Explanation of a theory of the mental constitution
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Van Nostrand, of Chicago, is intended to show the organic nature, not only of the Theory as a whole, but of the formal concepts of which it is composed. Until the latter point is thoroughly appreciated, the Theory itself cannot be really understood. Nevertheless, the System as an organic whole has a higher value than that of any of its parts ; on the principle that a function which is the generalized expression of all subordinate functions must be superior to any of its subordinates. In carrying into effect the request of the author of the Theory, I have adopted with little comment the terms employed throughout the system. In justice to myself, however, as well as to him, it is only right that I should say, that, in my opinion, most of the subsidiary terms in the Physical require alteration or rearrangement. My own views on this point will be ex¬ plained in a work I am preparing on “ Nature as Organic,” a work which will, I believe, supply all the data necessary to the establishment of Mr. Van Nostrand’s Theory on a firm basis. It may be added that the Theory in its present form is the result of thought and elabora¬ tion extending over a period of seven years, during the latter part of which I have assisted the author in its development. It is therefore perhaps fitting that I should undertake to state the principles which find expression in the Theory. The value of the system it exhibits ought to be at once apparent to the physio-psj’chologist, especially if he is at all acquainted with the principles of Hegelianism. THE MENTAL CONSTITUTION. Notwithstanding some question as to the nature of the human mind, it must be regarded as strictly organic. This is required by the fact of its connection with a physical organism, with which, indeed, it is so intimately associated that it is difficult to distinguish between their respective operations. Every bodily change, internal as well as external, is attended with a psychical sensation or impression, although this is often and perhaps usually unobserved, and every psychical impression is accompanied by a physical change of some kind. This is generally recognized as true, and the actual operations of the mind have been pretty clearly ascertained. Nevertheless these operations have not hitherto been so thoroughly correlated with those of the physical organism as to allow a satisfactory Theo^ of the Mental Constitu¬ tion to be formulated. Such a formulation is indeed possible only if three points are kept in view, and unfortunately they have been but little regarded. The first of these points is the necessity of precision in the use of terms. It is of great importance for the proper understanding of a writer’s meaning that the terms he uses should be always emploj'ed in the same sense, and that if this sense is at all uncommon they should be properly defined ; but it is of still greater importance that different scientific writers should express the same sense by the use of the same terms. Absolute precision would require the formation for general reference of a glossary of scientific terms, and the less the approach to this precision the more uncertain must be the conclusions arrived at by scientific men. The second thing essential to a proper theory of the mental constitution is the application of the law of polaritj^. The operation of this law is exhibited in the three laws of thought, but its true nature does not appear to have been fully recognized by psychologists, although it is referred to by Professor Bain, and other writers. It was undoubtedly present to the mind of Hegel while developing his remarkable system of thought, or “Logic,” although envel¬ oped in a cloud of metaphysicism which tends to hide the truth from the common mind. The writer who has the most clearly perceived the importance of the law of polarity in relation to psychical phenomena, although he did not see the full bearing of his remarks, is Mr. G. H. Lewes, who, in his Problems of Life and Mind , insists on the “ legitimacy no less than the ne¬ cessity of the law of polarity, or doublesideness, which finds its expression in differentiation and integration, plus and minus, quality and quantity, things and relations, matter and mo¬ tion, continuity and discontinuity, and many others, at the head of which must be placed sub¬ ject and object, or self and not-self.” Elsewhere Lewes speaks of the law of the two-fold aspect, but this is simply the psychical expression of the law of polarity.* The third point to be kept in view is the three-fold nature of the mental constitution, considered as embracing all its aspects, physical and intellectual. This really follows from the operation of the law of polarity, for, as will be shown more fully hereafter, the negative and positive aspects of polarity imply the existence of a third, which may be termed the formal aspect, as being that which combines the other two, these being from another point of view, therefore, merely its two-fold phase of operation, or to use Lewes’ phrase, its two-fold aspect. Thus the two phases, physical and psychical, of the mental organism, are merely the polar aspects of a third or formal aspect, which in the Theory of the Mental Constitution dis¬ cussed in these pages is termed the Philosophical. * It is remarkable how clearly the universality oi this law was recognized by Mrs. F. B. Burton in her ingenious work, “ Elective Polarity, the Universal Agent," published in 1845. 