A history of South America, 1854-1904
Ts»«»*r i^ >^. WWMW&.* i-VK^Sk '"*^^!&'- ' \ '••fT'- _ -— _a£S1W'W!atBa!ESL ^ *'*«'. -s'i:. '"^WW»"S- ' ifc- ^ '^""" <<* »■■ "^ ■ f '--tt^ \^0S BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HenrQ m. Sage 1 891 4, IM^IA. 2JD///Ii 3081 Cornell University Library F 2236.A31 1905 A history of South America, 1854-1904, 3 1924 021 182 823 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021182823 A HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA r?- SlMON BOI-IVAK. [frontispiece. A History of South America 1 854- 1 904 By CHARLES EDMOND AKERS With Illustrations New York : E. P. Dutton & Company 3 1 West Twenty-Third Street 1905 k.x^^Uxs Published, December, 1904 Reprinted, Cheap Edition, September, 1905 PREFACE A RESIDENCE of fourteen years in South America, in con- nection with journalistic work throughout that continent, brought home to me the need of a concise history of the various South American States since they attained independence from Spanish control. True, such infor- mation can be obtained from Spanish and Portuguese chroniclers and authors of other nationalities. But to seek for descriptions of many different events and periods in diverse directions and varied tongues is always weari- some and often impossible unless a well-stocked library be near at hand for reference. To meet this want has been the purpose and aim of the present work, which although dealing more particularly with the past fifty years, is intended also for purposes of general reference by students of Latin- American history and civilisation from the date of the emancipation of the Spanish colonies to the present day. I have compressed into small compass the facts which have tended to mould the destinies of the South American Republics, and I have endeavoured to show how the national character of the people of each State has assumed distinctive features as the result of local vi PREFACE surroundings, modified by foreign immigration and the accompanying influence of methods of civilisation other than those of Spanish or Portuguese origin. To extract from many sources the requisite facts, and to marshall these into order, was no easy task. It was due to the aid and encouragement of many friends that I persevered when my path seemed beset by insuper- able obstacles. I owe much to the friendly advice of Charles W. Could and the late Lloyd M'Kim Garrison, both of New York, in the earlier stages of this work. In the final revision of the manuscript I was so exceed- ingly fortunate as to enlist the help and sympathy of A. J. Wilson, and his assistance to me was invaluable. Some excuse is necessary for the illustrations. I regret that they are not more artistic in general char- acter, and in defence I must plead that they are the best I could obtain under the circumstances. They are inserted to give to readers of the book some idea of the personal appearance of the men who play a prominent part in it, a purpose I trust they will accomplish. June 1904. C. E. AKERS. CONTENTS PAET I INTEODUCTION Some Traits of Spanish Character. Ferdinand and Isabella. Treatment of Moors and Jews. The Inquisition and Intellectual Expansion. Population of Spain in the Fifteenth Century. First Spanish Colonists. Treatment of Natives in South America. Examples of Spanish Cruelty and Treachery. Destruction of Astec and Inca Civilisation. Dissen- sions in South America. Spanish Bravery. Catholicism in South America. Immigration to the Colonies. Introduction of Negroes, i Turbulent Settlers. Political Parties in South America. Spain and Decentralisation. Trade Restrictions. Causes of Dissatisfaction. Spanish Monopoly of Official Posts. Incidents of Brazilian History. British, French and Dutch Action. Plot for Brazilian Independence. The Peninsular Wars and Brazil. The Entire Proclaimed. Abdica- tion of Pedro I. Ixidiaii_„Population. j,/jfhe Tupi-Guarani Stock. Araucanians and. Patagonians. Ay'iiiara and Quichua. Natural Resources of the Continent. Geographical Features .. CHAPTEE I THE EMANCIPATION OF SOUTH AMERICA Colonial Discontent. Weakness of the Spanish Government Efforts of Spain to Conciliate the Colonies. Action of the Regency of Cadiz. Caracas and the Separatist Movement. Simon Bolivar and the Struggle for Independence. General Paez. Proclamation of Colom- bian Independence. Bolivar frees Ecuador and marches to Peru. The Revolt in Argentina. Treaty between Argentina and Great Britain. Anarchy in Montevideo. Paraguay effects a Bloodless Revolution. The Struggle in Chile. The Monroe Doctrine. Mr Canning and the Holy Alliance. South America after Independence. Bolivar and his Political Enemies. Disintegration of Colombia. Venezuela as a Republic. Ecuadorian Affairs. Dissensions in Peru. Friction in Chile over Form of Government. Bolivia and General Sucre. Uruguayan Developments. Conflict in Argentina between Federalists and Unitarians. Advent to Power of Rosas . . ,19 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER II THE AEGENTINB EEPUBLIC Savage Brutality of Rosas. Revolution against Rosas. Economic and ^*°^ Social Conditions. Ambition of the Provinces to Dominate Buenos Aires. Wish of Buenos Aires to Secede. Determination of Buenos Aires to Appeal to Arms. Revolution under General Mitre. Victory of the Insurgents at Pav<5n. General Mitre Installed as President. The National CapltaL Revolutionary Movements. Aggressiveness of Lopez. War with Paraguay. Political Consequences of the War. Cholera in Buenos Aires. Election of Dr Sarmiento to the Pre- sidency. Educational Progress. Efforts to Advance Industrial Development. Yellow Fever Epidemic The Administration of Sarmiento. The Political Situation In 1874. Cordoba and the Presidential Election of 1874. Election of Dr Nicolas Avellaneda. The Presidential Election of 1871. Mitre and Revolutionary Pro- jects. Conspiracy against the Government. Seditious Outbreaks. Political Aims of Buenos Aires. Attitude of Avellaneda. Position in 1878. Propaganda of the Cordoba League. Meetings in Buenos Aires. The " Tiro Nacional." Buenos Aires and Cordoba. National Government Alarmed. Minister of War and the "Tiro Nacional." President determines to Suppress the "Tiro Nacional." Popular Demonstrations in Buenos Aires. Troops Protect the Naiaonal Authorities. Compromise between President and Citizens. Second Mass Meeting in Buenos Aires. Advice of Dr Sarmiento. Confer- ence between Governor of Buenos Aires and President. Temporary Compromise. Presidential Election of 1880. Issues of Electoral Campaign. Presidential Candidates. General Roca. Dr Pellegrini as Minister of War. The Cordoba League. Popular Excitement. Situation Strained. Buenos Aires buys War Material. Military Preparations. Delay in arrival of Arras and Ammunition. . . 