title: History of the city of Rome in the middle ages
creator: Gregorovius, Ferdinand, 1821-1891 | Hamilton, Annie
text: / '<) m iiii^^l ,^/W •ti' !( ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^iJg -^ _^Jf\\\\\\\%\\\,JIK}^MM^lZgl^^Uf/^ --^. A> ■^-.4>> :ä^ •^ f. ÄSI=^ L^i4*"- •^ '*": '?F k^.'4 ».*ir' l.^^^' -^i:-:^ J »v* "-vi-- ^1: it# 3i.\üi *. -• ^,* «2 t*«'' x' "^ '-"X. »"Vi* >C^A1 \«' fc'*)» kV>-.vT- <••»! V^^f T'Jl } "«^'V ,^ t-. 'A *i^'j ir^;;^^^ «^tthdrawn front GREGOROVIUS' HISTORY OF THE CITY OF ROME IN THE MIDDLE AGES. VOL. IV.— PART I. GEORGE BELL & SONS, LONDON : YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN, BOMBAY : 53 ESPLANADE ROAD, AND NEW YORK : 66, FIFTH AVENUE, CAMBRIDGE ; DEIGHTON, BELL & CO, HISTORY OF THE CITY OF ROME IN THE MIDDLE AGES BY FERDINAND GREGOROVIUS TRANSLATED FROM THE FOURTH GERMAN EDITION BY ANNIE HAMILTON VOL. IV.— PART I. LIBRARY KNOX COLLEGE TOROSMTO LONDON GEORGE BELL & SONS 1896 1 ^^fs^ CONTENTS. BOOK VII. History of the City of Rome in the Eleventh Century. CHAPTER I. 1. Position of the City of Rome in the Eleventh Century. Universal History — Influence of the Civic Elements on the Papacy — The Lombards elect Arduin King; the Romans raise John Crescentius to the Patriciate — Death of Sylvester, 1003 — John XVII and XVIII — Tusculum and its Counts — Sergius IV — End of John Crescentius, 1012. 2. Gregory, elected Pope, is expelled by Theophylact or Benedict VIII. — Henry decides in favour of the Tusculan Pope — Journey to Rome and Imperial Coronation of Henry II (1014) — Condition of Rome and Roman Territory, where hereditary Counts have arisen — The Roman Nobility as Senate — Romanus, Senator of all the Romans — Imperial Tribunal — Suppressed Revolt of the Romans — Return of Henry II — End of Arduin, the National King. 3. Vigorous Rule of Benedict VIII in Rome — His undertakings against the Saracens — Rise of Pisa and Genoa — Southern Italy — Rebellion of Melus against Byzantium — First Norman Horde (1017) — Unhappy Fate of Melus — Benedict VIII summons the Emperor to undertake a Campaign — Expedition of Henry II to Apulia (1022). Corrections made: Page 1: In the first paragraph, the text mentions "the Eleventh Century," but the correct reference should be "the Eleventh Century." This has been corrected to "the Eleventh Century" to maintain consistency with the rest of the text. Page 3: In the first paragraph, the text mentions "Henry II, to Apulia (1022)," but the correct reference should be "Henry II, to Apulia (1025)." This has been corrected to "Henry II, to Apulia (1025)" to align with the historical facts. Beginning of the Reform under Benedict VIII. — Death of Benedict, 1024 — His Brother Romanus as John XIX. — Death of Henry II., 1024 — Condition of Italy — John XIX. summons Conrad of Germany to Rome — Spectacle offered by the Expeditions to Rome of the time — Imperial Coronation (1027) — Furious Insurrection of the Romans — King Canute in Rome. Rescript of Conrad II. concerning Roman Law in Papal Territory — His glorious Expedition to Southern Italy — His return — Benedict IX., a Boy of the Tusculan House, is raised to the Papacy — His dissolute Life — Terrible condition of the World at large — The Treuga Dei — Benedict IX. escapes to the Emperor — Social Revolution in Lombardy — Heribert of Milan — The Emperor re-establishes Benedict IX. in Rome — He goes to Southern Italy — His Death, 1029. This text was corrected based on the context and the given instructions. 1. The Romans drive Benedict IX. out of the City and raise Sylvester III. in his stead — Sylvester driven forth by Benedict — Benedict sells the Sacred Chair to Gregory VI. — Three Popes in Rome— A Roman Synod resolves to summon Henry III. to Rome as Deliverer. 2. Henry III. comes to Italy — Council at Sutri (1046) — Abdication of Gregory VI. — Henry III. raises Clement II. to the Papacy — Clement crowns Henry Emperor — Description of the Imperial Coronation — Transference of the Patriciate to Henry III. and his Successors. 3. Beginning of the Reform of the Church— Henry III. goes to South Italy ; returns to Germany by way of Rome — Death of Clement II. (1047) — Benedict IX. seizes the Sacred Chair — Boniface of Tuscany — Henry raises Damasus II. to the Papal Chair— End of Benedict IX. — Death of Damasus — Bruno of Toul appointed to the Papacy. Leo IX., Pope (1049) — His efforts for Reform— Corruption of the Church — Simony — Hildebrand — Poverty of the Pope — Macbeth in Rome — South Italy — Acquisition of Benevento by Leo IX. — His Wars with the Normans — His Defeat at Civita Vecchia — His Death (1054). Hildebrand's Programme — The Emperor nominates Gebhard of Eichstätt to the Papacy — Godfrey of Lorraine marries Beatrix of Tuscany — Henry III. comes to Italy — Victor II., Pope — Death of the Emperor (1056) — Regency of the Empress Agnes — Victor II., Imperial Vicar in Italy — Powerful position of Godfrey — Cardinal Frederick — Death of Victor II. — Stephen IX., Pope. The Hermits and