title: Education in Bolivia : data report.
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AID MISSION TO BOLIVIA JULY 1980 ? 2'2 1319 ^ EDUCATION DATA REPORT < 4 - 1 > o JULY 1980 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PART I - OVERVIEW Introduction 1 Glossary of Terms 3 Educational System 12 Rural Education 16 Decentralized Education 21 Adult Education, Literacy Training, and Non-Formal Education 24 Observations on Current Data 28 Special Projects 32 PART II - DATA SUMMARY 46 Section A - Statistical Tables 47 Section B - Selected Data, 59 Illustrated by Graphs and Histogram PART III - STATISTICAL DATA 72 Tables 1-89 73 ‘IHCmH A'lAO vtOUVOUtU ♦ ), I I * i • r ■a r.. 10 3jaAr . f i I di- i£ 8i se NV (ic WHIV1I4V0 I mi* XloilJDOOOlJ/tl aan»T io ynsMieolO iJljjOX^«D4Ai>a nc^ii&nvb^ Xe'izj^ KvijraaobS t)»t-tiftir:jfi3:>»G ,^!.xii4?TrT »ncl3ftOuba ilubA Gnx:i&si*.bS t-acano1*froil 6aa bjaA 3f702Xi^ cfl teolJBxnaadO laioocr? VftAJ^flUl! AJAG - II T-1A« 1 f*»XfaT j«jt:fB:i8 • / e«uS»a3 ,£3Ba - 8-^-9tJ:;wkJ (, Tj,'73#iH htLBt arttjiiiXi b<»3s'3^c%rXiI 'f ilAG XVJj TETRI'A Til THAH * I aalilcl' PART I - OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION This report does not pretend to be definitive. Many areas discussed require broader and in-depth analysis. The compendium of more than 100 tables and graphs require comment and further refinement. This study was limited by two factors. First, the coup of July 17, 1980 created a communications break with the responsible members of the Ministry of Education (MEC). The coup terminated the official relationship between the educational analyst and the MEC educators and caused delays in the presentation of the report. In some cases, it was not possible to obtain detailed data from official sources. Second, time proved insufficient to accomplish all desired information and data. As a result of these two limiting factors, there are areas that deserve more attention. * Within the perspective suggested by USAID/B for this report, the educational analyst has drawn his data and information from three sources: the Bolivian educators interviewed, the available data and literature at USAID/B and MEC, and the analyst's recent professional experience in Bolivia, The statistical data offered by MEC was recast into a compendium of more than 100 tables and graphs. The data presented is the best available and most comprehensive is scope. Special emphasis is given to the areas of rural education and the role of women in education. Rural education is considered in terms of access to educational opportunity for rural youth. Women are viewed in their respective roles as students, as teachers and as educational leaders. In Bolivia, the social demand for education is increasing. Statistics indicate that since 1970, the educational population has continually grown in all educational sectors - urban, rural, decentralized and private. Neglected areas, such as rural education, literacy and the education of women, are beginning to receive proper recognition and attention. This demand reflects the mounting aspirations of parents for their children. Today, a parent is more likely to want his child to complete primary education than ten years ago. It is possible that in another ten years the stress will be on secondary school. One key indicator is Bolivia's ability to satisfy the social demand within its educational system's capacity. Since 1970, at least, Bolivia has met some of its requirements on a quantitative basis. The numbers have increased, but they have been accompanied by wastage, failure and dropouts. The lack of quality and resources that prevail offer a marginal education. Data for this report and an initial draft analysis were prepared by Dr. Murray Simon from May-July 1980. Due to events subsequent to the July 1980 coup, including the reduction of USAID staff, the final drafting and publication were delayed. Dr. Jean Meadowcroft of USAID/B/HR edited the final draft and updated the text where necessary. For Bolivian youth, in the rural areas, children are taught in Spanish, which is not their native tongue. In most schools, lack of financial support means no chalk for the blackboard, no learning materials, little supervision, the near absence of research or evaluation, little in-service education, and the basic use of deficient methods of teaching. The teachers themselves learned little that is practical when they were in the normal school; in effect, they teach in the same pragmatic manner that they were taught when they were pupils. Excellence is far from being achieved. Bolivian education is neither a fully public nor an elite system. A fully public system throws its doors open to allow everyone to stay as long as she likes. But in Bolivia, rural education has not yet provided sufficient access to upper elementary, intermediate, or high schools. Nor does rural education receive sufficient funds; it gets about 35% of the educational budget for 70% of the population. Further, with very few bilingual programs offered, the retention of non-Spanish speaking pupils is low. The other alternative, an elite system, gives everyone an opportunity for a primary education and then uses a severely selective process to decide who continues. In Bolivia, the effect is elite, but for the wrong reasons. The available educational opportunities in urban areas give the urban child a decided advantage over his rural counterpart. Bolivian education needs direction, a philosophy and a system to implement its objectives. These needs must be supported with the