35 CHAPTEE III THE ARGENTINE EEPUBLIC — continued Military Preparations. Attempt to seize Cordoba. National Troops in Buenos Aires. Provincial Authorities and the Minister of War. Riot- ing in Buenos Aires. The National Government and the Provincial Administration. Avellaneda abandons Buenos Aires. Hostilities Commence. Strength of National Troops. Preparations for Defence of Buenos Aires. Disposition of Provincial Forces. Scarcity of War Material in Buenos Aires. Leaders of the Rebellion. Political Dis- sensions. Dr Pellegrini. Skirmishing between National Troops and Revolutionary Forces. Colonel Arias and the Volunteers. Engage- ment near Olivera. Colonel Arias reaches Lujan. Defence of Buenos Aires. Attack upon Buenos Aires. Hostilities on July 21. Ammunition exhausted in Buenos Aires. Conference of Revolutionary Leaders. Armistice on July 23. Peace Negotiations. Terms of Surrender. Buenos Aires declared the National Capital. General Roca elected President. The New Administration. Cordoba and CONTENTS ■ ix Roea. Buenos Aires and the new President. The National piqe Policy. Absolute Power of Roca in 1881. Restraint on Military. National Feeling. Improvement in Means of Communication. Railway Construction. Foreign Immigration. Assisted Passages for Immigrants. National Land Sales. Public Works. Revolu- tionary Outbreaks. Expansion of Agricultural and Pastoral Industry. Foreign Loans. Dr Pellegrini appointed Minister of War. Political Intrigues. Discontent in Buenos Aires. Attitude of the Adminis- tration in Electoral Matters. Foundation of La Plata. The Port of Ensenada. Presidential Election. Presidential Candidates. Eco- nomic and Industrial Progress. Financial Policy. Suspension of Specie Payments. Inconvertible Currency . . . .51 CHAPTEE IV THE ARGENTINE EEPUBLic — Continued Presidential Election. The Cordoba Clique and the Provisional Governors. Dr Juarez Celman. Cordoba supports Celman. Celman Elected. Roca and Celman. Uneasy FeeUng. Currency Conversion. Paper Money Issues. Carpet-bagging Politicians. Political Conditions. Corruption in National Administration. Concessions and Monopolies. Corrupt Provincial Governments. Position of Pellegrini. Adminis- tration and Banking. Provincial Loans. Sale of Gold Reserves. Financial Necessities. The " Union Civica." Dr Alem. Aristobulo del Valle. Bernardo Irigoyen. Dr Lopez. Lucio Lopez. Provin- cial Branches of "Union Civica." Feeling against Celman. The Mortgage Banks. Policy of the Administration. Foreign Residents. Meeting of " Union Civica." Indictment of National Administration. The " Union Civica " and Celman. The ' ' Union Civica " and Revolu- tionary Measures. The Army and the "Union Civica." Date fixed for Revolt Revolution of July 26, 1890. Action of National Authorities. Attack on the Plaza Lavalle. Numerous Casualties. Scarcity of Ammunition. Naval Action. Bombardment of Buenos Aires. Attitude of Foreign Warships. Reinforcements from Northern Provinces. Consultation of Rebel Leaders, Majority favour Nego- tiation. Armistice Arranged. Peace Propositions. Advice of Roca and Pellegrini. Peace Concluded. Dispersion of Revolutionary Forces. Casualties. Resignation of Celman. Public Temper in Buenos Aires. European Opinion. Accession of Pellegrini . . 69 CHAPTEE V THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC — continued Ministry under Pellegrini. Attitude of Roca. Public Opinion. National Finances. Political Situation. Economic Conditions. Cedula Issues. Inconvertible Currency. Policy of Pellegrini. Depreciation in Currency. Argentina and Baring Brothers. Suspension of Foreign Debt Service, CONTENTS Banking Crisis. Patriotic Loan. Banco Nacional and Banco de la ''age Provincia. Attempted Assassination of Roca. Pellegrini's Adminis- tration. Discontented Feeling. Influence of Mitre. Mitre Returns from Europe. Cordoba and Mitre. Roca and Mitre. The "Union Civica Radical." A new State Bank. Pellegrini and the "Union Civica Radical. " Nomination of Dr Luis Saenz Pena. Dr Bernardo Irigoyan and the " Union Civica Radical. " Political Situation in 1892. State of Siege. Arrest of Alem. Alem Deported. Dr Luis Saenz Peiia elected President. Dr Jos6 Uriburu. Roca resigns Portfolio of Interior. Saenz Pena accedes to Office. Public Opinion and Pellegrini. Loss of the Rosales. Officers of the RosaUs sentenced to Death. Saenz Peiia and Congress. Ministerial Crisis. Obstruction in Con- gress. Ministry of Dr del Valle. Alem and Political Agitation. Congress and the Administration. Excitement in Buenos Aires. Revolt in San Luis. Revolutionary Preparations in Buenos Aires. National Government and Governor Costa. National Troops and Revolutionary Forces. Alem in Santa ¥6. Rosario captured by Insurgents. Roca commands in Santa Fe. Surrender of Alem , 87 CHAPTER VI THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC fiOntinurd Political Conditions in 1893. Financial Policy of Saenz Pena. Attitude of Congress. The Executive and the Chambers. The Provincial Mortgage Bank. Dr Lopez and Colonel Sarmiento. Death of Lopez. Hostility to Saenz Peiia. Ministerial Crisis. Position in December, 1894. Death Sentence upon Officers of Rosales. Resignation of Saenz Pena. Dr Jose Uriburu. The New Administration. Chilian Boundary Question. Argentine Authorities Alarmed. Secret Sessions of Congress. Credit of Fifty Million Gold Dollars. Con- gress and Railway Guarantees. Financial Policy of Uriburu. Cash Payments on External Debt. Political Situation in 1897. Presidential Candidates. Nomination of Roca. Roca Elected. Dr Quirno Costa Vice-President. Roca and the Buenos Aires Merchants. The Puno de Atacama. Chilian Ultimatum. Arbitration. The Chilian Ques- tion. Purchase of War Material. Legislation during Uriburu Administration. Roca assumes Presidency. Contrast between 1880 and 1898. Expectations from Roca. Arbitration and the Puno de Atacama. Meeting between Roca and Errazuriz. Visit of Roca to Patagonia. Welsh Colony at Chubut. Congress in 1899. Roca and the administration of Justice. Magnasco and Judicial Reform. Com- position of the Chambers. Journey of Roca to Brazil. Rumours of Offensive and Defensive Alliance with Brazil. Commercial Treaty with Brazil. Complications in the Provinces. Irigoyen and the Buenos Aires Legislature. Intervention in Buenos Aires. Outbreaks in La Rioja and Catamarca. Roca and National Legislation. The Conversion Law. Roca and Public Works. Visit of President of Brazil to Argentina. Area of Argentina. Population. Immigration. Foreign Residents. Itahans. Spaniards. Basques. Other Nation- . alities. Predominance of Latin Blood. Climate. Growth of Cities. , Gregarious Nature of Argentines. Landed Proprietors. Crowded Centres. Education. Minister Magnasco. Incompetency of Teachers. Lack of Discipline in Scholastic Establishments. Missionary Efforts for Education. Administration of Justice. Roca and the Argentine Courts. Codified Law, Tedious Procedure. Corrupt Lower Courts. CONTENTS xi Religious Conditions. The Catholic Church. Report of Sir John paoe Hunter  War. Political Disturbances in Uruguay. General Flores lands near Salto. Severe Measures increase Rebel Popularity. Strained Relations between Uruguay and Argentina. Complications between Brazil and Uruguay. Entente between Uruguay and Paraguay. Proclamation by Lopez. Mission of