A manual of natural history, for the use of travellers : being a description of the families of the animal and vegetable kindgoms: with remarkable on the practical study of geology and meteorology. To which are appended directions for collecting and preserving
UC-NRLF IE 3 Ifll H*IK«^ ^^ *ll- 1 r^-0^ <f<C y No ......... Division ...... Range Shelf... - Received... ... Jc^f... i i to * '. <rr <r C C CT. CXCC. NATURAL HISTORY, FOB THE USE OF TRAVELLERS; BEING A DESCRIPTION OP THE FAMILIES OF THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS: REMARKS ON THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF GEOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY. TO WHICH ARE APPENDED Birecti0ns for Collecting antJ Iteerintttj. BY W ARTHUR ADAMS, y> *" OXO.8. ; -F.L.S. }7y.E.X STETTIN ; WILLIAM BALFOTJR BAIKIE, M.D., F.B.S.E. ; LATE ONE OF TUB PRESIDENTS OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. AND CHARLES BARRON, Curator of the Royal Naval Museum, at Haslar. LONDON: JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCLIV. Ah me! those joyous days are gone! ff „ I little dreamt, till they were flown, /ff How fleeting Were the hours! For, lesi he break the plepsing ppell, Time bears for \ outh a muffled bell, / And hides his face in flowers ! / Ah! well I mind me of the days, Still bright in memory's flattering rays When all was fair and new; When knaves were only found in books, And f tiends were known by friendly looks, And love was always true! While yet of sin I scarcely dreamed, And everything was what it seemed, And alt too bright for choice; When fays were wont to guard ipy sleep, Crusoe still cou'd make And And Santadaus, rejoice! i me weep, When heaven was pictured to my thought, (In spite of all my mother taught Of happiness s«rene) A theatre of boyish play — One glorious round of holidays, Without a school between! Ah me! these joy out days are gone; L little dreamt, till they were flown, How fleeting were the hours! For, lost he break the pleading spell, lime bears for youth a m* ffled bell, And hides bis face in flowers!— John G, Saxe. A3 Stop Thief ! r ^ I saw a figure iu my rear, With stealthy step he ventured near / And sna'ched a curl away. " Give back the ringlet, give," I cried, " I need it a defect to hide"— He gave, but it was gray. Thftn with a cold and formal bow He touched hi* pencil to my bow — Ah, what a mark was there! " Oh, wipe ir off, you imp," I cried; He left another b/ its side. And moc&ed at my despair. And thDn, as if to leave a trace Of all hia footprints on my face, He stole the peach's fcloom Which mantled o'er my rosy cheek, And le't me callow, pale and weak, Fit teuant ior the tomb. He ptole my merry heart so gay, He stole my ringing laugh away, He veiled ray lustrous eye; H« stole my firm elastic step, > 63, SNOW HlLL Stole all my charms, is stealing yet, And will steal till I die. •" Stop thief ! stop thief ! stop thief !" I cried. A gentle angel-voioe replied, " Weep not for faded flowers; The arrant thief you so much tear, PREFACE. THE design of the following pages is to endeavour to supply what seems to be a blank in the scientific literature of this country, for, although numerous treatises exist upon every branch, yet no work has hitherto appeared, comprising either succinctly or in detail, a comprehensive outline of Natural His- tory. It may appear presumptuous on the part of the Authors to attempt to grapple with such an extensive range of subjects, which, they feel must be, in many instances, inadequately treated, still they trust that their effort to condense, within the limits of a portable volume, the leading features of Animate and Inanimate Nature, may prove of service to those at least for whom it is more espe- cially intended. Their chief aim has been to ren- der their work at once sufficiently popular for the general reader, without, at the same time, lessening its scientific value. For this purpose technicalities have been avoided whenever their employment could be dispensed with, English names have been given to all the Classes, Orders, and Families, and the principal divisions have been prefaced by brief IV PREFACE. introductory remarks. The classification adopted is that which has seemed most closely to accord with the advanced views of the time; and through- out the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms a uniform system has been employed, so that similar subdi- visions are designated by a cognate nomenclature. January, 1854. THE AURORA BOREALIS SEEN AT SACRAMENTO — 16 Aurora Borealis was seen on the night of 16th scember, about half-past 11 o'clock, at Sacramento, is described as having been a beautiful exhibition, id is supposed to be the first that has been observed this country since it became an American State. le Union remarks on the phenomenon '-Jtf^ ^7 To the observer on Second street, the aurora first ipeared in a northeasterly direction, presenting every tpearance of an extensive fire, and, therefore, creating general alarm and turning out of the entire apparatus the Fire Department. The phenomenon extended •adually and rapidly over the northern section of the javens, the dominant hue being a beautiful crimson. a duration was probably only about fifteen minutes; it during that time its aspect was frequently changed 7 the successive appearance and shifting of streak? • columns of white light, which seemed to be more inspicuous at either extreme of the arch. SNOW \EiiEAS.