologique avant Darwin (1884). E. Haeckel, ‘‘ Natural History of Creation” (trans, Lond. 1870). E. Ray Lankester, article ‘‘ Zoology” (‘* Encyclop. Brit.”’). H. .\. Nicholson, ‘‘ Natural History: its Rise and Progress in Britain ”’ (1888). E. Krause, “‘ Die Allgemeine Weltanschauungen ”’ (1889). H. F. Osborn, ‘‘ From the Greeks to Darwin” (1894). J. Arthur Thomson, ‘‘ The Science of Life” (1899). BIBLIOGRAPHY :— Hatchett Jackson and Rolleston, of. «7¢. L. von Graff, ‘‘ Bibliothek des Professors der Zoologie und vergleichenden Anatomie” (Leipzig, 1891). “¢ Bibliotheca Historico-naturalis,” Engelmann (1700-1846). “‘ Bibliotheca Zoologica,” Carus and Engelmann (1846-61). “ Bibliotheca Zoologica,” continued by Taschenberg (1861-80). “Bibliotheca Zoologicie et Geologie,” L. Agassiz, edited by Strickland and Jardine (Lond. 1848-54). Royal Society’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Scientific Papers” (from 1800). Annual Bibliographies in Zoological Record, etc., cited above. C. Davies Sherborn, ‘‘ Books of Reference in the Natural Sciences,”’ Natural Science, V. (August 1894). INDEX AARD-VARK, Aard-wolf, Abdominal pores,. 5 ribs, Abducens nerve,. Abomasum,. Absorption,. Abyssal fauna, Acanthias,. Acanthobdella, Acanthocephala, Acanthodei,. Acanthopteri, Acarina, Acephala, Acetabulum, Achromatin,. Acineta, Acinetaria, Acipenser, Acipenseroidei, Accela,. Acontia, Acorn-shell,. Acquired characters, 604, 71, Acrania = Cephalochorda, Acraspeda, Acrodont teeth, Acromion, Actinia, Actiniaria, Actinomma,. Actinophrys, Actinospherium,. Actinotrocha (larva), 50 138, 144, 149, —>—_ PAGE 693 | Actinozoa, 719 | Adambulacrals, 482 | Adamsia, 583 | Adder, . ‘ 444 | Adhesive cells, . : 698 | Adrenal body of rabbit, 26 | A®ginopsis, . ; 759 | Azluroidea,. 516 | £lurus, 215 | A&pyornis, 180 | Aérial fauna, 518 | Athalium, 521 | Agamide, 330 | Aglossa, 378 | Agouti, “ j 646 | Air-bladder of Fishes, 44 | Air-sacs of Birds,. 102 s» 9», Of Lizards, 102 | Albumen gland of snail, 518 3 of bird’s egg,. 520 5 of frog’s egg,. 157 | Alces, . : ‘ 3 147 | Alcyonaria, . ‘ : 269 #5 and Zoantharia, 771 | Alcyonidium, 411 | Alcyonium, . : ‘ 151 | Alecithal, . e ; 572 | Alimentary system of— 644 ee Amphioxus, 151 Anodonta,. 151 sin Arenicola,. 101 5 Ascidian, 99 i Aurelia, 99 as Balanoglossus, 220 yi bee, , ' 149, 786 Alimentary system of— +o Birds,. “5 cockroach,. 5 crayfish, 5 Crinoidea, $5 Crustacea, - Distomum,. is earthworm,. ” frog, R as haddock, - Helix, 4 Hirudo, a Holothurian, ; ag Insects, 305, 5 Limulus, A at Lizards, - Myxine, a5 Nematoda,. vif Nemerteans, 54 Peripatus, 58 Petromyzon, ”» pigeon, ; rabbit, oe Rotifera, 5 scorpion, me sea-urchin,. ‘is Sepia, sts skate,. 2 spider, Pe starfish, Vertebrates, Alisphenoid canal, ‘ Allantois, 36, 589, Alligators, 582, Alloioccela,. Allotheria, Alpaca, Alternation of generations, a5 in Aurelia,. 24 in Ceelentera, 55 in Distomum, 5 in Nematodes, ie in Spongilla, 5 in Tunicates, Altrices, : Ambiens muscle,. Amblypoda,. Amblyrhynchus, Amblystoma, Ambulacral areas, INDEX. PAGE PAGE Ambulacral ossicles, 225 Ametabolic Insects, 300 Amia, . 518 Amitosis, 45 Ammoceetes, 477 Ammonites, . 385 Ammothea, . + 336 Amnion, 589, 625 Amniota, 560 Amceba, ‘ 85 45 functions of, 102 » physiology of, . 20 Amphibia, : 5 530 3 classification of, 556 a Fishescompared with, 531 1 history of, 559 _ life of, 557 Mammals and, 559 Amphiblastula, 120 Amphiccelous vertebra, . 568 Amphidiscs, . 118 Amphilina, . 169 Amphimixis, 62, 773 Amphineura, 371 Amphioxus, 411-423 Amphipoda, . 264, 271 Amphiporus, 174 Amphisbeenidee, 576 .\mphistylic, . 535 Amphiuma, 556 Amphiura, 231 Ampullee of starfish, 225 Anableps, ‘‘ placenta” of, 589 Anabolism, . 31 Anacanthini, 521 Anaconda, 582 Anal cerci of cockroach, 290 Analogous organs, 35 Anaminia, 560 Anapophyses, 640 Anchinia, 410 Anchitherium, 704 Ancylus, 373 Anemonia, 151 Angiostomum, 177 Anguis, 576 Angular bone, 434 Animalculists, 60 Animal Kingdom _ General survey of, . A I-17 INDEX. PAGE Animalsand Plants contrasted, 20-23 Anisopoda, . 3 . 270 Annelids, . F 181 », development of, Igl », and Vertebrates, . 428 Anodonta, . 347-355 Anolis, . . 576 Anomodontia, ‘ » 590 Anoplodium, : - 157 Ant-eaters, . ; . 691 Antedon, . : . . 239 ‘3 structure of, . . 241 Antennze of cockroach, . 290 35 of crayfish, . . 251 fe of Myriopods, . 287 3s of Peripatus, . 282 of Trilobites, » 335 Antennules of crayfish, . 