title: World history,
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Of Wfixtiv tfo nyxffyy 2o\t$Ci Tpou zBtlt £tt$ fip^omuk a^ofi* &icujtnft r tfctpfii*0fl 'IWtffyr efcfht 5£% 9t(u}cuaL of, fytufi dUupfyi&n ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT . From an old manuscript now in the possession of the British Museum Th P tXvaf pSr Tlitl’it; witl!t P °[ 1 ^ ^ tor 1 g ns. me city with its cathedral appears in the background. WORLD HISTORY BY HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D. PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA “To men in general I would justify the stress I am lay¬ ing on modern history ... by the argument that it is a narrative told of ourselves, the record of a life which is our own, of efforts not yet abandoned to repose, of prob¬ lems that still entangle the feet and vex the hearts of men. Every part of it is weighty with inestimable les¬ sons that we must learn by . experience and at a great price, if we know not how to profit by the example and teaching of those who have gone before us, in a society largely resembling the one we live in.” —Lord Acton, Lecture on the Study of History. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO Copyright, 1923, By D. C. Heath & Co. 2 E3 PRINTED IN U.S.A. SEP 15 73 ©C1A752920 ( - M'0 \ TO GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD PREFACE T HE scope, character, and purpose of this book perhaps require clarification here. It covers the entire historic field, together with a chapter on prehistoric times; it presents a survey of human progress, rather than a chronological outline of events; it is ad¬ dressed to all who feel an interest in man’s past and nourish hopes for man’s future. They ought to gain from reading such a book, however brief, some conception of social evolution and some realization of cultural development from the Stone Age to the civilization of our time. Nothing but general or universal history will give them that conception—that realization. And only a history of the world will enable them to appreciate the contribu¬ tions made by peoples widely separated in space and time to what is steadily becoming the common heritage of mankind. About two thirds of the work are devoted to the last three centuries. This period furnishes the immediate historical back¬ ground of the present age. Furthermore, it is precisely in the movements and events of these three centuries that we must seek the real origins of the World War. If it be true that “nothing in the past is dead to the man who would learn how the present comes to be what it is,” then surely the prime business of the author of a world history should be to make plain the remoter causes, as well as the immediate antecedents, of a struggle epochal in the life of humanity. How far I have succeeded in doing so must be left to the reader’s judgment. For the benefit of those who may wish to read more widely in a particular field of history, I have provided a “Bibliographical Note,” which contains references chiefly to recent publications, together with occasional comment. The list also includes titles in archaeology, anthropology, and sociology, three sciences whose close relationship to history is obvious. Attention is also directed to the “Table of Events and Dates” and to the statements there given concerning the significance of each dated event. HUTTON WEBSTER Lincoln, Nebraska December, 1922 CONTENTS PAGE List of Maps .xiii List of Plates .xvi Bibliographical Note .xviii CHAPTER I. Prehistoric Times The Study of History.1 Man’s Place in Nature.3 The Old Stone Age.8 The New Stone Age.12 The Age of Metals.15 Races of Man.17 Languages of Man.20 Writing and the Alphabet.22 II. The Ancient Orient The Lands of the Near East.27 The Peoples of the Near East.30 Social Conditions.39 Economic Conditions.41 Commerce and Commercial Routes.43 Law and Morality.46 Religion.49 Literature and Art.53 Science.55 Orient and Occident.57 III. Greece The Lands of the West.60 The Mediterranean Basin.64 The A^geans.67 The Greeks.69 The Greek City-States.75 Colonial Expansion of Greece.79 The Persian Wars, 499-479 b.c.81 Athens, 479-431 b.c.87 Athenian Culture.90 Decline of the Greek City-States, 431-338 b.c. . . 93 Alexander the Great, and the Conquest of Persia . 98 The Hellenistic Age.102 Vll • • • Contents vin CHAPTER IV. Rome Italian Peoples. The Romans. The Roman City-State. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 509 (?)