4 The division of the mental constitution into Physical, Psychical and Philosophical made by this theory is very different from that which separates the Mind into Feeliqg, Intellect and Will. Such a division cannot exhaust the complex organic unity known to us as the human mind. In the first place, it makes no provision for the physical existence which forms the basis for feeling, intellect and will. Muscle and nerve are, in our experience, essential to the activity of those psychical principles, which again are generally supposed to distinguish the animal from the plant, although there is reason to believe that the latter, equally with the former, has a sentient existence, which nevertheless is seldom externally manifested. But further, if it is intended to frame an organic representation of the mental constitution, it is necessary to make some provision for the special features which distinguish the human mind from that of the animal. Undoubtedly man has developed certain mental faculties which animals do not possess, and as they appear to depend on the operation of the principles of analysis and synthesis they may be properly termed Philosophical. There is one other principle which is essential to a true theory of the mental constitution, that of Correspondence, but this as the dynamic expression of Continuity, which the great Francis Bacon was the first to insist on, is a test of its truth rather than a factor in its forma¬ tion, and further reference to it may be reserved to a later period. The human mental constitution may then be said to consist of three main divisions, the Physical, the Psychical, and the Philosophical, of which the last answers to the Intellectual in ordinary discourse, as the Psychical may be said to represent the Understanding. In Mr. J. J. Van Nostrand’s Theory, as displayed in the accompanying Table, the mental constitution takes the form of three triangular pyramids. Of these, two, the Physical and the Psychical, form the base for the third, the Philosophical, of which the negative side stands in a special relation toward the Physical, and the positive side is similarly related to the Psychical. The Philosophical may be said, indeed, to emerge out of the other two divisions of the mental constitution as the result of their interaction, or in other words it is the formal expression of their organic activity; although it must be regarded as having always existed in germ, and in fact to have constituted their organic unity. Moreover, although the philosophic phase may thus be said to be dependent on the Physical and the Psychical for its emergence, yet when it has become established it has an independent existence, in so far as that it forms one of the main divisions of the human constitution of equal value with the other two, if indeed its formal character does not render it superior to them. It undoubtedly stands above them in the hierarchy of powers in the human mind, and it also supplies, if not the actual princi¬ ples which govern the mind in its operations, at least the explanation of such principles. Philosophical explanation consists in the formulation of the laws which govern the organic in its three-fold activity, as Physical, Psychical and Philosophical. Let it be noted, morever, that the Philosophical has the same three-fold aspect as that which belongs to the Psj^chical, and as the three subdivisions of the latter, Feeling, Intellect and Will, are regarded as forming an organic whole, standing in a certain relation towards the Physical but }?et independent of it (seeing that the phenomena of each have their own distinctive character, although but differing aspects of the same truth), so must it be with the Philosophical. This is divided into Law, which answers to Feeling, Thought, which answers to Will, and Logic, which answers to Intellect, and the combination of those Philosophical elements forms an organic whole which, within its special province, is complete in itself. Such being the case, the nature of the Philosophical may be considered independently of the other divisions of the mental constitution, and when this has been done it will be found that, as every part of the mental constitution is subject to exactly the same principles of construc¬ tion and operation as every other part, the explanation given of the Philosophical must 5 also include that, not only of the Psychical, but of the Physical as well, since they are all governed by the same laws, which are those of nature itself, although being on different planes of existence they are somewhat differently expressed. But what is meant by the statement that each of the three great divisions of the mental constitution, although organically connected with the other divisions, forms in itself an or¬ ganic unity ? When we speak of an organism we mean a living body, every part of which stands towards every other part in a special relation, which finds expression in the functional activity of the body as a whole, as distinguished from the special activity of its particular parts. Thus the human body consists of various organs, each of which has its own special function, but this is subordinated to the general function of the whole body as a living organism, of which general function the functions of the separate organs are particular expressions. If, then, we compare the mental constitution to the