Peter Damiani — Penitential Discipline — Stephen IX. collects distinguished Men around him as Cardinals. Stephen IX. — His Plans and Death — Benedict X. — Nicholas II. — Hildebrand receives aid from the Normans — The new Decree of Election — Progress of the Normans — They take the Oath of Allegiance to the Pope — Fall of Benedict X. Indignation in Rome against the Decree of Election — Death of Nicholas (1061) — The Romans and the Lombards summon King Henry to elect a Pope — Milan — The Pataria — The Cottas and Ariald — The Followers of Hildebrand elect Anselm of Lucca as Pope — The German Court elevates Cadalus of Parma. Alexander II. — Cadalus goes to Italy — Benzo comes to Rome as Envoy of the Regent — Parliament in the Circus and on the Capitol — Cadalus conquers the Leonine City; goes to Tusculum — Godfrey of Tuscany dictates a Truce — Revolution in Germany — Alexander II. recognised as Pope (1062) — He enters Rome. Hanno is overthrown in Germany — Cadalus returns to Rome — Second Civil War concerning the Papacy — Fall of Cadalus — Final Recognition of Alexander II. Growing Power of Hildebrand — Efforts for Reform — The Normans — Richard's Revolt and March to Rome — Godfrey and the Pope lead an Army against him — Fresh Treaty — The Empress Agnes takes the Veil in Rome — Fighting in Milan — Herlembald Cotta — Miles of S. Peter — Death of Ariald. Weakness of the Pope in Rome — Dissolution of the State of the Church — City Prefecture — Cencius, Head of the Malcontents — Cinthius, Prefect of the City — Death of Godfrey of Tuscany — Death of Peter Damiani — Monte Casino — Festival of the Dedication of the Basilica rebuilt by Desiderius (1071). Death of Alexander II. — Hildebrand ascends the Papal Chair — His Career; his Aims — His Ordination on June 29, 1073, ...... Gregory VII. receives the Oath of Fealty from the Princes of Benevento and Capua — It is refused by Robert Guiscard — Gregory's Scheme of making the Princes Vassals and their Dominions Fiefs of the Roman Church — His summons to a General Crusade — Matilda and Gregory VII. — Gregory's first Council in Rome; his Decree of Reform, ...... State of things in Rome — Gregory's Opponents — Wibert of Ravenna — Henry IV. — Resistance in Germany to Gregory's Decrees — Decision against Lay Investiture — Attempt of the Roman Senate against Gregory, ...... Breach between Gregory and Henry — The King deposes the Pope at Worms — His Letter to Gregory — Henry is excommunicated and deposed in Rome — Consternation aroused by the step — Relations between the two Opponents — Gregory's Twenty-seven Articles, ...... Revolt of the Estates of the Empire from Henry IV. — He divests himself of the Regal Power— He seeks Absolution from the Ban — Canossa (1077) — Moral Greatness of Gregory VII. — The Lombards renounce the King — He makes Overtures to them— Death of Cencius — Death of Cinthius — Death of the Empress Agnes in Rome, ...... Henry regains Courage — Rudolf of Swabia, rival King — Henry returns to Germany, Gregory to Rome — Fall of the last Lombard Dynasties in South Italy — Retrospective view of the Lombard Nation — Robert tenders Gregory the Oath of Vassalage — William the Conqueror and Gregory — The Pope recognizes Rudolf and excommunicates Henry a second time — Wibert of Ravenna Anti-Pope — Turning point in the History of Henry and Gregory, ...... This book is dedicated to all those who, like me, have ever wondered about the history of the Papacy and its influence on the world. I hope this narrative will not only educate but also entertain, as I have endeavored to make it as engaging as possible given the subject matter. 1. Henry IV. advances against Rome (1081) — First Siege of the City — Second Siege in the Spring of 1082 — He retires to Farfa — He marches to Tivoli, where Clement III. takes up his abode — He lays waste the Property of the great Countess, ..... 223 2. Henry IV. besieges Rome for the third time (1082-1083) — Capture of the Leonine City — Gregory VII. in S. Angelo — Henry negotiates with the Romans — Firmness of the Pope — Jordan of Capua does Homage to the King — Desiderius effects a Peace — Henry's Treaty with the Romans — His Retreat to Tuscany — Failure of Gregory's November Synod — The Romans break their Oath to the King, . 229 3. Henry's Retreat to Campania — The Romans desert Gregory — They surrender the City (1084) — Gregory shuts himself up in S. Angelo — He is deposed by a Roman Parliament, and Clement III. is elected in his stead — Henry IV. is crowned by the Anti-Pope — The Emperor takes the Septizonium and the Capitol by storm — The Romans besiege the Pope in S. Angelo — Gregory's Distress — The Duke of the Normans comes to his relief — Henry's Retreat — Robert Guiscard takes Rome — Terrible Destruction of the City, . 237 4. Hildebert's Lament over the Fall of Rome — Ruin of the City in the time of Gregory VII., . 248 5. Departure of Gregory VII. into Exile — His Fall — His Death in Salerno— His Figure in Universal History, . 