Con- selheiro Saraiva. Invasion of Uruguay. The Villa del Salto. The Brazilian Flag Insulted. Brazil supports Revolt Siege of Paysandii. Murder of Colonel Gomez. Attitude of Argentina. Uruguayan Expedition to Rio Grande. March of Brazilians and Rebels upon Montevideo. Montevideo Capitulates. Withdrawal of Brazilian Army. Attitude of Lopez. The Marques d'Olinda. War between Paraguay and Brazil. Invasion of Matto Grosso. Engagement at Neuva Coimbra. Paraguayan Administration in Matto Grosso. Consternation in Rio. Brazil prepares for War. Schemes of Lopez. Paraguayan Congress. Lopez and Urquiza. Paraguayan Army in 1865. Attack upon Corrientes. Paraguayan occupation of Corrientes. Excitement in Buenos Aires. Proclamation of General Mitre. Alliance between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. Warlike Preparations. Phases of the War. Importance of the Parana and Paraguay. Plan of Campaign. No forward movement possible before June. Dis- tribution of the Paraguayans. Lopez neglects to advance beyond Corrientes. The Paraguayans in Corrientes. Capture of Corrientes by the Argentines. Battle of the Riachuelo. Paraguayan Advance towards Uruguay. Operations near San Borge. Invasion of Rio Grande. Mutiny in Entre Rios. Flores appointed to command the Allied Vanguard. Conditions in Uruguay. Paraguayans march down the Upper Uruguay. Battle of Yatay. Defeat of the Para- guayans. Occupation of Uruguayana. Surrender of Colonel Estigarribia. Preparations for Defence of Paraguay. Modification in Plan of Campaign. Advance of Allied Forces. Matto Grosso . 130 CHAPTEE VIII PARAGUAY — continued Public Feeling in South America. Consultation of Argentine, Brazilian, and Uruguayan Representatives. Corrientes the Base of Operations. Defences of the ParanA. Engagement at Paso de la Patria. Con- duct of the Argentine National Guard. Raid to Itati. Reconnais- sance of Paraguayan Positions. Paso de la Patria. Crossing of the Parand. Over-confidence of Allies. Surprise of Allies. Advance into Paraguay. Battle of May 20. Camp at Tuyuti. Lines of Rojas. xii CONTENTS Discontent in Allied Army. Engagements July 15 and 20. Arrival ^^°'' of Reinforcements. Expedition against Cumpaiti. Engagement at Curuzu. Garrison of Curuzil. Conference between Mitre and Lopez. Effectof Peace Proposals. Attack upon Curupalti. Inefficient Recon- naissance. Paraguayan Victory. Breakdown of Plans. Military Changes. Public Opinion in Argentina and BraziL Paralisation of the Operations. Revolution in Mendoza. Marshal Caxias' Invasion. Arrival of General Osorio at Tuyuti. Forward movement Occupation of Rio Hondo. Advance under Marshal Caxias. Situation in Matto Grosso. General Mitre. Attack upon Convoy at Humaiti. Squadron forces passage at Curupaiti. Unsatisfactory situation of the Fleet. Difficult Transport. Operations at Humaita. Effort of Paraguayans to recapture Tayi. Attack of Paraguayans upon Tuyuti. Heavy Losses. Revolt in Argentina. Assassination of Flores. Squadron forces the Humaltd passage. Attack on Humaitd. Squadron reaches Asuncion ........ ^^^ CHAPTER IX PAEAGUAY — continued Paraguayan Attempt to Destroy Squadron. Capture of Rojas. Capitu- lation of Curupaiti. Concentration of the Paraguayans In Humaitd. Bombardment of Humaitd. Attempt to Seize the Monitor Rio Grande. Assault on Humaita. Passage of Humaita again Forced. Evacuation of Humaitd. Attack on the Allies. Booty in Humaitd. Asuncion the Objective Point Humaitd the Base of Supplies. Paraguayans abandon Riverside Towns. The Allied Army leaves VUla del Pilar. Passage of the River Tibicuari. Paraguayans fall back. Conditions at Tibicuari. Victims of Lopez. Paraguayans in Force near the River Carabe. Passage of the River Faraway. Plan of Campaign. Attack  Hostilities on December 20. Work of AUied Cavalry. Paraguayan Camp in the Valentine Hills. Action of December 27. Defeat of the Paraguayans. Surrender of Angostura. Occupation of Asuncion. Disorderly Conduct of the Allied Troops. Delay in Operations. Mission of Senhor Parunhos. Provisional Government at Asuncion. A new National Capital Concentration at Oscurra. Engagement at the River Manduvira. Arrival of the Conde d'Eu. Military Reorganisation. Operations against Lopez in July, 1869. Fight at Sapucay. Attack on Peribebuy. Lopez evacuates Oscurra. Plan of Campaign of Conde d'Eu. Retreat of Lopez to Caraguatay. Engagement at Yagari. Action at Campo Grande. Lopez seeks Refuge in the Forests. Paraguayan Encampment near the Aquidaban. Colonel Silva Tavares and Major Oliveira. Death of Lopez. Madame Lynch. Treaty of Peace. Withdrawal of Argentine and Uruguayan Troops. Election of President Rivarola. CONTENTS xiii Political Representation under the Constitution of 1870. Difficulties of page President Rivarola. Vice-President Salvador Jovellanos. Assassination of Rivarola. Election of President Gill. Brazilian Policy in Paraguay. Assassination of President Gill. Seflor Uriarte. Election of President Baredo. Death of the President. Vice-President Saguier. Revolu- tion in 1881. Saguier Deposed. General Caballero named Pro- visional President. General Caballero elected President. Election of President Escobar. Condition of Country. Election of President Gonzalez. Attempts at Reform. Deposition of President Gonzalez. Vice-President Moriiligo takes Office. Election of President Egus- quiza. Rupture with Uruguay. Election of President Aceval. Oligarchy in Control. Political Rights. Economic Conditions after 1870. Natural Causes and Reaction. Idleness of Male Population. Improvement in General Conditions. Population during Thirty Years. Immigration.  refuses Re-election. Revolt of Colonel Fortunato Flores. Presidency of Dr Pedro Varela. Blanco Con- spiracy. Assassination of General Flores. Execution of Rebels. General BatUe becomes President. Cholera Epidemic, 1868. Forced Currency. Insurrections under Maximo Perez and General Caraballo. Blanco Revolution. Insurgent Successes. Engagement near Santa Lucia. Government Defeat Engagement near Corralito. Retreat of General Caraballo. Insurgent Losses. Siege of Montevideo. Capture of the Cerro. Public Opinion in Montevideo. Sortie from Montevideo. Siege of Montevideo Raised. Operations near Puerto del Ingles. Decisive Battle. Government Victory. Reorganisation of Rebel Forces. Further Insurgents Defeat Seiior Gomensoro accedes to Presidency. Restoration of Peaceful Conditions. Con- gressional Elections. Dr Jose Ellauri. Election of Dr EUauri. Complicated Situation. Threatening Attitude of Military. Adminis- tration of Ellauri. Conspiracy of Colorados netos. Assassination of Colonel Castillo. Revolt in Soriano. Municipal Election in Monte- video. Ministers Resign. Military Revolt Deposition of Ellauri. Provisional Administration. Senor Pedro Varela elected President. Unsettled Conditions. Political Arrests. Revolution in May, 1875. Revolutionary Committee in Buenos Aires. Military join Insurgents. Fighting in Soriano and Paysandu. Measures against the Rebels. Defeat of Insurgents. Financial Difficulties. Dictatorship of Colonel