— ^While perambulating over the ep snqws, lyingpdn the mountains everywhere ousdlus . weJHave often observed myriads of ^pvering the surface in almost every )nr curiosity being excited, we have to examine them more minutely, to be what we call (in the absence name) snow fleas. They closely, the regular flea, both as regards action d appearance, but are not over half the size, hile watching them we have seen them burrow neath the snow to the depth of an inch, and d reappear with all the sprightliness of the ck biting tribe ; so far as we have been able to irn; they derive their sustenance from the ow exclusively, never having observed them any other substance. Can any one inform more fully of the nature oLthese beasts ? — $ i Porte Messenger. **r** M m*> o- INTRODUCTION. NATUKAL History, or the study of the Mundane Creation, may be primarily divided into two grand empires, whose territories are distinct, and whose boundaries are well defined. The one is the Or- ganic, or that of Animated Nature ; the other is the Inorganic, or Inanimate. The first of these, which comprises within its realms everything possessed of life on our planet, is sub-divided into two king- doms, viz., the Animal or Zoological, and the Vege- table or Phytological. The domains of Inorganic Nature again comprehend Meteorology, or the science of atmospheric phenomena, and Geology, or the history of the composition of our globe, which includes Physical -Geography, or the superficial structure of the earth, and Mineralogy, or a know- ledge of the component parts of rocks. A con- necting link between these two great divisions is supplied by Palaeontology, or the study of Fossil Re- VI INTRODUCTION. - mains, which, though now petrified and inanimate, were once living organisms, abundantly supplied with vitality. A thorough acquaintance with all these varied branches being almost impossible, the student of Nature must make a selection according to his predilections or his opportunities. But while occupied more intently with one subject, the others need not be entirely overlooked, and particu- larly when travelling facts and appearances may be recorded, and specimens collected which will serve to facilitate the studies of fellow-labourers in the same field. The pursuit of Natural History, though adapted more or less to almost any locality, cannot be followed to more advantage, than by persons visit- ing distant countries or little-explored regions. The desirableness of collecting cannot be too strongly impressed upon travellers, as frequently with but little exertion on their part, much valuable infor- mation may be gleaned. To forward such views, the following work has been written, combining within portable bulk sufficient instruction on these diversified topics to point out to the reader what he ought to observe, and how he ought to pre- serve. And who can tell the result of well- directed exertions? Some "strange, bright bird" may, perhaps, on examination, serve to fill up an INTKODUCTION. Vll unoccupied space in the web of nature, — a fossil bone may possibly reveal the existence of some pre- viously unknown, monstrous, pre-Adamite form, — a broken branch may disclose invaluable materials for future Navies, — a mineral fragment may indicate a yet untried gold region, — or a geological observa- tion may point out a new locality for that indis- pensable aid to industry, coal. Of late years, Natural History, no longer a chaotic mass of wild theories or vague assertions, but a truly inductive science, has proved of vast service to commercial pursuits, and now possesses a truly national in- terest. Already the names of its cultivators oc- cupy a proud position in the annals of fame, and with another generation they may rank, at least, as high as those of the warriors and heroes of past ages. Let the Zoologist, the Botanist, or the Geolo- gist consider that their discoveries and labours will be remembered when deeds of blood are thought of no more ; and, in the meantime, they may, with pleasure and satisfaction, reflect that they have made themselves known to the world, not by in- flicting pain or misery on their fellows, but by working peaceably yet earnestly for their welfare; that those who venture into remote lands, or among savage tribes, in attempting to elucidate the laws of Nature, have as high a claim to distinction as V1U INTRODUCTION. the ruthless conqueror; and that those who devote their talents and their labours to furthering this great end, will secure for themselves an honourable position in the lasting records of science. ERRATA. Page 65, line 20 for 25 read 28 „ 82 „ 31 ,, Skates „ Turbots „ 273 „ 25 „ Araneid® „ Araneida „ 276 „ 2 ,, Padipalpi j> Pedipalpi „ 302 „ 23 „ Daracia „ Dorado, » » n 24 „ Conopea „ Conoplea » 31 _! Aster olepas „ Astr olepas » 346 „ 12 after 10 place Family „ 379 „ 27 for CodmintJia read Coelelmintha ,, 432 „ 13 for Cane-wood read Cam-wood „ 446 „ 16 after 10 place Family „ 508 „ 10 „ occuring „ occurring „ 552 „ 6 3) Clymenidce „ Clymeniidce „ 567 „ 27 after Oycadacece place a comma „ 575 „ 20 for Montmarle read Montmartre 671 „ 5 „ preparations „ preparation » » 10 „ minature „ miniature „ 672 „ 18 omit four- ,, 712 „ after Dendrocoela insert Dendronotidse ...141 PART I. ZOOLOGY. THE NATURAL FAMILIES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORGANIZATION. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. IN pursuing the study of the Animal Kingdom, two different methods may be followed. The one named the Zoological, considers more especially the classi- fication and arrangement of living creatures from their external configuration and general shape ; the other, by the aid of Comparative Anatomy, directs attention more particularly to their internal struc- ture and physiological analogies. To obtain a com- plete acquaintance with the subject, both plans of research must be adopted, but by those whose time and opportunities are too limited for such a compre- hensive study, either of these two branches may be followed out, without totally losing sight of the other. The latter is most successfully studied at home, while the former is of greater consequence to the travelling naturalist, for whose behoof this work is intended. In describing therefore the various classes, orders, and families, attention will be paid more par- ticularly to external configuration, and the leading 2 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. characteristics will be, as far as practicable, of a strictly Zoological nature; not that for a moment we would, by so doing, wish to cast any slight upon the other branch, which is undoubtedly the higher and more philosophical of the two, but merely be- cause it is not of so practical a nature, nor so univer- sally applicable for general discrimination of forms, and consequently less adapted for the purpose we have in view. A succinct and exact definition of an animal, as distinguished from a vegetable, is not an easy task. The two kingdoms do not run into each other by any means, but both appear to spring from a com- mon root, viz., vitality; and, for some distance from their origin, are so closely blended that a separation is extremely difficult. Accordingly we find that the lowest members of each group are, by different writers, described as animals, or as vegetables, just as their ideas happen to dictate. Linnaeus on this point gave utterance to a celebrated axiom, viz., "Stones grow, vegetables grow and live, animals grow, live, and feel/' This, though perhaps true enough in the main, is not sufficiently explicit, as it is difficult to prove that Sponges, which are generally admitted as animals, are possessed of feeling ; while again Sir James Edward Smith argued, though quite on hypo- thetical grounds, that plants might be endowed with sensation, though in a very low degree, in which opinion, however, he had but few followers. The power of voluntary motion has also been brought forward as a test, but such a criterion is alike futile MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3 and inapplicable. Another distinguishing feature was believed to be afforded by burning the sub- stance in question, when, if of an animal nature, it would give out an empyreumatic odour, because of its containing nitrogen ; but it has since been shewn that this element is also afforded by vege- tables. The most satisfactory definition yet advanc- ed is, that "animals are possessed of an internal receptacle for food, wherein they collect the nutri- ment destined for their support/' * Even this, how- ever, is not fully correct. Another line of demar- cation has been attempted to be drawn from the circumstance that animals obtain nutriment only from previously organized matter, while plants ar nourished by inorganic material, which they thus prepare for the ultimate support of animal life. Many, if not all of these hold good, and are quite applicable in reference to the more advanced forms of both kingdoms; but in their primary stages the question still remains to be solved. It , has been beautifully observed by an eminent zoological autho- rity, " Light and darkness are distinct from each other, and no one possessed of eye-sight would be in danger of confounding night with day ; yet he who, looking upon the evening sky, would attempt to point out precisely the line of separation between the parting day and the approaching night, would have a difficult task to perform." And so it is with the point we have had under consideration. Nature * Vide " Rymer Jones." Nat. Hist, of Animals. — Vol. I., p. 5. B2 4 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. throughout her works erects no lofty barriers, no visible boundaries ; for however well marked the cen- tral portions of her various territories may seem, yet on their confines they are so closely united, so inti- mately combined, as to blend her entire domains into a perfect and harmonious whole. The most simple division of the Animal Kingdom is into Vertebrates and Invertebrates, the latter being again divided into four sub-kingdoms. These are distributed into classes, orders, sub-orders, and families, which is the extent to which we shall trace them in the following pages ; as an enquiry into sub- families, genera, sub-genera, and species, would be perfectly impracticable within the limits of a portable volume. The system of nomenclature adopted is as uniform as circumstances allow, especially in the case of the families, which, according to the prevalent zoological views of the day, are always indicated by ending in idee. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. I.— SUB-KINGDOM. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. Vertebrata, Guv. Spinicerebrata, Encephalata, Grant Myelencephala, Owen. 1 Class Mammals (Mammalia, Mammifera) 2 „ Birds (Aves) 3 „ Reptiles (Reptilia) 4 „ Amphibians (Amphibia) 5 „ Fishes (Pisces) MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5 II.— SUB-KINGDOM. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Mollusca, Guv. Cyclogangliata, Grant. Hetero gangliata, Owen. 1 Class Cephalopoda (Cephalopoda) 2 „ Pteropods (Pteropoda) 3 „ Gasteropoda (Univalves) (Gasteropoda) 4 „ Bivalves (Conchifera) 5 „ Tunicaries (Tunicata) 6 „ BracMopods (Brachiopoda, Palliobranchiata) III.