necessary funds to supply schools with teaching materials, audio-visual equipment, teacher training programs, facilities maintenance, and the communication and transportation systems to fulfill administrative needs. Too often, critics of Bolivian education have pointed to its deficiencies. This educational analyst prefers the analogy of the half-full-empty bottle. There is no choice but to consider the bottle half-full and to move education along its best available paths. ADULT EDUCATION: BACHILLERATO; IX: CAREER PROGRAMS: CEDED: COMBOL: - 3 - GLOSSARY OF TERMS Intended for adults above the age of 15 in leteracy, primary, secondary and apprenticeship training programs at an accelerated pace. To date adult education has been an urban phenomenon. Adult education activities are part of the Office of Adult and Non-Formal Education in the General Direction of Urban Education (DGEU). The diploma awarded to a student upon successful completion of his secondary school education. This diploma is not automatically awarded. The student applies for his bachillerato through his local university which evaluates his work for the previous six years and, if satisfactory, awards the bachillerato to the student. Abbreviation for Universidad Catolica, the only private university in Bolivia, located in La Paz. A specific university program offered within a given faculty. For example, medicine is a career program in the Faculty of Health. (Centres de Desarrollo Educative Distrital ) The main administrative unit in each department of Bolivia for decentralized public education. The CEDED is directed by a Council of the Urban District Director, the Rural District Director, the Director of Servicio integrado Distrital de Administración (SIDA) and the Director of the Servicio de Apoyo Educative (SAED). The district directors alternate as president of the Council. The CEDED was created, developed, and implemented by the Consejo de Racionnalizacion Administrative. (CRA). (Centro de Educación Media Acelerada) An accelerated adult program in secondary education which may be completed in half-time compared to day students. Besides semester examinations, an oral examination is re¬ quired at the end of CEMA studies. A successful student receives a Bachillerato en Humanidades por Madurez y Efi- ciencia. (Corporacion Miners de Bolivia) One of the two decentralized educational enterprises in Bolivia. It offers free educational services to children of parents who are employed by COMIBOL in the mining dis¬ tricts. It covers pre-school through high school and - 4 - COMISEN: CONEPLAN: CONES: CRA: CYCLE: DGA: awards scholarships to outstanding students who will study in areas related to mining and metallurgy* ( Comision de Integracion de lbs Servicios del Sector Educativo ) A study group of CONEPLAN funded by a $450,000 grant by the Interamerican Development Bank (BID)for the purpose of establishing a National System of Education. The group consists of 23 representatives from university and public education, teachers unions, parent associations, rural groups and community organizations. Ministry of Planning and Coordination, This Ministry is considered an echelon higher than the other ministries for planning and other administrative purposes. (Consejo Nacional de Edificaciones Escolares) The autonomous unit for the construction of schools and other units of MEC, CONES, was developed as an organization through the Consejo de Racionalizacion Administrativa (CRA), It builds schools exclusively in urban areas. (Consejo de Racionalizacion Administrativa) The organization by which MEC planned and implemented its program of administrative reform. The program was financed through a USAID/B project (Educational Management and Rural Development, 511-V-051), The purposes of the reform were to decentralize administration from La Paz to the departmental capitals, to integrate technical and administrative services within each departmental capital, and to optimally utilize (“rationalize") its resources, CRA was organized in 1972 and terminated its activities by Ministerial Resolution on December 31, 1979, (For accomplishments, see Educational Management and Rural Development definitions). Sub-units of both primary and secondary education. On the primary level, the three cycles include, preschool, primary (grades 1-5) and intermediate (grades 6-8) education. In secondary education (grades 9-12) the common-core during the first two years and the specialty area during the last two years are the two cycles of this educational level. Director General for Administration, Is in charge of financial, general and other administrative services of MEC. The printing press operation is an activity of this direction. 5 DGER: DGEU: DECENTRALIZED EDUCATION: EBA: EDUCATION MANAGE  Education, Is the newest of the MEC directions created in November 1979, The DGER’s responsibility parallels that of the Director for Urban Education (DGEU). This position originally functioned in the Ministry of Campesino Affairs between 1955 and 1968 after which the position was eliminated. The office includes preschool, primary, intermediate, secondary and rural normal school education. Director General for Urban Education. Responsible for the administration and supervision of the urban educational program including the primary and secondary levels, higher (non-university) education, adult and non-formal education and auxiliary services (curriculum, guidance and educational evaluation) and supervision. Director General of Educational Planning, Advisor to the Minister in matters of