title: When knights were bold,
text: <i> r»^ o « • ^ *^ "-^^0^ o .x.™x.- .^-™.^. ^x.™.-.'; W I ■:P 4 o V ^0 ^ ' t/i \..^* Kf b .^ V^. "°.-" o. V-^"^' « : ^^ ■i^ ^•bip <v ^ >s 0^, V . x^ -^ " .. , ^ <■ >%* , -v <?> -;v^ - " - ''•/■>* ;/, ?^^\^' V. <<; G 0' V<^' ". o. ^-^ -J A <-. 'o . * * G^ ^ 5> .-'. % ,0^ ""» '^' <'j. 'o . », A ,0 O V A' ■> J » ^'-^^>¥'^V^ f o >°-nt.. ,G^ ^ '-'.'.s^ A ^ V ^ '-''', ^^^ 'f '5'^ -^^ ,■> 'N ■<f^ 'o . * ^*^, ^^-^^^ ^0 ^. ««o- ^V .^^ 0(A ^. .G^ \p *v^s* A -^ "" kV V A When Knights were Bold TRUSTY SENTINELS When Knights were Bold By Eva March Tappan 31Uuj8trateD BOSTON AND NEW YORK Houghton Mifflin Company MDCCCCXI ^A A' -v COPYRIGHT, 191 I, BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Publiiked October ign C:CI.A30*.378 PREFACE This book is in no degree an attempt to relate the involved and intricate history of the Middle Ages. Its plan is, rather, to pre- sent pictures of the manner of life and habits of thought of the people who lived between the eighth and fifteenth centuries. Our writings and our everyday conversation are full of their phrases and of allusions to their ideas. M any of our thoughts and feelings and instincts, of our very follies and superstitions, have descended to us from them. To become better acquainted with them is to explain ourselves. In selecting from the enormous amount of material, I have sought to choose#those customs which were most characteristic of the times and which have made the strongest impression upon the life of to-day, describing each custom when at its height, rather than tracing its development and history. I hope that the volume will be found sufficiently full to serve as a work of reference, and sufficiently interesting to win its way as a book of general reading. Eva March Tappan Worcester^ Mass. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE, SQUIRE, AND KNIGHT Pages brought up in the castles of friendly knights — their amuse- ments — taught to sing, play backgammon and chess, to respect the Church, to be " serviceable," obedient, and courteous, to choose a "lady-love in chivalry." The page aids his lord in battle, learns to ride, to use weapons, to swim, box, and fence, \J and also to hunt and to hawk. The squire serves at table, shares the amusements of the hall, practices more severe out- of-door exercises — the quintain — duties of the " squire of the body" — becoming a knight — the accolade essential — cut- ting the hair — the bath — bed — change of garments — fast- ing — the vigil of arms — arming the young knight — receiving the accolade — the blessing of the Church — the rejoicing. i CHAPTER II. THE KNIGHT'S ARMS AND ARMOR The lance — sword — helmet — crest — chausses — hauberk — ring armor and its dangers from battle-axe and hammer — plate armor — the dagger of mercy — golden spurs — shield — baldric — tabard, or surcoat — coats of arms — names and significance of swords — Arabian horses i8 > CHAPTER III. JOUSTS AND TOURNAMENTS The knight errant — the joust at castle and crossroad — the joust of peace and " to the extreme " — the proclamation of a tour- nament — lo4ging the knights — a merry courtyard — the final vii Contents preparations — the lists — the galleries — what weapons were allowed — how honors were counted — entering the lists — " Let go ! " — the " Queen of Love and Beauty " — bestow- ing the prizes — the ball — teachings of the tournament — the duel of justice — the test of endurance, of cold water, of boil- ing water, of hot iron — " benefit of clergy ". .28 CHAPTER IV. HOW TO CAPTURE A CASTLE Fortifications of earth and of wood — sites of the Castle of Chillon and of Chateau Gaillard — outworks — "curtains" — moat — drawbridge — portcullis — outer court — middle court — inner court — buttresses — battlements — keep — batters — machi- colations — postern gate — three methods of attacking a castle — Greek fire — the "cat" or "rat" — the bosson — balista — mantelet — cannon — trebuchet — mangonel — catapult — espringal — the siege of the "Saucy Castle" — its capture — the " Peace of God " — the " Truce of God " — the " right of sanctuary" — " abjuring the realm " 52 CHAPTER V. DAILY LIFE IN A CASTLE The castle and its court — the hall — beds and bedrooms — their furnishings — discomforts — remarkable fashions of dresses and headdresses — men's clothes — lack of cleanliness — sumptu- ary laws — furnishings of the hall — tapestry — feasting — bills of fare — " subtleties " — recipe for serving a swan — bread — dishes — trenchers, knives, spoons, and forks — linen — filthy floors — music — minstrels — wandering singers — • jugglery — jesters — women dancers — home employments — the teaching of girls — visitors — " homage " — " above the salt" 75 viii Contents CHAPTER VI. LIFE ON A MANOR Feudal tenure — the vassal — " doing homage " — " money-fiefs " — military service — " aids " — " heriot " — " relief " — the feudal system a network of lords and vassals — the " liege lord" — slaves, villeins, free tenants — manor house — the " solar " — the three-field system — " balks " and strips — "extents" — u'ork required of the tenants — "boon works" — dues — the manor court — the reeve, bailiff^, steward, and accountant — economic independence of the manor — hard life of the tenants — buying a release from service — entering the Church — eff^ect of Crecy, the Black Death, and the Peasants' Revolt — the survival of old beliefs and customs. .102 CHAPTER VII. PILGRIMAGES AND CRUSADES Why people went on pilgrimage — the Canterbury Pilgrims — sights at Canterbury — ampullae — Canterbury bells — tokens of shrines — scallop shells — the " Pilgrim's Road," — the " Palmer's Way " — the Walsingham Green Way — shrines on the Continent — sham pilgrims — pilgrimage to the Holy Land — aids to the pilgrim — service before starting on pil- grimage — the common route to Palestine — dangers of the way — palmers — merchant pilgrims — cruelty shown to pil- grims — Peter the Hermit — the Council of Clermont — " God wills it!" — the first crusade — Jerusalem is captured — other crusades — Richard the Lionhearted — the children's crusade — changes wrought in Europe by the crusades. • 123 CHAPTER VIII. MILITARY ORDERS, MONKS, AND MONASTERIES The Order of Hospitallers — the knights as warriors — in Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta — the Order of Templars — their suppres- ix Contents sion — the rule of Saint Benedict becomes lax — the founda- tion and customs of Cluny — the "Congregation of Cluny " — the Order of Grammont — the Carthusians — the Grande Chartreuse — "Charter-houses" — the Chartreuse of to-day — the Cistercians — Saint Bernard — plan of the convents — the copying of books — the work and care of a convent — the different officers — hospitality — struggles between monasteries and towns — value of the work of the monasteries. .149 CHAPTER IX. HERMITS, FRIARS, AND MISSIONARIES The hermit of romance — different kinds of hermits — hermits who dwelt by bridges — false hermits — recluses — The Ancren Riwle — Saint Francis and " Brother Matteo " — the work of the Franciscans — the sermon to the birds — the Poor Ladies — the Penitent Men and Women — the Dominicans — excom- munication — interdicts — the Waldenses — the Albigenses — the Inquisition — the " secular arm " — Saint Patrick — the fire on the hill of Slane — Saint Augustine in England — Saint Boniface in Germany — the Oak of Thor — martyrdom of Saint Boniface — Charlemagne converts the Saxons — Witte- kind becomes a missionary — King Olaf forces Christianity upon the Norwegians 175 CHAPTER X. LIFE IN TOWN The origin of towns — charters — the founding of Hull — free towns — Winchelsea — towns of Italy, Spain, and France — peculiar customs of towns — a city — the town as private pro- perty — town walls — houses, roofs, and windows — town halls — apprenticeship — the journeyman — the master — great mer- chants — small tradesmen and their houses — signs — streets — X Contents projecting stories — gardens — instructions for gardening — the moat around London — lofty towers — street rioters — the cook- shop by the river — peculiar hospitals — giving away food — schools — rhetorical contests between the boys — " Paul's pig- eons " — "Anthony's pigs" — cock fighting — athletics — slid- ing — skating — military practice — bear and bull baiting — the Smithfield horse market — pigs forbidden to roam about the streets. 206 CHAPTER XI. MERCHANT GILDS AND CRAFT GILDS Gilds for all purposes — objects of the merchant gilds — the wealth and independence of these gilds — craft gilds — their rules to secure good work — their care of the gildsmen — feast days and patron saints — origin of mystery plays — their character — Satan as clown — " Hell mouth " — mysteries pass into the hands of the gilds — acted on Corpus Christi day — pageants — cycles of plays — the plays become a burden — the Lord Mayor's procession the last survival of trade plays. 232 CHAPTER XII. HOW GOODS WERE SOLD Sale of goods from the houses of the makers, by pedlars, and at markets — customs of the market — the market cross — the "Rolands" — the court of pieds-poudres — tolls — shops in towns — the right to hold fairs — laws and customs of the fair — all classes represented — amusements — prices kept steady by fairs — Stourbridge fair — Winchester fair — specialties of different fairs — Saint Bartholomew's Fair — Beaucaire — Leip- sic — the fair of Nijni-Novgorod — bringing goods from the East to Venice — discovery of a new route to India — route from southern to northern Europe — "Merchants of the Staple" — "staple towns" — wool — " Merchants Adventurers" — the xi Contents Hanseatic League — piracy — the " factories " of the League — its power in Scandinavia, Denmark, Russia, the Netherlands — the League in England — "sterling" money — the Steelyard — English jealousy of the League — value of the League. 