An attempt to discriminate the styles of architecture in England : from the Conquest to the Reformation : with a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders
Rickman, Thomas, 1776-1841 | Parker, John Henry, 1806-1884 | Le Keux, John Henry, 1812-1896 | Cattermole, George, 1800-1868 | Mackenzie, Frederick, 1787 or 8-1854 | Jewitt, Thomas Orlando Sheldon, 1799-1869 | Starling, William Francis | Hacker, C., 19th cent | Carter, James, 1798-1855 | Wilkinson, W. S | Smith, C. B
ii>.*^^vo.i,i.v....- ■:i^i!'f:--^:j/nzjAiJf'-yn:..\yrc^\\--^:^\<,Vdmfim^^S^^ f^) (rU' AN ATTEMPT TO DISCRIMINATE STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Research Library, The Getty Research Institute I http://www.archive.org/details/englandarchitectOOrick AN ATTEMPT TO DISCRIMINATE STYLES OF AECHITECTUEE IN ENGLAND, FKOM THE CONQUEST TO THE KEFORMATION WITH A SKJETCU OF CIj^ ^xmmx antr goman; #rbcrs. BY THE LATE THOMAS RICKMAN, F.S.A. SIXTH EDITION, WiW) lonsibcrabic glbbitbns, t\p.t^-Q lisforital, By JOHN HENEY PARKER, F.S.A. ©«forir anb JTonbon : JOHN HENEY AND JAMES PARKER. 1862. printcb bn |Vlcssrs. |3urlur, Cornmurlut, ^!>vforb. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SIXTH EDITION. IN the present edition the text of Mr. Hickman is preserved entire, all additional matter being inserted between brackets, or else distinguished by smaller type ; the former where the actual text required amplifying in consequence of the progress of the study since Mr. Hickman's time, the latter where histo- rical examples are introduced to illustrate and explain the text. A beginner therefore wishing only to study the grammar of the subject, may pass over the more close printing until he has made some progress and wishes to investigate the history. The additions now comprise a chronological series of English examples of each style, with a selection of foreign examples of the same period for comparison. A considerable part of this chronological table of medieval architecture appeared in the "Companion to the Glossary" in 1841 and 1846, but has been out of print for many years, because the compiler was not satisfied with it : he has now added largely to it from the results of subsequent investigations, and although quite con- scious that it is still very incomplete, he trusts that it will be found useful; and if he had deferred it much longer, his life might perhaps not be spared to publish it at all, and no one else could have made much use of his notes. Mr. Hickman was so accurate and careful an observer, and was so ably assisted by Mr. W. Twopeny and others, and their combined observations extended over so wide a field, that this work can never in fact be superseded by any other. All subse- quent writers on the subject have been largely indebted to it, and many of their attempts are mere plagiaries from it, with VI ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SIXTH EDITION. or without acknowledgment. His di^nsions of the styles and his definitions and descriptions of their characteristic features are so true, that those who have differed from him have only departed from the facts. Others have quarrelled with his no- menclature, and have endeavoured to change it, while retain- ing his divisions and descriptions ; but the great merit of Mr. Rickman's nomenclature is its simplicity, and that it involves no theory, consequently does not mislead the beginner, which all others do. No one can deny that each country has an Early Gothic style of its own, distinct from that of any other country : in England this is the Early English style. The term Decorated has been much cavilled at, but it is extremely clear and con- venient: window tracery, which is the characteristic feature of this style, is obviously a great decoration, and forms an essential part of the structure, which cannot be removed without leaving a blank ; this is not usually the case with other ornamentation, and therefore this decoration is an excellent characteristic of the style. There is less variation in this style in different countries, and Dr. Whewell has called it the perfect Gothic, assuming it to be the same in all countries, which perhaps to a certain extent it is, but still there are decided national and provincial characteristics in this style as in all others, though they are less marked. The name of the Perpendicular style is so called from the vertical lines of the tracery and the panelling, which form the distinguishing features of this style; and this name is so obviously true that no one ever forgets it, which is a great advantage. An attempt was made some years since to introduce the terms First Pointed, Middle Pointed, and Third Pointed, for Mr. Rickman's three styles of Gothic, and from the in- fluential persons who took it up this change was partially and temporarily introduced, but has almost died out again, as it was found to mislead people rather than guide or assist them to a knowledge of the subject. No one can say what ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SIXTH EDITION. vil was the First Pointed style, but the Early English Gothic certainly was not ; and as no one can say which will be the last Pointed style, it is equally impossible to say which is the Middle. The greatest objection to this proposed nomenclature is, however, the manner in which it misleads beginners in the study. Every round-headed doorway is set down for Roman- esque or Norman, and every square-headed window for " Third Pointed," or Perpendicular, or Debased; and this is quite natural for those who are taught to consider the form of the arch as a guide to the age of a building. It is no guide what- ever, the form of the arch was at all times dictated by conve- nience quite as much as by fashion : round-headed doorways and square-headed windows are