planning, research, evaluation and analysis. The direction maintains a professional though out-dated library and small printing machines. One of the three sectors of educational offerings below the university level. It is responsible for educational programs in the special area of mining and petroleum, and the other sectors of petroleum, petroleum, and petroleum educate about 60,000 children at their own expense with an average cost for child about $200 (compared with $123 in the public sector). The programs spand from pre-school through high school including awarding university scholarships for outstanding students who will study in academic areas related to 40 respective industries. Educación Basíica Acelerada. A special adult education program for out-of-school adults over the age of 15 offered in the late afternoons or in the evening. The five years of primary education may be completed in five semesters; the three years of intermediate education in two semesters. One of the programs’s major objectives is literacy training. A loan and grant project sponsored by USAID/B to help implement an administrative reform (CRA) program. The loan agreement was signed in 1974 and continued to FACULTY : FOMO ; HIGHER EDUCATION : IBC : IBA : ISAP : ISE : December 1979c The construction part of the project continued to 1981. The grant portion covered costs of technical assistance under a host-country contract with the Academy for Educational Development, (AED). The loan was used to establish the organizational pattern of CEDED personnel, to construct educational centers in each department, to purchase a rotary printing press, to stream-line the MEC system of financial management, the purchase of more than 50 vehicles, the training of personnel including participant training, the approval of the organic law and other regulatory documents, the purchase of video-tape and other electronic equipment, and the purchase of furniture and office equipment for the CEDEDS. Represents a major division of a University program such as Economy, Architecture, Health, and Social Sciences. (Servicio Nacional de Formacion de Mano de Obras ) A decentralized unit of the Ministry of Labor with the purpose of developing manual training programs. Considered as post-secondary but non-university education such as Institute Superior de Educación (ISAP), Institute Superior de Administración Publica (ISAP), normal schools, upper technical and commercial schools. Institute Boliviano de Culture. This division represents the of MEC. It operates independently of the schools sponsoring cultural programs of music, art, folklore and museums. Institute Boliviano de Aprendiz An adult education program to help students acquire skills for immediate application in the labor market. Generally short courses are offered in the afternoon or evening. (Institute Superior de Administración Publica) Established for administrative in-service training to all employees of the various Ministries in the GOB. Institute Superior de Educación Establish as the in-service arm for education under the egis of MEC. There are two in Tarija, focusing on the needs of rural teachers; the other in La Paz, catering to needs of urban teachers. INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION: LEVEL: NORMAL SCHOOLS: NON-FORMAL EDUCATION: PRIMARY SCHOOL: PRIVATE EDUCATION: Established as the 6 to 8 grade cycle of the primary level, intended as a period for youth to consider vocational exploration. Intermediate education has an identity problem in primary schools, secondary schools and in its own buildings. Refers to a major division in education such as primary secondary and high (university) education. Post-secondary teacher preparatory schools. There were over 20 in the rural area and about 10 in the urban area. In 1981 this number was reduced to 10 rural and 5 urban normal schools. There are two types of normal schools: the integrated and the specialty schools. The integrated teaches all cycles and levels - preschool, primary, intermediate and secondary. The specialty schools cover areas such as physical education, music or vocational education. A relatively new concept in Bolivian education intended to combine the needs of adult education and community development based on a flexible program. Preschool education is an optional program for children four and five years old. The four years old are placed in Section 1 and the five years old in Section 2. The preschool program began in 1973. There are relatively few preschool teachers, most of whom are located in urban areas. Rural Preschool education is taught by primary teachers. Schools are established by request of parent, who supply the equipment suggested by the DGEU; whereby the community provides the building. The staffing of a complete kindergarten includes a director, teachers, assistants, a disciplinarian, a secretary and a custodian. In 1979 about 40,000 children attended kindergarten. The primary school is intended for children between the ages of six and ten. Overage children are common in the primary school. Grades one to five represent the current program which includes mathematics, language, science, social studies, physical education, music and religion. Includes religious, foreign-sponsored and independent schools. About 16% of the primary school population and about 25% of the secondary school population are in private  with urban schools in towns with over 1000 population. The systems have separate teacher training and administrative structures. A pilot rural project to establish models in