247 CHAPTER XIII. SCHOOLS AND LITERATURE Severity of the schools — " the island of saints and scholars " — the " ollave " and his honors — the Venerable Bede — Charle- magne's care of the schools — the palace school — Alcuin — Alfred's interest in education — textbooks — the trivium — the quadrivium — how numbers were expressed — the " oblati " — the"externes" — the founding of universities — "nations" — wandering students — the growth of a heroic poem — Beowulf — the N'lhelungenlied — the Cid — romances of Charlemagne — "A Roland for an Oliver" — the Song of Roland — Taillefer — King Arthur — the Round Table — Galahad — the Holy Grail — the Hebnskringla — the Edda and the Younger Edda — Frithiof — romances of Alexander — the " beast epic " — "bestiaries" — Mandeville — crusade tales — the Romance lan- guages — rhyme and accent — the langue d'oc and the langue d'oeil — troubadours — Froissart — the trouveres — Don Quix- ote — the minnesingers — Dante — Chaucer. 276 CHAPTER XIV. The girls looked wistfully at the scarf or glove on his helmet, each one hoping that he who would some day wear her colors would be the bravest man that ever drew a sword. As for the boys, they could hardly wait for the day to come when they, too, could don glitter- ing armor and sally forth into the world in quest of adventures. Even the youngest of these children knew that a boy must pass through long years of training before he could become a knight. This began when he was a small child, perhaps not more than seven years old. It was not the custom for the son of a noble to be brought up in the I When Knights were Bold home of his father. He was sent for his education and training to the castle of some lord of higher rank or greater reputation, sometimes to the court of the king. He was taught to look with the utmost respect upon the man who trained him to be a knight, to reverence him as a father, and to behave toward him with humility and meekness. Even if the time ever came when they were fighting on opposite sides^^the foster son must never harm the man whose castle had been his home. In those days of warfare and bloodshed, the king himself might well be glad to have as devoted supporters and friends a band of young men who had been carefully trained in the practice of arms. It is no wonder that kings and nobles looked upon it as a privilege to receive these boys into their castles. Indeed, when their fathers were inclined to keep them at home, the king sometimes demanded that they be sent to him. The boys of the days of knighthood were not so very different from those of to-day, and many of their amuse- ments were the same as now. They had various games of ball, they played marbles, they see-sawed, and walked on stilts, much as if they belonged to the twentieth century. Of course they played at being knights, just as boys to-day play at being merchants or manufacturers. There is an 2 Page, Squire, and Knight old picture of some pages, as these boys were called, play- ing that two toy knights mounted on wooden horses are having a contest. The two horses are pushed toward each other, and if either knight is struck by the spear of the other and thrust out of his place he is vanquished. PLAYING AT TOURNAMENTS This was only play, and there were many things that a page must learn and learn thoroughly before he was four- teen or fifteen. How much of " book learning" was given him is not known. Probably the custom differed in differ- ent places. In most cases, it could not have been a great amount, perhaps only a little reading, and it seems to have been regarded as no disgrace to a knight if he did not even know his letters. He must learn to sing, however, and to When Knights were Bold play his accompaniments on the harp ; and he must play backgammon and chess, for these games were looked upon as accomplishments which no gentleman could be with- out. He was taught to say his prayers and to have respect for the Church and religion. It was especially impressed upon him that he must be " serviceable," that is, he must wait upon the ladies and lords of the castle. He must run on errands for them and he must do their bidding in all things, for it was an honor to him to be permitted to serve them. A page who was disobedient would have been scorned and despised by the other pages, for they all hoped to become knights, and no true knight would refuse to obey the commands of his lord or the gentler behests of his lady-love. Such a one would have been looked upon as no knight, indeed, but rather as a rude, boorish churl. The page, or valet or damoiseau or babee, as he was also called, must always be gentle and polite ; for the knight was an ideal gentleman, and the gentle- man must never fail in courtesy. There is a quaint little