of all periods, and may be found in all the styles, common in some districts, rare in others ; this is more especially the case in houses and castles, but it is very frequent in church towers also, and not uncommon in other parts of churches where convenience obviously required it. A remarkable instance of this inattention to the form of the arch may be mentioned ; the castle of the celebrated captain of the English army under Edward III., John Chandos, in the Cotentin in Normandy, of which the walls are nearly perfect, has scarcely a pointed arch throughout the whole structure. But it is not necessary to go abroad for examples, almost every medieval house or castle in England shews the same thing, though not to the same extent. The term Gothic has so long been established, and is so thoroughly well understood throughout Europe, that it is in vain to attempt to change it; and whatever its origin may have been, it is a very convenient term, which now misleads no one but those who are grossly and wilfully ignorant. Mr. Rickman's concise and clear description of Grecian and Roman architecture has been retained in the present edition, and carefully revised by Professor Donaldson, to whom the Editor begs thus publicly to express his cordial thanks ; he has greatly increased the value of this useful summary of a subject Vlll ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SIXTH EDITION. which is in clanger of being forgotten altogether, but of which some knowledge is essential for the proper understanding of the Medieval styles, which were gradually developed from the Roman. The chapter on Anglo-Saxon architecture, which was thrown into an Appendix in the previous editions, has now been intro- duced in its proper place, between the Roman and the Norman styles, with large additions. Mr. Rickman's " Tour in Normandy and Picardy in 1832," first published in the twenty-fifth volume of the ArchcBologia, and appended to some editions of this work, has now been omitted as not necessary, the substance of his observations and large extracts being given in the list of Foreign Examples. TuRL, Oxford, Juli/ 1, 18G2. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE FIFTH EDITION. THE practical value of this work has now been so long established, and is so well known, that it is only neces- sary to mention the alterations which have been made in the present edition. The text of IVIr. Eickman's last edition has been scrupulously preserved, the additional matter being inserted between brackets or as foot notes. Several years having elapsed since the last edition was published, and those years having been remarkable for a very great and rapid extension of the study of Gothic Architecture, it might be expected that great changes would have been required in this work, which was the first systematic treatise on the subject in any language, and formed the original basis and ground of the study. But notwithstanding the numer- ous works which have appeared within the last five or six years, it is surprising to observe how very little real information has been added to that which Mr. Rickman collected and digested. The general accuracy of his observations, and the acuteness with which he made use of the facts he had collected, are really quite wonderfid, considering that he was the first to examine the ground, and may be said to have invented a new science. It would have been easy to have enlarged every chapter of his work, but this would have added more to the bulk than to the value, the real difiiculty was to compress and digest the multitude of instances, to take a general and comprehensive view, without being deterred by a few exceptions. The Editor of the present edition felt that what the work really required to make it more intelligible to the public, was a better set of engravings of the objects described ; an accurate drawing of the object is worth more than a whole chapter of description. He has accordingly turned his attention chiefl}^ to this point. In the present edition the illustrations are entirely taken from old examples, while in the previous editions they were chiefly from Mr. Eickman's own designs. By far the b X ADVERTISEMENT TO THE FIFTH EDITION. greater part are from original drawings made expressly for the work by Mr. Mackenzie and Mr. Orlando Jewitt, whose ac- curacy cannot be too highly praised. A portion of them have been borrowed from other works when any could be found that exactly suited the purpose. To have attempted to give the whole from original sources, where so large a number was required, would have greatly increased the price of the book, without any equivalent advantage. The Appendix to the former editions contained short notes of a number of churches in different counties ; this part of the work was found to require a thorough re"\dsion, in some cases from imperfect information originally, in others from subse- quent changes. The manuscript notes of Mr. Rickman himself and those of many others who have kindly assisted in the woi*k, are in the hands of the Editor and preparing for publication. They are altogether so numerous and important that he has considered it best to make them into a separate work on " The Ecclesiastical and Architectural Topography of England," which he purposes to publish in separate counties, of which Bedford- shire is ready for the press, and many others are in a state of forwardness ^. The plan which he has adopted is that of arrang- ing the churches in Deaneries, by which those in each neigh- bourhood can be most conveniently classed together. Some notice will be given of everj^ church, distinguishing those most worthy of attention ; the remains of the Monasteries, Castles, and Houses of the Middle Ages will, as far as possible, be noticed under the head of the parishes