animal organism, the three great divisions of the former, the Physical, the Psychical, and the Philosophical, answer to the separate prov¬ inces of the body, and like these each of them possesses its own organic character, exhibited in the special function it has to perform. This analog}’ may be carried further, however, as the organic structure of the animal body is of a complex nature. While the organic whole may be regarded as a single large cell, whose functional activity takes on different forms, it may be considered also as a combi¬ nation of various organs, each of which is built up of an almost endless series of cells, every one organic and having its own particular function to perform within the unity of which it forms a part. In like manner, the Mental Constitution, in addition to its three main divi¬ sions, consists of several sub-divisions, each of which by its very nature is organic, and, more¬ over, stands in an organic relation towards the other subdivisions ; every one of these again being made up of organic elements each having its special function to perform, but in subor¬ dination to the generalized functions of the parts to which they belong, as these are subordi¬ nated to the unity of the mental constitution itself. We thus see, that in the mental constitution every element which answers to the cell and every formation which is made up of a combination of elements, possesses the organic nature as above explained. What those elements consist of will be seen by reference to the annexed Table exhibiting the Theory, which shows that each of the three main divisions of the Mental Constitution is subdivided into three parts, and that each of these is again divided into three smaller parts, which are severally made up of an Idea and a Reality, with a static and a dy¬ namic aspect. The organic elements above referred to are these last subdivisions, and their organic nature consists in the relation which subsists between the element as a whole and its parts. Thus, we may say that the Idea, as the object of thought, and the Reality, as the subject, constitute the formal Whole, its parts being its two aspects, of which the static rep¬ resents the condition of activity and the dynamic the nature of this activity, and thus the former may be regarded as the organic and the latter the functional aspect. These relations may be exhibited diagramatieally in the following figure, which represents the highest element of the affective phase of the Psychical division of the mental constitution. Feeling Influence Impression Here feeling may be said to be composed of Sensibility and Influence, which stand in opposition to each other, as the negative and positive poles of a magnet, which are essential 6 to the magnet itself as a whole. The poles cannot exist without the magnet, but the magnet as such has no existence apart from its poles. We see, moreover, that Feeling and Impres¬ sion stand towards each other in a particular relation. The latter, as the Reality, is the sub¬ ject, and the former, as the Idea, is the object, this relation being, as Lewes points out, the highest expression of the law of polarity. It is necessary to point out, further, that polarity implies motion. Opposite magnetic poles attract, as similar poles repel each, and without the possibility of such attraction and repulsion there could be no polarity. On the other hand, with constant oscillation between one and the other there could be no stability. In relation to the formal concept — which is the proper term to apply to the several sub-divisions of the Theory of the mental constitution, but which is also applicable to the elements of which they are composed — the term Election stands for the effect arising from the movement of opposite or complementary activities, which are aptly termed Affection and Effection. This is represented in the following diagram : Here Affection answers to the negative, which is also the organic phase of the concept, as effection is the positive or functional phase, Election, as the expression of the polar activity of the affective and effective, being its formal phase. There can be no election without affec¬ tion and effection, that is, without the co-action of opposing motions, the result of whose opposition is registered as their elective influence. The above figure represents, as we shall find, the dynamic formula of Law, and it may be said to supply the type for the formation of every concept. This is apparent when we con¬ sider the structure of the concept Thought, which is the effective element of the Philo¬ sophical division in the Theory. It is represented in the following diagram : Thought Identification In this figure, Dichotomy appears as the negative aspect and Identification as the positive aspect of Thought — Concept-ion, which as their formal expression, is the elective. Thought, as the Idea, of which the Reality is Concept-ion, is thus a polar process requiring on the affective side Dichotomy, and on the effective side Identification, which is the function of Thought, Dichotomy being its condition. This view of Concept-ion is consistent with the ordinary meaning of the term, which implies the co-operation of two factors, whose mutual action results in the formation of the concept. Thought thus depends on Dichotomy as its condition, and Identification as its activity, they being the affective and effective aspects of Concept-ion, the concept itself emerging as the result of their co-operation. The concept, as answering to Formation in the Physical, is a series of motions, under the conditions of Dich¬ otomy, the fulfillment of which requires the application of the law of polarity. By virtue of this law the concept takes on its affective and effective formation, which is exhibited as its negative and positive aspects; as appears in the perfected concept Thought, where Thought itself, as the elective element, supplies the formal aspect. 