251 Anthomeduse, 150 Anthozoa, . : 151 Anthropoid Apes, . 728 Anthropoidea, 728 Anthropomorph, . 730 Anthropopithecus, 730 Anti-enzyme, 744 Antilocapra, . 7O1 Antilope, —. 701 Antipatharia, I51 Antiquity of man, . i 935 Antlers, 700 Ant-lion, 320 Ants, . . 300 Anura, . . 556 Anus of Vertebrates, e . 452 Apes, . : 730 Aphides, . 300 Aphrodite, j . 204 Apis, . . 294 Aplacophora, : d . 372 Aplysia, 2 373 Apneustic Insects, ' 307 Apoda (Echinoderma), . . 239 Apoda=Gymnophiona, . 557 Apodemata (crayfish), . a 257 Appendages of Arachnoidea,. 321 re of Arenicola, . 196 its of cockroach, . 290 - of crayfish, 251, 253 55 of Crustacea, 250 », of Eurypterina,. 335 | 787 PAGE Appendages of haddock, 501 as of Insects, . 301 sth of Limulus, 332 oe of Myriopods, 287 a of Peripatus, 282 Pe of Polycheta, 203 45 of scorpion, 324 ss of spider, 326 of Trilobita, » 335 Appendicular skeleton of Vertebrates, 5. Agr Appendicularia, 409 Appendix vermiformis, 650 Apseudes, 271 Apterygota, . 300 Apteryx, 628 Aptornis, 629 Apus, . 264 Aquatic Mammals, 677 Aqueduct of Sylvius, 440 Aqueductus Vestibuli, 447 Aqueous humour of eye, 449 Arachnoid fluid, 442 rn membrane, 442 Arachnoidea, 322 aAraneide, 326 Arca, 379 Arcella, 98 Archeeoceti, . 708 Archeopteryx, . 627 Archeeornithes, 593, 627 Archenteron, 67, 421 Archerina, . 104 Archi-Annelida, 206 Archi-cerebrum, . 271 Archi-Cheetopoda, 211 Archiceele, ; 170 Archigetes, . 164 Archinephric duct = Segmental duct, . » 463 Archipterygium of Fishes, 512 Archoplasm, 44 Arcifera, 556 Arctocyon, 722 Arctoidea, 720 Arctomys, 714 Arctopithecini, - 729 Arenicola, 194-200 Argonauta, - 385 Argulus, . . ' » 264 788 INDEX. PAGE ae Argyroneta, 330 | Auditory nerve, 444 Arion, . 373 » organs of Insects, 304 Aristotle’s lantern, 232 | Aulostoma, F . 216 Arius, . 510 | Aurelia, . I 38, 153, 156 Armadillo (Crustacean), 271 »» life history of, . . 14! Armadillos, . 691 3, relatives of, » 143 Arrow-worms, 216 | Auricularia (of Holothuria), 237, 241 Artemia, 264 | Australian region, . 767 Arterial "arches of Vertebrates, 458 | Autostylic, . 535 >, system. See Vascular Aves (see Birds), 593 system. Axial skeleton (see Backbone), 431 5 of embryo of Axis vertebra, 3 3 . 640 higher Vertebrates, . 459 | Axolotl, ‘ : 556, 557 Arthrobranchs of crayfish, 258 | Aye-Aye, : «927 Arthropoda, classes of, . ‘ 9 | Azygobranchs, 373 9 general charac- acters of, . 247 | BaBIRUSA, 697 Arthrostraca, 264, 270 | Baboons, 730 Articular, ‘ - 434, 604 | Backbone, 431 Artiodactyla, F 695 | Bactrites, 385 55 and Perissodac- Baculites, 385 tyla contrasted, 695 | Badger,. 720 Ascaridee, . 174 | Baleena,. 712 Ascaris, 175, 176 | Balzenoidea, . 712 Ascetta, . 114 | Balzenoptera,. 712 Ascidia, 397 | Balanoglossus, 387- -394 Ascidiacea, 409 si Vertebrate charac- Ascon type (of sponge), 115 ters of, 393 Asellus, ‘ 271 | Balanus, 264, 269 Asexual reproduction, ; 51 | Baleen,. » 912 Aspredo, 510 | Bandicoot, 688 Astacus, : ; 248-264 | Barbary ape,. 730 Asteracanthion, » 22 Barbule, 500 Asterias, 225 | Barnacle, 267 Asteroidea, . 225 | Basiliscus, 576 Astropecten, 230 | Basitemporal, 504 Astrophyton, 231 | Batoidei, 516 Astrorhizidze, 106 | Bats, ; 724 Atavisms or reversions, . . 82 | Bdellostoma, . 473 Atax, 331 | Bears, . 720 Ateles, . 729 | Beaver,. 714 Athecze, 566 | Bees, 294 Atlanta, 373 | Beetles, 320 atlas vertebra, : . 640 | Belemnites, . 385 Atrial cavity, 2 399, 417 | Belinurus, 334 Atriopore of Amphioxus, 417 | Beroé, . , 152 Attidze, 330 | Bilateral symmetry, : + 33 Atypus, 330 | Bile, ; 26, 745 Auchenia, . 698 | Bilharzia, 163 Auditory ‘capsules of skull, 431 | Bimana, 734 INDEX. : ; PAGE Bionomics— Body cavity of Insects,. . Birds, . 618 a », of lamprey,. “6 Ccelentera, 125 - », of scorpion,. 5 Crustacea, 279 5 »> of spider, i Fishes, 514 3 », of Teleostean, 35 Insects, 317 55 », of Vertebrates, is Mollusca, 361 | Bone, . ‘ ‘ : ‘5 Sponges, 113 | Bonellia, Bipalium, ; 158 | Bony pike, Bipinnaria, 230 | Book scorpions, Bird lice, 321 | Bopyride, Birds, ‘ ; 593 | Bos,. », and Reptiles, 562 Bothriocephalus, » Classification of, 627 | Botryllus, »» courtship of, 618 | Bougainvillea, >, diet of, 4 620 | Bovidze, » eggs of, 619 | Brachiolaria,. », feathers of, 597 | Brachionus,. » flight of, 614 | Brachiopoda,. »» general characters of, 593 | Brachyura, »» migration of, 621 | Brackish water fauna, »» moulting of . 