-264 b.c. Expansion of Rome beyond Italy, 264-133 b.c. Rome the Mistress of the Mediterranean Basin Decline of the Roman City-State, 133-31 b.c. The Early Empire, 31 b.c-284 a.d. The World under Roman Rule Christianity in the Roman World The Later Empire, 284—476 a.d. V. The Middle Aces The Germans. The Holy Roman Empire .... The Northmen and the Normans Feudalism. The Byzantine Empire. The Arabs and Islam, 622-1058 The Crusades, 1095-1291 .... Mongoloid Peoples in Europe to 1453 National States during the Later Middle Ages VI. Medieval Civilization The Church The Clergy The Papacy Country Life Serfdom City Life Civic Industry Civic Trade Cathedrals and Uni\ ersities National Languages during the Later Middle Ages VII. The Renaissance Revival of Learning and Art in Italy Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy Geographical Discovery .... Colonial Empires. The Old World and the New. The Protestant Reformation The Protestant Sects .... I he Catholic Counter Reformation The Religious Wars .... 1 he European State System page . 108 . Ill . 115 . 118 . 120 . 126 . 130 . 136 . 142 . 145 . 150 . 154 . 158 . 164 . 166 . 173 . 177 . 184 . 187 . 191 . 200 . 205 . 208 . 211 . 215 . 218 . 222 . 225 . 228 . 232 . 236 . 241 . 244 . 250 . 252 . 254 . 261 . 264 . 267 . 276 Contents IX CHAPTER PAGE VIII. The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in Europe Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings . . . 279 The Struggle against Stuart Absolutism in England . 280 The Restoration and the “Glorious Revolution” . . 289 Absolutism of Louis XIV in France, 1643-1715 . . 295 Russia under Peter the Great, 1689-1725 .... 301 Russia under Catherine II, 1762-1796 .... 306 Austria and Maria Theresa, 1740-1780 .... 308 Prussia and Frederick the Great, 1740-1786 . . . 309 The Partitions of Poland, 1772-1795 .... 314 IX. Commerce and Colonies during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Mercantilism and Trading Companies .... 319 The Dutch Colonial Empire.321 Rivalry of France and England in India (to 1763) . 324 Rivalry of France and England in North America . 328 The American Revolution, 1776-1783 .... 334 Formation of the United States.341 Progress of Geographical Discovery .... 343 X. The Old Regime Reform.346 The Privileged Classes.347 The Unprivileged Classes ...... 350 The Church.352 Liberal Ideas of Industry and Commerce; the Economists 355 The Scientists ......... 356 Liberal Ideas of Religion and Politics; the English Philosophers ........ 359 The French Philosophers ...... 361 The Enlightened Despots ...... 364 XI. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-1815 Eve of the French Revolution.367 The Estates-General, 1789 ...... 371 Outbreak of the French Revolution.374 The National Assembly, 1789-1791 .... 376 The First French Republic, 1792 . 379 The National Convention, 1792-1795 .... 384 The Directory and Napoleon, 1795-1799 . . . 388 The Consulate, 1799-1804 . 391 The First French Empire, 1804 394 Napoleon at War with Europe, 1805-1807 . . .396 Napoleon’s Reorganization of Europe .... 398 The Continental System.400 X Contents CHAPTER Revolt of the Nations, 1808-1814 Downfall of Napoleon, 1814-1815 “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” XII. The Democratic Movement in Europe, 1815-1848 PAGE . 402 . 406 . 408 Modern Democracy. The Congress of Vienna ...... Restoration of the Dynasties. Territorial Readjustments. “Metternichismus” and the Concert of Europe France and the “July Revolution,” 1830 The “July Revolution” in Europe .... The “February Revolution” and the Second French public, 1848. The “February Revolution” in Europe Re- 411 414 415 417 421 427 429 435 437 XIII. The National Movement in Europe, 1848-1871 Modern Nationalism. 443 Napoleon III and the Second French Empire . . 446 Disunited Italy.. Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour. 453 United Italy, 1859-1870 .. Disunited Germany. 459 William I and Bismarck.462 United Germany, 1864-1871 465 XIV. The United Kingdom and the British Empire Parliamentary Reform, 1832. Political Democracy, 1832-1867 .... Political Democracy, 1867-1918 .... Government of the United Kingdom The Irish Question. The British Empire. XV. The Continental Countries The Third French Republic. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium Switzerland, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden The German Empire, 1871-1918 The Dual Monarchy, 1867-1918 The Russian Empire * * • • • The Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States 472 476 480 482 487 493 500 505 510 514 519 522 529 XVI. Colonial Expansion and World Politics Greater Europe .... The Opening-up of Africa The Partition of Africa. 