curriculum, equipment and construction in rural education in 22 primary school systems and in the Normal School at Vacas, Department of Cochabamba, This project was financed through a loan and a grant by USAID/B. The University of New Mexico provided a technical assistance unit for this project. The loan terminated in December 1981, but MEC is continuing the project for 2 years to apply the pilot programs developed. A project focusing on the improvement of teacher training in rural areas. Construction of six normal schools is contemplated. This project is financed through a loan and grant bv USAID/B. The Academy for Educational Develop¬ ment is providing technical assistance. Begun in late 1977, the project will improve training of new teachers and provide in-service training of current teachers through retraining of rural normal school instructors, creation of new curriculum and teaching materials for teacher training and improvement of administration of the rural normal school system. Its activities have been limited since July 1980 due to suspension of funds by USAID/B. It is hoped that full activities will be resumed in 1982. ( Servicios de Apoyo Educative Distrital ) The technical pedagogical service for the CEDEDS at the departmental level. Each SAED includes assigned tech¬ nicians in both the rural and urban areas. The techni¬ cians are available to the departmental schools to offer services in the following areas: planning, curriculum, guidance, evaluation, administration and educational technology. SECTOR: SECONDARY EDUCATION: SIDA: SUB-SECRETARY , URBAN: SUB-SECRETARY , RURAL: SUMMER INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTIC S (SIL): TEACHING CATEGORY - 9 - Refers to the public sector, the decentralized sector or the private sector. Refers to grades 9 to 12, following the intermediate grades. Most secondary education is offered in urban areas; rural secondary education is relatively new. About 25% of the urban secondary enrollment is in the private sector. More than 90% of the enrollment in this area follow the humanistic program. The remainder are in the areas of girl’s technical, commercial, and vocational-technical studies. Secondary education offered by the decentralized sector is paid for by the government. COMBOL or YPFB. (Serviciosintegrado Distrital de Administracion) The administrative (non-instructional) arm of the CEDS which offers services that were formerly activities centralized in La Paz. Payroll, promotions within the salary levels, and retirement records are now departmental concerns. The SIDA have also administered the sale and distribution of the textbooks that CRA had printed for the first and second grades. While both sub-secretaries appear equal on the organization chart, it is the urban sub-secretary who is the number two official in the Ministry. While in charge of urban education, he is usually the chief executor of the Minister’s directives. The third position of importance, the rural sub-secretary, is beginning to have greater importance than in the past. A semi-autonomous unit of the General Directorate of Education. The SIL is a religiously oriented organization active in many Latin American countries, and teaches literacy and aspects of civilization through the Bible. The SIL translates the Bible into the language of the local citizens. It also carries out efforts in bilingual education and community development. The promotional system for education based on salary lanes (categories). There are nine categories includ¬ ing two Smnterim" lanes - one for teachers and one for - 10 - TEACHER LICENSE CATEGORY: UNIVERSITY BQUCATION; ALTIPLANO INTE- GRATED EDUCATION administrators. "Interim" is the lowest level of qualification. Category five is the entry level for teachers with a normal school diploma and with two years of experience in the provinces. The highest lanes are "0" and Merit categories. There are three types of teaching licenses. The normalista, license for longevity of service, and the "interim" license i.e. Kjormalista , Titulado por Antiguadad and Interino. The Bolivian university system comprises eight depart¬ mental publicly-funded universityes and one private university in La Paz. The universities in La Paz, Sucre and Cochabamba are considered "higher univer¬ sities"; the University in Oruro is considered a technical university; and the others are considered ordinary universities. Pando is the only department without an university. The universities are listed as follows: 1. 2. 3. A. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontificaa de San Fran¬ cisco Xavier de Chuquisaca. Universidad Mayor de San Andres de La Paz. Universidad Mayor de San Simon de Cochabamba. Universidad Boliviana Tecnica de Oruro. Universidad Boliviana Gabriel Rene Moreno de Santa Cruz. Universidad Boliviana Tomas Frias de Potosi. Universidad Boliviana Juan Misael Saracho de Tarija Universidad Boliviana General Jose Ballivian del Beni. Universidad Catolica, La Paz. This project began in May 1977 with the purpose of developing formal primary and community education for five provinces in the department of La Paz. The project utilizes the Normal School at Warisata as its base. It was scheduled to construct 944 classrooms for primary education and 10 intermediate schools. It planned to train about 1,200 teachers. Included in its operations was radio instruction in Spanish for people whose native language is Aymara. The project has a loan budget of $6,800,000 sponsored by the World Bank and will work through 1983. YPFB: Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos Began its first decentralized school in 1941. It has generally had the reputation for offering prestige education for the children of employees of YPFB.