Latorre. Praetorian Administration Established. Public Education. Election of Latorre. Latorre Resigns. Dr Vidal as President Colonel Santos. Attack on Independent Newspapers. Increase of Militarism. President Vidal Resigns. Santos succeeds to Presi- dency. Discontent Spreads. Question with Italy. Irresponsible Administration. Paraguayan Debt Preparations for Revolt against Santos. Dr Vidal again Elected. Revolt in Western Part of Republic. Defeat of Rebels by General Tajes. Title of Captain-General granted to Santos. General Santos again President. Attempt to Assassinate Santos. Ministry of Dr Ramirez. Santos resigns Office. Suppres- sion of Militarism. Decree exiling Santos. Election of Herrera y Obes 196, 197 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTEE XII URUGUAY — continued Foreign Capital in Uruguay. Corrupt Administration. Revival of Mili- ^^°^ tarism. Extravagant Financial Policy. Discontented Feeling. Economic and Financial Crisis. Temporary Administration of Senor Duncan SlewarL Election of Senor Borda. The Borda Administra- tion. Revival of Corruption. Formation of Revolutionary Committee in Buenos Aires. Depots of War Material. Congressional El'jctions. Outbreak of Revolt Aparicio Saraiva and Colonel Diego Lamas. Condition of Insurgent Forces. Engagement at Arbolito. Government Forces Augmented. Engagements at Tres Arboles, Cerro Colorado, and Cerros Blancos. Insurgent Expedition in Venus. Peace Negotiations. Assassination of Borda. Accession of Senor Cuestas. Fresh Peace Negotiations. Peaceful Conditions Re-established. Festivities in Montevideo. Death of Lamas. Policy of New Adminis- tration. Attitude of Congress. Cuestas dissolves the Chambers. Congress elects Cuestas to the Presidency. Military Revolt. Blanco Majority in Senate. Political Situation. Cuestas and Economic Situation. Climate Conditions. Area of Territory. Density of Popu- lation. Foreign Residents. Immigration. Apathy regarding Educa- tion. Secondary and Higher Education. School of Arts and Trades. Administration of Justice. Criminal Courts. Uruguayan National Character. Influence of the Church. Means of Communication and Economic Progress. Industrial Enterprise. Cattle-breeding. Importa- tion of Foreign Stock. Sheep Farming. Export of Sheep. Agricul- ture. Viticulture. Olive Orchards. Tobacco Cultivation. Industry and Taxation. Landed Proprietors. Values of Foreign Holdings. Tendency of Foreign Landowners to Decrease .... 214 CHAPTEE XIII BRAZIL Brazil after the Paraguayan War. Influence of Dom Pedro II. His Reputation in Europe. Quick Recovery in Economic Conditions. Dom Pedro visits Europe. Immigration Projects. Personality of Dom Pedro. His wish to benefit Brazil. His admiration for the United States. Princess Isabel and the Conde d'Eu. Church Influence and the Princess. Unpopularity of the Conde. Brazil and Imperial Regime. Political Situation, 1870-1880. Effect of August Comte on Brazilian Character. Sao Paulo and Republican Doctrines. The Emperor and Republican Ideas. Rio Grande do Sul. Reason for German Settlements in the Southern Provinces. The Emperor and Railway Extension. Public Instruction. The Emperor and Higher Jlducation. The Clergy and Education. Internal Development of BraziL Third Visit of Dom Pedro to Europe. Abolition of Slavery. ! Acts in Relation to Emancipation. Treatment of Brazilian Slaves. CONTENTS XV Troubles in Sao Paulo. Enmity of Plantation Owners to Emancipa- tagb tion. Seditious Feeling gaining ground. Return of Dom Pedro to Rio. Inconsistencies in the Parliamentary System. The Ouro Preto Ministry. Unpopularity of Cabinet. Ouro Preto supported by Dom Pedro. Political Position strained. Plot to overthrow Ministry. Younger Officers urge Deposition of Emperor. Seditious Feeling runs Riot Military Conspirators. Generals da Fonseca and Floriano Peixoto Leaders of the Movement. The FSte in Rio de Janeiro. The Palace surrounded. Arrest of Dom Pedro. Public Buildings occupied by Rebels. Barao de Ladario Wounded. Pro- clamation of General da Fonseca. Provincial Governors support Republic. Fonseca proclaimed Provisional President. Dom Pedro sent to Portugal. Country accepts Change with Indifference. Dis- content in Sao Paulo. Monarchists and Public Life. Brazilians condone Revolution. Praetorian Administration. Reaction in Sao Paido. Imaginary Plot against Government. Arbitrary Measures. New Banking Laws. Misiones Question. Congress Summoned. Law of Constitution. Presidential Election .... 231 CHAPTER XIV BRAZIL — continued Autocratic Administration. Sao Paulo dissatisfied. Manifesto con- demning Federal Authorities. Second Manifesto accusing the President Severity of Praetorian Regime. Chambers Hostile to President Congress refuses Supplies. Coup d'etat of da Fonseca. The Chambers Dissolved. Martial Law. President da Fonseca as Dictator. Monarchist Conspiracies. The Public and the President. General Peixoto becomes Prominent. Sao Paulo disappoints Public Expectation. Rio Grande against the Dictatorship. Para follows the lead of Rio Grande. Naval Revolution in Rio. Arrests of Prominent Persons. President Resigns. Vice-President Peixoto succeeds to the Presidency. Riots in the Capital. Congress Re- assembles. Death of Dom Pedro II. New Electoral Law. Militarism Dominant. Mutiny at Santa Cruz. Intervention in Local Affairs. Question of New Presidential Election. Protest of Officers. Presi- dent and Congress. Military Despotism. Insurrection in Rio Grande do SuL General Peixoto and Governors of States. Resignation of Marine and Finance Ministers. Affairs in Rio Grande do Sul. Admiral Wandelkolk and the Insurgents. Naval Revolt. XJovern- ment Surprised. Admiral de MeUo. Prolonged Conflict not expected. Determination of Peixoto. Defence of Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy. Rebel Squadron and Resources. Bombardment of Rio. Panic amongst Inhaljitants. Italian Incident. Indemnity Paid. Rebel Ships leave Rio. Object of sending Expedition to South. Formation of Provisional Government Situation in Rio Harbour. Ville- gaignon joins Revolt. Explosion at Gouvernador Island. The Aquidaban and Esperanqa leave Harbour. Saldanha da Gama joins Revolt Supporters of Peixoto assert da Gama attempting Restora- tion of Monarchy ........ 250 xvi CONTENTS CHAPTEE XV BRAZIL — continued Position in December 1893. Many Persons Emigrate. Precautions to stop f^on Rebel Supplies. Peixoto orders Daily Firing against Rebel Ships. Troops in Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy. The Government FlotiUa. Admiral da Gama. Strain of Continuous Fighting. Ilha Gouver- nador. General Telles Killed. Capture of Ilha Mocangue. Person- ality of da Gama. Question of Belligerent Rights. Journey of Mello to the South. Saraiva marches Northwards. PersonaUty of Saraiva. Rebel Plan of Campaign. Saraiva reaches Parana. Mello captures Paranagua. Successes raise Revolutionary Prestige, Lapa Sur- renders. War Material captured at Curityba. Scarcity of Ammuni- tion. Rebel Casualties. Artillery Fire more effective. Government Flotilla sails from Europe. Foreign Trade Suffers. Insurgent Hospital Bombarded. A^niral da Gama urges Mello to send 'Rein- forcements. The Aquidaban reaches Harbour. Rebels attack the Arma9ao. Incident of U.S. Admiral Staunton. Arrival of U.S. Admiral Benham. Threat if United States Merchantmen Molested. Situation of Rebels. Council of War. Cruiser Repuhlica Appears. Aquidahan and Repuhlica sail Northwards. Government Flotilla Arrives. Population advised to leave City. Rebel Situation Desperate. Captain Castilhos grants asylum on Portuguese Men-of- War. Rebel Positions Abandoned. Peixoto demands Surrender of Refugees from Castilhos. Portuguese Vessels convey Rebels to Montevideo. Diplomatic Relations interrupted with Portugal. Inci- dent of H. M.S. Siri««. Brutal Treatment of Insurgent Wounded . 