The reproduction of geographical forms. I. Sand- and clay-modelling with respect to geographical forms. II. Map-drawing and map-projection
Redway, Jacques Wardlaw, 1849-1942
LB ;r4 H,!fc*"M.F *B 300 ?i4 GRIFT OF John B» Leighlfr fiJl+AjfZIl, iff KX*"f< Y ^Lr^m f<y&.^ fk Production ■V \ THE REPRODUCTION OF Geographical Forms I. SAND- AND CLAY-MODELLING WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHICAL FORMS II. MAP-DRAWING AND MAP-PROJECTION BY JACQUES W. REDWAY »©;c ■ BOSTON PUBLISHED BY D. C. HEATH & CO. 1897 OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. A SERIES OF GEOGRAPHIES, DESCRIPTIVE AND PHYSICAL. A GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. A GEOGRAPHY OF MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTICUT, AND RHODE ISLAND. STUDIES IN PHYSIOGRAPHY (in Press). A TEACHER'S MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. Copyright, 1890, By JACQUES W. REDWAY. jCff G^^Sl. & ^^ Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. #4 FOREWORDS. Sand- and clay-modelling with respect to topographical forms has become a legitimate and essential part of the course of instruc- tion in the study of geography. But while much emphasis has been placed on the arbitrary order to do, little has been said on the subject of how and what to model, or how to interpret the forms when made. The moulding-board is intended not for the creation of forms, but for the reproduction of those already found in nature. A working plan whereby the more common types of geographical forms may be studied in the school-room, is therefore presented. I have also added a few pages on the practical construction of maps and map-projections. To project and draw a ' scientific ' map is often considered an unpardonable educational heresy. As a matter of fact, however, the ' scientific ' projection is vastly easier, and requires less time than the bungling, meaningless diagram which commonly poses under the name of an ' aid ' to map- drawing. I have therefore taken the liberty to present a few prac- tical projections which are not beyond the comprehension of pupils in intermediate grades. There is also presented a solu- tion of several of the more difficult projections which appear in school atlases. J. W. R. M&22503 PART I. HINTS TO TEACHERS. I. PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the average child learns more of the science of geography in his rambles out of doors, before beginning the study in his school course, than he learns from the text-book after his school work in that study begins. The reason is that, in the one case he reads geography in nature, in the other from the printed page. No matter how well and how faithfully the teaching may be done, the disadvantages arising from the use of words and sentences instead of things in nature, are too great to be easily swept away. Within a few years the importance of this fact has been so widely recognized by primary teachers that, in a majority of schools, text- book work has been largely abandoned in primary grades, and oral lessons, aided by the moulding-board and the study of natural forms, have very properly taken its place. The outline of the following course in oral primary geography was furnished at the author's request by Miss Mathilde E. Coffin, of the Millersville, Pa., State Normal School, as a basis for the preparation of this and the following chapter. It is intended as a list of topics for oral work rather than a systematic course of study. Much of the work discussed must necessarily be done out of doors. Children who like to make ' mud pies ' will take equal delight in modelling natural forms in sand or in clay. Time ordinarily spent in aimless rambling will be gladly devoted to the collection and study of natural objects when once there is an incentive for it. In ungraded country schools the wise plan of keeping primary pupils out of doors at all times when they are not engaged in recitation 6 HINTS TO TEACHERS is an excellent one, and these are the golden hours which the child may devote to the study of nature. The out-of-door work should of course be supplemented by the necessary developmental exer- cises, and lessons in oral expression in the school-room. Bear in mind, also, that while recitation-hearing is an easy matter, teaching children how to study and how to observe is a qualification de- manding the highest capabilities of the teacher. Form. — It is well, so far as possible, to acquire a knowledge of form from natural objects. Fruit, crystals, forms of leaves, shells, animals, and geometric forms will all furnish instructive lessons. At first the work must be wholly imitative, but, as skill is acquired, objects may be modelled from memory. With the modelling of geometric forms comes the necessary instruction in the use of descriptive terms, such as plane, curved, level, cubic, spherical, square, circular, slanting, vertical, angle or corner, solid, horizontal, etc. Inculcate with every step ideas of neatness in work and faithfulness to the copy. Size. — Teach by actual measurement all the units of linear measure within the comprehension of the pupil. The latter should be taught to estimate the inch, foot, and yard with the eye. It will be found rather more difficult to estimate vertical than hori- zontal distances, especially if the eyesight be at all astigmatic. It is well to have a pupil learn the length of his ordinary step, so that he can pace either a rod or one hundred feet with reasonable accuracy. It is not a difficult matter to estimate a distance of one mile, but the estimate would better be made by reckoning the time required to walk it, rather than by the number of steps. The average adult takes about two thousand steps to the