254 Desiderius is raised by force to the Papal Chair as Victor III. He escapes to Monte Casino; he resumes the Papal Dignity in 1087 — Is consecrated in Rome — Condition of the City — Victor III. escapes to Monte Casino, where he dies (1087) — Election and Ordination of Otto of Ostia as Urban II. (1088). Urban II. — Clement III. in possession of Rome — Urban II. throws himself into the arms of the Normans, who conduct him to Rome — His disconsolate Position in the City — Matilda's Marriage with Guelf V. — Henry IV. returns to Italy (1090) — The Romans summon Clement III. back to the City — Rebellion of the youthful Conrad — Urban II. seizes Rome. The Phenomenon of the Crusades — Strengthening of the Papacy through this Universal Movement — Urban II. preaches "the Crusade" in Piacenza and in Clermont (1095) — Relations of the City of Rome to the Crusades and to Chivalry — The Normans of Italy take the Cross — The Army of French Crusaders marches through Rome and drives away Clement III. — Return of Urban II., Attitude of Henry IV. to the first Crusade— The Pope places himself at the Head of the General Movement — Guelf V. separates from Matilda — The Guelfs desert to Henry's Camp — Henry IV. returns to Germany (1097) — End of his Tragic Struggles — Death of Urban II., 1099— Death of Conrad, now; of Henry IV., 1106, Culture of Rome in the Eleventh Century — Guido of Arezzo invents Musical Notes — Condition of the Libraries — The Pomposa — Monte Casino — Farfa — Gregory of Catino — Subiaco — Beginning of the collection of Roman Regesta — Deusdedit — Defective continuation of the History of the Popes — The Regesta of Gregory VII. — Peter Damiani — Bonizo — Anselm of Lucca — Polemical Writings concerning the Investiture, Position of the City of Rome in the Eleventh Century in Universal History — Influence of the Civic Elements on the Papacy — The Lombards ELECT ARDUIN KING; THE ROMANS RAISE John Crescentius to the Patriciate — Death of Sylvester, 1003 — John XVII. and XVIII. — Tusculum and its Counts — Sergius IV. — End of John Crescentius, 112. The eleventh century forms one of the most important epochs in the annals of the Papacy. A greater contrast between the utter decay and the sudden revival of the same power is nowhere else encountered in history. The extinction of the house of Otto was succeeded by conditions which resembled the conditions that had followed the extinction of the Carolingian Empire. The papal power sank both morally and politically, while the city exerted itself to obtain its final emancipation from the papal yoke. Its efforts proved unsuccessful, since the Papacy remained an indestructible principle hostile to civic development, a principle which could only be temporarily repressed but could never be removed, and which, through the aid of foreign powers, was always able to recover its ascendency. In Rome no burgher class existed sufficiently strong to form a firm foundation for a secular constitution. There still remained merely the powerful noble families, the captains or great feudal vassals of the Church in city and country, who snatched the power from the Pope, to quarrel for it among themselves. These men ruled Rome as patricians in the first half of the eleventh century; they appointed popes from amongst their relatives, and made the Sacred Chair a family possession, and the Papacy fell into a condition of such utter barbarism that the times of the most infamous emperors of antiquity seemed to have been renewed. Then followed, however, that memorable reaction which, with marvellous rapidity, raised the Roman Church into a cosmopolitan power. Civic affairs contributed very materially to this result; the city itself providing the immediate causes for far-reaching movements. Its existing relations to the emperors and the popes, even the events which occurred within the narrow circuit of its walls, its opposition to the spiritual dominion, the difficulty in which the popes were placed through the civic nobility, the permanent condition of indigence, self-defence, and vigilance in which they were kept, all these causes contributed to produce more or less remote effects and wide-spread political results. We may assert that, without the constant opposition of the city of Rome to the spiritual government, the history of the Papacy would not have followed the course which it took both before and after Gregory VII. The conception of the Roman patriciate from the eleventh century onwards became of world-wide importance. It invested the German kings, who snatched it from the Roman nobility and allied it to their crown, with power over the city and the right of nomination to the Sacred Chair. It therefore became the foremost object of the struggle between the Church — struggling to obtain her emancipation — and the State. The Church had scarcely entered on the path of inward reform when she strove with all her power to throw off the yoke of the Patricius. Neither creatures of the nobility, nor creatures of the