267 CHAPTEE XVI BRAZIL — continued The Voyage of the Aquidaban and the Republica. Saraiva deceived as to the Position. Mello and Saraiva. Discontent with Provisional Govern- ment. Presidential Election. Dr Prudente Moraes. News reaches Saraiva. Parand Evacuated. Mello organises Expedition to Rio Grande. Curityba occupied without Resistance. Rebel Cause col- lapses. Naval Expedition against Desterro. Rebel Expedition enters Rio Grande. Threatened Bombardment of Rio Grande. Attack on Rio Grande. Insurgent Troops landed in Uruguay. Mello delivers Rebel Ships to Argentine Authorities. Argentine Government returns Vessels to Brazil. Naval Expedition at Desterro. Aquidaban sunk. Desterro occupied. Insurgents shot by Military Authorities. French- men executed. Indemnity demanded by French Government. Fate of Saraiva. Revolution crushed. President Moraes accedes to Office. Policy of new President Militarism decreases. Opposition to Moraes. Amnesty for Rebels. Law of Constitution strictly observed. Misiones Boundary settled. Outbreak at MUitary School. Firm Attitude of President. Diplomatic Relations with Portugal resumed. Distiu-b- ances in Rio Grande do Sul. Admiral da Gama joins Insurgents. Atrocities by Troops and Rebels in Rio Grande. Battle at Campo Osorio. Death of da Gama. Suspension of Hostilities. The Trinidade Question. Peace arranged with Insurgents. Amnesty for Officers. Suppression of Praetorian Methods. Italian Claims. Financial Legis- lation. President Moraes temporarily vacates Office . . , 282 CONTENTS xvii CHAPTEE XVII BEAZIL — continued Sudden return of President Moraes to Rio de Janeiro. Plot against the i'aok President. Story of Antonio Maciel. The Canudos Settlement. The Jaguncos and the Bahia Police. Bahia Government ask help against Conselheiro. Troops sent to Canudos and defeated by Jagun(ps. Another Expedition to Canudos under Colonel Moreiar Caesar. Riots in Rio de Janeiro. Murder of Colonel Gentil de Castro. Strong force organised against Canudos. General Oscar in charge of Military Operations. Situation of Expedition unsatisfactory. Heavy Casual- ties amongst Troops. Followers of Conselheiro attack Troops under General Oscar. Situation saved by General Savaget Minister of War at the front. Power of Religious Fanaticism. Failure to storm Canudos. Siege of the Stronghold. Canudos captured, October 3. Atrocities of Canudos. Withdrawal of Troops. Final Report of Opera- tions. Accusations of Military Clique in Rio against Moraes. Plot to Assassinate President Moraes. Murder of Minister of War. Arrests made. Public Opinion and Attempt upon Life of President. Presidential Candidates. Campos Salles supported by President. Dr Campos Salles elected. Personality of President-elect. Critical financial situation. Mission of Campos Salles to London. Fund- ing Loan Agreement. Campos Salles accedes. Contrast between 1894 and 1898. The Amapa Question. Nebuco represents Brazil. Policy of President Campos Salles. BraziUans satisfied. President of Argentine visits Brazil. Fiscal Legislation. Lack of strong PoUtical Parties. Bubonic Plague in Santos and Rio. Economic Development and Political Disturbances. State Govern- ments. Illegitimate Taxation. Federal Courts. States and Railways. Distribution of Population. Italians. State-aided Immigration. Sao Paulo and the ItaUan Colony. German Settlements in Brazil. German Colonists during Revolution. Portuguese Immigrants. Brazilian National Character. Positivist Tendencies. Public Instruc- tion. Number of "Illiterates." Apathy concerning Education. Administration of Justice. Condition of Prisons. Capital of Minas Geraes. Depreciation of Currency. Means of Communication. Inadequate Railway System. State Control of Railways. Central Railway a Political Machine. Telegraphs and Cables. Inefficiency of the State Lines. Brazilian Waterways . . . 295,296 PART II CHAPTEE XVIII CHILE Law of Constitution. Congress. The Executive. State Council. Adminis- tration from 1833 to 1861. President BulHes. President Montt. b xviii CONTENTS President Perez. Liberal Administration. Disaster to the Com- ^^"^ pania Church. War with Spain. Blockade of Valparaiso. Capture of the C ovadonga. Bombardment of Valparaiso. Truce with Spain. Foundation of Chilian Navy. Re-election of President Perez. Economic Progress. President Errdzuriz. Construction of the Cochrane and Blanco Enealada. Railway Expansion. Presidential Candidates in 1876. President Pinto. Relations between Chile and Bolivia. Economic Crisis. Inconvertible Currency. Relations with Argentina. Quarrel with Bolivia and Peru. President Pinto and the War. Presidential Contest in 1881. Election of Santa Maria. Con- gressional Elections. Treaty with Peru. Truce with Bolivia. Laws of Civil Registry and Marriage. The Cemeteries. Presidential Election in 1886. Origin of Parliamentary System. Early Days of Balmaceda. Special Mission to Lima. His connection with Politics. Election to Congress. Programme of Reformhtas. Opposition to new PoUtical Movement. Balmaceda appointed Minister in Buenos Aires. Balma- ceda in 1882 and 1885. Election to Presidency. Political Intrigues. Ministry of Senor Carlos Antuiiez. Zanartii Cabinet. Congressional Elections, 1888. Resignation of Zafiartu. Ministerial Changes. Pohcy concerning Church and Education. Conflict between Congress and Executive. PoUtical situation in 1890. Dictatorial attitude of Balmaceda. Senor Vicuna proclaimed Presidential Candidate. Resolutions by Mass Meetings. The Oomisidn Conservadora. Pretext for Revolt ......... 