volume called "The Babees' Book " which tells just how a boy who wished to become a knight was expected to behave. When he entered the room of his lord, he must greet all modestly with a "God speed you," and he must kneel on one knee before his lord. If his lord spoke to 4 Page, Squire, and Knight him, he must make an obeisance before answering. He must not lean against a post or handle things, but stand quietly, listen to what was said, and speak when he was spoken to. Thus it was that the indoor life of the page passed. Most of his indoor teaching was given him by the ladies of the castle. It was they who taught him to choose a lady-love for whose sake he was to be ever brave and pure and modest. The story is told of one shy little page at the court of France that when one of the court ladies asked whom he loved best, he replied, " My lady mother first, and after her my sister." ** That is not what I mean," said the lady. *' Tell me who is your lady-love in chiv- 5 When Knights were Bold airy." The little fellow admitted that he had none. After a severe lecture because he was so unchivalric, he chose a little girl of his own age. " She is a pretty little girl," replied the lady, " but she cannot advise you or help you on as a knight. You must choose some lady of noble birth who can give you counsel and aid. Then you must do everything in your power to please her. You must be courteous and humble and strive with all your might to win her favor." Out of doors, too, the page had much to learn. If his lord went to the field of battle, the page went with him to help him in every way that a boy could. He was in no danger, for a knight who attacked a page would have been shamed and disgraced. As for riding, of course he had not been allowed to reach the age of seven without knowing how to sit on a horse ; but now riding became a matter of business. It was not a mere canter on a pony whenever he took a fancy ; it was a careful training, for he must practice leaping over ditches and walls, he must be able to spring into the saddle without touching the stirrup, and, in short, he must learn to be as perfectly at home on the back of a horse as on his own feet. Light weapons were provided for him, and he must learn how to use sword and lance and bow, and how to swim and 6 Page, Squire, and Knight box and fence. He must meet the other boys of the cas- tle in mock contests. A most important part of the boy's instruction was hunting, or the " mystery of the woods," and hawking, or the ** mystery of the rivers," so called because it was often pursued on the open banks of streams. The page who 7 When Knights were Bold understood hawking had conquered a most complicated branch of his education. He had to learn the different kinds of falcons, how to train the birds to throw them- selves upon their prey, how to feed them, and what calls to use with them. There was a rule for every act; for instance, there was only one way in which a hawk might be properly carried. The master's arm must be held par- allel with his body, but not touching it, and the forearm must be held out at a right angle as a perch for the bird. A man who would practice the mystery of the rivers and did not carry his falcon in the approved fashion would have been the laughing-stock of his companions. Even pages had their own falcons, and a taste for hunting and hawking was looked upon as a mark of noble blood. When a page was sent to bear a letter, he sometimes carried his falcon on his wrist for company on the way. There were possible dangers on every journey, but I fancy that the page was always glad to be sent with a message, especially if it was a pleasant one, for then he was sure of a warm welcome and generous gifts from the happy recipient. During the seven or eight years that he was a page, the boy was always looking forward to the time when he would become a squire, for this was the next step 8 Page, Squire, and Knight toward knighthood. Now that he had grown older and stronger, more service was required of him, and his ex- ercises became more severe. Within the castle he con- tinued to serve at the table ; but he was now privileged to present the first or principal cup of wine. He still brought water for the hand-washing, and he carved the meat. He never sat at the same table with his lord. In- deed, in many places a knight would not permit his own son to eat with him until he, too, had been made a knight. In Chaucer's description of a squire, he makes it clear that the young man of twenty years was a brave young fellow who had had considerable experience in warfare, but Curteys he was, lowly and servisable, And carf beforn his fader at the table. After the meal was over, squires and pages together cleared the hall for dancing, or they brought tables for check- ers or for the heavy chessboards then in use. Whatever amusement was on foot, the