(Bolivian State Petroleum Company). An addicator of its quality is that local politicians, military chiefs, and other dignitaries of the area request special consideration to have their children attend. The YPFB spends an average of $200 per child, double that of public sector schools. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM The educational system in Bolivia is based on three educational codes: the Codigo de la Education Boliviana (1950), the Ley de la Educación Boliviana Q.973, and the Ley Organica (1979). There are even existing laws dating back to 1825. In addition, the various Ministerial Resolutions and Supreme Decrees (at the Presidential level) complement the basic legislation. While there is initial discussion on updating the Codigo, no attempt at codifying all the existing legislation is currently being considered. The Codigo de la Educación Boliviana is the underpinning of the present system of education. While enacted in 1950, it served as the educational base after the 1952 revolution. The Ley de la Educación Boliviana complemented the Codigo by introducing specific guidelines regarding courses of study in detail. The Ley Organica reorganized elements of earlier documents relative to administrative reforms and brought about a decentralized, departmental structure (CEDED) as well as adjustments of the Ministerial sector. However, the Ley Organica is relatively unknown in educational circles for lack of distribution and discussion. The organization of public education is composed of four areas: Regular Education, Adult Education, Special Education and Extracurricular or Cultural Education. Regular education and Adult Education are the basic activities of the Diocécion General de Educación Urbana. With minor exceptions, Special Education is an area still to be developed. Cultural Extension is a responsibility of the Institute Boliviano de Culture, the £ of MBC. Regular Education consists of three levels: the primary, the secondary and higher (non-university) levels. See figure "A" page 15. Primary Level The primary level consists of three cycles: pre-school, primary (basic) and intermediate cycles. The pre-school cycle is for four and five year olds. There are two sections, one for each age group. Pre-school education is optional and has been, until recently, an urban phenomenon. In the rural areas, there are no pre-school teachers. The preschool children are taught by regular primary (basic) teachers. The intermediate cycle covers grades 6, 7, and 8 and is the preparatory cycle for high school or work. This cycle, like the junior high school in the United States, has an identity problem. Its location is indicative of the problem. Intermediate education is often located in a primary (basic) school building; it is also located in a high school building; just as often, it has its own structure. Primary education is obligatory for the primary (basic and intermediate) grades. This requirement is not enforced. Secondary Education Secondary school follows the intermediate grades. It is a four-year program and consists of two cycles: common and differential. The vast majority of students follow pre-university (humanistic) studies. Relatively few secondary students follow the vocational-technical programs. The common cycle is essentially what the pre-university program offers. Students who wish to study the vocational-technical programs must study the common cycle plus their specialty area. In humanistic studies there are the major areas of physical sciences and mathematics, natural or pure sciences and social sciences. In the specialty areas, offerings include commercial, girls technical and technical-vocational studies. While not often practiced, the intent of the common cycle is to facilitate lateral shifting from the humanistic program to the technical-professional and vice-versa. When a student completes his secondary studies he receives a diploma from his school. To receive his bachillerato he must apply for it at the the departmental university. The graduate of a technical-professional program receives the title of Tecnico Medio en Educación (Industrial, Commercial, Artistic or Agronomy) in the specialty area. Higher Education (Non-University ) Non University higher education generally refers to the normal schools and the upper technical school Pedro Domingo Murillo. Entrance into these schools require a bachillerato . The normal school programs prppare teachers for pre-school, primary (basic), intermediate and high schools. In addition of a few normal schools are specialized schools in areas such as physical education, music and vocational education. The graduate of the normal school receives a teaching certificate after three years of study and two years of service in the provinces. If a student completes his normal school academic program and does not fulfill his two years of service in the provinces, there is no mechanism to require him to do so,. While no data is available on the subject, it is believed that about half the graduates do not spend two years in the provinces. 14 - The Pedro Domingo Murillo school offers flexible programs depending on the specialty. Graduates of these programs receive special licenses and titles. 