620 | Bradypodide, +> Nests of, 618 | Bradypus, +, pedigree of, . 630 | Brain, definition of, » song of, . 627 » of skate, Birgus, . = 273 », of Vertebrates, Bivalves, 378-381 >> summary of ees of, Bivium of starfish, » 225 | Branchellion, Bladder of frog, 541 | Branchie=Gills,. », of Mammals, 656 | Branchial arches,. » worms, 165 35 sense organs,. Blastocyst, 669 | Branchiobdella, Blastoderm, . 63 | Branchiopoda, Blastoidea, 241 | Branchiostegal rays, Blastomere, 423 | Branchipus,. Blastopore, 66 | Branchiura, Blastosphere, 64 | Breast bone,. Blastula, 65 | Brisinga, Blatta, . i 289 | Brittle-stars,. Blind spot of eye, . 450 | Bryozoa, Blood, : 26 | Buccinum, 55 ‘of frog, 542 | Buckie= Buccinum, 5, functions of, 746 | Budding, Boa, 382 | Bugs, ‘ Body cavity, . 308 | Bulbus arteriosus,. oF on of Amphioxus, 417 | Bulla, +5 », of Arenicola, 198 | Bunodont, ny », Of Balanoglossus, 389 | Bursa Fabricii, re », of crayfish, . 257 | Butterflies, $3 », of earthworm, 184 | Byssus,. 405, 2 19, 203, 219, 799 Cavpis flies, Ceeca, Cecilia, Czecum of rabbit, Ca’ing whale, Calamoichthys, Calcarea, Calcispongiz, Callorhynchus, Calymene, Calyptoblastic, Camelide, Camelus, Campanularia, Campodea, Campodeiform larva, Cancer, Canide, Canis, . ; Cannon-bone, Capitellidee, Capitulum of rib, Capra, . , Caprellide,. Capreolus, Capybara, Carapace of Chelonia, Carcharias, Carchesium,. Carcinus, Cardium, Cardo,. Caretta, Carina of Cirripedia, », or keel of Birds, Carinaria, Carinatie, ‘ Aa and Ratitw trasted, Carinella, i Carinoma, Carmarina, Carnassial teeth, Carnivora, Carpo-metacarpus, Carpus, Cartilage, -bones, Caryophylleus, Cassiopeia, 6o8, 595, con- 171, 595» INDEX. PAGE 320 745 Cassowary, Castor,. Casuarius, Cat,. Catallacta, Catarrhini, Caterpillar, Caudata, , Cave fauna,. Cavia,. Caviidee, Cebide, Cebus,. Cell cycle among Protozoa, », division, ‘3 ae rationale of, >, nucleus of, 5, substance of,. », theory,. wall of,. Cells, >, forms of, » structure of, . ' Cellulose in Tunicates,. Centetes, Centipedes, . ' “a and millipedes, Central corpuscles, Centrolecithal, Centrosomes, Cephalaspis,. Cephalochorda, Cephalodiscus, Cephalopoda, : Cephalothorax of crayfish, Cephalothrix, Ceratiocaris,. Ceratites, Ceratodus, Ceratospongin, Cercari, Cerci of cockroach, Cercopithecidx, Cercopithecus, Cere of pigeon, Cerebellum,. Cerebral hemispheres, Cerebratulus, Cerianthus, . i Cervide, Cervus, Cestoda, Cestracion, Cestum Veneris, Cetacea, Cetochilus, Cheetoderma, Cheetognatha, Cheetopoda,. Chzetopterus, Chalicotherium, Chalina, Chamezleo, Chamezleontes, Charybdea,. Cheiropterygium,. Chelicerze of Limulus, 5 scorpion,. 4 spider, Chelonia, Chelonide, Chelydide, Chelydra, Chelys, Chemotaxis, Chernes, Chevron bones, Chevrotain, Chiasma of optic nerves, Chilognatha, Chilopoda, Chimzera, Chimpanzee, Chiromys, Chiroptera,. Chitin,. Chiton, Chlamydomyxa, Chlamydosaurus,. Chlorophyll, Cheeropus, Cholcepus, ' Chondracanthus, Chondrocranium,. Chordz tendinez,. 181, 103, Chordata and Non- chordata, : Chordotonal organs, Chorion, INDEX. 791 PAGE Choroid of eye, 449 »» plexus, 440 Chromatin, 44 Chromosomes, 44 Chrysalis, 315 Chrysaora, 144 Chrysochloris, 723 Chrysothrix, . 730 Chyle, . 27 Chyme, 26 Cicada, 300 Cidaris, 235 Cilia, 102 Ciliary nerve, 444 sy processes of the chor- oid, ‘ 449 Ciliata, : 102 Ciona, . : F 410 Circulatory system. See Vas- cular system. Cirri of Chaetopods, 203 5, of Crinoids, . » 239 Cirripedia, 264, 267 Cirrus sac, . 160 Cladocera, 266 Claspers of skate, . 497 Classification of Animals, 16 4 grades of, . 14 5 the basis of, 14 55 of organs, . 38 Clavelina, . 405 Clavicle, i . 438, 604 Clemmys, ‘‘placenta” of, . 590 Clepsine, 215, 216 Clio, . 374 Clione, 122 Clitellum of earthworm, 183 Clitoris, 658 Cloaca of Ver tebrates, 454 Clypeaster, 235 Cnidoblasts, . 130 Cnidocil, 132 Cobra, . 582 Coccidia, 102 Coccus Insects, 300 Cochlea, 447 Cockle, 378 Cockroach, 289- -292, 305 Cocoon, : » 315 Cod, 501 792 Codosiga, Ccelentera, Coeliac ganglia, Coelom (see Body cav ity), Ccelomata and Ccelentera, Coenurus, . : Coleoptera, Collagen, Collembola,. Collozoum,. Colobus, Colon, . f Colouring matters mals, i i Colubriformes, ” Columba, of Ani- venenosi, 36 livia, . 