The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature
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UBigs fe "\ ( — PACIFIC SCHOOL ) OF RELigiON. <a PILL AD EPH IAs oN ge GID 1) A OO. ; 1882. | Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by J. M. STODDART & CO.,, | In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. / ' ae re | ; j fe st =) 1 \ a ‘ : [ or ' by ; bez i ’ =f vl i sz ~ , ver « \ Jp | t ra ‘ ihe Ay F } si oie A th i y fi Mereotypers and Blectrotypers v8, Philada kbinders, Philada, | ee or me ENCYCLOPASDIA BRITANNICA. KAOLIN. ee OLN. a name applied to the pure white clay which forms an important ingredient in the man- ufacture of porcelain, and which is, therefore, known also as china clay. Large quantities are raised in Corn- wall, whence it is frequently termed Cornish clay. The name /ewolin is said to be derived from a hill near King- tih-chin, in China, named Kao-ling or ‘‘ lofty ridge.’’ The clay from this locality was first sent to Hurope, under the name of kaolin, by the Pére d’Entrecolles, a Jesuit missionary who resided at King-tih-chin in the early part of the last century. A similar white clay was soon afterwards found at Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, and was used by Bottcher in the manufacture of porcelain, thus laying the foundation of the factory at Meissen for producing the famous Dresden china. In England kaolin was first detected in Cornwall by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth, about 1755, a dis- covery which resulted in the manufacture of hard paste china at Plymouth and Bristol. In Cookworthy’s writings the clay is called ‘‘caulin.’’ Kaolin is found in Nebraska, and in several of the Eastern States of the American Union. Certain clays, when examined under the microscope, are seen to contain crystalline pearly scales of a mineral which Messrs. Johnson and Blake have described as kaolinite (American Journal of Science, ser. ii. vol. xlii., 1867, p. 3851). They regard this crystalline substance as a distinct mineral species, a hydrated sili- cate of aluminium, forming the basis of pure kaolin. Its composition appears to agree with Forchhammer’s formula for true kaolin, viz., Al,O3.2Si0, + 2H,O. My. J. H. Collins regards the crystalline scales which are associated with the Cornish kaolin, not as kaolinite, but as a white lithia-mica or lepidolite. Kaolin is almost invariably a product of the altera- tion of felspar, and is therefore always found in asso- ciation with felspathie rocks, usually granite. The china-clay rocks of Cornwall and Devon are simply pees in which the orthoclase-felspar has become ecomposed or kaolinized. Such rocks are termed by Mr. Collins carclazite, after the Carclaze mine, near St. Austell, where typical varieties occur. The pro- ‘duction of kaolin from felspar is rather difficult to ex- plain, inasmuch as the alteration is sometimes observed under conditions which appear to preclude the opera- tion of atmospheric agencies. It is not simply the effect of water charged with carbonic acid, whereby the felspar might be decomposed and its alkaline silicate removed as a soluble carbonate, while the silicate of aluminium remained behind, in a hydrated condition, as kaolin or china clay. Many chemists have been in- clined to attribute the decomposition to the effect of water or watery vapor at a high temperature, charged with hydrofluoric and boric acids. It is certain that minerals containing fluorine and boron—such as fluor spar, lepidolite, and schorl—are common associates of caolin. The localities from which kaolin is obtained in Bri- tain are all situated in Cornwall and Devon; in the former county the workings are principally in the neigh- borhood of St. Austell, St. Stephen's, and Breague, while in Devon they are situated at Lee Moor and Meavy, on the south of Dartmoor. In working the clay the ‘“‘overburden”’ or superficial deposit is first removed, in order to reach the clay-hearing rock. The rock is broken up by the pick, and water is introduced to wash out the clay. A quantity of sand is left be- hind, and requires to be constantly removed. The water containing the clay in suspension is either pumped to the surface up a shaft, or, if the working be upon a hillside, is run out at an adit level. This clay-water is led into channels called ‘‘ drags,’’ where the sand and coarser flakes of mica are deposited. From the drags the liquid passes into another set of channels called ‘“micas,’’? in which further deposition of suspended matter occurs. ‘Thus purified, the clay-water 1s con- ducted into a series of pits and tanks, where the finely- divided particles of clay slowly subside. In the tanks it is allowed to settle until it acquires a thick creamy consistency, when it is transferred to the drying-house or ‘‘dry.’’ Formerly the clay was dried naturally by exposure to sun and air, but it is now always artificially dried by means of heated flues, and the preparation of the clay is thus greatly facilitated. China clay is not only used in the manufacture of pottery, but is also extensively employed by the paper- maker and by the calico-bleacher. It is likewise used to a small extent in the manufacture of alum, artificial ultramarine, and some other chemical products. In 1880 the quantity of china clay raised in Cornwall amounted to 278,572 tons, and in Devon to 25,370 tons. See J. H. Collins, in Jowrnal of the Society of Arts, May 5, 1876; and Yreatise on China Clay, by D. Cock, 1880. KAPURTHALA, or KopurtHELia, a native state in the Punjab, India, lying between 31° 9% and 31° 397 30’ N. lat., and between 73° 37 15’” and 75° 387 30’ Ki. long. Area, 800 square miles; estimated popula- tion, 250,000. The Kapurthdla family at one time held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej, and also in the Bari Doab. _The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered possessions in the Bari Dodb were escheated Auge to be 4 the hostility of the chief in the first Sikh war, but the latter possessions were afterwards restored to the family in recognition of the loyalty of Réja Randhfr Sinh during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh which did good service. He also received a grant of estates in Oudh, 850 square miles in extent, and with an estimated population of 220,000. In these tracts, however, he exercised no sovereign powers, 0c- cupying the status only of a large landholder. His total revenue is estimated at £170,000, subject to a charge of £13,000 payable to the British Government in commutation of military service. KARACHL See Kurracuer, KARA-HISSAR is the name of several towns in Asiatic Turkey. (1.) Arium Kara Hissar has been already noticed, vol. i. p. 219. (2.) Eskr Kara His- SAR, lies 10 miles to the north of Afium. It is iden- tified with the ancient Synnada, which in the time of | Pliny was the chief town of a considerable district. The quarries of Docimia, which furnished the famous Synnadic or Docimitic marble, are about 24 miles dis- 29 tant, and in the town numerous traces have been found | of ancient sculpture in various stages of execution (see Hamilton's Asia Minor, i. 461, 11. 177; and Texier, Asie Mineure). (3.) The eastern Kara-Hissar, usu- ally distinguished by the prefix Shabin (7. e., ‘‘alum’’), is situated in the vilayet of Siwas, about 70 miles east of Niksar, on a northern tributary of the Lycus. It is the seat of a mutasarrif or vice-governor, and on a hill to the east there is an old castle, which must at one time have been of military importance. The popula- tion is estimated at 11,000, mainly Mohammedans, though Armenians also form an important element. The district is rich in mineral products—silver, lead, copper, and iron; but only the alum mines, yielding from 120 to 250 tons per annum, are worked. The remains of the citadel, the ruins of a Byzantine church, traces of Roman brickwork, ancient coins, and a few Greek and Latin inscriptions, all go to show that Kara- . Hissar has passed through many vicissitudes. The old | town was evidently built not at the foot but at the steep slope of the hill, tier above tier. made voluntary submission to Sultan Mohammed II. A full description, with a plan of the town and neigh- borhood, is given by Barth in Petermann’s Mitthetlun- gen, Ergdnzungsheft, 1860. See also Taylor’s ‘‘ Jour- nal,’’ ete., in Jour. Roy. Geogr. Soc., 1868. KARAITES, or Cararres, a Jewish sect of the Middle Ages, claiming to be distinguished by adher- ence to Scripture as contrasted with oral tradition, whence the name (from §87, asif “readers,” ser/ptur- arti, sometimes also 8p °33). They have frequently been identified with the Sadducees or with the Samari- tans, with neither of whom have they any historical connection or much spiritual affinity. The schism arose at Baghdad about the middle of the 8th century, when the hereditary claims of Anan, a learned Talmudist, to | the office of Resh Galutha were set aside by the Gao- nim or heads of rabbinical schools at Sura and Pum- beditha because he was believed to undervalue the authority of the Talmud. An appeal by Anan to the caliph proved unsuccessful, and he appears even to have been imprisoned for some time; but ultimately he was permitted to migrate along with his followers to Palestine, where they erected in Jerusalem a syna- gogue which continued to be maintained until the time of the crusades. From this centre the sect diffused itself thinly over Syria, spread into Egypt, and ulti- mately reached Southeastern EKurope. Anan, who is said to have died in 765 A.D., was the author of a com- mentary on the Pentateuch and other works in Tal- mudic Hebrew and Arabic,—all of which unfortunately are lost; for our knowledge of the distinctive principles maintained by him we are thus left entirely dependent on the hostile indications of opponents. In general we know that he showed great bitterness against the Talmud and its upholders (the ‘‘ Rabbanites’’) for their falsification of the written law by arbitrary additions In 1473 Kara-Hissar | KARACHI—KARAMZIN. and subtractions, but there is nothing to indicate that he himself had the insight or the fervor by which he could have become the pioneer of any really great re- formation in religion or morals. ‘The questions in dis- pute appear to have turned entirely on points of very minute detail. Several of them related to the regula- tion of the calendar, the new moon, for example, being fixed by the Karaites by direct observation, not by astronomical calculation, and the interealary year also being determined empirically ; others related to paschal and pentecostal ritual, such as the precise hour for killing the lamb or for burning its remains. The dif- ferences which affected social life most deeply were those relating to Sabbath observance