321 CHAPTEE XIX CHILE — continued Preparations for Rebellion. The Navy Revolts. Capture of War Material. Skirmish in Valparaiso. Occupation of Coquimbo. Engagement at Pisagua. Attitude of Balmaceda. Measures against Revolution. Position in January, 1891. Public Opinion. Capture of Pisagua. Revolutionary Trdops. Fight near Dolores. Congressionalists Defeated at Huara. Occupation of Iquique. Attempt to Recaptui-e Iquique. Intervention of Admiral Hotham. Congressionalists at Iquique. Defeat of Robles at Pozo Almonte. Capture of Arica. Reinforcements for Tarapacd. Antofagasta Blockaded. Evacuation of Antofagasta. Colonel Camus Retires into Bolivia. Occupation of Caldera. The Blanco Enealada. Lull in Hostilities. Treatment of Suspected Persons. Financial Difficulties. The Junta de Gobierno. Revolutionary Agents. The Itata Incident. Peace Negotiations. Meeting of Commissioners in Santiago. Attempt to Assassinate Balmaceda. Optimistic Feeling. The Condell and Lynch. Dicta- torial Tendencies of Balmaceda. Election of Seiior Claudio Vicuna. Richard Gumming. Revolutionary Propaganda in Europe. Sym- pathy with Revolutionary Cause. Armaments reach Iquique. Congressionalist Army. Revolutionary Committee in Santiago and Valparaiso. Embarkation of Revolutionary Army. Balmaceda and the Invasion. Insurgents near Santiago. Execution of Prisoners. Massacre of Lo Canas. Tyrannical Conduct of Balmaceda. The Esmeralda off Valparaiso. Landing of Congressionalists. The Central and Southern Districts ....... 345 CONTENTS xix CHAPTEE XX CHILE — continued Country round Quinteros. Congressionalist Army. Tactics of Defence, page Battle of Conc6n. Congressionalist Victory. Heavy Casualties. Reorganisation of Government Troops. Reinforcements from Santiago. Defence of Viiia del Mar. Faulty Information Concerning Valparaiso. Advance on Vina del Mar. Concentration at Quilpud Preparations for Attacking Valparaiso. March to Placilla. Defence of Placilla. Strength of the Armies. Battle of Placilla. Severe Losses. Occu- pation of Valparaiso. Riotous Scenes. Message to Balmaceda. The President Resigns his Powers. Decree of General Baquedano. Political Prisoners. Unprotected state of Santiago. Arrival of the Junta de Ggbierno. Disarmament of Troops .... 370 CHAPTEE XXI CHILE — continued General Baquedano Surrenders Powers. Proclamation by Admiral Montt. Work of Reconstruction. Unsettled Conditions. Disappearance of Balmaceda. Suicide of Balmaceda. Political Testament of Balmaceda. Explanation of Suicide. New Congress. Junta de Gobierno Resigns. Admiral Montt as Presidential Candidate. Cost of the Revolution. Election of Montt. Promotions for Services. Actions concerning Supporters of Balmaceda. Law of Amnesty. Chile and the United States. The Baltimore Incident. Message of President Harrison to the U.S. Congress. Telegram from Santiago to Chilian Minister in Washington. United States Ultimatum. Excitement in Chile. Apology to U.S. Government ...... 383 CHAPTEE XXII CHILE — continued Real Issues of the Civil War. Political Situation in 1892. Gomisi6n Oonservadora. Increase of Naval Strength. Military Reorganisation. Congressional Elections in 1894. Political Situation. Domestic Legislation. Municipal Law. Conversion of the Currency. Political Parties in Congress. Coalition Cabinet Complications with Argentina. Sale of the Esmeralda to Japan. Understanding with Peni re Tacna and Arica. Treaty with Bolivia. A Diplomatic Blunder. Presidential Contest In 1896. Election of Senor Fedenco Errdzuriz. Congressional Elections in 1897. The Boundary Question with Argentina. War Imminent. Attitude of Errdzuriz. Arbitration j-e Tacna and Arica. The BoUvian Question. The Konig Note. Presi- dential Contest in 1901 ...-•'• ^^' XX CONTENTS CHAPTEE XXIII CHILE — co7itinued Effect of Foreign Wars and Internal Disturbances. Movement of Popula- page tion. Infantile Mortality. Immigration. Araucanian Indians. Physical Qualities. Tendency to Drift to the Cities. Spread of Alcoholism. Drunkenness in Valparaiso and London. Regulation of Liquor Traffic. Chilians and the Government. Educational Facilities. Primary Instruction. Educational Statistics. German Schools. Secondary and Higher Education. Religious Liberty. Church Influence. Administration of Justice. Brigandage. National Char- acter. Aggressive Nature of Chilians. Means of Communication. State and Private Railways. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Industrial Zones. Mining Industry. Nitrate of Soda. Development of Tarapaca. Copper Mining. Want of Transport Facilities. Silver Mining. Gold and Manganese. Specimens of Minerals at Santiago. Coal and Iron. Borax. Proportion of Minerals to remainder of Exports. Agricultural Enterprise. Rapid Decadence after 1893. Production of Wheat. The Government and Agricultural Industry. Viticulture. Pastoral Industry. Sheep-breeding in Patagonia. The Lumber Trade. The Fishing Industry. Manufactures. Lack of Skilled Labour. Cloth and Cotton Factories. Sugar Refineries. Protection for Manufacturing Interests ..... 410 CHAPTEE XXIV THE CHILIAN-PERUVIAN WAE Position of Atacama. Chile and Bolivia. The Guano Deposits. Bolivian Claims. Dispute in 1861. Situation in 1864. War between Peru and Spain. Treaty between Bolivia and Chile. Bad Faith of Bolivia. Intrigues by Peru. Treaty between Bolivia and Peru. Relations between Bolivia and Chile. Chilian Capital in Atacama. Violation of Treaty of 1874. Peruvian Intrigues in Bolivia. Duty on Nitrate of Soda. Ultimatum of Chile to Bolivia. Occupation of Antofagasta by Chilians. Declaration of War by Bolivia. Peru proposes Arbi- tration. Chile declares War on Peru. Relations between Argentina and ChUe. Illusions of Bolivia and Peru. Naval Armaments. Equipment of Chilian and Peruvian Vessels. Military Forces of the Three Countries. Chilian Preparations. Inaction of Bohvia and Peru. Embarkation of Chilian Troops. Occupation of Antofagasta. Attack on Calama. Occupation of TocopiUa and Cobija. Blockade of Iquique. Peruvian Seaboard Harried by Chilians. Bombardment of Pisagua. Reconnaissance to Callao. Peruvians attempt to raise Blockade of Iquique. Attack of the Huascar and Independencia on the Esmeralda and Covadonga. Loss of the Esmeralda and the Independencia. Preponderance of Chihan Sea-power. Peruvian Reprisals. Chilian Discontent. Capture of the Huascar and Pilgomayo^. ........ 433 CONTENTS xxi CHAPTEE XXV THE CHIUAN-PEKUVIAN w ks.— continued Third Phase of the War. Chilians at Antofagasta. Embarkation of paob Expeditionary Forces. Pemvians defend Tarapacd. Attack on Pisagua. Retreat to San Roberto. Occupation of Junin. Skirmish near Agua Santa. Attack on Chilians near Dolores. Chilian Victory Retreat to Tarapacd. Occupation of Iquique. Stand at Tarapacd. ±.xpedition under Colonel Arteaga. Battle of Tarapacd. Peruvian Victory. Peruvians fall back on Arica. Defence of Arica. The Chilian Advance. Engagement at Torata. Tacna and Arica Isolated. Skirmish near the River Sama. Battie of Tacna. Rout of Defenders. Heavy Casualties.  Internal Dissensions. President Prado leaves Peru. Senor Pierola heads a Revolt Blockade of CaUao. Bombardment of Callao. Sinking of the Janequeo. Loss of the Loa. Sinking of the Govadonga. Bombardment of Chancay, Anc6n, and Chorillos. Expedition to the Northern Coast. Protests from P'oreign Representatives. Efforts of United States for Peace. Conference on U.S. Warship Lackawana. Conditions of Chile. Chilian Preparations for Advance on Lima. Army of Invasion. Occupation of Pisco and Yea. Landing at Ciu-ayaco. Naval Operations off CaUao. Defences of Lima. Fourth Phase of War. Advance on Peruvian Positions. Battle of Chorillos. Fighting on Morro Solar. Armistice arranged by Foreign Diplomats. Battle of Miraflores. Lima Surrenders. Occupation of the Peruvian Capital ....... 