540 542 546 Contents xi CHAPTER XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. The Opening-up and Partition of Asia India ...... China. Japan ...... The Opening-up and Partition of Oceania Australia and New Zealand Canada. Latin America .... The United States Close of Geographical Discovery The Industrial Revolution Modern Industrialism The Great Inventions Effects of the Great Inventions Improvements in Transportation Improved Communication Commerce .... Agriculture and Land Tenure The Labor Movement Government Regulation of Industry Public Ownership . .. Socialism. Poverty and Progress Modern Civilization Internationalism. Social Betterment ..... Emancipation of Women and Children Popular Education and the Higher Learning Religious Development .... Science. Philosophy and Literature Music and the Fine Arts International Relations, 1871-1914 The Triple Alliance .... The Dual Alliance and the Triple Entente Colonial Problems. The Eastern Question .... Militarism. Pan-Germanism .... The World War, 1914-1918 Beginning of the War, 1914 The Western Front .... The Eastern Front. PAGE 551 554 556 561 565 567 569 571 575 580 584 586 592 596 600 603 609 613 615 619 621 626 630 633 637 640 642 647 652 654 657 659 663 666 670 674 678 684 690 xii Contents CHAPTER pAGE The Balkan and Italian Fronts.692 The War outside of Europe and on the Sea, 1914-1917 696 Intervention of the United States.700 The Russian Revolution ....... 707 End of the War, 1918.710 XXI. The World Settlement, 1919-1922  .... 723 The New Nations in Eastern Europe ....  Disarmament Conference. 741 Table of Events and Dates . . 7J c Index .753 LIST OF MAPS Between 36 and . . Facing Between 60 and Successors c.) Facing • • Facing Facing Europe in the Ice Age. Distribution of Semitic and Indo-European Peoples. Physical Asia (double page) .... Between 26 and Solomon’s Kingdom The Ancient Orient (double page) Colonization of the Mediterranean Physical Features of Europe (double page) Racial Types in Western Europe The Mediterranean Basin Greek Conquests and Migrations The Persian Invasions of Greece The Athenian Empire at its Height Growth of Macedonia. (1) Empire of Alexander (2) Kingdoms of his The World according to Ptolemy The ALtolian and Achaean Leagues (about 229 d. Distribution of the Early Inhabitants of Italy Rome in Italy. Rome and Carthage at the Beginning of the Second Punic War Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent (double page) Between 136 and St. Paul’s Travels. Prefectures of the Roman Empire about 395 Europe at the Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476 Teutonic Migrations and Conquests Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962. The Byzantine Empire during the Tenth and Eleventh Expansion of Islam ..... Asia under the Mongols .... The British Isles during the Middle Ages. Unification of France during the Middle Ages L T nification of Spain during the Middle Ages Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fourteenth Century (double page). Between 202 and Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire ....... Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe ... Behaim’s Globe. Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century (double page) . Between 252 and Facing . Facing Facing • • • Centuries Facing Facing PAGE 4 21 27 35 37 44 61 62 66 70 83 88 96 102 104 106 109 120 122 137 149 152 154 158 160 162 174 182 190 192 194 197 203 212 227 247 253 xm XIV List of Maps Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 .... The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 Europe at the End of the Thirty Years’ War, 1648. Acquisitions of Louis XIV and Louis XV. Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 Growth of Russia to the End of the Eighteenth Century The Ottoman Empire to 1683. Growth of Prussia to the End of the Eighteenth Century Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 .... English Trading Companies. India. North America after the Peace of Paris, 1783 Colonial Empires in the Eighteenth Century (double page) Between Europe at the Beginning of the French Revolution Revolutionary France and Italy. First French Empire, 1812 .... Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 The Netherlands in the Nineteenth Century Poland in the Nineteenth Century Unification of Italy, 1815-1870 The Germanic Confederation, 1815-1866 Unification of Germany, 1815-1871 Alsace-Lorraine. Ireland. Growth of the British Empire The British Empire. The Hapsburg Dominions, 1273-1914. Russia in Europe during the Nineteenth Centur. The Ottoman Empire, 1683-1914. Balkan States in 1878 and 1913. The World Powers, 1815 Peoples of Africa. Religions of Africa. Exploration and Partition of Africa (double pag The Peoples of Asia. The European Advance in Asia (double page) Expansion of Buddhism .... The World Powers (double page) The Pacific Ocean. Exclusion of Spain and Portugal from South America Relief Map of the Panama Canal North America since 1783 .... Discoveries in the Polar Regions. Economic Europe (double page) Industrial England in the Twentieth Century Facing 9 9 Facing 9 9 Facing Facing  554 and • 9 560 and Facing Facing Facing Between 586 and PAGE 261 269 276 297 300 301 308 314 316 320 326 339 345 366 388 398 418 430 432 457 460 466 470 488 494 499 520 523 530 538 540 543 545 549 552 555 557 561 566 572 578 578 582 587 593 List of Maps Occupations of Mankind. Commercial Development of the World (double page) Between Density of the World’s Population ..... Languages of the World ....... Religions of the World. Europe in 1871. Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway ....... Europe in 1914. Plan of the Battle of the Marne ...... The Western Front. The Eastern Front ........ The Italian Front .. German Barred Zone. North Sea Mine Fields .. The World War in 1918. Europe after the Peace Conference at Paris (double page) Between The Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Twentieth (double page) ....... Between XV PAGE Facing 594 606 and 607 Facing 626 Facing 632 • • 643 Facing 658 • • 667 Facing 674 • • 685 • • 688 • • 691 • • 695 • • 699 • • 703 • 705 722 and 723 Century 730 and 731 LIST OF PLATES Illuminated Manuscript (frontispiece). facing page Stonehenge ........... 14 Great Pyramid of Gizeh ........ 56 The Vaphio Gold Caps ........ 68 Hermes and Dionysus ......... 78 Temple of Poseidon at Paestum ....... 79 Acropolis of Athens (Restored). 90 - Acropolis of Athens from the Southwest ..... 91 Pericles ........... 96 Demosthenes .......... 96 Julius Caesar ........... 134 v Augustus Caesar. .134 The Palaces of the Caesars. .135 The Roman Forum (Restored) ....... 140 The Roman Forum To-day ........ 141 Oriental, Greek and Roman Coins. .150 Ancient and Medieval Gems. .151 Rheinstein Castle .......... 172 Sancta Sophia, Constantinople. .173 St. Peter’s, Rome .......... 208 The Campanile and Doge’s Palace, Venice ..... 228 Reims Cathedral ........... 229 Ghiberti’s Bronze Doors at Florence ...... 240 Dante ............ 244 Shakespeare ........... 244 Luther ........... 256 Calvin ........... 256 ^ Philip II.270 Elizabeth ........... 271 Oliver Cromwell .......... 284 * Louis XIV ........... 300 Peter the Great .......... 301' Frederick the Great. 310 The Taj Mahal, Agra ......... 324 Washington. .338 Voltaire ........... 362 Rousseau. ... 362 ' Napoleon as First Consul ........ 392 “1807”.393 The Battle of Trafalgar ........ 396 William Pitt, the Younger ........ 397 xvi List of Plates xvii FACING PAGE, The Congress of Vienna ........ 416 Prince Metternich. .417 Napoleon III .......... 446 Cavour ........... 456 Garibaldi ........... 456 Bismarck ........... 464 Moltke ............ 464 Gladstone ........... 480 Disraeli ........... 480 Houses of Parliament, London ....... 486 Choir of Westminster Abbey ........ 487 Thiers .502 Gambetta ........... 502 The Congress of Berlin ......... 536 Constantinople and the Bosporus ....... 537 Landing of Commodore Perry’s Expedition in Japan. 562 Benjamin Watt .......... 590 Robert Fulton .......... 590 Early Passenger Trains ........ 591 Charles Darwin .......... 650 Louis Pasteur .......... 650 Immanuel Kant .......... 651 Herbert Spencer .......... 651 View of Paris from an Airplane. .718 The Peace Conference, 1919 ........ Good books on historical method include C. V. Langlois and Charles Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of History, translated by G. G. Berry (1898) ; H. B. George, Historical Evidence (1909) ; and J. M. Vincent, Historical Research (1911). Thoughtful essays on various aspects of historical study will be found in Frederic Harrison, The Meaning of History and Other Historical Pieces (2d ed., 1900) and J. H. Robinson, The New History (1912). Two other works calling for notice in this connection are J. T. Shotwell, An Introduction to the History of History (1922), being chiefly an account of ancient historiography, and G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (3d ed., 1920). For chronology, genealogies, lists of sovereigns, and other data refer¬ ence should be made to Ploetz’ Manual of Universal History, translated and enlarged by W. H. Tillinghast; G. P. Putnam, Tabular