7 If we refer to the highest division of the Theory as exhibited in the Table, and consider the formal concept Logic, which is its elective, we see that it is really made up of three sepa¬ rate concepts, which may be termed subsidiary. Represented diagramatically they take the following form : Logic Now these concepts, although each possesses its affective, effective, and elective elements, are, so far as their position in the Philosophical division of the Theory is concerned, subordi¬ nate to the three-fold unity of which they are the parts. In this unity Analysis, with its static and dynamic aspects, represents the affective or negative side, and Synthesis, with its two aspects, the effective or positive side of the formal concept of which Logic, with its polar phases, is the elective. We have a summary representation of those ideas in the following diagram, which comprises the elective terms of the three sub-concepts : Logic It is evident that what may be termed the functional activity of Logic, regarded as an organic whole, depends on the co-operation of all its parts, each of which is separately of sub¬ ordinate value. The organic value of each part, moreover, depends on its association with the other parts, just as that of the separate organs of the body arises from their mutual rela¬ tion as parts of a common whole. But, as we have already seen, Logic is only one of the Lhilosophical subdivisions of the mental constitution. Apart from the other subdivisions, Law and Thought, it would have as little relative value as Logic itself would have separated, if this were possible, from Analysis and Synthesis. These are, indeed, the polar phases of Pogic, that by which it exists, and out of whose activity it may be said to emerge. In like manner, Logic emerges from the polar activity of Law and Thought, which are the negative and positive, or affective and effective phases of the Philosophical, as Logic is its elective phase. Or, if we regard Law as the organic phase, and Thought as the functional phase, then we must treat Logic as the formal phase of the Philosophical.* *It is through formal thought that uniformities are discovered. They emerge from the t'hought process as a mathematical expression of certain uniform motions traversing the fibrous matter of the brain and its relations throughout the body. Uniform motions are laws. Equal spaces covered in equal times elect validity, and of course this can only refer to the motion or motions of some body or condition. It is, therefore, the motions of a thing which are its laws. [See Infra.] — J. J. V. N. 8 All these sub-divisions of the Philosophical are necessarily constructed according to the same principles, and therefore both Law and Thought are formed of three subsidiary con¬ cepts, each of which has three aspects, the organic or negative, the functional or positive, and the formal, which are related among themselves as affective, effective and elective. The three Legal concepts may be represented separately' as follows : These three concepts stand towards each other in exactly the same relation as the sepa¬ rate terms of each concept have among themselves. The relation is one of polarity, the con¬ cept Space being the negative, the concept Time the positive, and the concept Law the formal expressions of the perfected concept Law, and thus its affective, effective and elective phases. These relations may be given a more organic form, by an arrangement of the elective terms of the three concepts similar to the representation of the formal concept Logic, at page 7, as follows : Space Uniformity Time Here Space — Negation forms the affective side of the perfected concept, Time — Position its effective side, and Law, of which Uniformity is the reality, its formal expression. The real meaning of this and other Philosophical concepts will be explained when we come to consider the relations which the Philosophical and the Physical divisions of the men¬ tal constitution bear towards the Psychical division. At present we are concerned only with individual formal concepts, and following the course already pursued with reference to Logic and Law, we will now analyze the concept Thought. The three sub-divisions of this concept may be represented as follows : Idea Abstraction Object-ion Thought Affirmation In the mutual relation of these three subsidiary7 concepts, the organic nature of the concept Thought consists. The affective and effective concepts are its polar aspects, and in combining 9 they give rise to the elective, which is their formal expression. This combination is exhibited in the following diagram, representing the Ideas and Realities as the electives of the subsidiary concepts. Thought Idea Concept-ion Reality Here Idea and Object-ion constitute the affective phase of the completed concept, Reality and Subject-ion its effective phase, and Thought and Concept-ion, as Object and Subject, the polar aspects of its elective phase. Thought is thus