474 CHAPTEE XXVII THE CHILIAN-PERUVIAN WAR — continued Panic in Lima. Asylum given by the Legations. Action of British and French Admirals. Urban Guard. General Saavedra re-establishes Order. Conduct of Chilians. Entry of General Baquedano into Lima. Vessels Destroyed at Callao. Admiral Lynch Commands in Peru. Government of Dr Calderon. Recognition of Calderon Administra- tion by United States. Admiral Lynch overturns Calderon. The Montero Government. Situation in 1882. Cdceres and Guerilla Warfare. Peruvian Army at Arequipa. Expedition against Arequipa, Peruvians Defeated. Government of General Iglesias. Conditions of Peace. Treaty between Chile and Peru. Evacuation of Lima, Ratifi- cation of Treaty. Negotiations between Chile and Bolivia. Text of Agreement between Chile and Bohvia. Result of the War , . 490 62 xxir CONTENTS CHAPTEE XXVIII PEEU Constitution of 1860. President San Roman. Revolution against Pezet ""» Dispute with Spain. Squadron under Admiral Pinzon. Incident at Talambo. Memorandum of Spanish Commissioner. The Chincha Islands. Action of Bolivia, Chile, and Ecuador. Loss of the Triur^o. Treaty between Peru and Spain. Pezet driven from OflSce. War with Spain. Capture of the Govadonga. Suicide of Spanish Admiral. Naval Fight near Abtao. Bombardment of Callao. Withdrawal of Spanish Squadron. Dictatorship of Prado. Revision of Constitution. Prado proclaimed President. Revolution against Prado. Reforms of 1867. Election of Colonel Balta. Financial Embarrassments. The Dreyfus Contract. Railway Construction. Presidential Candi- dates in 1872. The Gutierrez Conspiracy. Death of Colonel Silvestre Gutierrez. Assassination of Balta. Death of Colonel T6mas Gutierrez. Presidency of Manuel Pardo. Economic Conditions. Revolutionary Attempts of Pierola. Foreign Policy. Alliance with Bolivia. Election of Prado. Revolutionary Outbreak. The Huascar and the Shah and Amethyst. Treaty with Spain. Murder of Pardo. Complications with ChUe. Outbreak of Hostilities. President Prado commands the Army. The President abandons Peru. Revolution under Pierola. Fighting in Lima. Pierola proclaimed Supreme Chief. Occupation of Lima. Pierola leaves Peru. Administration of Iglesias. Revolu- tion under Caceres. Insurgents attack Lima. Second Assault on Lima. Iglesias Resigns. Election of Caceres. Quiet Conditions. Economic Crisis. Presidency of Bermudez. Death of Bermudez. Colonel Borgono assumes Office. Revolutionary Rising. Chambers Dis- solved. Cdceres again President. Spread of Revolution. Pierola attacks Lima. Cdceres Defeated. Provisional Administration. Pierola Elected. Insurrection at Iquitos. Reforms under Pierola. Revolution in 1898. Election of Romana. Internat;ional Questions . 505 CHAPTEE XXIX PERU — continued Movement of Population. Effect of Wars and Revolutions. Decrease of Inhabitants. Races of Peru. Conflicting Elements in Population. Japanese Immigration. Infantile Mortahty. Unhygienic Conditions. Alcoholism. National Language. Similarity with Semitic Customs and Words. Topographical Zones. Education. Primary Instruction. Educational Statistics. Secondary and Higher Education. Justice. Legal Procedure. Influence of the Roman Catholic Church. National Character. Municipal Government. Typical Spanish Features in Lima. City of Arequipa. The Commercial Situation. Trade Con- ditions. Financial Situation. Contract with Bondholders. The Peruvian Corporation. Internal Debt. Taxation. The Ciurency Question. Industrial Occupations. Sugar Enterprise. Labour Question. Cotton Production. Coffee and Cacao. Minor Agricul- tural Products. Pastoral Industry. Llamas and Alpacas. Minerals. Difficulties of Mining Enterprise. Cerro de Pasco. Silver Production. Petroleum. Coal. Borax. Mining Laws. The Rubber Districts! Manufacturing Industry. Cotton and Woollen Mills. Panamd Hats! Motive Power for Manufacturing. Development and Transport ! 530 CONTENTS xxiii CHAPTER XXX BOLIVIA Political Conditions before War with Chile. Conservatives and Liberals, pace Peruvian Intrigues. President Daza. Situation of Bolivia when Hostilities Ceased. President Campero. Reform of the Constitution. Negotiations with Chile. Presidency of Senor Pacheco. President Arce. Argentine and Chilian Pretensions. Treaty with Argentina. Indian Outbreak. President Baptista. Attitude of Chile. Senor Severo Alonzo succeeds Baptista. Sedition fomented by Liberals. Outbreak of Insurrection. Abdication of Alonzo. Provisional Govern- ment under Pando. Casualties during the Revolution. Election of Pando. Question with Chile. The Konig Note. The Acre Dispute. The National Capital. Means of Communication and Seditious Out- breaks. Internal Politics. The White Population. The Political Significance of the Indians. Stories of Indian Ferocity. Geopaphical Position. Disturbed Internal Conditions and Economic Progress. Area and Population. Classification of Inhabitants. Bolivian Cities. Topographical Features. The Four Zones. Bolivian Languages. Local Colour. Native Customs. Education. Primary Instruction. Secondary and Higher Education. Administration of Justice. National Character. Communication with Bolivia. Lack of Internal Trans- port FaciHties. Industrial Enterprise. Agriculture. The Mining Industry. Silver Production. Indiarubber. Pastoral Industry. The Financial Situation. Commercial Conditions .... 554 CHAPTEE XXXI ECUADOE Acts of Constitution. Administration of President Moreno, and his Assassi- nation. Presidency of Dr Borrero. Revolt under General Veintemilla. Defeat of the Government Provisional Administration. Election of VeintemiUa. Veintemilla declared Dictator. Revolt against Veinte- milla, and his Fhght. Administration of Dr Placido Caamafio. Sedi- tious Conspiracies. Election of Dr Flores, and his PoUcy. Presidency of Dr Luis Cordero. The Esmeralda Incident. Indignation against Cordero. Revolution under General Alfaro. Fight of Cordero. Provisional Government under Alfaro, and his Election. Alfaro and the Clergy. Conspiracies against Alfaro. Laws regarding Sedition. Pohtical Conditions and Economic Progress. Lack of Immigration. Area and Population. Cities of Ecuador. Fires in Guayaquil. Topography of Ecuador. Educational Progress. Justice. National Character. Indian Characteristics. Means of Communication. Industrial Enterprise. Pastoral Pursuits. Mineral Wealth. Financial Situation. Revenue and Expenditure. Commercial Situation. Future Prospects ..