— SUB-KINGDOM. ANNULOSE /ANIMALS. Articulata, Guv. Annulosa, Macleay. Diplogan- gliata, Entomoida, Diploneura (part) Grant. Ho- mogangliata, Owen. 1 Class Cirrhopods (Cirrhopoda, Cirripedes) 2 „ Crustaceans (Crustacea) 3 „ fish-Parasites (Epizoa) 4 „ A rachnidans (Arachnida) 5 „ Insects (Insecta) 6 „ Myriapods (Myriapoda) 7 „ Annelids (Annelida, Annulida) iy._SUB-KINGDOM. RADIATE ANIMALS. Radiata (part), Cuv. Diploneura vel Helminthoida (part), Cycloneura (part), Grant. Nematoneura, Owen. Zoophyta, Auct. 1 Class Echinoderms (Echinodermata) 2 „ Wheel- Animalcules (Rotifera) 3 „ Ascidian-Polyps (Polyzoa, Bryozoa) 4 „ Cavitary-Entozoa .. (Coelelmintha, Nematoidea) 5 „ Parenchymatous-Entozoa (Sterelmintha) 6 „ Sea-Nettles (Acalephse, Malactinia) 7 „ Polyps (Polypifera, Phytozoa) 6 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. V._ SUB-KINGDOM. ACBITE ANIMALS. Acrita, Macleay. Cryptoneura (part) Rudolphi. Cy- cloneura (part), Grant. Oozoa, Cams. Protozoa, Oken. 1 Class Poly gastric- Animalcules (Polygastrica, Infusoria) 2 „ Foraminifers (Foraminifera) 3 „ Sponges , (Porifera, Amorphozoa) SUB-KINGDOM OF VERTEBRATES. The vertebrate animals constitute the first great division of the Animal Kingdom, and embrace the highest and most intelligent forms of living crea- tures, ascending from fishes, and finally arriving at man himself. The members composing this import- ant group are very numerous, and are formed to inhabit the air, the earth, and the waters, different individuals being adapted for each element by their external configuration and internal structure. Among them are to be found the largest and most bulky of living forms, as the whale and elephant among mammals, the ostrich among birds, the rep- tilian crocodile, and the basking-shark — the giant of the finny tribes. In them the nervous centres are more specially allocated and protected by being placed in a bony canal ; and the organs of special sense are most perfectly developed. The expansion of nervous matter forming the brain first commences in them, at first small and unimportant, but gradu- ally increasing in size and volume until it finally MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7 appears in the human race in its most perfect con- dition. In the size, number, and complicated nature of most of their viscera the Vertebrates shew a great advance over the inferior classes ; but on these points it would be out of place here to enlarge ; suffice it to say, that the body is generally divisible into a head, a trunk, and extremities, the latter never exceeding four in number. The voluntary movements attain perfection, being less automatic and more the result of volition than among the lower orders; and the system of organic life, so developed in the mollusks, here gives way to the more important system of animal life. In short, taking a mollusk or a star-fish as examples of an In- vertebrate, we find them to live within themselves and for themselves, not exactly worshipping their bellies, as they can hardly be said to possess one, yet devoted to gastronomy, in which they are probably adepts, and spending their time in alternate feeding and repose. While in Vertebrates higher occupations manifest themselves, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch become more refined, social feelings, of a dif- ferent description from those of the ants and bees, are observed, passions of various kinds disturb the frame, until finally the whole are centred in talking, reasoning, busy, marrying man. 1. — SUB-KINGDOM OF VERTEBRATES. — Vertebrata. Skeleton internal, jointed, vital, cartilaginous, or osseous. Head distinct, enclosing, and covering with the vertebrae the principal nervous centres. » I r 8 MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTOKY. Extremities never exceed four. Anal and oral ori- fices distinct, remote, mostly at opposite extremi- ties. Organs of special sense well developed, chiefly situated in or near the face. Mouth with two jaws opening vertically, one situated either above or be- fore the other; blood, red; heart, muscular; sexes, separated ; generation, viviparous or oviparous. MAMMALS. Among the many and singular forms to be met with in this class, are numerous examples which alike puzzle the systematist and astonish the be- holder; forms which clearly prove that though linear arrangements may be most convenient for our pur- poses, and such they certainly are with the present state of knowledge, they yet are naught but artifi- cial. Some have thought circular arrangements to be the natural method; but all are found imperfect, unusual forms occurring, having so many apparent affinities, yet with such an amount of differences as to baffle the ingenuity of the most profound na- turalists. A fit symbol of the arrangement of the Animal Kingdom in nature might perhaps be found in the beautiful web of the garden spider (Epeira diad&ma). The Mammalia are placed at the head of the Ani- mal Kingdom, because in them are to be found the most complete development of faculties and the most advanced structure. Man, regarded as an animal, stands first ; having MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 9 the most perfect form, the most delicate sensations, pre-eminent intelligence, and being little dependant on instinct. Those which follow are all found to be endowed with faculties and forms admirably suited to their modes of living, and to the vicissitudes to which they may be exposed. Those singular ani- mals, the Bats — whose noiseless flight and rapid evo- lutions we witness in the summer evenings — may well arrest attention, as amongst the many examples affording proof of design and adaptation ; nor, as we proceed, shall we be at a loss to find numerous others equally striking. The Mole, doomed to live a subterraneous life, and seek its food beneath the surface of the soil, requires suitable adaptations ; these it has to perfection in its fore feet, so admir- ably formed for digging ; the Hedgehog, not endowed with speed or strength to avoid a combat with an enemy, rolls itself up, and presents a prickly ball, which few dare touch, and as its food, chiefly con- sisting of coleopterous insects, is only to be found during the warmer seasons of the year, it passes the winter in a state of hybernation, instead of being subjected to the torture of a long fast. The Lion and Tiger, with the rest of the cat tribe, intended to live a rapacious life, possess great strength and agility, with teeth and claws of a most formidable nature; the latter, in order to preserve them with constant sharp points, are ordinarily kept in