and the forbidden degrees of marriage, the Karaites not recognizing any distinction between relationships of consanguinity and those of affinity, while in their zeal to avoid all risk of infringement of the sacredness of the day of rest they prohibited the burning of any light at allin their houses. from sunset to sunset. Little information as to the Karaites can be derived from their liturgies, which are comparatively modern; though differing from those used by the Rabbinical Jews, they are not characterized by any marked divergence in principle. ‘The contro- versies as to the rule of faith which so deeply divided the Christian church in the 16th century gave to this obseure sect an illusory and passing importanee, the Catholics frequently hurling the epithet Kareei, in token of contempt, at the Protestants, who in their turn willingly accepted it as sufficiently descriptive of their attitude towards Scripture. The Karaites never have been numerous; the present community in Jeru- salem numbers only about ten families. They occur in Constantinople and elsewhere in Turkey, but are chiefly met with in Southern Russia, and especially in the Crimea, where in 1874 they numbered some 6000, chiefly in Eupatoria, Theodosia, and Sebastopol. In the Crimea their historical capital and chief synagogue was formerly the ‘‘ Jews’ Castle’’ (T'shufut-Kale), near Bakhchisarai. The place is now deserted; its ceme- tery was the seat of Firkowitsch’s notorious forgeries (inscriptions of Ist century), by which he sought to establish a fabulous antiquity for his sect. According | to Strack (A. Mirkowitsch u. seine Entdeckungen 1876} the oldest tombstones do not go back beyond the 14th. century. The modern Karaites are generally well spoken of for their honesty, perseverance, and simple habits of life; but their enslavement to tradition is quite as complete as that of any Talmudist could pos- sibly be. Among the older authorities may be mentioned Morinus, Exercit. Bibl., lib. ii. ex. 7, 1669; and Triglandius, Diatribe de Secta. Karzorum, 1703. See Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, espe- cially in vol. v., 1860; and Furst, Gesch. des Karderthums, 1865. ‘ KARAKORUM, or KArakoram, a name applied to a city, a mountain range, and a mountain pass in Central Asia. For the range and pass see KUEN-LUN. The ancient city or rather camping-ground of Karako- rum (the Caracaron of Marco Polo), was situated near the upper course of the Orkhon, a tributary of the Selenga. Founded, according to Chinese authority, by Buku, khan of the Uigurs, in the 8th century, it was at the time of Jenghiz the chief seat of Togrul Wang, Marco Polo’s Prester John, and under Jeng- hiz’s successor Okkodai it became what it continued to be till 1256, the capital of the Mongolian power. It~ was visited by Carpini (1246) and Rubraquis (1258). Some ruins of earthworks are still to be traced. See Rémusat, Rech. sur la ville de Karakorum ; Yule, Marco Polo; Geographical Magazine, 1874. KARAMZIN, Nrxouat MiknwatLtovicn (1765- 1826), Russian historian, critic, novelist, and poet, was born at the village of Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg, and not at Simbirsk, as many of his Ene- lish and German biographers incorrectly state, on the Ist of December (old style), 1765. His father, an officer in the Russian army, of Tartar extraction, was anxious ‘cellany or KARASU-BAZAR. that his son should follow his own profession. The idea was not, however, persevered in, and the future author was sent to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden, whence he afterwards removed to St. Peters- burg, where he made the acquaintance of Dmitrieff, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native lan- guage. Etter residing some time at St. Petersburg, e went to Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced by a friend to revisit Moscow. There, finding himself in the midst of the society of learned men, he again betook himself to literary work. In 1789 he re- solved to travel, and visited Germany, France, Switzer- | land, and England. On his return he published his Letters of a Russian Traveller, which met with great success. They are elegantly written, and show the feeling of a poet for the scenery of the countries through which he passed, but to many readers of the resent day they will appear insipidly sentimental. hese letters were first printed in the Moscow Journal, but were afterwards collected and issued in 6 vols. (1797-1801). In the same periodical Karamzin also published translations of some of the tales of Mar- montel, whose sickly elegance was then in fashion, and some of his own original stories, among which may be mentioned Poor Liza and Natalia the Boyar’s Daugh- ter. To judge by the cheap editions which are continu- ally appearing, these tales still find readers in Russia. The best of them is Marfu the Posadnitza of Novgo- rod, but all are more or less disfigured by the senti- mentalism already referred to. In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and pub- lished a miscellany in two volumes, entitled Aglaia, in which appeared, among other things, ‘‘'The Island | of Bornholm” and ‘‘Tlia Mourometz,”’ a story based | upon the adventures of the well-known hero of many a Russian legend. In 1797-99 he issued another mis- oetical almanac, Zhe Aonides, in conjunc- tion with Derzhavin and Dmitrieff. In 