king, were to be appointed to the Papacy: the papal election must be free and the independent work of the clergy. The patriciate of the city thus called forth the celebrated statute of election of Nicholas II, and the creation of the College of Cardinals, and the struggle of the popes against the patriciate at length developed into a struggle against the right of investiture in general. The great conflict concerning investiture governed the history of the city in the latter half of the eleventh century. Rome continued to be its source and the scene of strife on which Hildebrand displayed his genius and his marvellous activity, not only in founding a new ecclesiastical state with feudal territories, but in forming the Papacy, after its emancipation from the patriciate, into an all-ruling power. Tedious civil wars and terrible misfortunes overtook unhappy Rome in consequence of the great struggle between the Church and the Empire, and we shall see these struggles prolonged into the twelfth century, until the city itself issues from these great convulsions during the period of the rising city republics of Italy, itself in the new form of a republic. After the death of Otto III, Italy found herself freed from her king, Rome from her pope. No heir could claim the title of the first Otto. A favourable opportunity had arisen for the Italians to pronounce the German royal and imperial power over their country extinguished and to attain independence. As in the time of Berengar, North Italy immediately transferred the crown of the Lombards to a native prince, and Arduin, Margrave of Ivrea, a powerful noble whom Otto III had placed under the ban of the Empire, was elected King in Pavia as early as February 15, 1002. Arduin made a royal progress through the country, and even cherished hopes of the imperial crown. Such of the Lombard bishops as adhered to the German monarchy made strenuous resistance, and among these prelates, Leo, Bishop of Vercelli, a favourite of Otto III, was Arduin's most formidable opponent. The Romans placed the patrician diadem on the head of the son of the celebrated Crescentius, and John entered on a ten years' rule as lord of the city. His family was hostile to the German monarchy, but was beloved by the Romans, owing to the sacrifices it had made for the freedom of the city. Therefore, the populace, renouncing the Counts of Tusculum, turned to the Crescentii. The relations of the new Patricius, John and Crescentius, sons of Benedict and Theodoranda, ruled as Counts in the Sabina; John even called himself duke and margrave, perhaps because he also ruled over Spoleto and Camerino. The Patricius also made another Crescentius Prefect of the city, and effected a marriage between his own sister Rogata, now Senatrix of the Romans, and Octavian, son of Joseph, a Lombard duke in the Sabina. Meno vero ipso Imp, Jokes. Crescentii ordinatus est patricius, qui Johannes et Crescentio, filios praedicti comitis ut dilectos consanguineos averitgate cepit. Chron, Farr., p. 541. He appears in 1003 Patricius Urbis R. (Reg. Farr., n. 649). Stephen was still prefect in the year 1002 (Docum. of S. Cosma, Mscr. Vatican, 7931, p. 30). In documents Crescentius appears as holding the office from 1003. Contempor, de Praf. Urb., erroneously calls him "il" Turre; an appellation which belonged to his brother: Marinus qui vocor de Turre. A. 1036, 15 Nov., Reg. Farr. n. 620. The Prefect Crescentius was not the brother of the Patricius John, since in this case Marinus would have been proud of being brother to the Patricius. Two celebrated documents in the Reg. Farr., n. 504 (Oct. 1007), n. 523 (Oct. 1013). The first: Temporibus Dominus Johannes, S. P. et XVIII PP. et Dominus Johannes Patricius Romanorum, et Ven. Rainerius Episcopus, et Dominus Oddonius et Crescentius Comes Territorii Sabinae. In M. Octobris Ind. V. Constat nos dominus Octavianus Vir magnificus, filius cujusdicet Josephus, seu et Dominus Rogatus illist. jugalis filius cujusdicet Crescentii. M. — pro anima Dni. Crescentii, genitoris mei, et D. Theodori genitricis meae, nec supte Rogati, et pro an. Johannis Patricii, Rogianorum germani mei et Senioris nostri. In n. 523, Octavianus nomines D. Rogatam. HISTORY OF ROME Death of The aged Sylvester meanwhile bewailed his lonely, May ess for another year in the deserted Lateran, where he may, however, have found solace in his beloved parchments, until a violent death finally released him on May 12, 1003. His third successor erected a monument to his memory in S. John's, and we may still read the eulogy on the celebrated Pope and recall the various legends with which the Middle Ages adorned the life of this "Magician" on the throne of Peter. The epitaph laments that peace vanished from the Senatus conjugum meum. Oddo and Crescentius, the sons of Octavian, were counts in the Sabina about 1024; the county remained in the family until the beginning of the twelfth century. The genealogical tree in Sperandio (Sabina sacra, p. 