a re- tracted state, and are only thrust forward at the will of the animal, when about to seize its prey, or to act defensively; their habits too, being chiefly 10 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. nocturnal, require appropriate organs of vision ; thus we find the pupils of the eyes Very large and sus- ceptible, and that they may not be inconvenienced by the glare of day, the irides remain contracted during that time, leaving but a small part exposed. In the Seals, and more particularly in the Whales, we see the form modified, so as to be entirely adapted for an aquatic life. With the former it becomes necessary that they should at times seek the land or the ledges of rock for repose; their shape therefore has still some resemblance to the terrestrial members of the class to which they belong; while in the latter, des- tined to reside wholly in the water, the external form is fish-like, only, however, purely adaptive, as they still possess the essential character of mammals, having the organs of respiration and circulation so arranged as to enable them to dive down and re- main for a limited period in the depths of the ocean. The Camel, intended to live on barren sandy tracts of dry and heated desert land, where other animals, without some special provision, would perish from thirst, are provided with the means of allaying theirs, by a peculiar modification of the stomach, which thus becomes a reservoir of water sufficient for many days' consumption ; their feet, too, broad, padded, and elastic, are well suited for travelling over such light and yielding soil. The teeth of the Rodents furnish us with another instance. The front, or cutting teeth, by continually growing from a persistent pulp, compensate for the wear to which they are constantly subjected, and the inner part, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 11 being of a softer material than the outside ayer, a sharp edge is always preserved by their mutual attrition. The Sloth, destined to pass an arboreal life, and to feed on the foliage of trees, has its limbs modified into organs of suspension, and from their peculiar form and the position they hold in regard to the trunk, progression along the ground is to the animal a very difficult matter. In the great imitative power of the Apes, the craftiness of the wily Fox, and the sagacity of the Elephant, we may see the modifications of instinct which are more or less observable in all, and in the exercise of which we may find much to admire and astonish us, whether we witness it amongst the unreclaimed in their native haunts, or in the domes- ticated about the abodes of men : in the former it is especially interesting, though very much so also in the latter ; and how many are the pleasing anec- dotes recorded of the instinct of animals as exhibited in such as have become familiarized. To that power man is greatly indebted as exercised by those ani- mals which have been tamed and rendered subser- vient to his purposes. What he owes to the labour of the Horse, to the prosperity of his flocks and herds, or to the faithful companionship of the Bog, need scarcely be mentioned, being all self-evi- dent. In the vast diversity of form, and wide differences of size, how much there is to attract and engage us ; whether we gaze on the massive structure of the Elephant, or the light and graceful outline of the An- 12 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. telope ; the huge, unwieldy Whale, or the tiny creeping Mouse. How much, in the fleet and bounding step of the Gazelle, and the slow move- ments of the Ant-eater; in the gay and lively actions of the Squirrel, or the dulness of the Sloth. So likewise in the singular provision of the pouch amongst the Marsupials, whose young, brought forth at an early period, require some special protection in their then utterly defence- less state, and again in the extraordinary forms of the Echidna and the Duckbill. The covering of the members of this class too, is a subject deeply interesting, regarded either in connection with their own economy, or in relation to man. The spiny covering of the Porcupine con- trasts strongly with the woolly coat of the Sheep ; the thick, almost naked skin of most of the Pachy- derms, with the long, silky hair of the Llama. The smooth and closely adpressed hair of the Seal, points to its fitness as a clothing for an animal whose life is chiefly spent in the water ; while the smooth and naked skin of the more aquatic Whale, is evidently best suited to the almost fish-like habits of the Cetaceans. These are a few of the subjects of interest, rapidly sketched, which are to be met with in studying the forms and habits of the members of this class, and viewed in connection with the circumstances under which they severally live, attest "the wisdom of God in Creation/' MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTORY. 13 I._CLASS MAMMALS (Mammalia}. Faculties in most advanced state of perfection; powers of motion varied ; sensations delicate ; intel- ligence superiorly developed ; young suckled; mostly fitted for walking; a few are enabled to fly, and some are destined to live in the water. 1. SUB-CLASS.— PL ACENTAL MAMMALS (Placentaiia). I. ORDER.— MAN (Primates). Position of body vertical ; senses delicate, and nicely balanced ; organs of voice pre-eminent; intel- ligence in a high degree ; capable of progressive de- velopment. 1. FAMILY. — Men (Hominidse). Characters as in Order. II. ORDER. — FOUR-HANDED MAMMALS (Quadrumana). Limbs more or less lengthened ; possess four or- gans of prehension similar to hands, generally with an opposable thumb on each. 1. FAMILY. — Apes (Simiidse). Nostrils divided by a narrow septum ; opposable thumbs on fore and hind feet ; generally naked callosities on rump ; sometimes cheek pouches ; usually furnished with a tail. Dentition incis : J — can. i=J— pre mol: « — mol: tJ=32. 