15 FIGURE "A" BOLIVIAN MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM PRIMARY LEVEL - a) b) c) SECONDARY LEVEL a) b) HIGHER EDUCATION (NON^UNIVERSITY) a) b) PRE-SCHOOL CYCLE SECTION 1-4 YEAR OLDS SECTION 2-5 YEAR OLDS PRIMARY (BASIC) CYCLE GRADES 1 TO 5 INTERMEDIATE CYCLE GRADES 6 TO 8 HUMANISTIC STUDIES TECHNICAL-PROFESSIONAL STUDIES GRADES 9 TO 12 NORMAL SCHOOLS TECHNICAL STUDIES NOTE ; Rural Education in Bolivia is relatively new. It was officially established about 1955. While it includes a preschool cycle there are no preschool teachers. Primary teachers are assigned to this area. In addition, in recent years rural education has begun a secondary program. ThEce are nery few technical secondary studies and no tech¬ nical studies of higher education in rural areas at present time. The position of Director General for Rural Education was reestablished in the Ministry of Education in November 1979 for the purpose of equalizing access for rural education in Bolivia. At the present time, Bolivian education encompasses a dual system: urban and rural. RURAL EDUCATION Marginal urban education has been included in this section because the needs of this population group are similar to those of rural education. It is accepted that the majority of this group is formerly rural. While no statistics are available to substantiate it, this population is equally affected by a lack of facilities e.g. educational, sanitary, electrical. In these marginal areas, children may walk at least two kilometers to reach school. In La Paz, such areas include: Rio Seco, Villa Dolores, Villa Adela, Viacha, Buenos Aires, Nuevo Potosi, Horizontes, Alto Lima and Los Andes. The present pattern of rural educational opportunity is changing for the better because social demand for education has never been greater and is increasing. However, the present pattern of educational opportunity is still laden with obstacles such as language and school construction policy that prevent many rural children from receiving equal benefits to those received in urban areas. The cost of rural education is high in relation to the benefits received. The major shortcomings in rural education as described in the 1974 Diagnostico Global de la Educación Boliviana include: 1. Lack of adaptation of the rural schools to the environment; 2. No educational resources and teaching materials; 3. Inadequate training for teachers in the rural normal schools; 4. No coordination between the schools and other socially-oriented institutions; 5. The schools do not relate to the life of the community. Natural education may be described as a separate educational system. In November 1979, the position of Director General of Rural Education was reestablished subsequent to its elimination in 1968, in the Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos. The rural education division includes the following hierarchy and specific activities: 1. Rural Sub-Secretary. 2. Director General of Rural Education, 3. District Director of Rural Education in each department. 4. SAED technicians in each department with rural education responsibilities. 5. Rural Normal Schools. 6. Rural Life in Tarija. 7. Rural School Construction. 8. International projects focusing on rural education (e.g. USAID/B Education Management and Rural Development, Rural I, Rural II; World Bank Altiplano integrated Education Project, World Bank Artisan Project, UNICEF ORI Project). 9. Rural teachers unions. There have been criticisms of the dual system of education mainly on the need to keep Bolivia unified. On the other hand, the rural system has been defended because in the past it has not received its fair share of budget monies. It is true that MEC may be able to operate more efficiently under a unified system of education. The rural education proponents ask: what value is efficiency if it ignores or minimizes the needs of the rural population? One of the major purposes of rural education is to keep the rural population with a better quality of life. At the same time it seeks to incorporate the campesinado into the mainstream of Bolivian life whereby they may improve their lives through more productiveness, civilization, and culture. According to Article 18 of the Code de la Educación Boliviana, the organization of rural education includes: 1. Nuclear schools (Central Schools with 1. Five to eight grades. 2. Sub-necles 3. Sectional Schools (usually multigrade 1-3). 4. Nuclear schools in jungle areas, 5. Vocational technical schools. 6. Rural normal schools. The nuclear schools consist of complete five-year central schools surrounded by 15 to 30 outlying sectional schools in which a single teacher often teaches two to three grades. In theory, the nucleo staff teachers are trained in agriculture and animal husbandry, hygiene and sanitation, and home economics. About one-half of the nucleos has at least one of these specialty teachers. Of the rural education structure, sub-nucleos and seccionales are terms used interchangeably, seccionales being a more common term. The vocational-technical schools have not been developed in rural areas. However, there are some colegios laborales — programs of a pre-voca-tional nature supported by local campesinos in rural, artisan or agricultural activities. Where a sectional is taught by one teacher it is referred to as a unitary or multigrade school. In populations of low density, the university school is the immediate answer to the need of the area. Unfortunately, the teachers are not trained in the techniques of teaching such groups nor are they equipped with teaching or learning materials. When the population increases or consolidates, these schools will become full sectionals or a nucleo. Often such schools are established through parent demands and the teacher is often paid by the community until the government provides one. While enrollment has been increasing in the rural area, the retention problem is of concentrated Bolivian educators. Some of these educators are moving toward the conclusion that retention rates may be improved through a program of bilingual education or by teaching in the native language of the community. The three most common reasons given for  and Aymara pupils. 