131) is inaccurate. According to documents, it is more probably as follows: Joseph, Dux in the Sabina, died 998 = Theodora. Octavianus = Rogata. Joh. Crescentius, Patricius, died 1012. Oddo, Comes, married Crescentius, married Marozza, married Doda, to Theodora, to Gregory, widow 1060, son of Amatus, Comes Campaniae. Johannes. Crescentius. Johannes. Cencius. Guido. Octavianus. Oddo. Iste locus mundi Sylvesteri sepulti Ventura Domino conferet ad sonitum. Stephania oder Theodora war said to have poisoned him as well as Otto III.; Siegbert (who died in 113) believed that he had been carried off by the devil. Orderich Vitalis, William of Malmesbury, Martin Polonus, Walter Map (De nugis curialium, Dist. iv. c. ii) relate legends concerning Sylvester. In the Middle Ages, the world on his death, and that the Church sank into confusion. The reigns of the two popes who succeeded him are, however, wrapped in complete obscurity. John XVII. Sico died in the course of seven months, and John XVIII. ascended the Sacred Chair on December 25, 1003. Both were Romans, relatives or creatures of the Patricius who had raised them. During his pontificate of more than five years, John XVIII. scarcely ventured to turn his timid glance towards the distant Kings of Germany. The Duke of Bavaria, who had there succeeded to the throne as Henry II., desired to revive the Imperium in the German nation; Arduin, however, King at all events in his Alpine heights, stood between him and the imperial crown. The Bavarian had overcome, if not removed, his rival, and had assumed the crown of Italy in rebellious Pavia, on May 14, 1004, nevertheless had returned to Germany. Arduin's defeat, Henry's coronation, and the expectation of his journey to Rome, combined to give the German party in the city a fresh access of power. This party was now led by the Counts of Tusculum, who, from hatred to the Crescentii, feigned a sympathy for the German monarchy. Cod. Vat. 3764 : Iohs, qui vocatur Sicco, nat. Rom. de regione Biberatica. m. V. d. XXV.—Iohs, qui voc. Fasanus de regione secus portam metrovi sed. a. V. The R. Biberatica is to be found in Regio Montium. The first year of John XVIII is given by an instrument from S. Cosma in Mica Aurea (Mscr. Vat., 7931, p. 33) : Anno Pont. Dom. Iohis octavidesimi pape in sede anno primo m. madius Ind. II., therefore 1004. His last year is mentioned by the 11th Sublac., fol. 88, a. VI. Iohis XVIII Ind. VII. m. Januar, die XI, therefore 1009. Fifteen miles distant from Rome, the ruins of Tusculum, ancient and mediaeval Tusculum still stand on the heights above Frascati. The city was older than Rome, its origin being lost in the myths of Odysseus, by whom and by his son Telegonus, it was said to have been founded. As a seat of Latin power, it long made war on Rome. Its ruler, Mamilius Octavius, there gave shelter to his father-in-law, the last Tarquinius, and himself fell in the battle of Lake Regillus. Various illustrious families — the Mamilii, the Fulvii, the Fonteiani, the Juventii — owed their origin to Tusculum, but greater than any of these were the Porcii, for this gloomy fortress had also been the cradle of the Catos. Many figures, conspicuous during the prime of Roman learning, meet the traveller amid the ruins of Tusculum. He there discovers the site of Cicero's Academy and the villa in which he wrote the Tusculan Disputations. Brutus, Hortensius, Lucullus, and Crassus, Metellus, Caesar, and the later emperors owned villas at Tusculum; the fertile slope being covered with luxurious country houses in Roman times, even as Frascati, the delightful successor of Tusculum which arose in the Middle Ages long before Tusculum itself perished, is covered with the beautiful villas of the Roman nobility at the present day. In the Middle Ages, the name Monte Porzio is probably derived from swine. Document of the year 1151, Cod. Albiti Vatican, fol. 1151. And as early as 1074, (Nibby, Analisi, ii. 357). Bishops of Tusculum appear from the middle of the 6th century. Mattei (Mem. Ist. del Museo Tuscolo, Roma, 1711) repeats all the fictions of Zazzera, Kircher, Arnold Vion, etc. Concerning Tusculum in the Middle Ages, in the 10th century, the Tusculan municipium was an almost impregnable town, filled with the ruins of ancient magnificence. The owner of the fortress ruled over the Latin mountains and a part of the Campagna, and its site gave Tusculum a greater importance than it was possible for any other stronghold in Roman territory to possess. The resident family of counts (de Tusculana) were descended from Marozia and Theodora, and the counts of the family name of Theophylact, which they preserved, Tusculum. shows the Senator of Rome to have been an ancestor of the house. Alberic, the son of Marozia, may possibly have inherited Tusculum from his mother; no document, however, gives any information on the subject. We might boldly trace the Tusculan family to Theophylact, did we not hesitate to trifle with genealogical trees which