in which they are situated, or to which they are proximate. Such a work must obviously be one of great labour and difficulty, and requiring the assistance of many hands, he will therefore be obliged by receiving com- munications from any parties who have been in the habit of taking architectural notes. Tto'l, Oxford, March 18, ISiS. a Of this work seven counties were prising the following counties, — Oxford, published, completing the dioceses of Berks., and Bucks. ; Cambridge, Beds., Oxford and Ely, for the use of students Huntingdon, and Suliolk. at the two great Universities, and com- PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. AN outline of the present essay was written by the Author for Smith's " Panorama of Science and Art," and published in that work many years ago, but having been frequently requested to enlarge and republish it, he has performed that task, and has subjoined a copious list of buildings for the student's instruction. The object of the present publication has been to furni'sh, at a price which shall not present an obstacle to extensive circulation, such a view of the principles of architecture, more particularly that of the British Isles, as may not only be placed with advantage in the hands of the rising generation, but also afford the guardians of ecclesiastical edifices such clear discriminative remarks on the buildings now existing, as may enable them to judge with considerable accuracy of the restorations necessary to be made in those venerable edifices that are under their peculiar care ; and also, by leading them to the study of such as still remain in a perfect state, to render them more capable of deciding on the various designs for churches in imitation of the English styles which may be presented to their choice. As a text-book for the architectural student little need be said of this publication. The want of such a work, par- ticularly as it respects the English styles, is generally acknow- ledged ; and it has been the aim of the Author, by a constant reference to buildings, to instil the principles of practice rather than mere theoretical knowledge. This essay is by no means intended to supersede that more xii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. detailed view of English architecture which the subject merits and requires : an undertaking of this nature must necessarily be expensive, from the requisite number of plates, without which it is impossible to give a full view of this interesting subject ; but if his life be preserved, and time and opportunity- be afforded him, the author may perhaps again intrude himself on the public, with a more comprehensive view of Gothic architecture in Europe. If he be not so permitted, it is a satis- faction to him to know that he will now leave behind those fully capable of investigating a subject which will richly reward the philosophic investigator. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODrCTORY REMARKS 1 GRECIAi!^ ARCHITECTURE 7 TUSCAN ORDER 16 DO RIC 21 IONIC 28 CORINTHIAN 34 COMPOSITE 39 ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 41 ON ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE 55 [on THE BUILDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 97 „ „ TIME OF WILLIAM I., A.D. 1066 — 10S7] 106 THE FIRST, OR NORMAN STYLE 117 [examples OF THE TIME OF WILLIAM II., A.D. 10S7 — 1100 151 „ „ „ HENRY I., A.D. 1100 — 1135 ... 155 „ „ „ STEPHEN, A.D. 1135 — 1151... 163 HENRY II., A.D. 1151— 11 S9 167 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 175 TRANSITION FROM NORMAN TO EARLY ENGLISH 150 HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF] 167-182 THE SECOND, OR EARLY ENGLISH STYLE 183 [ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF RICHARD I., A.D. 1189 — 1199 232 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 235 ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF JOHN, AD. 1199 — 1216 238 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 239 ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF HENRY III., A.D. 1216 — 1272 242 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 255 TRANSITION FROM EARLY ENGLISH TO DECORATED 229 HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF] 252-260 XIV CONTENTS. PAGE THE THIRD, OR DECORATED STYLE 261 [ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF EDWARD I., A.D. 1272 — 1307 318 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 325 ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF EDWARD II., A.D. 1307 — 1326 328 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 331 ENGLISH EXAMPLES OF THE TIME OF EDWARD III., A.D, 1327 —1377 332 FOREIGN EXAMPLES 344 TRANSITION FROM DECORATED TO PERPENDICULAR 315 HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF] 337-348 THE FOURTH, OR PERPEXDICULAR STYLE 349 [examples OF THE TIME OF RICHARD II., A.D. 1377 — 1399... 392 rNDER THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER, A.D. 1399 — 1460 398 UNDER THE HOUSE OF YORK, A.D. 1461 — 1485 412 UNDER THE TUDORS, 1485—1547] 416 THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE 424 MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON BUILDINGS OF ENGLISH ARCHI- TECTURE, AND A COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPLES OF GRECIAN AND ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 435 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 440 LIST OF PLATES XV GLOSSAEIAL INDEX 441 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX 447 LIST  of St. Cross Church, Hampshire . . .145 (Norman Front.) North Porch of Southwell Minster . . . .146 (Norman Porch.) "West Entrance of Ketton  Ground-plan . . . .173 "West Window of Eaunds Church, Northamptonshire . .190 (Early English.) Polebrook Church, Northamptonshire . . . .215 (Early English Steeple.) St. Mary's Church, Stamford . . . . .217 (Early English Tower, with Decorated Spire.) North Transept, Beverley Minster . . . .221 (Early English Front.) "Western Doorway, Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire . . 224 (Early English Porch.) Staircase in Beverley Minster ..... 227 (Early English Staircase.) Queen Eleanor's Cross, Northampton . . . .229 (Early Decorated Niches, &c.) Salisbury Cathedral, Elevation of Two Bays . . . 242 (Early English, a.d. 1220.) St. Mary's, Beverley, Arch and Screen, North Side of Clioir . 280 (Decorated.) ^ Finedon Church, Northamptonshire . . . .301 (Decorated English Steeple.) XVI LIST OF PLATES. PAGE Bloxham Church, Oxfordshire  of St. Mary's Church, Beverley . . .310 (Decorated English Porch.) Hull Church, Yorkshire, Interior of Choir . . .314 (Decorated English Style.) Thornton Abbey, Lincolnshire, East Side of Gatehouse . 317 (Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular.) Merton College Chapel, Oxford, North Side of Choir . .319 (Early Decorated, a.d. 1274—1277.) Exeter Cathedral, Elevation of Two Bays of Nave . . 333 (Decorated, a.d. 1331—1350.) Euined Chapel on the North Side of the Church of St. Lawrence, Evesham ....... 358 (Perpendicular Panelled Arch.) Bocher's Arch, Rushden Church, Northamptonshire . . 367 (Perpendicular Arch and Screens.) Kingsthorpe Church, Northamptonshire . . .374 (Perpendicular English Steeple.) Perpendicular Roof of "Wymondham Church, Norfolk . . 380 Roof of St. Peter's Mancroft, Norwich . .382 Gallery and Font in AYorstead Church, Noifulk . 388 Entrance to the Chapter-house, Howden, Yorkshire . . 393 (Early Perpendicular, a.d. 1380—1407.) Thoruton Abbey, Lincolnshire, West Side of Gatehouse . 395 (Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular, a.d. 1382— 138G.) The Divinity School, Oxford . . . . .408 (Perpendicular, rich Fan-Tracery Vaulting, a.d. 1445—1454.) gin attempt, ^c. THE science of Architecture may be considered, in its most extended application, to comprehend building of every kind : but at present we must consider it in one much more restricted ; according to which, Architecture may be said to treat of the planning and erection of edifices, which are com- posed and embellished after two principal modes, 1st, the Antique, as Grecian and Roman, or Classic ; 2nd, the English or Gothic, or Mediaeval. TVe shall treat of these modes in separate dissertations, be- cause their principles are completely distinct, and indeed mostly form direct contrasts. But before we proceed to treat of them, it will be proper to make a few remarks on the difference between mere house-building, and that high character of com- position in the Grecian and Roman orders properly styled Architecture ; for though we have now many nobly architec- tural houses, we are much in danger of having our public edifices debased, by a consideration of what is convenient as a house, rather than what is correct as an architectural design. In order properly to exainine this subject, we must consider a little, what are the buildings regarded as our models for working the orders ; and in what climate, for what purposes, and under what circumstances they were erected. This may, perhaps, lead to some conclusions, which may serve to distin- guish that description of work, which however rich or costly is still mere house-building in point of its composition. It is acknowledged on all hands that our best models, in the three ancient unmixed orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- thian, are the remains of Grecian temples. Most of them were erected in a climate in which a covering from rain was by no means necessary, and we shall find this circumstance very influential ; for - as the space within the walls was always par- JB 2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. tially, and often wholly open, apertures in those walls for light were not required ; and we find, also, in Grecian struc- tures very few, sometimes only one door. The purpose for which these buildings were erected was the occasional reception of a large body of people, and not the settled residence of an3^ But, perhaps, the circumstances under which they were erected have had more influence on the rules, which have been handed down to us as necessary to be observed in composing architec- tural designs, tlian either the climate or their use. It is now pretty generally agreed, that the Greeks did not use the arch, at least in the exterior of their public buildings, till it was introduced by the Romans. Here then we see at once a limi- tation of the intercolumniation, which must be restrained by the necessity of finding stones of sufficient length to form the architrave. Hence the smaller comparative intercolumniations of the Grecian buildings, and the constant use of columns ; and hence the propriety of avoiding arches in compositions of the purer Grecian orders. The Romans introduced the arch very extensively into build- ings of almost every description, and made several alterations in the mode of working the orders they found in Greece, to which they added one order by mixing the Corinthian and Ionic, and another by stripping the Doric of its ornaments. Their climate, also, was so far different as to require more gen- eral roofing ; but still, from the greater necessity of providing a screen from the heat of the sun than apertures to admit the light, it does not appear that large windows were in general use, and hence an important difference in modern work. Al- though, by roofs and arches, much more approximated to modern necessities than the Grecian models, still those of Rome, which can be regarded as models of composition, are temples or other public edifices, and not domestic buildings ; which, whenever they have been found, appear unadapted to modern wants, and