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^P ^T ^^ ^P ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ • O5 C<1 TH O5 TH i— i ) 00 O5 O5 O5 O i-H H TH TH TH TH IO »O S*t* a a Sr« H° OOOOO OOOOC OOOCDrj<C<l OOOCO^OC f CO CO  TH T-( TH TH INDEX Absolute zero, 12, 35 Absorption bands in spectrum, 361 — machinesforrefrigeration, 160 — of radiation by gases, 263, 361 Adiabatic elasticity, 286 expansion, 21 effect on dry ness, 81 of a fluid, 81 of a perfect gas, 22 of steam, 328 Adiathermal process, 129 After-burning, 244, 264 Aggregation, states of, 59 Air, isothermals of, 302 — separation of the constituents of , 1 80 — standard, 229 Air-engine, regenerative, 53 Joule's, 55 Air-machines for refrigeration, 158 Aitken, 85, 344 Amagat, E. H., 299, 302, 310, 312 Amagat's isothermals, 299 according to Cal- lendar's equation of state, 323 Ammonia absorption machine, 161 — data for, 145 use of in refrigeration, 137 Andrews, 310 Atkinson, 256 Atmosphere, pressure of standard, 8 Atomic structure, 358 Avogadro's law, 235, 355 Baly's curves, 185 Beau de Rochas, 226 Bell-Coleman refrigerating machine, 158 Bjerrum, N., 362 Bohr, N., 358 Boiling, 349 Boundary curves, 92 Boyle's law, 13, 355 Brinkworth, 329 British Association Committee on gaseous explosions, 242, 244, 245, 251, 257, 265 British Thermal Unit, 9 Bubbles, equilibrium of, 350 Buckingham, E., 277 Callendar, H. L., 12, 70, 72, 73, 76, 83, 102, 108, 127, 201, 257, 298, 315, 329, 335, 338, 350, 367 Callendar and Nicholson, 207 Callendar's characteristic equation, 318 — steam tables, 63, 340, 367 Calory, mean, 331 Carbonic acid, critical temperature of, 80 — data for, 145 — isothermal for, according to Clausius, 317 — isothermals of, 300 — molecular vibration in, 362 — specific heat of, 245, 364 — use of, in refrigeration, 138 Carnot's cycle, conservation of entropy in, 45 — of operations, 27 — reversed in refrigerating machine, 138 — with a perfect gas for working substance, 30 — with steam for working substance, 88 Cascade method of liquefying gases, 169 Characteristic equation, 290 Callendar's, 318 Clausius', 315 Dieterici's, 317 of a perfect gas, 290 Van der Waals', 306 Charles' law, 13 Chart of entropy and temperature, 118 total heat, 121 Charts of properties of fluids, slopes of lines in, 280 Chemical contraction, 236 Clapeyron's equation, 115, 283 application of, to changes of state, 116 Claude's apparatus for complete rectifi- cation, 188 liquefaction of air, 178 Clausius, 50, 315 Clausius' characteristic equation, 315 Clement and Desormes, 294 Clerk, Sir Dugald, 226, 229, 244, 251,259 Clerk's gas-engine, 226 Co-aggregation volume, 319 in steam, 329 Coblentz, W. W., 362 Coefficient of performance, 2, 134, 136 Coffey still, 181 Collected thermodynamic relations, 287 Combustion of gases, 235 Compound turbine, 216, 220 380 INDEX Compressibility of a fluid, 286 Compression, advantage of, in gas- engines, 231 Condensation in expanding steam, 207 of water -vapour in air, 67 Conservation of entropy in Carnot's cycle, 45 in refriger- ating process, 135 Continuity of state, 304 Convergent- divergent nozzle, 194 Cooling effect of throttling, 127, 276, 296, 314, 318 Corresponding states, 311, 317 Co-volume, 307, 319 in steam, 328 Critical point, 80, 304, 309 — in steam, 320 — on the Icf) chart, 123 — T<t> chart, 120 — temperature of carbonic acid, 80 of hydrogen, 81 of steam, 80 Curtis steam turbine, 220 Curve of condition, 218 Cut-off, 97 Cycle of operations, 4 Dalby, W. E., 125, 257 Dalton's principle, 65, 355 David, W. T., 260 Degrees of freedom in gas molecules, 261, 358 De Laval's nozzle, 193 steam turbine, 215, 220 Diatomic gases, 261, 358 — specific heats of, 240, 359 — molecules of hydrogen, effect of extreme cold, 365 Diesel engine, 234 Dieterici's characteristic equation, 317 Discharge through nozzle, 194 — orifice, limitation of, 197 Dissipation of energy, 50 Dissociation, 264 Drops, formation1 of, in supersaturated vapour, 85, 344 Drying air by application of cold, 67 Drying-pipes, 160 Dryness, change of, in adiabatic ex- pansion, 93 — fraction, 76, 81 Dust-free air, condensation in, 85 Ebullition, 349 Efficiency, conditions of maximum, 36 — of a heat-engine, 2 — of a perfect steam-engine, 90 — of a reversible heat-engine, 29 — of Rankine cycle, 99 -ratio, 110 — in a steam turbine, 216, 219 Elasticity of a fluid, 286 Energy due to surface tension, 344 — internal, 5, 15 — molecular, 260, 357 of a gas, 245, 357 — — gas-engine mixture, 251 — of vibration in molecules, 361 Engine with separate organs, 96 — working without expansion, 114 Entropy, 44 — change of, in an irreversible opera- tion, 48 — of a fluid, 75 — of water, 334 — sum of, in a system of bodies, 49 — - temperature chart for steam. 