squire was permitted to share. Indeed, throughout all the training of a boy for knight- hood, it was never forgotten that he must be taught to make himself as agreeable within the castle as he was expected to be courageous without its walls. An import- ant part of his education was practice in composing love 9 When Knights were Bold songs. He was expected of course to have his lady-love, for whom he must be ready to endure all hardships and meet all dangers. He continued the exercises of his days as a page ; but he gave much more time to them. He learned to leap farther, to run longer distances, to climb jagged cliffs almost as perpendicular as the walls of the cities which he hoped some day to be able to aid in capturing. He learned to bear hunger and thirst and heat and cold and to keep himself awake through long nights of watching. His weapons were now made larger and heavier. He was taught to wield the great battle-axe, to endure the weight of armor, and to move about in it easily. A battle in the Middle Ages was more like a large number of duels than a contest between bodies of troops, and an exceedingly good preparation for this kind of warfare was an exer- cise known as the quintain. For this a post was set in the ground on top of which was a crosspiece that would whirl around at a touch. From one end of the cross- piece hung a board and from the other a sand-bag. The squire must ride up to this at full tilt and strike the board with his lance. But woe to him who was slow or clumsy, for quick as a flash the crosspiece whirled about, and he was struck a substantial blow by the sand-bag. lO Page^ Squire, and Knight Often the figure of a knight was used, so hung that unless the young squire was skillful enough to strike it on the breast it struck him — and the wooden knight never missed his stroke. QUINTAIN Each squire in turn became " squire of the body," that is, he was the closest attendant of his lord. When his master went to the field of battle, the helmet was often entrusted to a page, but to carry the shield and armor was the task of the squire of the body. A much more I I • When Knights were Bold difficult part of his duty was to array the knight in his armor with all its complicated fasteningsrtEvery knight had his pennon. If he had given long service and had many followers, the point or points of his pennon were cut off, leaving a square banner. He was then called a banneret. Both banneret and baron were privileged to act as commanders of little armies of their own. They were under the king, but each one had his own war-cry and called his men together under his own standard.^V Whether the squire served banneret or baron or knight, it was his honorable task to bear the banner or pennon. He needed to have his wits about him, for if the knight dropped his weapon, he must be ready to pass him a fresh one. If the knight was unhorsed, the squire must catch his horse if necessary, and help him to mount; and if the horse itself was wounded seriously, the squire must have ther one ready or must bring forward his own. If the ght took a prisoner, he was passed over into the charge the squire, that the knight might be left free for fur- ther contests. If the knight was getting the worst of the fight or was attacked by several at once, the squire must come to his aid ; if he was taken prisoner, the squire must rescue him if possible; if he was wounded, must carry him to a place of safety ; and if he was killed, it 12 Page, Squire, and Knight was the sad duty of the squire to see that he received an honorable burial. / Every year brought the time nearer when the squire was to be made a knight. The one thing necessary to bring this about was for the king or some other knight to give him the accolade, that is, a blow on his should- KNIGHTS FIGHTING der or the back of his neck as he knelt to receive it. This was usually followed by the words, " In the name of God, of Saint Michael, and of Saint George, I dub thee knight. Be brave, ready, and loyal." Sometimes all that was said was, " Be a good knight." When a number of squires were to be made knights, as often happened just before or just after a battle, the ceremony was no more com- 13 When Knights were Bold plicated than this. Sometimes on the very battle-field, when a squire had done some praiseworthy deed of brav- ery, he was knighted in this simple and direct fashion. When there was plenty of time, however, the process CONFERRING KNIGHTHOOD ON THE BATTLE-FIELD was much longer. First, the hair of the candidate was cut. To give up one's hair was looked upon as a mark of the devotion of one's self to God. Generally the cut- ting of a single lock was regarded as sufficient, but some- times the head was shaved in the fashion of the tonsure 14 Page, Squire^ and Knight of the priest. The candidate was put into a bath and then into a bed. Every part of the ceremony