-•••■ 577 xxiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXII COLOMBIA Various Titles of Colombia. Internal Political Troubles. Political Parties, page Election of Sefior Rafael Nunez. Revolution In 1881. Settlement with Costa Rica. President Laldua. General Obaldra. Liberals support Senor Nunez. Boundary Question with Venezuela. President Nunez in 1884. Nunez and the Conservatives. Rebellion in 1885. Re- establishment of Peace. Occupation of Panamd and Colon by United States Forces. President Nuiiez at Cartagena. Revision of the Law of Constitution. Discontent between 1888 and 1892. Nunez again elected. Seiior Miguel Caro Vice-President Death of Nuiiez. Revolt in 1895. Election of Seiior Sanclemente. Senor Marroquin as Vice-President. Revolution in 1898. President Sanclemente temporarily Resigns. Vice- President Marroquin supercedes Sanclemente. Panama Secedes. Incapacity of Colombians for Independent Government. Topography and Revolutionary Practices. Reason of Present Political Conditions. Economic Progress and Political Disturbances. Topographical Features. Climate. Area and Population. Hygienic Conditions. Education. Primary Instruction. The Peasant Class and Education. Secondary and Higher Education. Justice. The Roman Catholic Church. Religious Seminaries. Missionary Work and the Indians. National Character. Alcoholism. Industrial Enterprise. Mining. Manu- factures. The Pradera Iron Works. The Panama Canal. Financial Situation. Future Prospects ...... 591 CHAPTEK XXXIII VENEZUELA Internal Dissensions. Struggle between the " Yellows " and the " Blues." General Blanco. Revolt under General Salazar. Policy of Blanco. Conspiracy in 1889. Blanco Overthrown. Election of General Palacios. Revolt under Crespo. Provisional Government. Crespo Elected. Revolution under Dr Rojas Paul. Boundary Question with Great Britain. The Uruan Incident. Venezuela and the United States. Mr Olney and the Marquess of Salisbury. The Monroe Doctrine. The United States and Great Britain. The Cleveland Message. Venezuela and British Trade. Dignified Attitude of Crespo. Boundary Dispute Centres in Washington. The Cleveland Commission. The Arbitration Tribunal. The Award. Diplomatic Relations between Great Britain and Venezuela. The Crespo Administration. Election of Seiior Andrade. Revolt against Andjade Administration. Deatii of Crespo. Victory of the Revolution. Election of President Castro. Modification of the Constitution. Political Division of Venezuela. Seditious Practices. Revolutionary Tendencies. Climate and Topog- raphy. Statistics of Population. Immigration. Municipalities. Public Education. Justice. Influence of the Church. Aversion to the Marriage Ceremony. The Priesthood. National Character. Indian Characteristics. Industrial Enterprise. Mining Enterprise. CONTENTS XXV Manufacturing Industry. Means of Communication. Financial paok Situation. Estimates for 1899-1900. The Commercial Situation. Low Prices for Coffee. Imported Merchandise. Exports. Com- parison of British  Dissensions. Spanish and Portuguese Influ- ence on the Inhabitants. South America and Cuba. Spanish Traits Modified. More Peaceful Future Conditions. Measures for Consoli- dation. Necessity of Closer Relations between South American Republics. Free Interchange of Commodities. Emrope and South America. Reasons why Progress Watched. Outlet for Emigration from Latin Countries. Wheat, Maize, Beef, Mutton and CoiFee. Simon Bolivar and the Spanish Colonies. The Ideals of Sucre and San Martin. The Development of South America. United States Influence. The Panamd Canal. Chilian Influence on the Pacific Coast. The United States and ChUe. Bolivian Mineral Wealth and Foreign Immigration ....... 647 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Simon Bolivar ..... Jose San Martin .... Juan Martin de Puvredon Map of Southern Section of South America Jose J. de Urquiza .... Mitre, Sarmiento, Alem, del Valle. RoCA Juarez Celman. Pellegrini Uriburu Map of Paraguay Flores, Latorre, Santos Borda, Cuestas, Aparicio Saraiva, Lamas DoM Pedro II.. Fonseca, Moraes, Campos Salles, Bittencourt Map of Brazil ..... Peixoto, da Gama, Mello, Gumercindo Saraiva Map of Peru, Bolivia, and Northern Chile. Chilian Celebrities Balmaceda ... Montt, Barros Luco, Canto, Korner. Map of Valparaiso and District Baquedano, Pedro Montt, Errazuriz, Riesco An Araucanian Type . . . • Frontispiece . Face page 24 39 32 S3 34 i3 38 3! 42 33 54 jj 70 33 86 J, 108 33 130 3} 198 33 218 33 232 33 244 33 250 33 262 33 Part II 33 322 334 33 350 372 384 416 xxvm LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Natives of Tierra del Fuego. Face page 430 PlEROLA ...... „ 476 Caceres ...... J 492 Bermudez, Candamo .... 526 ROMANA ...... 530 Inca Cup ..... 546 Indian Hut ..... , 562 Indians in Gala Costume 572 Map of Northern Section of South America „ 576 Map of South America At the end PART I INTEODUCTION Some Traits of Spanish Character. Ferdinand and Isabella. Treat- ment of Moors and Jews. The Inquisition and Intellectual Expansion. Population of Spain in the Fifteenth Century. First Spanish Colonists. Treatment of Natives in South America. Examples of Spanish Cruelty and Treachery. Destruction of Astec and Inca Civilisation. Dissensions in South America. Spanish Bx-avery. Catholicism in South America. Immigration to the Colonies. Introduction of Negroes. Turbulent Settlers. Political Parties in South America. Spain and Decentralisation. Trade Restrictions. Causes of Dissatisfaction. Spanish Monopoly of Official Posts. Incidents of Brazilian History. British, French and Dutch Action. Plot for Brazilian Independence. The Peninsular Wars and Brazil. The Empire Proclaimed. Abdica- tion of Pedro I. Indian Population. The Tupi-Guarani Stock. Araucanians and Patagonians. Aymara and Quichua. Natural Resources of the Continent. Geographical Features. A DESTRUCTIVE tendency was ever a prominent trait of the Spaniards, as indeed it lias been, and is, of most conquering races ; and it had far-reaching influences over the countries falling under Spanish dominion at the latter end of the fifteenth century. Their inclination was to crush out the civilisation of a conquered foe, never to absorb its useful features. No consideration was extended to established customs in regions where Spanish arms proved victorious, no eff'ort made to adapt existing forms to a higher standard of moral and material progress. The monarchs of Spain governed by absolute authority, and this system was accepted by the Spanish people. Everything foreign was regarded with distrust, and, where opportunity offered, was sup- pressed to make room for Spanish practices. 4 INTRODUCTION The period under Ferdinand and Isabella is regarded by Spaniards as the most noteworthy epoch in the national life, and it was certainly replete with striking historical events. It resounded with the clash of arms. Supremacy over the Moors was won by unstinting sacrifice of blood and treasure. In industrial arts the vanquished foe was more advanced than the victor. But the Spaniard could not stay his destroying hand. He had no monopoly of savagery during an epoch when brutality was a feature of the age, but his barbarity left so deep an impress on South American character, that it is necessary to make full reference to it in any en- deavour to understand the condition of the people of that continent. Without thought of future benefit to Spain from Moorish industry under Castilian rule the conquered enemy was driven from the land, his civil- isation eliminated, the accumulated wealth of centuries irretrievably dispersed. Never an effort was made to assimilate what was best in the Moorish community. 