82, Columella of Vertebrate ear,. Pe or epi-pterygoid, 0 in corals, a5 in snail, Comatula, Commensalism among Crus- tacea, ,, Fishes, Commissures of Mammalian brain, z Complemental males among Cirripedia, Myzostomata, Conchifera, see Bivalves, Conchin = Conchiolin, Conchiolin, Condylarthra, Conjugation, dimorphic, 3 multiple,. of Paramcecium, as of Protozoa, is of Vorticella, Conjunctiva, . : Connective tissue,. Contractile vacuoles, Contraction of muscle,. Conus arteriosus, Convergence, Convoluta, Copelata = Larvacea, Copepoda, Coracoid, 264, 4375 INDEX. 266 604. Corals, . . 129, 150 Cordylophora, 150, 154 Corium, + 429 Cornea, 449 Coronary, 604. Coronella, 582 Corpora adiposa, 549 Corpus callosum, . 647 + geniculatum, . 648 », Striatum, 443, 647 Correlation of organs, a ga: Corrodentia, . 300 Corticata, 97 Cotylophora, 699 Couguar, ‘ 719 Courtship of Birds, 618 5 of Spiders, 329 Cowper’s glands, . 678 Coxa, 290 Coxal glands ‘of Limulus, 333 an », of scorpion, 324 4a », of spider, . 327 Crab, : : ; 273 Crangon, 273 Crania, 221 Cranial nerves, 442 Craniota, 16, 425 Craspedon of swimming- ‘bell, . 136 Craspedota, 136 and Acraspeda, 144 Crayfish, the fresh-water, 248-264 ;, the sea, . 248 Creodonta, 722 Cribrella, 230 Cribriform plate, 643 Cricket, 300 Crinoidea, 239-241 Cristatella, ‘ ; 221 Crocodiles, Alligators, and Gavials, ; ? 587 Crocodilia, 582 Crop of earthworm, 186 »» leech, 211 »» pigeon, 607° Crossopterygii, 520 Crotalus, ‘ 582 Crumb of bread sponge, 121 Crura cerebri, . 442 Crural glands, 284 Crustacea, 247- -280 INDEX. PAGE Crustacea, general characters of” . . 248 35 systematic survey of, soar: Cryptobranchus, 556 Cryptoniscidee, 271 Crystalline style, 350 Ctenidia, 352 Cteniza, 330 Ctenoid scale, » 513 Ctenophora, . 151, 153 Cubomedusz, . 51 Cucullanus, . 177 Cucumaria, 236 Cuma, . 264 Cumacea, 272 Cunina, ISI Cuscus, 689 Cuticle, 249 Cutis, 429 Cuttlebone, . 358 Cuttlefish, 355-363 Cuvierian organs, . 237 Cyamide, « 271 Cyanea, 144, 151 Cyanosoma, . = (235 Cyclas, : 2 379 Cyclodus, ‘‘ placenta ”’ of, 589 Cycloid scale, 513 Cycloporus, . 158 Cyclops, 264 Cyclostomata, 469-479 Cycloturus, 692 Cydippe, 152 Cymbulia, 373 Cymothoa, 271 Cymothoide, 271 Cynocephalus, 730 Cynoidea, 719 Cynomorph Monkeys 730 Cypridina, 264 Cypris, 264 Cysticercus, 168 Cystoidea, ; 242 Cysts of Protozoa, 106 Cytoplasm, 42 DAPHNIA, . 264 Dart sac of snail, 346 Dasypeltis, 579 Dasypodidee, Dasyprocta,. Dasypus, Dasyuridze, Dasyurus, Dead-man’s-fingers, —. Decapoda (Cephalopods), $5 (Crustacea), Decidua reflexa, Deciduate, Deep sea, Deer, Degeneration, Delamination, Delphinapterus, : Delphinoidea, é. Delphinus, : Demodex, Demospongiz, Dendroccelum, Dentalium, Dentary, : Dentition of Mammals, ‘ Dermal denticles,. Dermaptera,. Dermis of Vertebrates,. Dermoptera, : Descent, doctrine of, Desmodus, Desmognathus, Desmosticha, Deutoplasm, Development of— 6 Amphioxus,. 35 Annelids, 53 Anodonta, Ascidia, i Balanoglossus, 5 ee 34 chick, i crayfish, sd Crustacea, Pr earthworm, . Echinoderma, 96 eye, i feather,. frog,. 35 haddock, a hair, 9 Hydra,. 794 PAGE Development of— 45 Insects, ‘ 311 a3 Mammalian teeth,. 661 Ss Mammals, 659 ae Nemerteans, . 173 +5 Peripatus, 285 1 Petromyzon, . 476 53 placenta, 668 oi Polycheeta, 202 34 Reptilia, 3 . 588 33) scorpion, 325 56 skate, 498 95 skull, . 43r os Sponges, ‘ . 19 5 Tunicata, + 403 riz 429 Diapedesis, 8 ‘ » 755 Diaphragm, . , . 634 Diastatic ferments, . 745 Dibranchiata, 384 Dichogamy in Tunicata, 403 Dicotyles, ‘ . 697 Dicyema, : . 124 Dicyemide, . ‘ : . 124 Didelphyide, 688 Didelphys, 688 Differentiation, » 34 Difflugia, . : . 99 Digenetic Trematodes, » 163, 170 Digestion, 25, 26, 737 5 comparative physi- ology of, . - 743 intracellular in Protozoa, . . 86 Digitigrade, ‘ ~ 718 Dimorphism of sexes, . » 49 Dinoflagellata, . : 102 Dinophilus, . 206 Dinornis, ‘ 628 Dinosauria, . : . 591 Dinotherium, : .« OF Diodon, ‘ F 521 Diotocardia, . : ‘ 373 Diphycercal, ‘ , . 512 Diphyes, . ‘ . 51 Diphyodont dentition, . 664 Diploblastic, ‘ 113 Diplopoda = Millipedes, . 287 Diplotrophoblast, 672 Diplozoon, . 3 3 162 INDEX. PAGE Dipnoi, 5 - 522 Diprotodon,. 689, 690 Diptera, :. 300 Dipterus,. : » 522 Direct division,. - 45 Discoidal segmentation, 64, 623 Discomeduse, :. 151 Discophora,. 208 Distomum, 158, 163 Distribution, geographical, » 757 geological, 78 Division of labour, 19, 20 Dochmius,. ‘ = IZZ Doctrine of descent, 80, 765 Dodo,. é :. 629 Dog,. : Fi 719 Dogfish, ‘ i. 517 Dogwhelk, : 373 Dolabella, ; 1 393 Doliolum, :. 406 Dolphin, 712 Donkey, 704, Dorcatherium, 699 Doris,. ‘ ‘ P. 374 Draco,. :. 