mile. Three and one half miles per hour is a fair, four miles a brisk, and five miles per hour a very rapid gait. Time that is spent in estimating and measuring the dimensions of objects is by no means wasted. The ability to estimate measurements accurately has a practical value to which every person in active business life will testify. The estimation of angular distance is also an excellent drill. By subdividing an arc which measures a right angle, into halves and PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 7 thirds, almost any angle can be estimated to within two or three degrees. Color. — The proper development of the color-sense is of no little importance to the student of nature. It is well, for many reasons, to make a special test of the color-sense of each pupil. About ten per cent of young children are deficient in color- vision. Of this proportion, some are deficient through physiological causes, others from a lack of development of the color-sense, and still others from ignorance of the names of colors. The two latter causes are remediable, and can be easily removed if the teacher will take a little extra pains with each individual pupil. Select at first, only bright, pronounced colors, and teach their names. Afterwards exercise every pupil in selecting graduated shades of each color. A pupil who is physiologically deficient in the color- sense will most likely fail in distinguishing the reds and greens. Use only well-known and standard names for the various shades and mixtures. Such names as 'ecru,' ' faded rose,' ' crushed strawberry,' etc., are whims of fancy only, and change with the fashions. In teaching the primary colors it is best to use the classification which science has shown to be the true one, namely — red, green, and violet} Viewing bits of colored silk through pieces of colored glass is in many respects a useful exercise, and will be of material service in the development of the color-sense. But the colors and the color-names that the pupil must familiar- ize himself most thoroughly with are those that he finds in nature. There are the various shades of red, as damask, crimson, and scarlet ; the greens, as pistachio, apple-, and pea-green ; the blues, as indigo, sky-, ultramarine, and cobalt-blue. There are also the various shades of lilac, pink, pearl, violet, salmon, fawn, sable or 1 The old scheme of red, yellow, and blue holds true in mixing a few colors, but fails lamentably in the majority of cases. The trouble arises from the fact that nearly all the red, blue, and yellow pigments are mixed or impure colors. 8 HINTS TO TEACHERS seal-brown, chestnut-brown, russet-brown, iron-gray, silver-white, lemon-yellow, golden-yellow, orange-yellow, straw-yellow, tan, and a host of others, all named from objects in nature, and all standard types of color. In the light of geography these are more impor- tant than the bright spectrum colors which are so largely used in the arts. If there is any doubt that many of these colors are un- familiar save in name, let the teacher direct half a dozen pupils to select a fawn or a pistachio shade from a collection of colors. Besides these there are the various * lustres/ such as vitreous, pearly, metallic, etc., all used in the description of minerals. It may be objected that lessons on color belong to the domain of physics rather than to that of geography. This is possibly true, but we must also bear in mind that color is just as much a feature of nature as is the mountain, the plain, or the valley. Moreover, it is also a means of cultivating taste, and this of itself is quite as important a factor in child- culture as the study of geography. Locality. — The sense of the knowledge of position and direc- tion, which is practically the 'homing instinct' of animals, is rarely developed to any great extent in mankind, and it therefore becomes a necessary part of education. Develop a knowledge of the terms right and left, and up and down. Impress the fact that these are terms relating respectively to the human body and the centre of the earth. There are various schemes for developing an idea of the position of the cardinal points, but it is well to begin at once with the direction of the north star. The direction of the sun's rising and setting will be worth incidental mention, but these should be discussed as varying and not fixed points. The direction of the shadow at noon is an excellent point to use for illustration, and the ingenious teacher can easily manufacture a sun-dial which will show the time between eight o'clock a.m. and four o'clock p.m. with reasonable accuracy. This will be found an excellent device for encouraging pupils to observe the apparent motions of the sun, both daily and yearly. It is an excellent plan to have the points of the compass charted on a clear part of the school-room floor, or perhaps on the ceiling. PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 9 In studying the various problems under this head, the use of the map must necessarily be taken up. Begin with a map or dia- gram of the school-room or the school-grounds, and extend the area mapped until it includes every part of the district with which the pupil is familiar. The location of the principal surroundings should be represented approximately to a scale, and the conven- tional terms and signs used in chartography should be explained and used. It will be a matter of surprise to the teacher who tries the experiment, what excellent results can be obtained in these first attempts at map -drawing. 