1798 he com- piled the Pantheon, a collection of pieces from the works of the most celebrated authors ancient. and modern, translated into, Russian. Many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by him in a vol- ume entitled My Trifles. In 1802 and 1803 Karamzin edited the journal 7he Huropean Messenger. It was not till after the publication of this work that he real- ized where his strength lay, and commenced his ///s- tory of the Russian Empire. In order to accomplish the task, he secluded himself for some years; and, on the cause of his retirement becoming known to the | emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to Tver, where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes of his history. In 1816 he removed to St. Petersburg, where he spent the happiest days of his life, enjoying the favor of Alexander, and submitting to him the sheets of his great work, which the emperor read over with him in the gardens of the palace of Tzarskoé Selo. He did not, however, live to carry his work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at the accession of Michael Romanoff in 1613, In 1825 the health of Karamzin began to decline, and the emperor Nicholas, who had succeeded to the throne in that year, and continued the favors which his brother had bestowed on the historian, ordered a frigate to be got ready, that he might visit a warmer climate to recruit his failing powers. It was, however, too late; on the 22d of May (old style), 1826, Karamzin died in the Taurida palace. A monument was erected to his mem- ory at Simbirsk in the year 1845. As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation. Till the appearance of his work little had been done in this direction in Russia, The preceding at- tempt of Tatistcheff was merely a rough sketch, inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism. Karam- zin was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the notes to his volumes are mines of curious information, The style of his history is elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the easy sentences of the French prose writers than the long periodical paragraphs of the old Slavonic 5 school. Perhaps Karamzin may justly be censured for the false gloss and romantic air thrown over the early Russian annals, concealing the coarseness and cruelty of the native manners; in this respect he reminds us of Sir Walter Scott, whose writings were at this time creating a great sensation throughout Europe, and probably had their influence upon our author. Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of the autocracy; indeed, his work has been styled the “Epic of Despotism.” He does not hesitate to avow his /admiration of Ivan the Terrible, and considers him and |his grandfather Ivan III.as the builders up of Russian greatness, a glory which in his earlier writings, perhaps at | that time more under the influence of Western ideas, he | had assigned to Peter the Great. In the battle-pieces (e. g., the description of the field of Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &¢.) we find considerable powers of description ; and the characters of many of the chief personages in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and bold lines. The | study of ethnology and historical criticism has advanced so much since the days of Karamzin that some of his work has necessarily become obsolete, but it will always be read with pleasure and advantage. No translation into English of this opus magnum has appeared, although even modern Greek boasts its version. Of the French translation by MM. Saint Thomas and Jauffret Karamzin himself hada mean opinion ; he declared that the average number of mis- takes in each of the many volumes was two hundred. As |a critic Karamzin was of great service to his country; in | fact he may be regarded as the founder of the review and | essay (in the Western style) among the Russians. He had | read extensively, and modelled himself upon Addison and lothers of our best writers. As a novelist and writer of tales he imitated the sentimental school then in vogue throughout Europe. Asa poet he occupies a subordinate place, but his productions are above mediocrity. Many of his lyries are graceful and melodious, and the sentiments expressed ure those of a benevolent and healthy-minded /man. The little poem entitled The Grave deserves special mention. KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the gov- /ernment of Taurida, near the rivers Tunas and Karasu. in 45° 3’ N. lat. and 34° 26’ E. long., 27 miles from | Simpheropol on the road to Theodosia. The site is low, but it is surrounded by hills, one of which, the | Ak-Kaya or White Rock, not only affords protection from the north wind, but so reflects the sunshine upon the town that it enjoys a much milder climate than the surrounding region. The dirty streets full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar with its multitude of small shops, the market squares, the blind alleys, the little gates in the dead court-yard walls, all give the place the stamp of a Tartar or Turkish town, and remind the visitor that here was after 1763 the seat of the |Crimean khans. In 1861 there were twenty-four mosques, but several have fallen into decay ; in one of them is the tomb of Yakubaga-Rudzvitch, the founder of the well-known Crimean family. Of the numerous caravanserais, the