576 Dracunculus, ‘ : 178 Dragon-flies, 300 Dreissena,. 379 Drepanophorus,. 170 Dromzognathous, 629 Dromzeus, 628 Dromia, 273 Duckmole, 3. 684 Ductus botalii, » 573 - endolym phaticus,. 447 Dugong, ‘. 693, 694 Duodenum,. 651 Duplicidentata,. 637 Dura mater,. 442 EAR of Arenicola,. ,. 196 », Of crayfish. ~ 255 », of Myxine,. :. 471 », of Vertebrates, - 447 Earthworm,. : 182-194 Earwigs, + 300 Ecardines, : 4 222 Ecaudata,. ; 550 Ecdysis or moulting of Ar thropods,. ‘ ‘. 249 INDEX,. PAGE Echidna, ‘ ; :. 681 Echinococcus, , ,. 168 Echinoderma, 10, 223-246 ss contrast between the classes of, 245 Echinoidea,. 231-235 Echinorhynchus, 174, 180 Echinus,. ‘ : » 231 Echiurid, 181, 205 Ectoderm, 38, 67 Ectoplasm,. :. 106 Ectoprocta, 220 Edentata, : 691 Edriophthalmata,. 270 Egg-case of skate,. 489 »» cell, : : » 55 Eggs of Birds,. 619 Elasipoda, 239 Elasmobranchii, 515 Electric organ of skate,. a 483 >» organs of aie 483 Eledone, ‘ 385 Elephant’s tooth shell, ; 377 Elephas, 706 Elimination,. 773 Elpidia, 239 Elytra,. : - 300 Embolé, : : 66 Embryology, é : 55 3 physiological, 67 Emu, : 3 : 628 Encystation,. 89 End-plate,; 73 Endoderm, : 38, 67 Endolymph, ;. 448 Endoplasm,. : 106 Endopodite (crayfish), 250 Endoprocta,. 220 Endostyle of Tunicates,. 400 Enoplide,. é ne 7 Enteroccele,. 217 Enteron= gut, » 454 Enteropneusta,. 387-395 Entomostraca, 264 Entoprocta,. 220 Entosternite, 324 Eolis,. 374 Epanorthidz, 689 Epeira,. 33° Ephemeride, 300 795 PAGE Ephyra, - F. 143 Epiblast, 38, 67 Epibole, 66 Epicrium,. 557 Epidermis of V ertebrates, 429 Epididyinis of rabbit 656 >> of skate, 497 Epimeron (crayfish), 252 Epiphragm of snail, 340 Epiphyses, 634 Epiphysis = Pineal ‘body, 440 Epipodite of crayfish, 258 Epipubic bones, 686 Epistoma (crayfish), » 252 Epithelial tissue,. 3 « 38 Equide, A ‘ : » 703 Equus,. PAGE PAGE Excretory system of— Filaria, 178 55 cockroach, 293 | Filibranchia, 379 24 crayfish, 259 | Fins, . 511 5 Crocodilia, 586 | Firmisternia, 556 ith Crustacea, 276 | Fishes, abyssal, SII 55 earthworm, 188 > and ‘Amphibians com- ” frog, * 547 pared, 531 5 haddock, 507 >, colour of, . 508 a5 Helix, . 344 »> commensalism in, 511 45 Hirudo, 213 », contrasts between, 528 5 Insects, 309 >; fins of, ‘SII 4 Lizards, 574 ;, flat, . 514 i Myxine, 473 a food of, 509 “3 Peripatus, 283 5 general characters ‘of, 481 ‘i Petromyzon, . 476 », hermaphrodite, . - 509 ri pigeon, 612 5, orders of, . 515, 528 ‘3 rabbit, 655 »> parental care among,. 510 33 scorpion, 324 5, relationships of, 527 5 sea-urchin, 235 », reproduction of, 509 si Sepia, 361 s, senses of, . 509 a skate, 496 +, viviparous, 510 59 starfish, 229 | Fission, . 51 $9 Tunicates, 402 | Fissipedia, 717 Vertebrates, 461 | Flagella, 102 Exopodite (crayfish), 250 | Flagellata, 102 Exoskeleton of Vertebrates, 429 | Flagellum of snail, 345 Extinct Reptiles, . 590 | Fleas, 320 Extinction of Animals, 77° | EF lies, 320 Eyes of Insects, 304 | Flight of Birds, 614 », of pigeon, 606 | Floridine in Sponges, 118 5, of Tunicata, . 448 | Floscularia, . i 218 ;, of Vertebrata, . 448 | Flounder, 514 ‘ develop- Flustra, 221 ment of, . 450 | Flying Foxes, , 726 > Mammals, . ‘ . 677 FaciaL NERVE, 444 », Vhalangers, 689 Feces, . 26 | Foetal membranes of Birds, 625 Fallopian tube, 658 53 $5 of Mammals, 668 Fangs of seas 579 ¥5 #5 of Reptiles, 589 Fasciola, 158 | Follicle cells, i . 467 Feather- stars, 239 | Food vacuoles, 87 Feathers, development i 598 | Foot of Anodonta, 349 ‘iy of pigeon, 597 5, of Cephalopoda, 376 Felide, : 718 », of Gasteropoda, 375 Felis, 719 ;, Of Molluscs, . 364 Femur, 438 », of Scaphopoda, 377 Ferments, ‘25, 31, 744 | Foramen of Munro, 647 Fertilisation, » 53, 59-62 3) of Panizze, 586 Fibula, . » 438 s, triosseum, 599 Fierasfer, 237 | Foraminifera, 100 INDEX. PAGE ., Fore-brain=Prosencephalon, 439 Fore-gut = Stomodeum, 451 Fornix, . . 636 Fossils, 74, 75 Fox, - 719 Fresh- water fauna, 760 53 mussel, 347 Fritillaria, 409 Frog, 532 Fuligo, . 98 Functions, change ‘of, 35 5 of Animals, - 22 re secondary, ‘of organs, 36 GAD-FLY, . 320 Gadus, . 501 Galago, 727 Galathea, 273 Galea, . 300 Galeodes, 326 Galeopithecus, 723 Gall-bladder, 651 Gall-fly, 320 Galls on Plants, 330 Gamasus, 330 Gammarus, 271 Ganglion, 41 Ganoid scales, 513 Ganoidei, 518 Garden spider, » 330 Gasteropoda, 2 372-377 3 classification of, 373 ss food of, 375 - life history of, . 376 5 parasitic, . 