3. Children are needed by their parents in the field. It is true that very few pupils continue from the seccionales to the nucleus because of distance. As a result, there is no real access to education after the third grade. An attempt is being made to institute bilingual education in rural areas. A program is being discussed between MEC and the Summer Institute of Languages in the departments of Tarija, Potosi, Chuquisaca, and the eastern frontier zone. In addition, USAID/B prepared a project paper for review in Washington for this important area, although later funding limitations did not allow for its implementation. It is generally believed that children being needed in the field is partially true. Children in rural areas the world over have this same condition. The problem here is that parents as a whole are not yet convinced that education for their children is practical. There is a continuous problem of staffing the schools with enough qualified teachers. Rural areas hold little appeal for teachers. The highest rewards and status go to urban teaching. Incentives to stay in rural schools are lacking. In addition, the system of requiring teachers to spend their first two years in the provinces includes a built-in bias. The reward is to complete the requirement and leave. Yet, if the rural sector can create and maintain the conditions for youngsters to stay in school longer, there will be a need for a thousand more teachers. A study is needed to determine why there are so many teachers who are interinos (interim teachers usually not in the certified categories of the salary lane). The rural normal schools graduate more teachers than the system needs. Yet somehow, many of these graduates do not enter the teaching ranks. Of the 9,702 school plants in Bolivia 80% or 7,760 buildings are in the rural area - all without the assistance of CONES, MEC's school construction arm. The school buildings are a source of pride in rural areas. Parents or volunteer groups contribute their labor. What is needed is an educational map to learn how well these schools are geographically distributed. There were at least 200 rural high schools with about 266 teachers for 2,071 pupils in 1978. The impression is that they are not spread well geographically. In all school buildings there are inadequate facilities for existing programs. Supervision is a major problem in rural education. Supervisors are located in the departmental or district capitals when they should be visiting the distant schools. Transportation is a key problem because there is no budget for travel. In addition, many remote areas have inadequate roads for a four-wheel vehicle. In Beni and Pando, for example, the major transportation route is by water. Bicycles, motorcycles, and launches are necessary for the supervisors to carry out their tasks properly. A major change in the organization of rural education took place in November 1979 with the reestablishment of the position of Director-General of Rural Education (DGER). The position is new to MEG but it had been a post in the Ministry of Campesino Affairs until 1968. The area of responsibility of this office is parallel to that of the Director-General of Urban Education covering preschool, primary, intermediate, secondary, and adult education (day and evening sessions). It is essentially a technical position as opposed to that of the rural sub-secretary which is a political position. Communication is a serious problem. Without a management information system, it is difficult for MEC to know what is taking place and for the school personnel to communicate with La Paz or the Departmental capitals. At present, radio is the only means of communication in distant areas. There exists a problem of overlap of urban and rural schools in the same town - sometimes within the same school plant. For administrative purposes, it would be helpful to know what is urban and what is rural. Rural education is new— having begun after the 1952 Revolution. Little concern has been demonstrated to date on quality education. With the new position of Director General for Rural Education, there can be greater impetus than ever in upgrading rural education with appropriate teaching materials, a school calendar that is realistic for 200 school days, in-service education for the education staff, and a curriculum that reflects the environment in which a pupil lives. Decentralized education is the schooling offered by government industrial enterprises at their expense at sites where the enterprise is active. The two most important decentralized systems are COMIBOL (Bolivian Mining Corporation) and YPFB (Bolivian State Petroleum Company). Since 1930, educational assistance by such industrial enterprises is compulsory. While this sector is legally responsible to MEC’s Urban Sub-Secretary, each decentralized system maintains its own administration. Each system hires teachers with its own tenure and salary structure within the regulations of the Ministry of Labor. Both systems offer free breakfast to the pupils; YPFB also serves free lunch. In general, the