Tash-Khan is the most notable—a strong half-fortified building erected in 1656. Placed on the high road between Simpheropvl and Kertch, and in the midst of a countrv rich in corn-land, vine- yards, and gardens, Karasu-Bazar used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in the Crimea; but it is gradually declining in importance. The population consists of Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Tartars, and (in smaller numbers) Russians. ‘The bulk of the trade is in the hands of the Armenians, and they are also the owners of the great proportion of the buildings in the town. About 2000 of the Jews are what are known as Kvrimtchaks, or sometimes. as Constantinopolitan Jews. From the ordinary ‘‘ rabbinical Jews’’ of Rus- sia they differ by wearing the Tartar costume and by the use of the Tartar tongue, instead of the German jargon. They are engaged in making leather, Tartar knives, Tartar embroidery, and similar articles. ‘The opulation of Karasu-Bazar is given by the St. Peters- aan Calendar for 1874 as 14,397. Round about the town lie cemeteries of unusual extent. By Thunman and others Karasu-Bazar has been identi- fied with the Greek town of Mauron-Kastron, but Professor Bruhn thinks that, as there has never apparently been any fortress at Karasu-Bazar, the site of the “ Black Castle” is more probably at Mangup-Kale.. The cayes of Akkaya, 6 however, give evidence of early occupation of the spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirei was driven by the Russians from Bakhchisarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar, but next year the town was captured, plundered, and burned by General Douglas. In 1784 it was the temporary seat of the Russian administration of the Crimea. KARATCHEFF, a town of Russia, in the govern- ment of Orel, near the river Snezheti, 59 miles north- west from Orel on the railway to Smolensk. The pop- ulation is given in the St. Petersburg Calendar for 1874 at 10,023. A yearly fair is held in the adjoming village of Berezhka, and a good trade is carried on in agricultural produce, as well as in the oil, wax candles, rope, ete., furnished by the local industry. Karatcheff is mentioned as early as 1146. In the 17th century it was one of the frontier or “ watch” towns of Russia towards the Crimea, and sent out its scouts as far as Kursk. About half the inhabitants perished of the plague in 1654, Only since 1778 has the town been at the head of a district in Orel; it formerly belonged tothe governments of Kieff (1708) and Bielgorod (1732). KARATEGIN, a vountry of Central Asia, now subject to Bokhara, consisting of a highland district between the Hissar and the Darwaz chains. It is bounded on the N. by the Russian province of Fer- ghana (Khokand), on the E. by Kashgar, on the 8. by independent Darwaz, and on the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian provinces. ‘The plateau is traversed by the, Surkhab or Kyzyl Su, a right-hand tributary of the Oxus, which rises in the Alai mountains, and for the first 132 miles of its course ‘‘runs through gorges of extreme wildness.’’ Below the hamlet of Khantia-hota (according to Abramof), the valley widens considerably, and at Sar-i-pul, the only point where it is crossed by a bridge, the river has a depth of 7 feet. With the neighboring lands Karategin has no communication except during summer, that is, from May to September. The winter climate is extremely severe even in the more populous districts: the snow begins to fall in October, and it is May before it disap- pears. During the warmer months, however, the mountain sides are richly clothed with the foliage of maple, mountain ash, apple, pear, and walnut trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples and pears, but peaches, cherries, mulberries, ana apricots; and the farmers grow so much corn that the surplus is a regu- lar article of export to the neighboring states. Every householder has a portion of the soil which he can call his own: but if he leave it fallow for more than three years in succession, he runs the risk of having it confiscated by the Government. Some proprietors possess as much as from 300 to 500 acres, and keep from ten to twelve yoke of work oxen and from six to twelve laborers. The necessity of storing fodder to last for five months tends to keep low the number of domestic cattle. Both cattle and horses are of a small and hardy breed. The wild animals—bears, wolves, foxes, jackals, lynxes, martens, otters, etc.—are of no small economic importance ; but the hunters and trap- pers are obliged to sell their pelts to the Govern- ment at half the market price. Rough woollen cloth and mohair are woven by the natives during their long winter; and they make excellent firearms and other weapons. ‘Trade is still carried on by barter, there being neither coinage nor fixed market-place in the country. Foreign wares—iron, cotton, silk, combs, mirrors, soap, ete.