376 torsion of, 374 Gastrzea theory, 68 Gastric juice, 26 »> mill of crayfish, . 257 Gastroliths of we fish, 257 Gastrula, 64-66 Gavials, 587 Gazella, 7O1 Gecarcinus, . 273 Geckones, 576 Gemmation = Budding, . é 51 Gemmules in pangenesis, 70 Genealogical tree, . 15 Genetta, : é 719 Geodesmus, . 158 Geodia, Geographical distribution, Geological record, Geophilus, Gephyrea, Germ cells,. ? plasm, Germinal vesicle,. Geryonia,. Gharials = Gavials, Gibbon, Gill- clefts, Gills. See Respiratory system, Giraffe, _ Gizzard of cockroach, », Of crayfish, » Ofearthworm,. », of pigeon, Glass-rope sponge, Globe fishes, Globigerina,. Glochidium of Anodonta, Glossopharyngeal nerve, Glossophora, ‘ Glycogen,. Glyptodontide, Gnathobdellide, Gnathostomata, Gnats, . : Gonads = Reproductive organs, Gonapophyses of cockroach, Goniaster, : ; Gonophores,. Gordiacea, Gordiide, Gorgonia, Gorgonocephalus,. Gorilla, é Graafian follicle, Graafilla, Grampus, Grantia, Graptolites,. Grass snake, . ‘ Green gland of crayfish, Gregarina, Z Grey matter of brain, Gromia, Guinea-pig,. yy) -worm, 128, I 86, 174, 174, 798 Gunda, - Gymnoblastic, Gymnomyxa, Gymnophiona, Gymnosomata, Gyrodactylus, Hapbpock, Heemadipsa,. Heematin, Heemerythrin, Hemoceele,. Heemocyanin, Hemoglobin of blood, Hzemolymph, Heemopis, Hag, Hair, Halichcerus,. Halichondria, Halicore, Halicryptus,. Haliotis, Halisarca, Halitherium, Halobates, IIapale, Hapalidee, Harderian Bane Hare, Harelip, Harvest bugs, » men, > mites, Hastigerina, Hatteria, Heart of V ertebrates, Hectocotylus of cuttlefish, Hedgehog, dentition of, oe development of, 53 placenta of,. Heliopora, Heliozoa, Helix, . ; >> Shell of, Heloderma, Hemiaspis, Hemiaster, Hemichorda, Hemimetabolic Insects, . ; INDEX. PAGE PAGE 158 | Hemiptera, 300 150 | Hepatopancreas, 257 97 | Heredity, 70 557 | Hermaphrodite duct of snail, . 346 374 | Hermaphroditism, . 53 163 . of Cestodes, 167 5 of Chzetognatha, 217 500-508 +3 of Cirripedia, 267 + 216 Pe of Crustacea, 267 751 5 of earthworm, 188 752 5 of Fishes, . 509 257 33 of leech, 214 748, 752 : of Myxine, 473 28, 751 ‘i of tadpole, 555 . 748 3 of Trematoda, . 159 216 ay of Tunicata, 403 . 469 55 of Turbellaria, 156 641, 659 v3 of Vertebrates, . 466 . 722 | Herpestes, 719 121 | Hesperornis, . 628 693 | Heterocercal, 512 219 | Heteroccela, . 121 373 | Heterodera, . 179 122 | Heterodont dentition, 662 . 694 | Heteropods, . 373 318, 764 | Heteronereis, 204 729 | Hexacoralla, . 149 729 | H exactinellida, 121 451 | Hind-gut= Proctodeeum, 452 714 | Hippocampus, 521 482, 638 5 of brain, . 647 326 | Hippolyte, 273 326 | Hippopotamus, 696 331 | [ippotherium, 704 100 | Hippurites, + 379 507 | Hirudinea, 208-216 457 | Hirudo, 208-215 363 | Histology, 42 723 | Histriodrilus,. , 206 672 | Hoatzin=Opisthocomus, 627 723 | Holoblastic segmentation, 64 149 | Holocephali, . 517 99 | Holophytic, 94 339-347 | Holopneustic, 307 340 | Holopus, . 241 576 | Holothuria, . 238 334 | Holothuroidea, 235-239 - 235 | Holotricha, - 90 387-395 | Homaropepsin, 746 314 | Homarus, 273 INDEX. PAGE Homo, . 734-736 Homocercal, . 512 Homoceela, . 121 Homodont dentition, 662 Homology of organs, 35 Homoplastic,. 35 Honeycomb bag, . 700 Hoplonemertea, 174 Horns, . 700 Horse, . 703 Huanaco, 698 Humerus, 438 Hyzena, 719 Hyzenodon, 722 Hyalea, 373 Hyalonema, 121 Hydatina, 219 Hydra, . 5 ‘ 40, 130 5, budding of,. . 50 5, development of, . 134 >, minute structure of, 132 » physiology of, - 20 reproduction of, 50, 134 Hydractinia, F ‘ 128 Hydra-tuba of Aurelia, ‘ 142 Hydrocheerus, 714 Hydrocorallinz, 150 Hydroid colonies, 136 Hydro-lymph, . 747 Liydromeduse, 125-136, 153 Hydrophis, 582 Hydrophora, . 150 Hydropotes, . - 700 Hydrozoa, . 125, 153 Hydrozoon and Scyphozoon contrasted, 144 Hylobates, 730 Hymenaster, . 230 Hymenocaris, 270 Hymenoptera, : 300 Hyoid arch of Vertebrates, 431 Hyo-mandibular arch, 432 Hyostylic, 535 Hypapophysis, 640 Hypoblast, 38 Hypodermis = Epidermis, 249 Hypophysis, . 440 Hypostome, . 131 Hypural bone, 501 Hyracoidea, 705 799 PAGE Hyracotherium, 704 Tyrax, . 705 Hystricomorpha, 714 Hystrix, 714 TANTHINA, 373 Ichneumon, 719 Ichthyodorulites, 516 Ichthyomyzon, 478 Ichthyophis, . 557 Ichthyopsida, * + $31 a Sauropsida, and Mammalia contrasted, 561 Ichthyopterygium of Fishes, 572 Ichthyornis, . 628 Ichthyosauria, 591 Tdotea, . 271 Iguanidee, 576 Iguanodon, 5901 Ilium, 438 Incus of ear, . 2 448 Indirect development, 224 », division, 45 Indris, . 