Views of Universal History; and Arthur Hassall, European History, 476-1920. The New International Year Book is a compendium of the world’s progress. The Statesman’s Year Book and the American Year Book are other annual publications devoted to current history. The most convenient collection of maps is W. R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Hammond’s New Historical Atlas by Ramsay Muir; E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History; and Robertson and Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from 1789 to 1914 are also very serviceable. Much use can be made of the Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe in “Everyman’s Library.” Other atlases in the same collection are de¬ voted to Asia, Africa and Australasia, and America, respectively. Two comprehensive bibliographies are: Andrews, Gambrill, and Tall, A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries (2d ed., 1915) and C. K. Adams, A Manual of Historical Literature (3d ed., 1889). For more advanced study reference should be made to the bibliographies appended to each chapter of the Cambridge Ancient History, the Cam¬ bridge Medieval History, and the Cambridge Modern History. The rapid advance of archaeological knowledge makes all but the most recent treatments soon out of date. The following books may be noted: XVlll XIX Bibliographical Note Sir Arthur Keith, The Antiquity of Man (1915); W. J. Sollas, Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives (2d ed., 1915) ; H. F. Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age (2d ed., 1916) ; M. C. Burkitt, Prehistory, a Study of Early Cultures in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin (1921) ; R. A. S. Macalister, A Text-hook of European Archceology (Vol. I, 1921) ; and J. M. Tyler, The New Stone Age in Northern Europe (1921). Clark Wissler, The American Indian (2d ed., 1922), deals with both the archaeology and the ethnology of the New World. Anthropological treatises include Sir E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (2 vols., 4th ed., 1901) and the same author’s Anthropology (1881), both old works but by no means obsolete; Sir J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, a Study in Magic and Religion (1922), being an abridgement of the twelve-volume work with the same title; and Carveth Read, The Origin of Man and of His Superstitions (1920). All these books are by British scholars. The somewhat different point of view of American scholars is reflected in such books as R. H. Lowie, Primitive Society (1920) ; A. A. Goldenweiser, Early Civilization (1922), and R. B. Dixon, The Racial History of Man (1922). Two recent books, translated from the German, are Wilhelm Wundt, Elements of Folk Psychology (1916) and F. Miiller-Lyer, The History of Social Development (1920). Each is interesting and suggestive; both must be used with caution. Friedrich' Ratzel, The History of Mankind, translated by A. J. Butler (3 vols., 1896-1898), is the most ambitious attempt to summarize modern an¬ thropological knowledge of the world’s peoples and their culture. It is usefully illustrated. Sociological treatises differ widely in content. On the institutional side nothing better has yet appeared than Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology (3 vols., 1876-1896), but this famous work devotes an excessive amount of space to savage society and employs the comparative method in too uncritical a manner. Edward Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (2 vols., 2d ed., 1912-1917), and L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (3d ed., 1915), are both masterly. W. G. Sumner, Folkways (1906), though not a formal treatise, is an original, deeply learned study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, and morals. For the understanding of contemporary society in civilized lands, particularly in the United States, E. A. Ross, The Principles of Sociology (1920), is uniquely valuable. There are several general histories, prepared on an extensive scale. The Historians’ History of the World, 25 vols., is a compilation of extracts, good and bad, from a great number of historical writers. The History of All Nations, 24 vols., consists mainly of translations from German works and provides chiefly a political narrative. Another work, also based on a German original, is Helmolt’s The World’s History, 8 vols. This is an effort, by no means unsuccessful, to combine an¬ thropology, geography, and history in one treatment. Short general histories, giving due space to cultural as well as to political