had a meaning, and these acts signified, first, purity, and then the rest which he who had been pure would enjoy in Paradise. He was now supposed to be cleansed from all sins of his previous life, and to symbolize this he was arrayed in a white shirt, or long tunic. Over it a red garment with long sleeves and a hood was thrown to indicate that he was ready to shed his blood in the service of God, and finally a close black coat was put upon him to remind him of the death which all must meet. After twenty- four hours of fasting, he spent a night in a church, keep- ing what was called the vigil of arms, that is, kneeling by his armor, praying and meditating. When the sun rose, he made his confession to a priest, heard mass, and partook of the Holy Sacrament. This was his final preparation. Later in the day he and his friends went to the church or the castle hall. The young man gave his sword to the priest, and the priest laid it upon the altar, praying that God would bless it and that it might defend the Church and protect widows and orphans. The candidate took a solemn oath that it should be used for these purposes. The priest then re- turned the sword to him and made a little address on the 15 When Knights were Bold duties that lay before him in his new life and reminded him of the happiness that awaited him who performed these duties with faithfulness and zeal. Now came the moment for which every one was wait- ing. The young man went forward to the lord who was to make him a knight and knelt before him with clasped hands. The lord questioned him somewhat in this wise: " Why do you wish to be made a knight? Is it with the hope of gaining treasure? Is it that men may show you honor? " On the young man's declaring that he had no such wishes, both knights and ladies united in arming him. The golden spurs came first, then the other pieces of armor, and last of all the sword. The lord then gave him the accolade, sometimes a light touch with the sword on the shoulder or the nape of the neck, and sometimes a hearty blow with the hand or even the clenched fist. This was followed by the charge, to be brave, ready, and loyal. The older knights drew their swords and repeated the vows which they had taken on entering chivalry, and the priest pronounced the blessing of the Church upon one and all. So it was that in the ceremony of making a knight, the Church, the soldier, and the woman had each a share. The assembly then passed out into the open air. The horse of the newly made knight stood i6 Page, Squire, and Knight waiting. He sprang upon its back — and unless he wished to disgrace his new honors, he must not touch the stir- rup — and rode about the court, prancing and caracoling, brandishing his glittering sword, and showing how well he knew the use of his lance. The servants and minstrels of the castle had waited patiently, and now they had their share in the rejoicings, for to prove his gratitude for receiving the noble gift of knighthood the young knight made as generous a gift to each one as his purse would permit. CHAPTER II The Knight's Arms and Armor The chief weapons used by knights were the lance and the sword, and therefore they needed especially some sort of protection against the thrust of a lance and the stroke of a sword. Every knight wore a helmet, for nothing 11 would please his enemy better than to strike a mighty blow that would cleave his head from its crown to the breastbone. There were many sorts of helmets. Some were shaped like closely-fitting hoods, covering the back of the head, but leaving the face unprotected. Some were cone-shaped and had visors that could be lifted, and others were much like broadbrimmed hats. Some had a piece of iron called a nasal which extended down over the forehead and nose ; and some covered the whole head like a kettle and had slits through which the knight might peer out at his enemy — or through which the enemy might sometimes thrust the point of a spear. The helmet was not always plain by any means, for it was often beautifully ornamented with silver or gold. It was heavy enough at best ; but the i8 The Knight's Arms and Armor A CREST warrior bold never objected to increasing its weight by adding as a crest a little image of an eagle or a lion or a dragon to suggest to his enemy what a brave man he was. The warrior must guard his heart as well as his head, and he always wore some sort of armor to protect his body. For a long while this was in the form of a short tunic or shirt called a hauberk. With it, chausses, or breeches, were worn. At the neck a hood of mail was joined to the hau- berk, or habergeon, which served to protect the back of the head. In the earlier times the hauberk was made of leather or cloth and was often thickly wadded and quilted. Indeed, the leather hau- berks never went entirely out of use so long as armor was worn. Sometimes they were