—are introduced by merchants from Kashgar and Hissar, who receive in exchange mainly cattle, hides, and skins. tinguished from, the Tadjiks. They speak a Persian dialect and profess the Mohammedan faith. Schuyler, who met with some of them at Khokand, describes the Karateginese as swarthy, thickset, good-natured fel- lows, who, gathered in a circle, would after prayers and supper tell tale after tale and legend after legend till they dropped off to sleep. It is calculated that the settled population of Karategin may amount to about 382,000 souls, the number of households being 36,672, distributed among four hundred settlements. Karategin has hardly been touched by European explora- tion (the first expedition was that of Oshanin in 1878); and of its history almost nothing is known. The native princes or shahs, who claimed to be descended from Alex- ander the Great, were till 1868 practically independent, and kept up a considerable degree of state. Their allegi- ance was indeed claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand, but eventually Bokhara took advantage of intestine feuds to secure their real submission. Some geographers (Kie- pert, for example) have been disposed to recognize in Ka- rategin the Paretaceni of Alexander’s historians, and Colonel Yule has conjecturally identified it with the Holumo (Garma?) of Hwen Tsang. See Abramof in Jowrn. Roy. Geogr. Soe., 1871; Aranda- renko’s paper in the Russische Revue, epitomized in Das Aus- land, 1878; and letters from Oshanin in Globus, 1878. See also Colonel Yule’s essay prefixed to Wood’s Journey to the Source of the River Oxus, 1872. KARAULI, or Kerow ty, a native state in Rajpu- tana, India, lying between 26° 3” and 26° 497 N. lat., and between 76° 35’ and 77° 26’ E. long. It is en- tirely surrounded by neighboring states, and has an area of about 1260 miles, and an estimated popula- tion of 140,000. Almost the entire territory is com- osed of hills and broken ground, but there are no ofty peaks, the highest haying an elevation of less than 1400 feet above sea-level. The Chambal river flows along the southeast boundary of the state. Iron ore and building stone comprise the mineral resources of Karauli. The prevailing agricultural products are bdjra and jodr, which form the staple food of the peo- ple. The only manufactures consist of a little weay- ing, dyeing, wood-turning, and_ stone-cutting. The principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar, cotton, Batalpes: and bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The Brahmans form the most numerous class of the population. The Minas, who come next, make up the be k of the cultivating class. The Réjputs, although numerically few, constitute the most important section. These belong almost entirely to the Jadu clan; they make good soldiers, but are indifferent agriculturists. The feudal aristocracy of the state consists entirely of Jadu thakirs connected with the ruling house. They pay a tribute in lieu of constant military service, but in case of emergency or on occasions of state display they are bound to attend on the chief with their re- tainers. The mahardjé is the head of the clan, which claims descent from Krishna. KARAULI, or KEROWLY, the capital of the above state, is situated in 26° 30’ N. lat. and 77° 4’ K. long. The town, which is fortified, is surrounded by a wall of sandstone, and is also protected on the north and east by deep winding ravines. ‘The streets are narrow and irregular, and almost impassable for wheeled con- veyances; there are, however, many costly houses and handsome temples, the sole buildig material being sandstone. The population is estimated at 28,000. KARCZAG, or eae ests a corporate town of Hungary, and formerly the capital of the district of Great Cumania (now included in the county of JAsz- Nagy-Kun-Szolnok), lies about 88 miles east-southeast of Budapest, with which city it is connected by rail- way, in 47° 197 N. lat., 20°56” H. long. Karezag is a large straggling town, and contains Roman Catholic Greek Orthodox, and Protestant churches, royal an magisterial courts of law, and tax and post-offices. The soil of the surrounding country is exceedingly humid and fertile, and enormous quantities of melons, fruit, grapes, wheat, maize, rape-seed, and mangcorn are a KARIKAL—KARNUL. 7 grown. In the more marshy places water-fowl and tortoises are caught in large numbers. Population in 1880,, 15,962, almost exclusively Magyars. KARIKAL, a French town and settlement in India, situated on the southeast coast, within the limits of Tanjore district, 10° 55’ 10’” N. lat., 79° 52’ K. long., with an area of 52 square miles, and a population of 92.516. The site was purchased by the French from the Tanjore raj4 in 1738. It was captured by the Eng- lish in 1760, restored in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in 1816. It formed the base of Lally’s operations against Tanjore. The town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Kaveri (Cauvery), and carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, Europe, and the French colonies, exporting rice, and importing chiefly European articles and timber. A chef de l’adminis- tration, subordinate to the government at Pondicherri, is in charge of the settlement. KARMATHIANS. See Arata, vol. ii. p. and MoHAMMEDANISM. KARNAK. See Arcurrecturs#, vol. ii. p. 341, and Haypt, vol. vii. p. 674. . KARNAL, a district in the lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab, India, lying between 29° 9’ and 30° 11” N. lat., and between 76° 13’ and 77° 15’ 30” E. long., bounded on the N. by Umballa (Ambala) and the Pa- tidla state, W. by Patiala and Jind states and by Roh- tak district, 8. by Delhi district, and EH. by the Jumna river, he area is 2351 square miles. Karnal forms a portion of the low dividing ridge which separates the watersheds of