lead us back to Mamilius Octavius. Gregory, Senator of the Romans, bearing the title de Tusculana, appears for the first time in history during the reign of Otto III, as a favourite of the Emperor and undoubtedly as Count of Tusculum. The life of Middle Ages, see G. Tomassetti, "Campagna Romana" (Archivio d. Soc. Rom., ix. 1886). The family cannot be historically traced beyond Theodora and Theophylact, as even Tomassetti, in his attempt at a genealogical tree, maintains. In the Reg. Petri Diaconi (n. 257 in M. Casino) a Count of Tusculum writes in the beginning of ssec. xii.: Ptolemaeus Julia stirpe progenitus romanorum consul excell. Petro nepoti. Alberic laid claim to this descent, and consequently gave his son the name of Octavian. The oldest deed concerning Tusculum contains the lease of a mill from the Count Palatine Alberic in 1028: from S. Maria Nova (Arch. Vat., 8043). Then documents from the middle of ssec. xi. in the Reg. Petri Diaconi; from ssec. xii. in Albinus and Cencius. First mentioned as Dom. Gregorius Romanor. Senator A. 986. HISTORY OF ROME. S. Nilo depicts him as a rich, crafty, and violent despot, and relates that on coming to Rome in 1002, he presented the saint with a piece of land on which the Basilian Monastery of Grottaferrata was founded. Gregory, son or grandson of Alberic, had married Maria and became the father of three sons, Alberic, Romanus, and Theophylact. These lawless barons, like birds of prey, looked down from the heights of Tusculum upon Rome, where John Crescentius now ruled as Patricius, and where Alberic fifty years before had reigned with royal power. They aimed at making Rome a family possession, and a favourable opportunity soon occurred. On the death of John XVIII, in June 1009, the Tusculans apparently succeeded in obtaining a papal election favourable to their cause. The successor to the throne was a Roman nobleman named Gerberus. The Tusculans now hoped to dominate both the city and the papacy, and they sent their agents to Rome to watch over the new pope. However, Gerberus proved to be independent and unyielding, and the Tusculan barons soon found themselves in conflict with him. This led to a series of struggles that would last for decades, with the papacy and the noble families of Rome vying for power and influence. The child who died in 1030 is called the neos of the great Prince Alberic; his father, Gregory, however, was grandson of Gregory of Tusculum (who, according to documents, died before 1012). John XIX., was great-uncle to the child. Catalog. Eccardi: Phasianus Card. s. Petri, qui et John de patre Urso Presbytero, mater Stephania, post annos V. et dimid. in S. IN THE MIDDLE AGES. II vacant throne was Sergius IV., Bishop of Albano, himself perhaps a Tusculan, under whose pontificate the Crescentii gradually lost ground. John Crescentius meanwhile continued to administer the government, and the Acts of the time show his term of rule as Senator of the Romans and Patricius officially registered in 101. They show him as supreme judge of Rome and the territory belonging to the city, holding Placita in his palace, as Alberic had done in former days, surrounded by his judges, who called themselves senators, and alongside of Crescentius Prefect of the city. John, however, was troubled by recollections of Patilo monk, who had been thrust into a convent cell from the Sacred Chair? Had he been Patilo monachus discessit? Jaffe shows that he was consecrated between June 20 and August 24. His family name in the Catalog. Eccardi: ex patre Petro, in mater Stephania, cognomen Bucca porca. Bucca frequently appears in Roman names of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Bucca di pecora, Buccalupo, Buccafusco, Buccacane, Buccafazza, Buccapiscis, Buccazonca, Buccamola, Buccabella. Thietmar, vi. c. 61: Sergius, qui vocabatur buccaporcus, atque Benedictus, ambo praclari et consolidatores nostrae i.e. of the German party. Reg. Farn., n. 651: Temporibus Sergii IV. Pp. et John patricius Romanorum et Crescentii et Ottonis insimul coniitum rectorumque territorii Sublacensis, m. Aug. per. Ind. IX.; and Reg. Sublac., fol. 115: Temporibus. Domnus Johannes Senator Romanus patricius. Reg. Pars., n. 649, 689, 690. In n. 649 the Patricius commands the Prefect to summon the parties. A memoratorium was drawn up per patricialem receptionem; all this due resideret intra dominum suum predicato, domus, patricius cum. . . . domino Prefecto, signa et cum ipsis optimates et judices Romanorum. Jak, Domus gr. Romanorum patricius, first signs himself, then Crescentius Domus gr. Urbis Romanus prefectus. The judices are the ordinarii, to them are added the dativi, then counts and nobilium, assistants. In n. 689, inscriptio domus patricii et judicum atque nobilium Senatorum. 