topics, are not numerous. The publication of H. G. Wells, XX Bibliographical Note An Outline of History (2 vols., 1920; also in one volume abridged), was itself an historical event. Hendrik van Loon, The Story of Man¬ kind (1920), though written especially for children, can be read with profit by persons of riper years. There are three small but useful volumes by Charles Seignobos, translated under the titles History of Ancient Civilization (1906), History of Medieval and Modern Civiliza¬ tion (1909), and History of Contemporary Civilization (1909). Attention may also be called to such suggestive and well-written books as Winwood Reade, The Martyrdom of Man (1872); A. R. Cowan, Master Clues in World History (1914); and F. S. Marvin, The Living Past (2d ed., 1915). Comprehensive treatises on Oriental history by Duncker and Maspero; on Greek history by Grote, Curtius, Holm, Duruy, Abbott, and Bury; on Roman history by Mommsen, Ihne, Heitland, Ferrero, Merivale, and Gibbon; and on medieval and modern history by many other authors, are critically estimated in the bibliographies above mentioned. The following list is limited to a few r recent works, generally in one volume. The ancient Orient: J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt (2d ed., 1909) ; H. R. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East (5th ed., 1920) ; and Morris Jastrow, The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria (1915). Greece: G. W. Botsford, Hellenic History (1922); W. S. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism (1913) ; T. R. Glover, From Pericles to Philip (3d ed., 1919) ; R. W. Livingstone (editor), The Legacy of Greece (1921) ; J. P. Mahaffy, What Have the Greeks Done for Alodern Civilization? (1909) ; J. C. Stobart, The Glory That Was Greece (2d ed., 1915) ; T. G. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens (1906) ; and A. E. Zimmern, The Greek Common¬ wealth (3d ed., 1921). Rome: A. E. R. Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A. D. (1921); Sir Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (2d ed., 1905) ; and, by the same author, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire (2d ed., 1899) ; W. W. Fowler, Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero (1909); Tenney Frank, Roman Imperialism (1914); Charles Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (1902); J. C. Stobart, The Grandeur That Was Rome (2d ed., 1920); and T. G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul (1910). File Middle Age: G. B. Adams, Civilization During the Middle Ages (2d ed., 1914) ; James (Viscount) Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire (new r ed., 1904); C. H. Haskins, The Normans in European History (1915) ; F. J. C. Hearnshaw (editor), Medieval Contributions to Modern Civilization (1921); D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Medieval Civiliza¬ tion (2d ed., 1907), being translated selections from standard works by French and German scholars; D. C. Munro, The Middle Ages (1921); H. O. Taylor, The Medieval Mind (2 vols., 3d ed., 1919); O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, Europe in the Middle Age (1920) ; and Lynn Thorndike, The History of Medieval Europe (1917). 1 he Modern Age: W. C. Abbott, The Expansion of Europe, 1415-1789 (2 vols., 1918) ; C. M. Andrews, The Historical Development of Modern Bibliographical Note xxi Europe (2vols., 1896-1898); H. E. Bourne, The Revolutionary Period in Europe, 1763-1815 (1914); Eduard Fueter, World History, 1815-1920, translated by S. B. Fay (1922); C. J. H. Hayes, A Political and Social History of Modern Europe (2 vols., 1916) ; C. D. Hazen, Modern European History (1917); F. J. C. Hearnshaw, Main Currents of European History, 1815-1915 (1917); E. M. Hulme, The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Counter Reformation in Con¬ tinental Europe (1915); E. Lipson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century (1916); W. A. Phillips, Modern Europe, 1815-1899 (5th ed., 1915); J. H. Rose, The Development of the European Nations, 1870-1914 (5th ed., 1916) ; J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary European History (1918) ; Preserved Smith, The Age of the Reformation (1920) ; and H. O. Taylor, Thought and Expression in the Sixteenth Century (2 vols., 1920). The following collections of extracts from the sources are recom¬ mended for reading in connection with any good historical outline: Ida C. Thallon, Readings in Greek History (1914); G. W. Botsford and E. G. Sihler, Hellenic Civilization (1915); G. G. Coulton, A Medieval