really handsome, for the leather was stamped, colored, and gilded in elaborate patterns. They were cheap and convenient; but when an enemy was galloping up to a man and thrusting a lance at his ^9 HAUBERK When Knights were Bold heart with fall force, even the thickest leather was small protection. It occurred to some one with an inventive mind that if rings of metal were only sewed upon this tunic, it would not be so easy for either lance or sword to reach the heart of a man. The rings were sewed on in rows, and before long larger rings were sewed over them. Then some one said to himself, "Why sew the rings on leather or cloth ? Why not interlace them in a network ? " and soon knights were setting forth to battle with coats of mail made of interlaced rings. A coat of this kind was far less clumsy and heavy than a leather tunic. Moreover, it could be rolled up into so small a bundle that it could be carried on the back of a saddle. This was a fairly good protection against sword and spear, and probably the knights who first went out to battle with new and shining ring or chain armor felt that nothing better could ever be invented ; but there were two other weapons whose blow was only made more dangerous by this armor. These were the battle-axe and the heavy battle-hammer, or martel. The head of the hammer sometimes weighed twenty pounds, and with a strong man to wield it with both hands it became a terrible weapon. The priests and bishops of those days were often called upon to lead their people in fighting 20 The Knight's Arms and Armor as well as in praying. The Church law forbade them to "take the sword," but it said nothing about the ham- mer; therefore they took the hammer and went into battle with clear consciences. When either hammer or axe struck its crushing blow, chain armor was worse than nothing, for it tore the flesh beneath it into rough, jagged wounds that were hard to heal. The next invention was to fasten on plates of steel at the most ex- posed places, and soon the coudiere protected the elbow and the genou- illiere the knee. Little by little the chain armor disappeared, and armor of overlapping scales took its place. Every piece had its name. The chest and back were protected by a cuirass ; the throat by a gorget, and thighs by cuisses, the arms and shoulders by brassarts and ailettes, and the hands by gauntlets, while the chausses were extended to protect the toes. The chain armor was much easier to put on, and a knight could slip it over his head even after he saw his enemy in the distance galloping 2 I KNIGHT IN ARMOR When Knights were Bold toward him. The plate armor protected him from sword and spear and in great degree from hammer and battle- axe, but it took so long to put it on that the knight had to wear it not only in time of battle, but whenever there was the least danger of being surprised by an enemy. When two knights fought, the one who could unhorse the other was usually the winner, for while his adversary rolled helplessly on the ground, he could slip a thin, slender dagger in between the plates of his armor and kill him. To do such a deed, however, would have been a shame and disgrace to any true knight unless he first asked, "Will you yield, rescue or no rescue?" If the vanquished man replied, "I yield," the dagger of mercy, as it was called, was not used, but he was led away as a prisoner. If a knight fell into the power of a man who had not taken even the first steps toward knighthood, he was indeed in difficulties. Naturally, he wished to save his life ; but to surrender to an adversary of low degree would be a humiliation hard for any valiant knight to endure. Some one discovered an amusing way of escap- ing from this dilemma. He simply made his captor a knight and then surrendered to him; thus saving both his life and his pride. The knight wore golden spurs. These were his espe- 22 The Knight's Arms and Armor cial badge of honor, and they were forbidden to all of lesser rank. He carried a shield large enough to protect his body and to serve as a litter on which, if he was wounded, he could be carried from the field. Across his shoulder he often wore a silken scarf called a baldric, embroidered by the lady for whose glory his deeds of prowess were done. In Joseph Rodman Drake's poem on The American Flag, he said that its white came from " the milky baldric of the skies," meaning the Milky Way. Another way by which a knight could show loyalty to one's lady-love was to fasten her glove or scarf to his helmet. Still another way was to fasten one of her sleeves to his shoulder. Sleeves were so long in those times that they sometimes touched the ground, and must have hampered the knight badly. The fashion of wearing them as pennons was much more reasonable. As a protection from the heat of the sun, which beat down upon his armor of steel, the knight wore also a sort of