12 HISTORY OF ROME This unfortunate father; he also dreaded the Roman expedition of Henry II. The Pope desired the King's presence, the Patricius strove to keep him at a distance. John's envoys held negotiations with Arduin and even with Boleslaw of Poland with the object of detaining the King on the other side of the Alps. While John ruled in Rome, plundered S. Peter's and appropriated property belonging to the Church, he flattered King Henry as his over-lord by letters and presents, but strove in every way to hinder his coronation. His rule, which was only possible in the absence of an emperor, filled the interval until the next imperial coronation. He died, however, in the beginning of the year 1012, before Henry's arrival, and his death restored a measure of freedom to the Papacy, while at the same time it smoothed the path of the German King to Rome. That we know so little of a Patricius who for twelve years retained the government of the city, withheld the temporal power from the popes, and who, during the same length of time, restored civic freedom to the Romans, is solely due to the defective chroniclers. The son of the celebrated Crescentius must have been a man of vigorous character. Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich II, by Siegfried Hirsch, vol. ii., completed by Herrn. Pabst, Berlin, 1864, p. 383. Thietmar (vii. c. 51) relates that he sent the King (seniori suo) miraculous oil. He calls him apost. sedis destructor . . . qui cum non loquere post obiret . . . papa securitas, regi nostra amplior potestas asseritur. The Patricius John is mentioned on July 1, 1012 (Reg. Farisy 649), and for the last time on December 11, loii {Reg. Far/, 689). There is no mention of him on March 27, 1012 {Reg. Far/.^ 690), but the Prefect and his brother Marinus appear (probably) in his stead. IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 13 Although of his measures in the city we are entirely ignorant. His death, which was soon followed by the death of Pope Sergius, caused the overthrow of the Crescentii. This family, which shines in the barbarism of the Middle Ages like some family of barbarous Gracchi or Bruti, and which courageously made war against popes and emperors, long survived in the Sabina. In Rome, however, where for upwards of a century the name Crescentius is of frequent occurrence, the family never attained any further degree of importance. It left the field vacant for the Counts of Tusculum, who immediately arose, long tyrannized over Rome, and transformed the Chair of Peter into a hereditary possession. The epitaph of Sergius IV, which bears no date, is still to be read in the Lateran. A document of the same Pope (Grant of the Castrum Scurice) dat. III. Kal. Aprilis A. MX., in Theiner's Cod. Diplom. Dominii Temp. S. Sedis, i. n. vi., shows that even under the rule of the Patricius the popes continued to administer the Church property. There are several epitaphs of the Crescentii of this period. One, for instance, in S. Cosma and Damiano, of the 6th April 1000 (Galletti, Inscr. iii. 271); another in Araceli: Hic jacet in parvo Magnus Crescentius antro, &c., erected in 1028 to the dead by his mother Mizina, wife of the Consul Horatius (Casimiri, p. 272). The Magnus is the playful antithesis to "Parvus"; we need not necessarily suppose that it refers to the city prefect. Horatius Crescentius is not mentioned elsewhere. The epitaph of Mizina in S. Alessio is given by Nerini, p. 325. Gregory, elected Pope, is expelled by Theophylact— ACT or Benedict VIII. — Henry decides in favour of the Tuscan Pope. Journey to Rome and Imperial Coronation of Henry II. (1014) — Condition of Rome and Roman Territory, WHERE HEREDITARY COUNTS HAVE ARISEN — The Roman Nobility as Senate — Romanus, Senator of all the Romans — Imperial Tribunal — Suppressed Revolt of the Romans — Return of Henry II — End of Arduin, the National King. The party of the Crescentii, it is true, raised Gregory, a Roman, to the papal chair, but the new Pope was immediately overthrown by his Tusculan opponent. Theophylact, son of Gregory of Tusculum, with his brothers forced a way into the city: the two factions fought for the possession of the tiara and the civic power until Theophylact expelled his rival, forcibly seized the Lateran, and, from the condition of layman, caused himself to be consecrated Pope as Benedict VIII. These events took place in May 1012. until 1024. In the absence of any emperor, the Roman nobility had resumed the right of election; the banished Gregory, however, hastened to the King in Germany to demand his rights. Henry took his papal insignia and comforted him with the promise that on his arrival in Rome he would cause the dispute to be investigated in canonical form. The confusion which Baronius and Muratori make between Benedict VIII and the exiled Gregory has already been mentioned. Envoys of Benedict VIII had also arrived at the German court; the Tusculan Pope hastened to secure the Chair of Peter, while he gained the dreaded King to his side. Henry II abandoned the perhaps canonically elected Gregory to his fate, and permitted a Tusculan count to remain Pope. Benedict VIII, supported by the power of his