1 1 8 — -temperature diagram for re- frigerating cycle, 141 — -temperature diagram of perfect steam-engine, 91 — -temperature diagrams, 46, 50 Equilibrium of drops, 345 Equipartition of energy in translation and rotation, 359 Ethyl chloride, 138 Euc'ken, A., 366 Evaporation, 65 Exhaust, 97 Expansion cylinder, omission of, in re- frigerating machines, 138 cylinder in refrigerating machines using air. 157 Explosion, radiation in, 260 External work in formation of steam, 69 Extreme cold, production of, 169 Feed-pump, work spent in, 97 First law of thermodynamics, 5 Flames, experiments with, 262 Fluid, characteristic equation of, 290, 306 functions of the state of, 77, 266 Fluids, properties of, 59 Force, unit of, 8 Four-stroke cycle, 226 Free energy, 103 Friction, effects of, in jets and turbines, 209 Function G, 102 Functions, Gibbs' thermodynamic, 103 — of the state of a fluid, 77, 266 Gas, perfect, 14, 290, 352 — thermometer, 11 Gas-constant, 238 Gas-engine, 225 mixture, energy of, 251 Gases, combustion of, 235 — molecular energy of, 357 — theory of, 351 — properties of, 13 — specific heats of, 239, 357 Gauge-pressure, 65 General thermodynamic relations, 266 INDEX 381 Gibbs, Willard, 72, 103 Goodenough and Mosher, 145 Goudie, W. J., 218 Gramme-molecule, 237 Grindley, J. H., 329 Heat account in a real process, 129 — direct use of, to produce cold, 160, 164, 167 — latent, 60, 68 — mechanical equivalent of, 10 — of formation of steam, 67 — unit of, 9 Heat-drop, 86, 131 application to the theory of jets, 192 calculation of, 100 tables, 110 Heat-engine, definition of, 1 efficiency of, 2 Heat-pump, 1, 133, 136 Helium, liquefaction of, 169 Helmholtz, H. von, 103 Helmholtz, R. von, 261 Hero's reaction turbine, 221 Heuse, W., 366 High vacuum, benefit of, 112 importance of, in steam turbines, 223 Holborn and Henning, 253 Hopkinson, B., 246, 248, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260 Hydrogen, critical temperature of, 81 isothermals of, 301 liquefaction of, 169 specific heat of, at very low temperatures, 366 Ice, effect of pressure on the melting point of, 117 Ideal steam-engine following Carnot's cycle, 88 Imperfect gas, 295, 299 Impulse turbine, 220 Incomplete expansion, 112, 113 Independent variables, 268 Indicator diagram, 7 Infra-red spectrum of gases, 361 Internal-combustion engine, 57, 225 Internal energy, 5, 15 of a fluid, 69 of a gas, 245, 357 Inversion of cooling effect, 277, 314 Irreversible processes, 131 Isothermal curves, 298 elasticity, 286 expansion, 22, 78 of a perfect gas, 24 lines on the pressure -volume diagram, 78 Isothermals for steam, 330 Jeans, J. H., 306, 363 Jenkin, C. F., 145, 285 Jet-pump, use of, in refrigeration, 156 Jets, theory of, 191 Joly, J., 242 Joule's air-engine, 55 reversed, 158 — equivalent, 10 — law, 15 Joule-Thomson cooling effect, 17, 127, 276, 296, 314, 318 Joule-Thomson cooling effect according to Callendar's equation of state, 322 Joule-Thomson cooling effect, use of, by Linde, 171 — porous plug experiment, 74 Kelvin, Lord, 16, 39, 50, 117, 345 Keyes and Brownlee, 145 Kilo-calory, 9 Kinetic theory of gases, 306, 351 Langen, 251 Latent heat, 60, 68 Linde, C., 171, 176, 181, 276 Liquefaction of gases, Linde's method, 176 Liquid films, tension in, 343 Ljungstrom turbine, 221 Low pressure steam, use of, in steam turbines, 223 Lummer and Pringsheim, 295 Mallard and Le Chatelier, 251 Martin, H. M., 208 Mathot, 234 Maximum efficiency, conditions of, 36 Maxwell's four thermodynamic relations, 271 Mean free path, 351 — thermal unit, 9, 331 Mechanical equivalent, 10 Melting point, effect of pressure on, 117 Metastable state, 200 and equilibrium expansion, 203, 208 Mixed gases, pressure of, 65 Mixture of a liquid with its saturated vapour, 73, 76, 283 Mol, 237 Molecular energy of a gas, 261, 357 — theory of gases, 351 — velocities in gases, 356 — weights and volumes, 235 Molecules, energy of, 357 number of, in a cubic centi- metre, 355 in a gramme - molecule, 355 Mollier, R., 121, 