2. FAMILY. — American Monkeys (Cebidse). Nos- trils separated by a broad septum; thumbs sometimes absent on fore feet ; no callosities 14 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. or cheek pouches ; tail often prehensile. Den- tition incis: *• — can: J~J — mol: ^=36. The lacchi have only five grinders on either side of each jaw. 3. FAMILY. — Lemurs (Lemuridse). Muzzle pointed ; fur woolly; grinders tubercular; tail some- times long, sometimes absent ; first, or second and third toes of hind foot furnished with claws. Some have large nocturnal eyes. In- cisors varying in number in upper and lower jaws. 4. FAMILY. — Flying-Lemurs (Galeopithecidse). Hairy skin, expanded from sides of body, extending between fore and hind legs, and including the tail ; toes furnished with sharp compressed claws; cutting teeth pectinated. Habits nocturnal. III. ORDER.— BATS (Cheiroptera). Fingers of fore limbs very long, connected by a membrane, which is continued to unite the anterior and posterior extremities, forming wings, by which the animals are enabled to fly. 1. FAMILY. — Insectiverous Bats (Yespertilionidse). Grinders acutely tubercular ; index, or first finger, with one or two phalanges, without a nail; many have a nasal disk expanded in the form of a leaf. Those which are pecu- liar to the new world have three phalanges to middle finger ; the others have but two. 2. FAMILY. — Frugiverous-Bats (Harpyidae). Grind- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 15 ers bluntly-tubercular; index with tliree pha- langes, usually furnished with a nail ; without nasal disk. Generally of larger size than the Vespertilionidce IV. ORDER — INSECT-FEEDERS (Insectivora). Teeth beset with conical points; limbs short; feet mostly plantigrade ; mammae ventral. Nature timid ; habits mostly nocturnal, subterraneous, frequently aquatic. 1. FAMILY. — Moles (Talpidse). Head long, narrow, somewhat depressed; nose much prolonged, pointed, flexible ; eyes very minute ; ears hidden ; feet plantigrade. The more typical forms have anterior limbs largely developed and furnished with strong nails adapted for digging ; tail of various lengths. 2. FAMILY. — Elephant Mice (Macroscelididse), Head conical ; nose lengthened into a trunk ; eyes large ; hind legs and feet long ; fur long and soft ; habits of the Jerboas. 3. FAMILY. — Banxrings (Tupaiidae). Head broad, somewhat depressed, tapering to a pointed muzzle, which is divided in the centre by a furrow ; eyes large ; ears naked ; feet plan- tigrade ; toes long, five in number ; tail often broad and hairy like the squirrels, sometimes hairy only at the tip ; habits arboreal, 4. FAMILY. — Hedgehogs (Erinaceidse). Muzzle point- ed; eyes small and prominent; body covered above with sharp spines ; feet with five toes, 16 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY nails strong. Some have the power of rolling themselves up. V. ORDER. — RAPACIOUS MAMMALS (Carnivora). Teeth more or less trenchant, canines large and pointed, six incisors in each jaw ; muscular energy great. By a comparison of the tubercular portions of the teeth with the cutting parts, the degree of sanguinary appetite, in these animals, can be deter- mined. 1. FAMILY. — Dogs (Canidae). Muzzle lengthened; jaws with three false molars above, five be- low ; two true molars, behind each carnivor- ous tooth; tongue smooth; limbs lengthened ; tail generally more or less bushy ; feet digi- tigrade. The diurnal Canidse have the pupils round ; the nocturnal have them elliptical ; and many have the feet furred beneath. 2. FAMILY. — Civet Cats (Viverridse)". Muzzle long ; form lengthened, comparatively low ; body somewhat compressed ; one true molar in lower jaw, two in upper jaw, two tubercles on inner side of lower carnivorous tooth ; tongue covered with sharp papillae; claws semi-retractile ; anal pouch with glands which secrete an odorous matter ; fur gene- rally spotted, that of tail annulated. 3. FAMILY. — Cats (Felidse). Muzzle short and rounded ; jaws short ; number of teeth small, no true molar in lower jaw, one very small in MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 17 upper ; upper carnivorous tooth three lobed, with a broad heel inside, lower two lobed, no heel ; tongue roughened by horny, recurved papillae ; body compressed ; anterior limbs massive; digitigrade. Habits chiefly noc- turnal. 4. FAMILY. — W easels (Mustelidse). Muzzle short, obtuse ; body long, slender, flexible ; limbs short; tail lengthened; one true molar on either side of each jaw ; digitigrade ; stature small ; disposition very sanguinary. They diffuse, when alarmed, a fetid stench. False molars in the typical forms |^j*. 5. FAMILY. — Skunks (Mephitidse). Muzzle slightly elongate, obtuse ; body heavy ; limbs stout ; tail short and bushy, usually erect ; claws strong; lower carnivorous tooth with two tubercles on inner side ; feet plantigrade ; hair of body generally longitudinally striped. Commonly mephitic. 6. FAMILY. — Bears (Ursidse). Body usually heavy, with or without a tail ; limbs long and thick ; plantigrade ; claws strong ; cartilage of nose elongated and moveable ; lips generally mo- bile ; tongue extensible ; molars tubercular. Most have the power of climbing trees. Ha- bits omnivorous. 7. FAMILY.— SWs (Phocidse). Body lengthened, ta- pering posteriorly ; feet short, in the form of flippers ; toes connected by a membrane ; teeth variable ; fur short and close. Able 18 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. swimmers, and spend the greater part of their time in the water. VI. OKDER — CETACEANS (Cetacea). External appearance somewhat fishlike; body ge- nerally covered with a smooth skin ; anterior limbs in the form of paddles ; no posterior limbs ; tail expanded horizontally into a fin of greater or less breadth. I. SUB-ORDER. — CARNIVOROUS CETACEANS (Carnivora). Skin smooth, shining, generally destitute of hairs ; nostrils in the form of spiracles and pierced on sum- mit of head ; mammae placed near vent ; teeth coni- cal or wanting. 