sleeveless tunic called a tabard, and also jupon, gipon, and surcoat. At first this was made of linen or a coarse cloth known as fustian, but as people became more luxurious, silk or fur or cloth of gold was used. It must soon have become badly stained by the armor beneath it. The poet Chaucer never failed to notice 23 When Knights were Bold whether things were fresh and clean and dainty, and he wrote of a knight who had just returned from war- fare, — Of fustian he wered a gipoun Al bismotered [stained] with his habergeoun. After armor was so made that it hid the face of the knight, the custom arose of engraving some device upon the shield or breastplate by which he might be recognized. This was also embroidered j upon his surcoat and upon the trappings of his horse. These are the "arms" or "coats of arms" or "armorial bearings" that have been handed down in many families, together with the figures on the helmets known as crests. The oldest arms were simple arrangements of straight lines, but soon the devices became more complex. Circles, trefoils, arrows, and swords were used. The figures of animals appeared, such as cranes, mullets, lions, and horses ; and also fabulous beasts, such as dragons and unicorns. Frequently a device was chosen which had connection with some event of its bearer's life. If a man had a noted adventure with a wolf, he was likely to choose the figure of a wolf for his coat of arms. The terms in which arms are described are taken 24 The Knight's Arms and Armor from the French ; for instance, in figure 2, if the shield is silver and the bar, or " rafter," is red, the proper description would be : '* Argent, a chevron gules." The favorite weapons of the knight were the spear and the sword, as has been said. The spear was made of ash and had a head of iron. Just below the head the ensign, called the gonfanon, or pennon, was fastened. This was sometimes made of linen, but often of the richest silk. The sword which hung from the knight's belt was his darling. He spoke of it almost as affection- ately as if it had been a brother in arms. " My own good sword," he called it. He even gave it a name. Charlemagne's sword was Joyosa ; Roland's was Durin- dana ; Arthur's was Excalibur. The Cid's favorite sword, Tizona, was buried with him. The sword was more than a weapon, for blade and hilt formed the sacred sign of the cross, and many a good knight and true has kissed it fervently and murmured his last prayer as he lay dying on the field of battle. Not only the sword, but also many other parts of the knight's equipment had their significance. The straightness of the spear sym- bolized truth, and its iron head, strength. The helmet suggested modesty ; the spurs, diligence. The shield reminded him that as by its use he saved his own body, 25 When Knights were Bold so ought he to use that body to protect his lord when in danger. The knight's good steed that carried him into the battle was an important part of his equipment. The powerful horses of Spain were always liked by knights, but the Arabian coursers were even greater favorites. The horses of the Arabs had been petted and loved and treated almost as members of their masters' families for so many genera- tions that they were fearless servants and devoted friends. If the knight was thrown from his seat, the horse had no thought of running away, but stood quietly beside him, waiting for him to mount. The horse as well as his rider was protected by armor, so that head, chest, and flanks were safe from spear thrusts. He was arrayed in trappings as handsome as his master could afford. The housings, or saddlecloths, were 26 KNIGHT ON HORSEBACK The Knight's Arms and Armor often of rich material and decorated with embroidery. On his head, he, too, wore a crest, and around his neck a collar of little bells. Chaucer says of a monk who liked to go hunting. And whan he rood men myghte his brydel here Gynglen in a whistlyng wynd as clere, And eek as loude as doth the chapel belle. It was on the bridle, however, that the knight lavished his pennies. This was ornamented with gold and silver and embroidery, and even with precious stones, that flashed and sparkled as the steed bore his rider proudly into the contest. After the combat of the day was over, the tent pitched, and the supper prepared, the faithful horse was not forgotten, and one of the early pictures shows him eating comfortably from a crib in his mas- ter's tent close to the knight's own table. CHAPTER III Jousts and Tournaments After the young squire had become a knight, he some- times remained in the castle of his lord for a time or he went back to his father's home. In either case life must have seemed a little tame after all the excitement of entering knighthood. It is no wonder that he was eager to go out into the world to try his new armor and do honor to his lady by his deeds of valor. 