10 HINTS TO TEACHERS II. OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS FOR PRIMARY AND INTER- MEDIATE CLASSES. The out-of-door lessons in geography, through which the child should receive his first knowledge of the forces of nature, will of necessity be confined mainly to the neighborhood in which he lives. The method in which these are conducted must depend on the judgment of the teacher as modified by surroundings. But one direction can be given : namely, make the most of what physiographical features the district affords. Supplement this by the moulding- board, and by the use of whatever pictures, models, etc., can be obtained. Earth- Sculpture. — If the surface of the neighborhood is uneven, hilly, or rugged, the probabilities are that the uneven- ness has been produced by unequal weathering or else by the direct action of water. In many instances a hill is formed because its substance is harder than the rock surrounding it. So, under the action of flowing water, ice, rain, and other weathering agents, the surface is unequally worn into hills and valleys. Often there are strata of rock which show the corrasive action of running ivater; or perhaps soil, masses of broken rock, etc., have been carried down the slope, and spread over the valley below. By a careful search one may nearly always find marks of the forces which have thus sculptured the earth. In walking along the slope of the hill during a hard rain, one may observe the process of earth-sculpture in actual operation. The drops of rain that fall on the hill-side are clear as crystal. When they reach the bottom, however, they are loaded with fine particles taken from the soiL OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 11 Direct the pupils to observe this, and develop by skilful question- ing the effect of the process when long continued. Cover a piece of clay with sand on the moulding- table. Incline the latter slightly, and pour water on it from a sprinkler. The sand is washed away, leaving a miniature hill of clay, and the process of hill-making is thus repeated on a small scale. In a similar manner place a small piece of slate or a thin piece of rock on the sand, and apply the water. The sand is washed out under the edges a little way, but the slate protects the great mass of it, while all around the sand is carried away. In this manner one may show the formation of cliffs and certain types of table- lands. The study of the hill will lead to that of the mountain- range. The explanation of this will be a more difficult task, because the essential feature of a mountain-range lies in the fact that it is a fold or wrinkle made by a shrinking of the earth. The follow- ing expedient has been used by the author for want of a better illustration. Take a piece of cloth-covered elastic band, ten or fifteen inches in length, and stretch it moderately. Fasten several strips of differently colored cloth to the elastic by means of mucil- age, and when nearly dry, allow the elastic to slowly contract. The pieces of colored cloth will wrinkle and crumple, producing an effect which, though not a striking resemblance to mountain- folding, is nevertheless a good illustration of the manner in which plication occurred. In studying the mountain, begin with the range, as directed in p. 25. The examples of earth-sculpture which will appeal most strongly to the child are those which are the work of running water. The little rain-formed rill which trickles along the road cuts a deep rut in one place, and spreads out in a broad channel in another. Finally it joins another rill, or else pours its current into a pool of water, which is a miniature lake or sea. When the rivulet reaches its goal, it possibly divides into several streams, forming a delta, and perhaps builds a bar opposite to its mouth. In such a stream the pupil can see the operation of all the laws 12 HINTS TO TEACHERS which govern the conduct of the Mississippi or the Colorado. Develop by skilful questions, inductive and deductive, why the rill cuts a deep canon in one place, and deposits silt in another ; building its banks and bed higher than the surrounding land, and then breaking through them. Show why it forms a delta, a bar, or a spit, when it reaches its outlet. The effects of rain combined with the corrasion of running water may also be pointed out. Develop the fact that a rapidly flowing stream in a rainless region will cut deep canons with almost vertical walls. If, on the con- trary, the region is one of considerable rainfall, all the sharp, angular features will be worn and rounded in harmonious forms. This feature of erosion can be shown on the moulding-board, with the aid of a sprinkler. It is well, also, to observe the effect of vegetation. The dif- ference between the erosion of a grass-covered and a denuded slope is so marked that it will not fail to be observed and accounted for if the pupil's attention is called to it. Pictures of the tnauvaise terre or ' bad-land' formation, of the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, and of the rounded valleys of Oregon, can be made the sub- jects of impressive lessons. Develop the fact that vegetation is not only protective to the land, but that it also retards the collection of water in the channels which carry it off, thereby largely prevent- ing ' freshets,' or floods.1 Throw a ridge of sand or mud across the channel of a rill, and make a miniature lake. By and by the basin fills, and the water runs over the lowest part of the rim. Now let the pupils observe carefully what occurs. At the inlet of the lake the current of the stream is checked, and the water begins to deposit silt, forming a little bar at the mouth. The stream issuing from the lake is like- wise at work : it is cutting away the rim of the basin and lowering the level of the water. From these facts two good lessons may 1 In Arizona and Nevada I have more than once seen a flood gather in