the Indus and the Jumna. ‘The district falls naturally into two divisions,—the bdngar, or up- Jand plain, and the khddar, or low-lying land, which skirts the valley of the great river. The banks of the larger streams are fringed with magnificent forest trees, and groves of mangoes mark the neighborhood of every temple or homestead. Irrigation is‘afforded by the west- ern Jumnacanal, Asa whole, Karnal is better supplied with trees than most of the plain country of the Pun- jab. _The Jumna itself here presents the usual char- acteristics of the upper part of its course. Sandbanks shift from one side to the other of the main channel, and from time to time the whole stream suddenly changes its bed, transferring half a dozen villages to- gether from Muzaffarnagar to Karnal, or vice versa. he district is famous for its sport. The population in 1868 amounted to 610,927 (330,763 males and 280,164 females)—Hindus, 356,305 ; Mohammedang, 151,- 723; and “ others,” 93,604. Jats numbered 74,840, represent- ing the chief agricultural element; Brahmans, 52,396, most of them engaged in tillage; Rajputs, 47,860, chiefly Moham- medans; Chamars, the landless laboring class, 37,053; pas- - toral Gijars, 20,857, about one-third of them Mohammedans. Five'towns have a population exceeding 5000, viz., Karnal, 27,022; Panipat, 25,276; Kdithal, 14,940; Sewan, 6206; and Kunjpurah, 5163. The area under cultivation is 645,120 acres, the uncultivated area 860,800 acres, of which 578,027 are cultivable. The principal spring crop is wheat; the au- tumn harvest consists of rice, cotton, and sugar-cane, besides millets and pulses for home consumption. The growth of the more lucrative crops is on the increase. Grain and raw materials are exported to Umballa, Hissar, and Delhi,—the return trade consisting of Huropean piece goods, salt, and refined sugar. A considerable quantity of cotton is woven for local use. Sal-ammoniac is obtained from the clay of Kaithal and Gila tahsils to the value of £3450 per annum. Karnal town has a few blanket factories, and ornamental glassware is made at Pinipat. The Grand Trunk Road con- neets Karnél with Delhi and Umballa. The district is ad- ministered by a deputy commissioner. In 1872-73 the rev- enue was £78,847, of which £67,048 was derived from the land; and education was afforded by 99 schools, with 2541 pupils. No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than Karnal, as almost.every town or stream is Connected with the legends of the Mahabhdérata. The city of Karnal itself is said to owe its foundation to Rajé Karna, the myth- ical champion of the Kauravas in the great war which forms the theme of the national epic. Panipat, in the south of the district, is said to have been one of the pledges de- manded from Duryodhana by Yudisthira as the price of ‘peace in that famous conflict. In historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved the theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper India. It was here that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in 1526 by the veteran army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the claims of his family on the same battlefield against the Hindu general of the house of Sher Shah, which had driven the heirs of Baber from the throne for a brief interval; and at Panipat too, on the 7th of January, 1761, the Marhatté confederation was defeated by Ahmed Shah Durdni. Dur- ing the troublous period which ensued, the Sikhs managed to introduce themselves, and in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Sinh, appropriated the fort of Kaéithal, which had been built during the reign of Akbar. His descendants, the Bhais of Kdithal, were reckoned amongst the most im- portant cis-Sutlej princes. Different portions of this dis- trict have lapsed from time to time into the hands of the British. The towns are not generally in a flourishing con- dition, but the district possesses considerable commerce and great agricultural resources. KARNAL, a municipal town, the headquarters of the above district, 29°42’ 17’” N. lat., 77° 1” 45’ E.. long., with a population in 1868 of 27,022. The civil station stretches to the west of the town. The Government maintains a large stud farm. ‘There is a brisk trade with Delhi and Umballa; country cloth is manufac- tured for local consumption, and blankets for export, the latter trade employing about one hundred looms. KARNUL, a district in Madras, India, bounded on the N. by the Tungabhadra and Kistna rivers and by Kistna district, 8. by Cuddapah and Bellary, H. by Nellore and Kistna, and W. by Bellary, lies between 14° 54” and 16° 14’ N. lat., and between 77° 46’ and 79° 15’ Ki. long., with an area of 7151 square miles. Two long mountain ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais, extend in parallel lines, north and south, through the centre of the district. The principal heights of the Nallamalai range are Biranikonda (3149 feet), Gundlabr&hmeswaram (3055 feet), and Duru- gapukonda (3086 feet). The Yellamalai is a low range, generally flat-topped with scarped sides; the highest point is about 2000.feet. Several low ridges run paral- lel tothe Nallamalais, broken here and there by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course. Sey- eral of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, and tanks formed for purposes of cultivation. One of these is the