1. FAMILY. — Baleen- Whales (Balsenidse). Head large ; upper jaw much arched ; no teeth, but from each side of the upper jaw is suspended a series of plates of baleen or whalebone, the edges of which are formed into a loose fringe of fibres which fill cavity of mouth ; spiracles on upper part of head ; with or without a dorsal fin. 2. FAMILY. — Sperm-Whales (Physeteridse). Head very large, with an extremely obtuse snout ; lower jaw narrow, corresponding to a groove in upper, and furnished with a row of conical teeth which fit into cavities on edge of palate when the mouth is shut, there being no teeth in upper jaw ; blow-hole situated on anterior part of head. MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19 3. FAMILY. — Dolphins (Delphinidse). Head small, short, and rounded, or lengthened into a beak ; jaws generally furnished with a num- ber of conical teeth ; with or without a dor- sal fin. For the most part of comparatively small size, and in form taper towards each extremity. II. S UB-ORDER..— HERBIVOROUS-CETACEANS (Herbivora). Grinders with flat crowns ; two mammae on breast ; hairy whiskers ; orifices of nostrils pierced at end of muzzle. 4. FAMILY. — Manatees (Alanatidse). Skin thick, and coarse-grained, with a few scattered hairs ; head conical; muzzle large and fleshy, two tufts of stiff bristles at its sides ; upper lip cleft ; mouth moderate ; nails on edges of swimming paws ; tail terminated by a length- ened oval fin ; grinders |j ; no cutting or canine teeth in adult. 5. FAMILY. — Dugongs (Halicoridse). Skin smooth, with a few scattered hairs ; head small in proportion, and of a peculiar form, owing, in great measure, to the large, thick, and trun- cate upper lip, forming a blunt thick snout, truncated portion furnished with bristles ; nostrils on summit of upper jaw at the point where it is bent down ; two cutting teeth in upper jaw in form of tusks, grinders ^J ; caudal fin bilobed. 20 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 5. FAMILY. — Stellerines (Eytinidae). Skin thick, hard, rugged, forming a kind of cuirass of agglutinated hairs ; head small, obtuse ; nos- trils at end of snout ; lips double, space be- tween lips filled with strong bristles ; no external ears ; teeth horny \— J attached to the gums, having no insertion in the bones ; tail ending in a stiff crescent-shaped fin. VII. ORDER — PACHYDERMS (Pachydermata). Form heavy, unsymmetrical ; skin thick, hard, deeply furrowed, generally but scantily clothed with hair ; toes included in a skin and tipped with broad nails, or enclosed in hoofs ; teeth often very large ; some have the nose lengthened into a proboscis. 1. FAMILY. — Hippopotami (Hippopotamidse). Form unwieldy ; skin smooth ; head large, termi- nated by a broad swollen muzzle ; mouth very large ; four incisors and two canines in each jaw, lower canines long, thick and bent, forming large tusks ; legs very short ; four toes on each foot, terminated by small hoofs. Habits aquatic. 2. FAMILY. — Elephants (Elephantidae). No front teeth in lower jaw, two large projecting tusks in upper jaw, which grow from a persistent pulp ; nose greatly prolonged, forming a pro- boscis of extraordinary flexibility and pre- hensive power, and furnished at tip with a small finger-like appendage ; limbs very mas- MANUAL OF NATUKAL HISTORY. 21 sive ; toes five on each foot, included in hard skin. 3. FAMILY. — Tapirs (Tapiridse). Nose lengthened into a short proboscis of considerable flexi- bility and prehension; six incisors and two canines in each jaw ; fore feet have each four toes, hind three, cased in small hoofs at tip. 4 FAMILY. — Hogs (Suidse). Muzzle long, narrow, and truncate ; nose mobile ; incisors vari- able ; canines large and projecting, those of upper jaw turned up, lower longer, often very angular, recurved ; skin covered with strong, stiff hair ; tail rather short, or none ; legs rather short ; feet with four toes furnished with hoofe, the two middle toes being consi- derably the largest, postero-lateral pair small and scarcely reaching the ground. 5. FAMILY. — Rhinoceri (Rhinocerotidse). Skin of extraordinary strength and thickness, often arranged in folds ; nose furnished with one or more formidable recurved horns ; upper lip long and flexible ; toes three in number ; g • on each foot, shod with blunt hoofs. 6. FAMILY. — Damans. (Hyracidse). Form some- what like the Rodents ; size not exceeding that of a Hare ; muzzle and ears short ; tail a mere tubercle ; body clothed with fur ; two incisors in upper jaw, four in lower ; three or four toes to each of fore feet, three to hind, united by the skin to the nails, which 22 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. are short, broad, and flat, except the inner posterior toes which are armed with a crook- ed nail. VIII. ORDER — SINGLE-HOOFED MAMMALS (Solipedes). Hoofs undivided ; six cutting teeth in each jaw ; upper lip whole and mobile. Use their hind legs in defence. 1. FAMILY. — Horses (Equidse). Characters as given in order. Some have tail covered with long hair throughout its length, others have long hair only at tip. The Equine group have a wart on inside of each leg ; the Asinine have a wart on inside of fore legs only. IX. ORDER — RUMINANTS (Ruminantia). No incisors in upper jaw, a considerable space be- tween incisors of lower jaw and molars, crowns of molars marked with a double row of crescents ; feet with two toes in front, furnished with hoofs, which appear like a single hoof cleft, behind and rather elevated are two small, and more or less rudimen- tary toes provided with hoofs ; generally furnished with horns. 