727 Inflammation, 753 Infundibulum, 440 Infusoria, ‘ 2 84 35 ciliary movement in, 102 Ink-bag of Cephalopods, 360 Innominate bone, . 646 Insecta, i ‘ 288- ~321 », Classification of, 300, 320 Insectivora, 722 Insects and flowers, 317 »> injurious, 318 », pedigree of, 319 Integration of individual, 34 Intracellular digestion, 25, 743 Invagination, : . 66 Invertebrata, classes of, . . 8-12 i and Vertebrata, 8 Iris, ‘ 449 Ischium, 438 Isis, 149 Isolation, 774 Tsopleura, 369 Isopoda, 271 Isotrypsin, 745 Iter, . » 438 Ixodes, , : ; : . Bait 800 JACKAL, Jacobson’s organ, Jaguar,. Jellyfish, Jerboa,. Jugal, Julus, KANGAROO,. Karyokinesis, Katabolism, Keber’s organ, Keratin, Kidney, functions of, 35 of Vertebrates, King-crab, Kiwi, Kolga,. Kowalevskia, Lasiat cartilages of skull, »» palp of cockroach, 6 3, of Insects, Labium of Insects, Labrum of Insects, Labyrinth of ear,. Labyrinthodontia, Labyrinthulidea,. Lacerta, ‘ Lacerte, Lacertilia, Lace-winged flies, Lachrymal gland,. Lacinia, 2 3 5, of cockroach, Lacteals, a Lactic acid, . ‘ Lagena =Cochlea, Lagomys, : Lambdotherium,. Lamellibranchiata, Lamprey,. Lamp shells, Lancelet, Langia, Language, Lanice, 7 Larva of Amphibians, », of Anodonta, of Antedon, 2 204, INDEX, PAGE 719 650 719 138 Larva of Ascidian, >, Of Aurelia,. ,, of Cheetopods, ;- of Crustaceans, », of Holothuria, >, . of Insects,. >, of lamprey, >, of Molluscs, 5, of Nemerteans, », of Ophiuroids, », of Polygordius, >, of sea-urchin, of starfish, Larvacea, Larynx, atonal line system, Laurer-Stieda canal, 173, 595, Layers of Coelomata and Hy- 5s dra contrasted, », the germinal, Leech, . ‘ Lemming, Lemw, Lemuride, Lemuroidea,. Lens of eye,. Leopard, Lepas, .. Lepidoptera, Lepidosiren,. Lepidosteus, Lepisma, 264, Leptocardii = *Cephalochords, Leptodera, Leptodora, Leptoplana,. Leptostraca,. Lepus,. Lernzea, i Leucocytes of blood, Leucon type of es Leucosolenia, Lice,. Life history of Amceba, | 53 of Anodonta, ee of Aurelia,. iF of Cestodes, wie of Distomum, a5 of Fishes,. of frog, 6375 INDEX. 801 PAGE Life history of Gregarina, 87 sf of Insects, . 313 ‘ of Monocystis, 89 Ss of Nematodes, 176 5 of Parameecium,. 91 39 of Spongilla, 118 $i of Tzenia, 165 ss of Trichina, 177 of Tunicates, 404 i of Vorticella, 94 3 of Volvox, . 94 Ligula, 290 Lima, 379 Limax, 373 Limbs and girdles =. a +5 Chelonia,. 564 3 5 Crocodilia, 584 ai 5 frog, 535 & - haddock, 504. #5 3 lizard, 572 3 pigeon, 604 4 » rabbit, 644 m » Skate, 487 sty 55 Theories as tooriginof, 437 Limneus,. - 161, 347, 373 ‘3 movement of,. 375 Limnocodium, .. I 36, 154 Limnoria, 271 Limpet, 373 Limulus, 332 Lineus, 170 Linguatulida, 331 Lingula, : a 222 Lion,. : 719 Lipocephala, : 369 Lipochrome pigments, 753 Lithobius, 287 Lithodomus,. 379 Littoral life,. 579 Littorina, 373 Liver fluke,. 158 ;, functions of, 72 », of Vertebrates, 454 Lizards, F 569 Llama,. 698 Lobosa, 85, 97 Lobster, 2 273 Lobworm,. yi 194-200 Locust, ts 321 51 PAGE Loligo, - 385 Lophiodontidz, : ; » 705 Lophobdella, a. 216 Lophobranchii,. ; 521 Lophogaster, 272 Lophophore, 221 Lophopus,. ‘. 221 Loxosoma,. = 227 Lucernaria,. 144, 151 Luidia, ‘ é 4 230 Lumbricus,. : | 182-1 94 Lung-books of scorpion, «= G25 Lungs,. F » 453 9 and air- t-bladder, ; » 453 », function of,. 28 Lutra,. ‘ : - 720 Lycaon, : ; : 719 Lycosa, : + 330 Lymnzus = Limnzeus, - 375 Lymph,. ‘. 27, 747 ‘5 hearts, ‘ » 545 Lymphatic system of frog, » 545 33 » Of rabbit,. 654 ss a HOR Verte- brates, : :. - 460 Macacus,. ‘ ji 730 Machairodus, ;. 719 Macrauchenia, ; » 705 Macrobdella,. : 216 Macromere,. A + 420 Macronucleus, 108 Macropodidee, r 690 Macropus,. ‘ 5 690 Macrorhinus, :. 722 Macroscelides, * se 723 Macrura, 273 Madreporaria, 149 Madreporic plate “of brittle- star, + 230 pe Pe of sea-urchin, 234 », Of starfish,. 228 ? Magospheera, : ‘ - 98 Malacobdella, : « 194 Malacostraca, ” 270 Malapterurus, electric organ of, 483 Malar or jugal, * » 434 Malleus of ear,. | 448 Malpighian body - -of Kidney -tubule,. 463 802 INDEX, PAGE PAGE Malpighian tubulesofcockroach, 293 | Megascolides, 203 Mammalia,. 632 | Megatherium, 680, 692 x development ‘of, 665 | Meibomian gland, - 451 ‘% general characters Meles,. 7 720 of, - 634 | Melicerta,. 218 on ei classifica- Mellivora, w 720 tion of, 634 | Membrane bones,. 432 3 5 life of, 677 | Membranipora, 221 i 53 survey of, 632 | Menognatha, 300 5 history of, 679 | Menorhyncha, 300 Mammary eile 661 | Mento-meckelian,. 