are therefore unfit for imitation. In a few words we may sum up the grand distinctions between mere building and architectural design : the former looks for convenience, and though it will doubtless often use architectural ornaments, and preserve their proportions,, when INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3 used as smaller parts, yet the general proportion may vary very widely from the orders, and yet be pleasing, and perhaps not incorrect. But all this is modern building, and not architecture in its restricted sense : in this the columns are essential parts, and to them and the proportions of the order, to which they belong, all other arrangements must be made subservient. And here we may seek for models with care and minuteness amongst the many remains yet left in various parts, (and of which the best are familiar to most architectural students from valuable delineations by those, who have accurately examined them,) and in selecting and adopting these the taste and abilities of the architect have ample scope. As an introduction to the dissertations, it may not be amiss to take a hasty sketch of the progress of architecture in England. Of the British architecture, before the arrival of the Romans in the island, we have no clear account ; but it is not likely it differed much from the ordinary modes of uncivilized na- tions. The hut of wood with a variety of coverings, and some- times the cavities of the rock, were doubtless the domestic habitations of the aboriginal Britons; and their stupendous public edifices, such as Stonehenge and others, still remain to us. The arrival of the Romans was a new era. They in- troduced, at least in some degree, their own architecture, of which a variety of specimens have been found : some few still remain, of which, pei'haps, the gate of Lincoln is the only one retaining its original use. Although some fine specimens of workmanship have been dug up in parts, yet by far the greatest part of the Roman work was rude, and by no means comparable with the antiquities of Greece and Italy, though executed by the Romans. The age of purity in the Roman architecture reaches down to several of the first em- perors ; but very early, with a degree of purity of composition, there was such a profusion of ornament made use of, as soon led the way to something like debasement of composition. The palace of Dioclesian, at Spalato, has descended to us suffi- ciently perfect to enable us to judge of the style of both com- position and ornamental details; and the date of this may be 4 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Palace of Dioclesian, considered from a.d. 200 to 300; and Constantine, wlio died in A.D. 337, erected the church of St. Paul, without the walls of Rome% which, in fact, in its composition resembles a Nor- man building. And it is curious to observe that the orna- ment afterwards used so profusely in Nor- man work is used in the buildings of Dio- clesian, the Corinthian modillions being capped with a moulding cut in zigzag, and which only wants the enlargement of the moulding to become a real Norman orna- ment. When the Romans left the island, it was most likelj^ that the attempts of the Britons were still more rude ; and endeavouring to imitate, but not executing on principle, the Roman work, their architecture became debased into the Saxon and early Norman, intermixed with ornaments perhaps brought in by the Danes. After the Conquest, the rich Norman barons erecting very magnificent castles and churches, the execution manifestly improved, though still with much similarity to the Roman mode debased. But the intro- duction of shafts, instead of the massive pier, first began to approach that lighter mode of building, which, by the introduc- tion of the pointed arch, and by an increased delicacy of execu- tion and boldness of composition, ripened at the close of the twelfth centurj^ into the simple yet beautiful Early English style. Towards the end of another century'-, this style, from the alteration of its windows by throwing them into large ones divided by mullions, introducing tracery in the heads of windows, and the general use of flowered ornaments, together wath an important alteration in the piers, became the Decorated English stjde, which may be considered as the perfection of the English mode. This was very difficult to execute, from its requiring floAving lines where straight ones were more easily combined ; and at the close of the fourteenth century we find these flow- » It was begun by the Emperor Thco- dosius, and finished by his sons Arcadius and Iloiiorixis. " The rescript, addressed to the rrajfcct of Rome in the year 386, which conveys the imperial commands on this subject, has been preserved by Baronius," [vol. v. p. 607]. — Ecclesias- tical Arcliifeciure of Italy, by the late Mr. Gaily Knight, in which work a view of the interior of this building is given, as it existed previous to the fire in 1822. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 ing lines giving way to perpendicular and horizontal ones. The use of which continued to increase, till the arches were almost lost in a continued series of panels, which at length in one building — the chapel of Henry YII. — covered com- pletely both the outside and inside ; and the eye, fatigued by the constant repetition of small parts, sought in vain for the bold grandeur of design, which had been so nobly conspicuous in the preceding style. The Reformation, occasioning the de- struction of many of the most celebrated buildings and the mu- tilation of others, or the abstraction of funds uecessar}^ for their repair, seems to have put an end to the working of the English styles on principle. The square panelled and mullioned win- dows, with the wooden panelled roofs and halls, of the great houses of the time of Queen Elizabeth, seem rather a debased English than anything else ; but dm*ing the reign of her successor, the Italian architecture then prevalent on the Con- tinent began to be introduced first only in columns of doors and other small parts, and afterwards in larger portions, though still the general style was this debased English''. Of this introduction, the most memorable is the celebrated tower of the Schools at Oxford, where, into a building adorned with pinnacles and having mullioned windows, the architect has crowded all the five orders over each other. Some of the works of Inigo Jones are little removed beyond this barbarism. Longleat, in Wiltshire, is rather more advanced, and the Ban- queting-house, Whitehall, seems to mark the complete intro- duction of Italian workmanship. The close of the seventeenth century produced Sir Christopher Wren, a man whose powers, confessedly great, lead us to regret that he had not studied the architecture of his English ancestors with the success he did that of Rome ; for while he has raised the most magnificent modern building we possess, he seems to have been pleased to disfigure the English edifices he had to complete. His works at St. Mary Aldermary and St. Dunstan-in-the-East prove how well he coidd execute imitated English buildings when he •* Italian features certainly began to more frequently in buildings erected beintroducedbeforethe reign of James I. during the reigns of Edward VI. and They are occasionally to be met with in Elizabeth, work of the time of Henry VIII., and 6 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. chose, thoiigli even in thera he has departed, in several respects, from the true English principles. By the end of the seven- teenth century the Roman architecture appears to have been ■well established, and the works of Vitruvius and Palladio suc- cessfidh' studied ; but Sir John Yanbrugh and Nicholas Hawks- moor seem to have endeavoured to introduce a massiveness of style, which happily is peculiar to themselves. The works of Palladio, as illustrated by some carpenters, appear to have been the model for working the orders during the greater part of the eighteenth century ; but in the early and middle part of it, a style of ornament borrowed from the French was much introduced in interiors, the principal distinctions of which were the absence of all straight lines, and almost of all regidar lines. The examples of this are now nearly extinct, and seem to have been driven out by the natural operation of the advance of good workmanship and greater simplicity of treatment in the lower class of buildings. AU ornamental carvings were with difficult}^ executed in wood, and were very expensive; but towards the latter end of the eighteenth century, the Adamses introduced a style of ornament directly contrary to the heavy carving of their pre- decessors. This was so flat as to be easily worked in plaster and other compositions, and putty-ornament was sold very cheap and profusely used in carpenters' work. This flatness was more or less visible in man}^ considerable buildings ; but near the close of the century, the magnificent works of Stuart and Eevett, and the Ionian antiquities of the Dilettanti Society, began to excite the public attention, and in a few years a great alteration was visible ; the massive Doric, and the beaiitiful plain Grecian Ionic began to be worked, and our ordinary door-cases, «S:c. soon began to take a better character. The use of the simj^le yet bold mouldings and ornaments of the Grecian models is gradually spreading, and perhaps we may hope, from the present general investigation of the principles of science, that this will continue without danger of future de- basement, and that a da}- may come, when we shall have Grecian, Roman and English edifices, erected on the princi- ples of each. GEECIAN AECHITECTUEE. The many valuable treatises and excellent delineations of the Grecian and Eoman buildings, and the details of their parts, will render unnecessary in this dissertation that minute- ness, which from the total absence of a previous system it will be proper to adopt in the description of the English styles. But in this sketch a similar plan will be followed, of first gi\dng the name and grand distinctions of the orders ; then describing the terms and names of parts necessary for those who have not paid attention to the subject to understand ; and a concise description of each order will follow. With respect to the examples in England, it will be most proper to leave the reader to select his own ; because in this country we have not, as in the English architecture, the originals to study, but a variety of copies, adapted to the climate and to the conveni- ence of modern times. In dividing the Grecian and Eoman architecture, the word order is used, and much more properly than style ; the English stjdes regard not a few parts, but the composition of the whole building. But the question naturally arises. What is an order ? In architecture the term * order ' signifies properly not merely the column and its superincumbent entablature, but rather a re- cognised principle of decoration, a systematic arrangement, a certain characteristic proportion, which pervade not only the column and entablature, but also all the other accompaniments in a building, and all the minute details of the several parts, as the doors, windows, &c. Now it is well known that there are three distinct general divisions, under which all objects in nature may be classed : namely, 1st, the strong and weak ; 2nd, the tall and short ; and 3rdly, the mean between these two : by some compared with the robustness of the man, the grace of the virgin, and the maturer development of the matron. Each of these moral 8 