Garner (1915) ; and, by the same compiler, Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation (2d ed., 1922) ; and Merrick Whitcomb, A Literary Source-Book of the Renaissance (2d ed., 1903). The six volumes forming Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History (1894-1899) may also be noticed in this connection. WORLD HISTORY CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC TIMES The Study of History HISTORY is a narrative of what civilized men have thought or done in past times—whether a day, a year, a century, or a millennium ago. Since men do not live in isolation, but everywhere in association, his¬ tory is necessarily concerned with social groups and especially with states and nations. Just as biography describes the life of individuals, so history relates the rise, progress, and decline of human societies. History does not limit its attention to a fraction of the community to the exclusion of the rest. It does not deal solely with rulers and warriors, with forms of government, public affairs, and domestic or foreign wars. More and more, history becomes an account of the entire culture of a people. The historian wants to learn about their houses, furniture, costumes, and food; what occupations they fol¬ lowed; what schools they supported; what beliefs and superstitions they held; what amusements and festivals they enjoyed. Human progress in inven¬ tion, science, art, music, literature, morals, religion, and other aspects of civilization is what chiefly in¬ terests the historical student of to-day. Civilization is a recent thing. It began not more than five or six thousand years ago in the river valleys 2 Prehistoric Times of Egypt and western Asia. The Egyptians and Babylonians by this time were cultivating the soil, laying out roads and canals, working mines, building cities, organizing stable governments, and keeping written records. All the rest of the world was then inhabited by savage and barbarous peoples, who still dwell in the wilder and less accessible parts of every continent. The savage is a mere child of nature. He secures food from wild plants and animals; he knows nothing of metals, but makes his tools and weapons of wood, bone, and stone; he wears little or no clothing; and his home is merely a cave, a rock shelter, or a rude bark hut. Such miserable folk occupy the interior of South America, Africa, Australia, New Guinea, the Philippines, and other regions. Barbarism forms a transitional stage between savagery and civiliza¬ tion. The barbarian has gained some control of nature. He has learned to sow and reap the fruits of the earth—instead of depending entirely upon hunting and fishing for a food supply—to domesticate animals, and ordinarily to use implements of metal. Barbarous tribes at the present time include certain North American Indians, the Pacific Islanders, and most of the African negroes. The facts collected by modern science make it certain that early man was first a savage and then a barbarian before he reached anywhere the stage of civilization. We know this, not on the evidence of written records—early man made neither inscrip¬ tions nor books—but from the things which he left behind him in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean region. These Man’s Place in Nature 3 include a few of his own bones, many bones of animals killed by him, and a great variety of tools, weapons, and other objects. Systematic study of such remains began during the nineteenth century. The study is still in its infancy, but it has gone far enough to afford some idea of human progress before the rise of civilization. Man’s Place in Nature Astronomy and geology present a wonderful pic¬ ture of the earth in past ages. The astronomer tells us that space is for the most part mere emptiness, that at vast intervals in this emptiness are the so- called “fixed stars,”—flaming, incandescent masses of matter,—that the sun is such a star, and that it thre/w off, one by one, the planets of the solar system. Our earth thus separated from the parent sun prob¬ ably much more than a hundred million years ago. The geologist tells us that in process of time the cooling earth gradually raised over its molten in¬ terior a thin crust of fire-fused rocks. Then the steam in the atmosphere began to condense and, fall¬ ing upon this crust, formed the first rivers, lakes, and seas. The dust and rock particles in the water accumulated in layers, or strata, which hardened into the stratified rocks, such as sandstones and mudstones. They reach a total thickness of not less than fifty miles, it is