educational expenditures of decentralized education are higher per pupil than those of the public sector. Except for statistical reporting, almost no communication or working. Relations exist between MEC and the decentralized system. COMIBOL COMIBOL serves the educational needs of the mining population. It is a complex operation because the mining districts are dispersed in some 16 districts of the country. COMIBOL maintains its own administration, school buildings, supervisors, and teachers. It offers instruction at the primary, secondary, and adult education levels. Pupil enrollment has grown from 6,415 in 1952 to 55,602 in 1978. The latter enrollment data is sub-divided as follows: Preschool and Primary Cycle 32,943 Intermediate Cycle 11,736 Secondary Level 7,106 Adult-Education - Primary Accelerated 2,285 Adult Education - Apprentice ship Training 55,602 22 The enrollment in COMIBOL schools include children, younger brothers and sisters and step-children of workers in active service; children of parents who died on the job or through work-related illness; children of ex-employees who receive social security benefits; children whose parents have indirect relationship with COMIBOL; and those children who live in a mining area where a public school does not exist. Children whose parents are directly related to COMIBOL receive free school supplies, textbooks in grades 1-5, breakfast, and report cards. Children whose parents are not directly related to COMIBOL receive free breakfast and report cards but pay for school supplies and textbooks at cost. University scholarships are awarded to outstanding pupils who will study in mining related fields in Bolivia. COMIBOL maintains an effective system of data collection and reporting. The retention rate of pupils is about 71% annually; part of the loss is through population mobility. The rate of promotion is 88%. The number of teachers has grown From 345 in 1952 to 1,759 in 1978. The current teacher-pupil ratio is about 1:32. Teachers receive social benefits similar to other workers in Bolivia. COMBOL offers its educational services in 137 school plants which comprise 1,433 classrooms. There are 61 adult education centers. The school plants are owned and maintained by COMBOL. While not as large an educational enterprise as COMBOL, Y.P.F.B. is an important component of decentralized education. It spends more on education per pupil than either COMBOL or the public sector. The director of this educational service holds a Masters degree in educational administration from an American university. YPFB began its first school in 1941 at Well No. 6 at the petroleum camp of Camiri. In 1946, it established the co-educational school, "Antofagasta" in the camp of Sanandita, followed by an expansion of educational services to the district of Bermejo and Santa Cruz. The YPFB educational director provided 1980 data for this report. The system attends to the educational needs of 3,709 pupils, mainly children of employees. The distribution is as follows: Preschool Primary (Grades 1-5) Intermediate (Grades 6-8) Secondary (Grades 0-12) There are 147 teachers in the system; 124 cover preschool, primary, and intermediate grades and 23 instruct at the secondary level. The teacher-pupil ratio is about 1:25. Of the 14 school plants owned by YPFBy 12 are primary and two are secondary schools. However, the secondary school at Sanandita was closed recently after the well ran dry. As mentioned earlier, breakfast and lunch are served free to pupils. Books and school supplies are sold. At cost. University scholarships are offered to outstanding students for study in petroleum-related areas in Bolivia. (When funds were plentiful, scholarship students were sent abroad.) YPFB spends about $200 per year per pupil (incontrast with the public sector, which spends a national average of $123). Like COMBOL, YPFB has almost no communication link with the Ministry of Education. It submits its statistical data annually to MEC’s Department of Statistics of the General Direction of Educational Planning. ADULT EDUCATION, LITERACY TRAINING AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION While the initial concern for adult education was publicly announced about 1950, the First National Congress on Adult Education and Literacy in 1969 represented the impetus to implement an intensive program of literacy and adult education with a focus on social change. The National Directorate of Adult and Nom-Formal Education was established to serve any adult over the age of 15. The Constitution considers this area a social necessity. The Code de Education Boliviana presses for the progressive elimination of illiteracy. In 1969, the Armed Forces declared publicly the necessity to fight against illiteracy. The 1970 Pedagogical Congress endorsed a literacy plan in both urban and rural sectors under Supreme Decree No. 9177. The plan called for the training of illiterates in oral and written language, in basic arithmetic and in knowledge of environment. The study of Spanish was to be the vehicle to integrate Bolivia without prejudice toward the native language. The literacy program was to follow existing adult programs of accelerated primary and secondary education, skill training programs and the adult education community centers. According to the Institute Nacional de Estadistas (INE) the illiteracy rate in 1976 was about 37%, This is about half the rate in 1950. However, no definition has been made as to when a person is considered illiterate nor what competencies are necessary for literacy. 