magnificent Cumbum Tank, closed in by adam across the Gundlakamma river. It covers an area of nearly 15 square miles. The principal rivers are the Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the dis- trict on the north. When in flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards broad and 15 feet deep. In 1860 an anicut or weir was built across the river at Sunke- sala, 18 miles above Karniuil town, and a canal dug for irrigation and navigation. The Kistna flows here chiefly through uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long smooth reaches, with intervening shingly rapids. The Bhava- nasi rises on the Nallamalais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of pilgrimage. Below their junction is a whirlpool which is regarded as holy by the native pilgrims. There are three recognized forest divisions in the district,—the Nallamalai, the Velli- konda, and the Yellamalai. ‘The first two are conserved by the forest department. The chief timber-trees are teak and yep?. In the northern parts, where the jun- gle is poor, there are extensive level grassy lands, which afford pasture to numerous herds of cattle. The jun- ele products consist of gall-nuts, honey, wax, tamarinds, stick-lac, and bamboo rice. ‘Tigers are numerous in the Nallamalais, and commit great havoc among the herds of cattle pastured in the jungles. The other animals include cheetahs, wolves, hyaenas, foxes, bears, spotted deer, wild goats, several varieties of antelopes, bison, poreupines, and pigs. The population in 1871 numbered 914,432, of whom 819,- 453 were Hindus, 60,579 Mohammedans, and about 3844 Christians, chiefly Roman Catholics, whose principal sta- tion is at Polur. The Catholics originally belonged to the Kapu caste, and their conversion to Christianity has not made any material change in their manners and customs. They eat and drink with Hindus, and in several cases in- termarry withthem. The Protestant converts are almost en- 8 tirely low-easte natives in rural tracts. The wild tribes or Chenchus live on the Nallamalais in small communities called gudems. Each gudem includes several tribes, and has a portion of the hills allotted to it by common consent. The Chenchus are unwilling to cultivate, but are some- times employed by the villagers in the plains to watch their fields during the harvest, and some of them are em- ployed as road watchmen. During the hill festival they colleet fees from pilgrims. Some of them also enjoy free lands for guarding the jungles. ‘The principal towns are Karnil (population in 1871, 25,579), Nandial (9378), Cum- ‘bum (7137), Gadur (5825), Meddikera (8586), Kodumtr (6064), and Paikali (5076), The chief crops are rice, wheat, and other cereals, gram, cotton, tobacco, indigo, sugar-cane, betel, chillies, ete. The staple of the district is cholam (Sorghum vulgare). The total area under cultivation in 1877, was 2,089,689 acres, area un- cultivated but capable of cultivation 1,017,389 acres, and uncultivable waste 1,396,602 acres. There is not much waste land in the plains, but there is a good deal in the Nallamalais, which was cultivated in ancient times, but is now overgrown with jungle. The main canal of the Madras Irrigation Company, intended for both irrigation and navi- gation, runs 142 miles within Karnal; the extent actually irrigated in 1875-76 was 10,479 acres. Both Karntl and the neighboring district of Bellary suffer from droughts at periodic intervals; and, the mass of the population being small landowners, with no reserve capital, the failure of a single monsoon involves general distress; 1804, 1810, 1824, 1833, 1854, 1866, and 1876 were all years of drought and con- sequent scarcity. In the famine of 1876-77 nearly £600,000 was spent on relief works, yet the number of deaths re- corded from 1st October, 1876, to 30th June, 1877, was 48,- 000, as compared with 19,974 in the corresponding period of the previous year. The chief manufacture in Karnil is weaving. Iron is worked at the foot of the Nallamalais. Of late years this industry has greatly diminished, native iron being superseded for agricultural implements by im- ported iron, Diamond mines have been worked from early times in the quartzite beds of the Yellamalai hills, which are now rented out by Government for about £20 a year. Quarrying stones is an important industry. Indigo and sugar are also manufactured, Weekly markets are held in most of the towns and important villages. There is little or no export of grain. Salt is imported from the eastern coast, bat earth salt is largely manufactured. Cotton, in- digo, tobacco, and hides, with cotton carpets and cotton cloth, are the chief exports. European piece goods, areca- nut, cocoa-nut, and various dry condiments required for na- tive households, are the chief imports. The total net rey- enue of the district in 1870-71 was £196,468, the total civil expenditure £46,998; the land revenue was £135,929. Edu- cation is backward, only 4 per cent. of the population in 1871 being returned as able to read and write. In 1875 there were altogether 263 schools, with 5781 pupils. The climate is on the whole healthy. The prevailing winds are west and northeast, and the mean temperature is about 85° Fahr. The total annual rainfall is about 35 inches. In the villages along the foot of the Nallamalais, a severe type of fever prevails, accompanied by enlargement of the spleen. 