estimated, and contain fossil remains of plants and animals. The fossils show that life began in lowly forms on the earth, and that all existing life has evolved from these earlier, lowlier forms. Most of geological time since the origin of the earth is divided into three great epochs. The first or Primary epoch saw the appearance of plants, such 4 Prehistoric Times as seaweeds, mosses, ferns, and finally of huge¬ stemmed trees, whose abundant vegetation formed our coal measures. It saw also the appearance of animals, beginning with simple invertebrate crea¬ tures which lived in the water and passing to fishes and amphibians. The Secondary epoch was es- Discovery sites of Palaeolithic man: 1 , Piltdown; 2, Heidelberg; 3 , Neanderthal; 4 , Cro-Magnon; 5, Briinn; 6, Furfooz; 7, Ofnet. pecially the age of enormous reptiles, whose skeletons are shown in museums. During this time bird-like animals developed and became true birds as they grew wings and modified their reptilian scales into feathers. In the third or Tertiary epoch there ap¬ peared for the first time a variety and abundance of mammals. Such is the record of the rocks for untold millions of years before the first traces of man. The Tertiary epoch was characterized by a semi- tropical climate, even in the Arctic region. Toward Man’s Place in Nature 5 ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN EUROPE Geological Periods Climatic Stages Animal Eiee Human Types Cultural Epochs Time Estimates Recent Modern Animals • Modern Races Later Iron Age Europe, 500 b.c. Early Iron Age Europe, 1000—500 B.C. Orient, 1800—1000 B.C. Copper-Bronze Age Europe, 3000—1000 B.C. Orient, 4000—1800 B.C. Neolithic or New Stone Age Europe, 7000 b.c. Postglacial Reindeer Musk Sheep Elk Steppe Horse Wild Ox (Aurochs) European Bison Cave Bear Woolly Rhinoceros Woolly Mammoth Hippopotamus Elephant Rhinoceros Saber-tooth Tiger Wild Boar Eynx Lion Hyaena Brown Bear Cro-Magnon Later Palaeo¬ lithic or Old Stone Age 25,000 B.C. Ice Age IV. Glacial 3. Interglacial Neanderthal Early Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age 50,000 B.C. Piltdown 150,000 B.C. III. Glacial Eolithic Age 175,000 B.C. 2 . Interglacial Heidelberg 375,000 B.C. II. Glacial 400,000 B.C. 1. Interglacial 475,000 B.C. I. Glacial 500,000 B.C. the close of the Tertiary profound climatic changes began to occur in northern latitudes, producing what is called the Ice Age. An immense ice cap formed in the lands encircling the North Pole and gradually moved southward. North America to the valleys of the Ohio and the Missouri and Europe to the Rhine and the Thames were covered by an icy mass, estimated to have exceeded a mile in thickness. Great glaciers also arose in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Caucasus and descended from these mountains far into the plains. The Ice Age, despite its name, was not one of uninterrupted cold. There seem to have 6 Prehistoric Times been four advances and retreats of the ice, resulting in as many more or less warm intervals. The ac¬ companying map represents Europe in the second glacial stage, the period of the greatest extension of ice fields and glaciers. Guesses about the duration of the Ice Age vary considerably; one estimate makes it begin about 500,000 years ago. The post-glacial stage may have begun about 25,000 years ago. The geography of Europe in the Ice Age was un¬ like what it is to-day. Considerable areas now sub¬ merged beneath the Atlantic Ocean were then dry land. Great Britain and Ireland formed part of the Continent, and no North Sea separated them from Scandinavia. The Mediterranean basin contained two inland seas. Europe was united to both Africa and Asia, where are now the strait of Gibraltar, the island of Sicily, and the Dardanelles. The land bridges thus formed afforded an easy entrance into Europe for the great African and Asiatic mammals, and perhaps for earliest man. The first traces of man in Europe are associated with the Ice Age. In 1907 a human lower jaw was found in a sand pit near Heidelberg, Germany. It lay about eighty feet below the surface, in company with the remains of various animals, including an elephant and a rhinoceros. The jaw presents several remarkable features. It is the largest human jaw known; it entirely lacks a chin; and its narrowness behind probably did not give the tongue sufficient play for articulate speech. Heidelberg man, as we may call him, must have been a strange-looking creature. He has been assigned to the second inter¬ glacial stage. Man’s Place in Nature 7 Another important discovery was made in 1912. 