316 — chart of total heat and entropy, 124 — pressure 125 — charts for substances used in refrigeration, 145 382 INDEX Monatomic gas, 261, 357 Moss, H., 110 Nernst, W., 265 Newcomen, 98 Newton's theory of transmission of sound, 294 Nitrogen, isothermals of, 301 separation of, 181 Nucleus, need of, in the formation of a drop, 344 Oblique coordinates, use of, in the I<j> chart, 145 Olszewski, 277 Organs of a heat-engine, 96 Otto, 226 Oxygen, separation of, 181 Parsons' turbine, 216, 221 Partial pressures, 65 Peake, A. H., 329 Perfect and imperfect gases, 356 — differential, 270 engine, criterion of, 29 engine using regenerator, 50 gas, 14, 238, 325 - characteristic equation of, 290 — expansion of, 22, 24 — steam-engine, 88 efficiency of, 90 entropy-tempera- ture diagram of, 91 Petrol-engine, 225 Phase, change of, 283 Phases of a substance, 103 Pier, 245 Planck's constant, 363 — formula for energy of vibration in molecules, 362 Polyatomic gases, specific heats, 364 molecules, 359 Porter, 318 Pound-calory, 9 Pressure, of a gas, explanation of, on the molecular theory, 352 unit of, 8 -volume diagram, 6 Preston, 295 Radiation in explosions, 260 — from flames, 262 Rankine, 63, 70 — cycle, 98 efficiency of, 102 for steam in any state, 104 — reversibility of, 109 Rateau steam turbine, 220 Rayleigh, Lord, 294 Re-action turbine, 221 Rectification, 181 Rectification, complete, 188 Reducing-valve, 74, 126 Refrigerating machine as a means of warming, 168 coefficient of per- formance of, 2 definition of, 1 Refrigeration process, 133 Regenerative air-engine, 53 method of producing ex- treme cold, 171 Regenerator, Stirling's, 52 Regnault, 14, 62, 241, 310 Re-heat factor, 218 Report of Refrigeration Research Com- mittee, 145 Reversibility, 20 conditions of, 37 the criterion of perfection, 29 Reversible engine, efficiency of, 34 — receiving heat at various temperatures, 42 heat-engine, 27 refrigerating machine, 134 Reynolds, Osborne, 198 Rontgen, 295 Rutherford, Sir E., 358 Saturated steam, 61, 62, 64, 368, 370 relation of pressure to temperature in, 336 vapour, 59 Saturation due to curvature, 345 of air with water- vapour, 66 Scale of temperature, thermodynamic, 12, 39 Scheel, K., 366 Seay process, 163 Second law of thermodynamics, 26 Shields, M. C., 366 Simple turbine, 215, 220 Specification of state of any fluid, 77, 267 Specific heat of water, 67 — — variation of, with temp- erature, 243 — heats constant in a perfect gas, 1 9 — — expressions for, 272 in Callendar's equation of state, 324 measurement of values of, 241 of a gas, 17, 239, 357 of a gas, influence of molecular vibration, 363 — — of gases on the molecular theory, 357 — — of hydrogen at very low temperatures, 365 — ratio of, 23, 275, 293, 357 Stage efficiency in turbines, 218 State, specification of, 77 States of aggregation, 59 INDEX 383 Steam, Callendar's formulas for, 327, 336, 338 — collected formulas for, 338 — critical pressure of, 320 — • critical temperature of, 80 — entropy of, 376 — formation of, under constant pressure, 60, 67 — jets, supersaturation in, 203 — properties of, 62, 367 — saturated, 61, 62, 64 properties of, 368 — specific heat of, 378 — superheated, 61 tables, 340, 367 total heat of, 374 turbine, performance of, 222 — turbines, compound, 216 simple, 215 types of, 220 — volume of, 372 Steam-engine working without com- pression, 94 Stirling, R., 52 Stodola, 203 Suction temperature in a gas-engine, 257 Sudden expansion, effect of, 84 Sulphurous acid, 138 Supercooling, 85, 206 Superheated vapour, 59 adiabatic expan- sion of, 83 total heat of, 73 " water, 349 Supersaturation, 84 of steam discharged from a nozzle, 201 Surface tension, 342 Swann, 242 Tables of properties of steam, 367 Temperature, scales of, 10 of inversion of cooling effect, 277 thermodynamic scale of, 12, 39 Temperatures in a gas-engine cylinder, 255 Tension of liquid film, 343 Thermal unit used in Callendar's tables, 331 — units, 9 Thermodynamical correction of the gas thermometer, 298 Thermodynamic potentials, 103 relations, 266 — collected,287 scale of temperature, 12,39 surface, 268 Thermodynamics, science of, 1 Thomson, James, 117, 304, 316 Thomson, James, his ideal isothermal, 305, 317 Thomson, Sir J. J., 345 Thomson, W., Lord Kelvin, 16, 39, 50, 117, 345 Throttling calorimeter, 128 cooling effect of, 127, 276, 296 process, 74 Total heat, constancy of. 