the emergent from Idea and Reality, of which it is the formal expression, while Concept- ion stands in a similar relation to its negative and positive aspects, Object-ion and Subject-ion. It has been pointed out above that the type of the formal concept is due to the operation of the principle of polarity, which is exhibited in the negative and positive aspects into which the concept divides, in pursuance of the dichotomy which is the condition of Concept-ion. A little consideration reveals the fact that the Ideas which thus stand in a polar relation, as neg¬ ative and positive aspects of the concepts Law and Thought, have a special connection with the sub-concepts of the elective formal concept, Logic. In fact, the negative sub-concept Analy¬ sis becomes there exhibited as Space and Idea, and the positive sub-concept Synthesis is ex¬ hibited as Time and' Reality. The interconnection of the negative sub-concepts is shown in the following diagram : Analysis The following diagram gives a representation of the positive sub-concepts of the three divisions of the Philosophical : Synthesis Time Deduction Reality In the upper of these diagrams we have the Ideas and Realities which form the electives of the negative or affective aspects of the Philosophical throughout its several divisions, and in the lower diagram we have the electives of its positive or effective phases. These may be supplemented by a representation of the three concepts which form the electives of the formal concepts Law, Thought and Logic, as this will be equivalent to a representation of all IO their subsidiary concepts. The following is such a generalized expression of the Philosoph¬ ical division of the mental constitution : (Logic) Correspondence Mathematics (Revelation) In this diagram Law occupies its proper position as the affective, and Thought that of the effective. They are thus the negative and positive aspects of Logic, the formal character of which is brought out more clearly in the following diagram, where it appears as the elective of the various Ideas and Realities comprised within the Philosophical division : Logic Thought From this diagram we see that, in its highest sense, Logic, as the Idea, is Thought under the condition of Law, and that Revelation, as the Reality, is Concept-ion under the condition of Uniformity. But the static aspect of Logic is Mathematics, and its function Correspond¬ ence, and hence Philosophy is Revelation through the agency of Mathematical Correspondence. The organic unity of the Philosophical phase of the mental constitution has now been sufficiently exhibited, and we have seen that each of its concepts, whether subsidiary or com¬ pleted, has its static and dynamic aspects. The static is the structural or organic factor, and the dynamic is the functional. The function furnishes the law of organic activity, and the dynamic aspect is, therefore, of especial importance in relation to the theory of evolution, of which the Theory under discussion is an expression. The following diagrams exhibit the dynamic formula of Law, Logic and Thought, the three main divisions of the Philosophical : The last of these formula will be recognized as representing the three well known laws of thought. The first formula is of great importance as furnishing the type according to which, as we have seen, all concepts must be constructed The dynamic formula of Logic is of still higher significance, as it supplies the key by which to determine, not the mere type of the concepts of which the theory of the Mental Constitution is built up, but the very ma¬ terial of the theory. Logic, as the elective principle of the Philosophical, forms the apex of the pyramid of truth. It is, in a sense, the formal expression of all truth, and hence its highest term must be of especial value. This is shown by the following diagram representing the electives of the electives of the Philosophical formal concepts. Correspondence Identification In this diagram we have the complete functional exhibition of the Philosophical. As its formula represents the dynamic formula of Law, the governing principle of which is polarity, Correspondence is the formal elective which emerges from the co-operation of Election, as the negative-affective, and Identification, as the positive-effective, and therefore it is the highest expression of functional activity. But Election represents the principle of Law, and Identification that of Thought, which are the affective and effective concepts of the Philosophical. Moreover, the condition of the activity of Thought is Dichotomy, and that of Election is Relation, and therefore Correspond¬ ence, as the functional aspect of Logic, has to do with dichotomous relations. The Theory of the mental constitution is an exhibition of those relations, and the key to its significance, apart from its typical formation, lies in the necessary correspondence between the terms which ex¬ press those relations, not only- in the concepts of the Philosophical, but also throughout the whole of the other divisions of the mental constitution, which are not only built up according to the same type, but are embodiments of similar relations. Before proceeding further the sense in which the term Correspondence is used should be explained. It cannot mean exact likeness, because it has reference to different divisions of the mental constitution, that is, to mental phases on different organic planes. By Correspond¬ ence, then, must be understood similarity rather than sameness, and the idea to be kept in view is that of equivalence , by which is meant that the mental aspects compared, are of equal value in the positions they occupy, be this in the Philosophical, the Psychical, or the Physical division of the mental constitution. Even within the same division there is a difference of relation which requires to be represented by a change of term, and this may be regarded as a step in organic progress, every step in advance being positive progress, as every backward step is a negative progress, that is a retrogression. There must still be perfect equivalence in the terms used to express these steps, even when by accumulation they have come to represent stages of progress, and the want of it will be sure evidence that there is something wrong with the terms employed to express one or other of the relations compared. But the Correspondence or Equivalence just referred to may be said’to depend on another phase of equivalence which, as expressive of the organic relations of the mental constitution, is of the utmost importance. This can best be illustrated by the dynamic formula of Logic, which was represented at page io, but which may be here repeated, as follows : Correspondence Persistence Continuity In this formula the affective term Persistence represents the negative analytic activity of Correspondence as the elective function of Logic, and the effective term Continuity repre- 12 sents its positive synthetic activity. The elective is thus always the equivalent of the affect¬ ive and the effective, as is required by the fact that the latter exhibit the polar activity of the former, which therefore is their formal or organic expression. This law of equivalence is exhibited in the dynamic formulas of Taw and Thought also, represented at page 8 above, Election being the equivalence of Affection and Effection, and Identification of Contradiction and Affirmation. It is applicable no less to the subdivisions of the several formal concepts which make up the Theory of the mental constitution, than to the separate formulas into which each such concept may be analyzed. Thus Logic is the equiva¬ lent of Analysis and Synthesis, as Law is the equivalent of the relations of Space and Time, and Thought that of Idea and Reality. Moreover, the formal concepts Law and Thought find their equivalence in that of Logic, since they are its affective and effective phases. That law operates also throughout the Physical and Psychical divisions, and it equally governs these divisions themselves as the affective and effective phases of the mental constitution, of which the Philosophical is the elective. The Philosophical is the expression of the Physical and the Psychical, because it is their equivalent, as combining within itself the varying aspects of every idea which they embody. The law of equivalence as thus stated is practical^ the same as the law of polarity which regulates the construction of the formal concept, or rather it supplies the formal element on which the negative and positive phases depend for organic expression. To show its operation in the formal concept, Logic, its several elements may be exhibited diagramatically as follows : I.ogic Synthesis Continuity In the sub-concept Analysis, Induction is the equivalent of Parts and Persistence as their formal expression, and in the sub-concept Synthesis, Deduction, as the formal expression of \\ holes and Continuity is their equivalent. These sub-concepts, however, constitute the negative and positive, or affective and effective aspects of the formal concept Logic, which may be described therefore as the equivalent of Analysis and Synthesis, or of their Realities Induction and Deduction. As to the correspondence between the terms employed to express those relations, it is evident that Parts and Persistence have such a relation to Analysis as \\ holes and Continuity have to Synthesis. Moreover, Mathematics stands in the same rela¬ tion to Parts and Wholes which represent minus and plus — that Correspondence does toward Persistence and Continuity, Parts being constituted by Persistence and Wholes by Continuity. By the law of correspondence, there should be a complete equivalence between the several subsidiary concepts which are embraced within the formal concept Law, and those of Logic, given above. That this may be recognized the former are here represented diagramatically : J3 Law According to the principles already laid down, Space must be the equivalent of Privation and Affection, wdiich answer to Parts and Persistence in the affective of Logic, and Time, that of Number and Effection, corresponding with Wholes and Continuity in the effective of Logic. In like manner, Law is the equivalent of Relation and Election, which answer to Mathematics and Correspondence in the elective of Logic. It may be added that Privation as Affection is the Negation of Space relations, and Number as Effection is the Position or positing of Time relations. Moreover, the Election of relations is Uniformity as Law'. But legal uniformity must be the equivalence or formal expression of Space-Negation and Time- Position, as its affective and effective aspects, that is, the idea of Lawr, as Uniformity must emerge out of the polar relation, Space and Time. This fact is expressed in the explanation given of uniformity of motion, as “the passage of a body over equal spaces in equal times.’’ Law may thus be described as the formal expression of the uniformity of relations in Space and Time, which relations depend on motion. If now we compare the elective elements of the several subsidiary concepts of the concept Law, as above represented, with those of the subsidiary concepts of the concept Logic, we see that Analysis as the Idea and Induction as the Reality answer to Space and Negation, while Synthesis as the Idea and Deduction as the Reality answer to Time and Position. Further, Logic as the Idea and Revelation as the Reality correspond with Law and Uniformity. The meaning of this is, that Induction by Analysis, through Mathematics as the condition of Logic, gives Negation of relations in Space, and that Deduction by Synthesis gives Position in Time, while Logic as Revelation is based on Law as Uniformity, of -which it is the highest expression. It should be noted, however, that as the concept Law is the affective of Logic, the former has throughout all its members especial relation to Analysis as the negative aspect of Logic. On the other hand, the concept Thought, -with its several subsidiary concepts, as the affective of Logic, stands in a particular relation to Synthesis as its positive aspect. Thus Time, as the effective of Law, is always analytical, in the sense that it arises from Number. In testing the correspondence between the formula of Thought and Logic, that fact will have to be kept in view; since, although the affective of Thought as negative must bear a certain relation to Analysis, yet it will also have a synthetic element, owing to its closer connection with the positive aspect of Logic. The following diagrams give a representation of the three Thought concepts :. Thought Object-ion Contradiction Generalization Subject-ion Affirmation H Considering these formula in themselves, we must see in Idea the equivalence of Ab¬ straction and Contradiction, and in Reality the equivalence of Generalization and Affirmation, while Thought is that of Dichotomy and Identification ; or, in other words, • these several elective phases emerge from their affectives and effectives, which from another point of view are their polar activities The affective of each formula is its static aspect, and the effective its dynamic aspect, and the three affectives and the three effectives may be made to repre¬ sent separate formulas, as follows : The operation of the law of equivalence is no less observant here than in the preceding formulas. The affective and effective Abstraction and Generalization are the polar aspects of Dichotomy, which as the formal elective is their equivalent, showing that it consists in Ab¬ straction and Generalization. In like manner Identification is the equivalence of Contradic¬ tion and Affirmation, which are its affective and effective modes of operation, or negative and positive phases. This agrees with the explanation usually given of the three laws of thought, which are embodied in the above dynamic formula. Professor Noah K. Davis remarks that the second and third laws of thought, those of contradiction and excluded middle, may be united as the Law of Duality, “the principle of strict logical division and disjunction.” Moreover, Identit}^ answers to Definition, in which, says the same writer, the notion defined and the definition are reciprocal or convertible concepts, that is equivalent. But the equivalence of the affective and effective of the dynamic formula of Thought with the elective, establishes the correspondence between that formula and the dynamic formula of Logic, seeing that, as already shown, Correspondence in the Logical answers to Equivalence, and this is the same as Identification But further, as the electives of the two dynamic form¬ ulas thus correspond, their affective and effective terms must also correspond, and Contradic¬ tion and Affirmation must be equivalent to Persistence and Continuity. There is a further equivalence to be noted in the Thought concepts represented above, at page 13. Thought, the Idea, as the elective, is the formal expression, and therefore the equivalent of Idea and Reality, as the affective and effective. It follows that Concept-ion, as the Realit)r, must be the equivalent of Object-ion and Subject-ion, and in fact it is constituted by these two mental operations. It is necessary, however, to explain what is meant by the terms Object-ion and Subject-ion. Idea is the negative aspect of Thought, that is, it is the separative form in which an object is presented to the mind when it is recognized not simply as an image, but as a bundle of qualities, which represent its Parts. This presentation is mental Object-ion, and is essential to the process of thought concept-ion performed by the human mind. The condition of Object-ion is Abstraction, and its operation Contradiction, 15 the Ideas which the mind thus acquires undergoing the process of Generalization, and by Affirmation becoming thought Realities. This is the process of Subject-ion which is identifi¬ cation of the qualities resulting from Abstraction with the Reality which emerges as the effect of Generalization. These are the negative and positive phases of thought dichotomy, and the final outcome is the formation of a completed conception, as the formal expression of the dichotomous operation. This formal expression, however, requires embodiment in language, which is essential therefore to logical Identification and is its real evidence. 