535 Mammoth, 707 | Mentum of cockroach, 290 35 cave, 761 », of Insects, 300 Manatee (Manatus), 693 | Mephitis, 720 ae vertebrz of, 694 | Mermaid’s purse,. 498 Mandible of crayfish,. 251 | Mermis, 177 Mandibular arch of Vertebrates, 431 | Meroblastic segmentation,. 64 Mandril,. 730 | Mesencephalon, 442 Manide, 693 | Mesenchyme cells, 39, 66 Manis,. 5. 693 | Mesenteric filaments, 147 », vertebree of, 635 | Mesenteries of sea-anemone,. 146 Mantle of Molluscs, 365 | Mesenteron,. » 455 Manubrium of sternum, 661 | Mesentery,. 651 45 of swimming-bell, 136 | Mesoderm (or mesoblast), 38, 67 Many-plies,. 700 segments, 435 Marmosets, - 729 Mesoglcea of Coelentera, 126 Marmot, 714 a of Sponges,. 114 Marsipobranchii (ee Cyclo- Mesonephros, 463 stomata), 469 a in the different Marsupial bones,. 686 Vertebrate groups, 465 Marsupials,. ; F 685 | Mesopterygium, 487 Pe families of,. 688 | Mesosoma (of scorpion), 323 Marten, 720 | Mesozoa, 123 Mastodon, ‘ 707 Metabola, : + 304 Mastoid process,. 663 | Metabolism,. : - 19 Maxillz of cockroach, 2g0 oa products of, 749 5 of crayfish, 251 | Metacarpals, 438 5 of Insects, , 301 Metagenesis, or alternation of »,. Of Myriopods,. 288 generations,. ‘ - 54 Maxillipedes of ea 251 | Metagnatha,. » 300 May-flies, 300 | Metakinesis,. ‘. 46 Meckel’s ‘cartilage, 432 | Metamere, 501 Medulla, 442 | Metamorphosis ae Medullary canal, 443 35 Anodonta, 355 9 groove, 443 33 Crustacea, 278 Medusz, : 143 3 Echinoderma, 243 Medusoids,. 136 ay frog, » 553 Megachiroptera, 726 a5 Insects, 313-317 Megalobatrachus,. 556 ae lamprey,. 477 Megalopa, 278 » Tunicata, 404 INDEX. 803 PAGE PAGE Metanephros, : : - 463 | Monomeniscous eyes, 304 6 in the different Monostomum, 163 Vertebrate ea 465 | Monotocardia, 313 Metapleural fold, 323 | Monotremata, 681 Metapterygium, 487 | Monoxenia,. 151 Metasoma (scorpion), 323 | Moose,. 700 Metatarsals,. : 438 | Morphology, 31 Metatheria, 685 | Morse,. ‘ 721 Metazoa, : ; 13 | Morula, 64 »» and Protozoa,. 111 | Moschus, 699 Metencephalon, 442 | Mother of pearl, 367 Microchiroptera,. 726 | Moths,. 320 Microhydra,. 136, 154 Moulting of cuticle of crayfish, 249 Micromere, 420 | Mouth of Lopadorhynchus, 452 Micronucleus, 208 » origin of Vertebrate,. 452 Micropyle, 312 | Mucous canals of skate, 482 Microstoma,. 157 », glands of Myxine, 470 Microzooids, 94 », of snail, 340 Midas,. 729 Mud Fishes,. 522 Midge,. A 320 » line,. 764 Mid- “gut = Mesenteron, ‘ 455 Miilerian duct, 466 Migration of Birds, 621 » in different Ver- Milk, 661 tebrate groups,. PAGE PAGE Muscular system of— Nearctic region, . 767 3 Myxine, 470 | Nebalia, . 264 3 Peripatus, 283 | Nebendarm, . . 204 53 Petromyzon, . 474 | Nectonemide, . 174 55 pigeon, . 598 | Necturus, - 556 5 rabbit, 639 | Nekton, . 757 45 Sepia, 357 | Nematocysts, . 132 5 skate, 483 | Nematoda, . 174 55 starfish, 226 | Nematohelminthes, » 174 Vertebrates, . 430 | Nemertea or Nemertines, 169-174 Muscular tissue, 40 | Nemertes, . 174 Musk deer, 700 | Neomenia, 372 3, glands, 701 | Neornithes, . 593 Mussel, : 347 | Neotropical region, 767 » fresh-water, 54 | Nephelis, . 216 Mustela, 720 | Nephridia of crayfish, 259 Mustelidz, 720 55 of earthworm, 188 Mustelus, 516 3 of leech, 213 Mya, . 379 », of mussel, 353 Mycetes, 729 5 of Peripatus, . 283 Mycetozoa, 4 98 of Vertebrates, 461 Myelencephalon, . 442 Nephridioblast, 191 Mygale, ‘ 330 | Nephrops, . 273 Myodes, 714 | Nephrostoma of Kidney, 463 Myomeres or Myotomes, 501 | Nephthys, 210 Myomorpha, 2 714 | Nereis, . 182, 187, 203 Myotomes, 501 | Nerve cells, . . 4! Myoxidee, 714 » fatigue, 24 Myriopoda, 286-288 », fibres, 42 Myrmecobius, . 688 », tissue, 41 Myrmecophagidee, 692 | Nerves, cranial, 444 Myrmecophagus, . 692 » origin of, . 41 Mysis, . os 282 s, structure of, 41 Mystacoceti, . 712 | Nervous activities in Animals, Mytilus, 379 22, 737 Myxine, ; " . 469 | Nervous system of— », and Petromyzon con- 3 Amphioxus, . 414 trasted, 477 se Anodonta, 349 Myxospongiz, 122 53 Arenicola, 196 Myzostomata, 207 55 Ascidian, 400 yas 53 Aurelia, 139 NAls, 203 a Balanoglossus, 389 Narwhal, 712 ‘3 bee, . ‘i 299 Nasal capsule, 431 a Birds, . - 594 Nasalis, 730 $5 Cephalopoda, 381 Naso-buccal piiord 493 es Chetognatha, 216, 222 5, palatine canal, 650 - cockroach, 291 Natural Selection, 773 “tp crayfish, 252 Nauplius, 264 45 Crinoid, 241 Nautilus, 381, 382 oa Distomum, 159 Nervous system of— 4 earthworm,. 