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. modifications is realised in the orders, and received its physical and t}-pical realization in the three great divisions of Greek architecture, known as the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian : where strength and robustness are retained in the Doric, refined and modified in the Ionic, and attenuated to greater grace and elegance in the Corinthian. These distinct qualities exist not only in the column of the order, but pervades all the parts of an edifice ; so that a Greek-Doric monument is known at once by its simple, massive, ponderous proportions ; the Ionic b}^ its calm but lighter subdivisions ; the Corinthian by the more intricate and slender modifications of all the parts. So that even without the prominent characteristic of the column with its capital and base, we may at one glance decide to which order of architecture the edifice may belong. Thus the ph^'sical proportions of the building decide its moral influence on the mind, so that, if these two do not harmonize, there must be some impropriety or contradiction. Let us then bear in mind these three great physical distinc- tions embodied in the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders : in the Doric, the idea of solid supports, subdued ornament, and short proportions ; in its opposite, the Corinthian, elegance of form, lightness of proportions, richness of decoration ; in the Ionic, the mean between these two extremes, moderate strength, subdued embellishment, proportions intermediate between the sturdiness of the Doric and the loft}' grace of the Corinthian. The Romans, however, who were less exact in their metaphysical appreciation of the orders, divided them into five, as did also the Italian masters, and they are usually enumerated as follow : — Tuscan, — Doric, — Ionic, — Corinthian, — Composite. The first and the last of these being unknown in Greek art. Their origin will be treated of hereafter. Their prominent distinctions are as follow : — The Tuscan is without an}' ornament whatever. The Doric is distinguished by the channels and projecting intervals in the frieze, called trifj///p/is, and the Greek-Doric column is usually without a base. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. 9 The Ionic is characterized by the ornaments of its capital, which are spiral, and are called volutes. The Corinthian is marked by the superior height of its capital, and by its being ornamented with leaves, which sup- port very small volutes at the angles and in the centre, and which are called cauUcoli. The Composite has also a tall capital with leaves, but is dis- tinguished from the Corinthian by having the large angular volutes and the enriched ovolo of the Ionic capital. In a complete order there are three grand divisions, which are occasionally executed separately, viz. 1 . The 2)edesial ^, which supports the column, 2. The column, including its base and capital, 3. The entablature, or part above and supported by the column. These are again subdivided , Surbi into three parts : — The pedestal into 1. base, or lower mouldings ; 2. dado or die, the plain central space ; 3. surbase, or upper mouldings. B,.e The column into base, or lower mouldings ; shaft, or central space ; and capital, or upper mouldings. The entablature, into architrave, or beam immediately above the column ; frieze, or central space ; and cornice, or upper pro- jecting mouldings to throw off the rain. These parts may be again divided thus : the lower por- tions, viz. the base of the pedestal, base of the colimin, and the '' A pedestal can scarcely be con- of an order. It is not found in the sidered necessary for the completeness majority of ancient examples. C 10 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. architraye, divided each into two parts ; the first and second into plinth and mouldings, the third into face or faces, and upper moulding or taenia ^. Each central portion, as dado of the pedestal, shaft of the column, and frieze, is undivided. Each upper portion, as surbase of the pedestal, capital of the column, cornice of the entablature, divides into three parts : the first into hcd-moidd, or the part under the corona; corona, or plain face ; and cymatium, or upper moulding. The capital mto neck, or part below the ovolo ; ovolo, or project- ing round moulding ; and abacus or tile, the flat upper moulding, in general nearly square. These divisions of the capital, how- ever, are less distinct than those of the other parts *". The cornice into hedmould, or part below the corona ; corona, or flat projecting face ; cymatium, or moulding above the corona. Besides these general divisions, it will be proper to notice a few terms often made use of. The ornamental moulding; runnino; round an arch is called an archivolt, or round doors and windows it is called an architrave, (b.) A horizontal moulding for an arch to spring from is called an inijmst. (a.) The central stone at the top of an arch, which often projects, is called a key-stone : this does not usuall}^ occur in Gothic construction. ' The term tnenia is usually confined to the Doric order. ' In the Corinthian order, and in many examples of the Ionic, these divisions do not exist. In the Compo- site order the part below the ovolo is called the vase, hell, or hodi/ of the capital. In fact, the vase is the cap proper, round which the caulicoli and leaves are grouped merely as a deco- ration. In the vase-shaped Egyptian capitals this is very evident. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. 