1. FAMILY. — Camels (Camelidae). Without horns ; upper lip cleft ; canine teeth in both jaws ; feet broad, expanded, elastic, terminated by two small hoofs ; generally one or more pro- tuberances on back. 2. FAMILY.— Deer (Cervidse). Horns solid, deci- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 23 duous, covered with a hairy skin when grow- ing, generally more or less branched or palma- ted; usually provided with lachrymal sinuses. 3. FAMILY. — Musks (Moschidse). Without horns ; long projecting canine teeth in upper jaw of males ; size small ; of slender and very elegant proportions ; no lachrymal sinus. 4. FAMILY. — Gira/s (Cameleopardalidse). Perma- nent, solid, simple horns in both sexes, always covered with a hairy skin, crowned with a tuft of stiff, upright hairs ; neck very long ; fore legs disproportionate in length ; tail rather long, and tufted ; tongue long, pre- hensile ; whole appearance graceful. 5. FAMILY. — Hollow-horned Ruminants (Bovidse). Horns persistent, sheathing a bony core, round, or compressed and angular, often annulated, bent or curled in various ways ; with or without lachrymal sinus ; tail short, or elongated and tufted. The Antelopes (Antilopinse). Have the limbs long and slender in the typical species, general contour light and graceful ; no dewlap ; tail short and hairy. The more aberrant species assume a more or less bovine or caprine form ; the former are of large size with heavy bodies, tail lengthened and tufted ; the latter have rather heavy bodies, and stout limbs, legs short, hoofs large ; tail short and flat. Muzzle narrow or broad. Horns conical, or angular; straight, recurved, 24 MANUAL OF NATUEAL HISTOEY. lyrate, or spirally twisted, frequently annu- lated ; sometimes large and approximated at base, descend, and turn up at point. The Goats (Caprinse). Have a narrow clothed muzzle ; chin generally well bearded ; hair sometimes long and shaggy ; limbs short and stout ; hoofs large ; tail depressed and hairy ; horns generally large, directed upwards, back- wards, and outwards. The Sheep (Ovinae). Have the muzzle narrow and clothed ; limbs strong ; horns angulated, rugose, massive, directed backwards, then drooping assume a more or less spiral form. The Oxen (Bovinse). May be known by their large and powerful form, short neck, dewlap, comparative shortness of legs in proportion to length and bulk of bodies, and their broad naked muzzle ; tail generally long and tufted ; horns usually round and tapering, sometimes flattened, occasionally very massive at base. X. ORDER.— EDENTATES (Edentata). No front teeth, or toothless ; molars, when pre- sent, of simple structure, being destitute of enamel and of distinct roots; large claws embracing extre- mities of toes ; the whole group marked by a want of agility. 1. FAMILY. — Sloths (Bradypodidse). Head short and rounded ; no cutting teeth, canines rather pointed, molars cylindrical ; two pectoral mammae; anterior limbs long and weak, MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 25 adapted for suspension; toes completely join- ed by skin, and armed with very long, strong, compressed, and curved claws ; tail none. 2. FAMILY. — Armadillos (Dasypodidse). Head long and pointed, mouth small, tongue somewhat extensible ; no cutting or canine teeth ; grind- ers cylindrical; body covered by a hard, scaly armour ; fore feet with four or five toes, hind feet five. They have the power of rolling themselves up. 3. FAMILY. — Earth-Hogs (Orycteropodidse). Head lengthened and pointed, tongue extensible; form bulky, long, and low; skin thick, co- vered with bristles ; nails thick and fitted for digging; grinders jj^j, cylindrical, and tra- versed in a longitudinal direction by a num- ber of little canals. 4. FAMILY. — Anteaters (Myrmecophagidae). Head generally very long, tapering to a point; mouth small, toothless, tongue long, exsertile ; body long, thickly clothed with long hair ; tail long and bushy, or naked at tip and pre- hensile ; or body and tail covered with dense horny imbricated scales; claws long, cutting, incurved. Walk on sides of feet. •XL ORDER— EODENTS (Kodentia). Two long curved incisors in each jaw, which are bevelled off on inner surface, and always present a sharp cutting edge, a wide space between these and 26 MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. molars, which have flat or blunt tuberculated crowns ; eyes large and lateral. 1. FAMILY. — Squirrels (Sciuridse). Head rather broad ; eyes large and prominent ; fore feet with four toes, hind five; tail more or less lengthened, generally very hairy and ex- panded in the arboreal species, bushy in the terrestrial ; some have skin of body extended between limbs ; fur usually soft. For the most part lively and agile. 2. FAMILY. — Jerboas (Jerboidse). Head large ; eyes very prominent ; fore feet short, with five toes ; hind legs and feet very long, with three, four, or five toes ; tail very long and tufted ; fur soft. Progress by leaps. 3. FAMILY. — Rats (Muridse). Teeth with tubercu- lar crowns; muzzle conical; nose somewhat prolonged ; facial line nearly straight, or slightly curved ; or with nose short and blunt, and facial line more curved ; ears rounded ; tail long, tapering, and scaly, scan- tily clothed with hair; toes usually long. 4 FAMILY. — Voles (Arvicolidse). Molars with flat crown ; head blunt ; facial lines much arched body usually stout; tail scaly, sometimes clothed, and rather tufted at apical portion, generally about half the length of body, sometimes longer. 5. FAMILY. — Mole-Rats (Spalacidse). Head large and blunt; eyes very small; sometimes fur nished with cheek pouches; body thick, cy- MANUAL OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27 lindrical ; tail absent or very short ; limbs short ; cutting teeth often very large. 