house, established himself in the pontificate; he banished the Crescentii; the Prefect of the city, bearing the name, was dismissed, and John, another Roman, installed in the office; the most influential posts fell into the hands of the Tusculan party. But no one ventured to rectify the chronology; Pagi and Mansi have also corrected the chronology. Jaffe's opinion, that Benedict VIII was consecrated on June 22, is not tenable, although a diploma of Sergius IV is dated June 16, 112 (in Baronius). In the Acts of Subiaco, Benedict VIII appears as Pope as early as May 1012: Benedict VIII, A. I m. Mar. die V.; and 1016: A. V. Bened. VIII. Ind. XIV m. Mar. die XXI (Cod. Sessor., cccxvii. p. 263). In the Reg. Far., n. 670, his second year is mentioned on May 23, 1013: Bened. VIII. Papa in S. Sede II, Ind. XI. m. Maß d. XXIII. Chron. Farf., p. 542, says: Patricio . .. mortuo, ordinatus est dorn. Benedictus papa, qui contrarius exstiiit filiis Benedicti comitis. The papal catalogues designate Benedict VIII, z.'s.frater Alberici jtaiaoris, or nat. tusculanus ex Patre Gregorio. Benno, Vita Hildebr., 83: Benedict VIII., laicus frater Albrici Tusculanensis, patruus Theophylacti (i.e., of Benedict IX.). Catal. Eccardi also calls Benedict VIII. Theophylact: Theophylactus qui et Benedictus ex patre nob. Gregorio tusculano, matre Maria. A document of August 2, 1014 (Reg. Farf., n. 525), is signed Thespfklbetke qui Benedictis papa vocor interfeciet subscripsi: Muratori rightly reads "Theophylactus" out of these letters. On December 4, 1015, a sfol. dni gr. Urbis Rome prefectus appears beside the Consul Alberic (Reg. Farf, n. 535). On August 20, 1017, however, a Crescentius reappears as Prefect (Reg. Farf., n. 537. I do not take him to have been the brother of Marinus. On HISTORY OF ROME to usurp the dignity of the patriciate, which was adjudged to the German King; the Pope, however, placed his brother at the head of the administration and of justice. The "most illustrious Consul and Dux" Alberic, already under Otto III, magister of the Imperial Palatinate, dwelt in his ancestral palace near Santi Apostoli and here held courts of justice as the Patricius John had done in former days. Meanwhile, after having assured Benedict through an envoy of his recognition, and having received in return the promise of his coronation as emperor, Henry set forth on his journey to Rome. He celebrated Christmas of 1013 at Pavia, and forced Arduin to retire to his march of Ivrea. While the national party in Rome was weakened by the death of a Patricius, the bold Piedmontese still wore the purple of the King of Italy. This great title only once corresponded to its signification, namely, when the beautiful country was actually united under the sceptre of the Goths; all kings, however, who henceforward adorned themselves with the title, bore it in virtue of a kingdom which they did not entirely possess. Arduin, who called nothing his own but a June 9, 1019, Marinus german. Crescentii olim urbis rome prefecti (Reg. Farfa., n. 557), while a document of November 23, 1019, says: Cresc. dni gr. urbis rome prefect. (Mittarelli, i. n. civ.). On June 17, 1036, a Crescentius once more appears as Prefect of the city (Reg. Sublac, fol. 'jt^); while on November 15, 1036, Marinus says precisely as in 1019: Crescentio olim prefecto germano vieo (Reg. Farther on, number 620. There were innumerable Crescentii at this period. Reg. Farf., n. 670. Trial in favor of Farfa of May 23, 1013, intra domum Alberici eminent, Consulis et Ducis juxta Ss. Apostolus (where the Palazzo Colonna now stands). In the Middle Ages, only a few towns and mountain territories, may, nevertheless, claim the glory of having been the last King of Italy before the days of Victor Emmanuel. He made the attempt to exclude the foreigner from Italy, but saw the German King march to Rome and was powerless to interrupt his progress. Henry met the Pope in Ravenna; then departed Roman for Rome, whither Benedict had preceded him. Here the faction of the Crescentii was still numerous and was headed by John and Crescentius, nephews of the Patricius. Agents of Arduin, in alliance with these two men, stirred up the people to oppose the restoration of the Imperium, which they had banished from Rome fifteen years before. But the sight of Henry's mail-clad troops quelled the efforts of the National party, and the German King was greeted on his entrance by the people with hymns of praise, according to ancient custom. He and his wife Cunigunde were received at the gate of the Leonina by the Scholae. Twelve Senators surrounded them, six of whom wore long beards, the rest were beardless, all carried wands in their hands and "mystically" walked onwards. It is possible that these twelve men represented the regions of the city, with the exception of Trastevere and the Leonina, both of which quarters stood under papal administration. On February 14, 1014, the coronation took place in S. Peter's according to the traditional forms. 