11 The small brackets under the corona in the cornice are called mutu/es or modilUoiis. If they are square, or longer in front than in depth, they are called mutules, and are used in the Doric order ; if they are less in front than their depth, they are called modiUions, and in the Corinthian order have carved leaves spread under them. A truss is a modillion enlarged, and placed flat^ against a wall, often used to support the cornice of doors and windows. A console is an ornament like a truss carved on a key- stone. Trusses, when used under modiUions in the frieze, are called cantalivers. The space under the corona of the cornice is called a soffit, as is also the under side of an arch ^. Dentils are ornaments used in the bed- mould of cornices ; they are parts of a small flat face, which is cut perpendicularly, and small intervals left between each, and represent the ends of ceiling joists. Flat columns, having the same capital as the ':"^M^^^ column, are called 2)ik(sters ' ; in Greek architec- ture they have a different capital, and are called antce. (a.) A small height or story above the cornice is called an attic; and sometimes a parapet is introduced, with small pillars, swelling towards the bottom, called baliistres, and a series of them a halastrade. « It would be more correct to say, placed upright against a wall. '' Soffit is a very general term for horizontal under surfaces ; it is applied to the under side of the architrave of an entablature. ' Pilcisters are usually attached to a wall, and in general project but slightly from it. 12 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. The triangular portion over a series of columns is called a pediment, and the plain central space bounded by the horizon- tal and sloping cornices, the ii/mpanum ; this is often orna- mented with groups of figures, as in the Parthenon at Athens, or by other work in relief. Pedestals and attics are far from settled as to their propor- tions, or the mode of their execution, depending almost entirely on circumstances connected with the particular design, rather than the order with which they are used. However, for either, about one-fifth of the whole height, including pedestal and entablature, is a good proportion, though it may be often neces- sary to increase it from local circumstances. In general, an order looks much better executed without pedestals. Columns are sometimes orna- mented b}^ channels, which are call&A. flutes^. These channels are sometimes partly filled by a lesser rovmd moulding ; this is called cabling the flutes. If the joints of the masonry are sunk in channels, the work is caUed rustic; this is often used on the basement of an order. For the better understanding the description to be given of the orders, it will be proper first to notice the mouldings which, by different combinations, form their parts. [They are the al- '' In the Doric order twenty flutes arc used on the colinnn, and tlicy are worked witliout fillets be- tween them. In ^_ '" the Ionic, Corin- -!^%x^\^^..,^,^^-,x<,>^^^\^ thian, and Com- posite orders twenty- j^ n four flutes are used, ^^4^S^V^ with small fillets be- ' twecn. The Tuscan is the only order in wliich the columns arc never fluted. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. 13 phabet of architecture, as Mons. Ramee observes : they are the elements, the members which serve to determine and give ex- pression to the different parts of a monument. It is to be observed, that the purer monuments of Classic art are characterized by the moderate use of mouldings, which are generally small in size and few in number, as compared with the plain faces. In the later periods, however, the mouldings gra- dually increased, and finally among the Romans predominated, so as to leave hardly any plain faces at all. A moulding maj^ be considered to be, in the terms of Quatremere de Quincy, " a small body projecting more or less from the wall, and having a rounded surface." It may be remarked, that the angle of in- clination of the Greek mouldings is never very great, but in the Roman monuments they overhang much more.] Mouldings may be divided into two classes, the simple, and the complex or compound ; the former are — 1st. The Roman ovolo, or quarter round ; or the Greek ovolo, with an elliptic or conic section. 2nd. The eavetto, or hol- low. 3rd. The torus, or round. 14 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. rl From the composition of these are formed divers others, and from the arrangement of them, with plain flat spaces between, are formed cornices and other ornaments. A large flat space is called a corona, if in the cornice ; Ziface ov fascia in the architrave ; Li — and the frieze itself is usually a |"'^"^"^^^^""^^'~"~ flat space K A small flat face is called a filet, and is interposed between mouldings to divide them. (See p. 18.) A fillet is, in the bases of columns and some other parts, joined to a face, or to the column itself, by a small hollow, then called apophygcs. :j i!iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiii! The torus, when very small, becomes an astragal, or bead, which docs or does not pro- ject. Compound mouldings are — the cyma recta, which has the hollow uppermost and projecting. The cyma rcrersa, which has a similar contour, but adapted for a base moulding to a wall or plinth. The frieze is not invariably flat. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15 The ogee, which has the round iippermost and over- hanging. The scotia, which is formed of two hollows % one over the other, and of different centres. [The most complex of all mouldings is the BircVs-hcal; which exists almost exclusively, if not quite so, in the Greek Doric order. It was never employed, strange to say, by the Romans. It disappears, even in the Greek buildings themselves, after the classic period of Athenian art. It may be defined in its elementary form as a cyma surmounted by a projecting or overhanging ovolo, the uppermost moulding, the ovolo, casting a deep shade on the whole of the cyma recta. 