a dry ' wash ' or creek-bed so quickly, after a heavy rain, that the water rolled down the cafion almost like a solid wall. In two minutes a dry creek-bed would become an impetuous torrent. — J. W. R. OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 13 be deduced. First, that the stream flowing into a lake is always silting the basin. Secondly, the stream which flows from a lake is constantly cutting the rim of the basin lower, reducing its size, and draining the water away. These are the laws which prompted Gilbert to say, ' Rivers are the mortal enemies of lakes.' When excursions can be made to the seacoast, impressive truths may be learned from the action of the waves. The water-worn cliffs show what can be accomplished by the continuous beating of the waves upon hard rock. The sand, examined by a magnify- ing glass, will show the effect of the never-ceasing surf. If one may have the fortune to visit the coast of the South Atlantic States, the long, narrow sand-spits formed by the combined action of rivers and waves, — one of which pushes the silt sea-ward, and the other land- ward, — may be made the subject of a most instructive lesson. The different outlines of coast must not be forgotten. These will be found at the shore of almost any pond or stream of water. Indeed, the various types of coast outline may be profitably moulded at the shore if they do not occur there. Occasionally it will be necessary to obtain pictures or models of the different types, and reproduce the forms from these. Do not neglect to show that peninsulas are, in most instances, ranges of mountains extending into the sea, and that frequently a chain of islands, the partly covered summits of the range, lie beyond the point of the peninsula. Do not neglect to instruct pupils in the application of technical names that pertain to a natural feature, and do not extemporize names where good ones already exist. The abuse of this privilege has already led to much unnecessary confusion. Slopes. — The slopes of a body of land are commonly formed ^by mountain systems, but in many instances a low and almost im- perceptible ridge of land separates two basins or watersheds. Steep or abrupt slopes can always be determined by the eye, and the positive slopes of the district should be invariably studied when the pupil is learning his first lessons in physical geography. 14 HINTS TO TEACHERS The gentle slopes of land, however, can be estimated naturally in only one way ; namely, by observing the direction of the water- courses. So helpless is the eye in this respect that the most ex- pert surveyors and topographers are often deceived. The slopes and hydrographic basins of large areas of land may be conven- iently studied from both map and moulding-board. In using the map for this purpose, the boundaries of the various basins and slopes are found by drawing a light pencil-line so as to separate the sources of adjacent rivers and tributaries. In doing this the pupil will often discover the untruth of one of the oldest traditions of geography ; namely, that the crests of mountain-ranges corre- spond with divides. A few moments' work with the pencil will show that the exception is true oftener than the rule. Soil. — A knowledge of the various kinds of soil is not only a necessary part of the study of physical geography, but it has a practical value in education that will not be overestimated. The varieties of greatest practical use are sand, gravel, clay, and loam. Develop by observation and questioning that sand and gravel are results of running of water, and lead the pupil to discover how rough fragments of rock are converted into rounded pebbles. Do not make the mistake of teaching that the soil of deserts is com- posed of sand ; for it is very rarely that sand is found in desert regions. Pure sand is composed of the mineral silica, and is a product of the seashore. The so-called sand of the desert may be composed of almost any kind of dry, pulverized earth. Develop the idea that the loams are nearly always disintegrated or * rotten ' rock, finely pulverized, and mixed with decayed vege- table matter. In many instances loam has been deposited by rivers, but sometimes it has been found in situ. In the former case it is called alluvial, in the latter, sedentary soil. The forma- tion of loam will be somewhat difficult of explanation, but it is not beyond the understanding of even the younger pupils. The action of the angle-, or earth-worm, which is constantly mixing and digesting rich, loamy soils within its alimentary canal, will make the subject of an excellent lesson. OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 15 In studying the properties of clay, it will be well to call attention to its imperviousness to water, and its extreme hardness when dry. Illustrate its commercial value in the manufacture of brick, pottery, etc., and its special value in holding near the surface of the earth much of the water that falls in the form of rain and snow. Vegetation. — The first lessons on vegetable life should be of a very practical kind. The study of the germination of seeds, although hardly within the domain of geography, is an excellent exercise because it is an incentive to habits of observation. The flower-garden may be made almost as useful as the black- board. There is no reason why the effects of heat and moisture on soil should not be as closely studied in the country school as in the higher school of learning. Almost every law which underlies the geographical distribution of plants may be illus- trated in the school district. Besides the grains, the fruits, and the vegetables of commercial value, it will be well to study the large class of plants ordinarily classed as ' weeds.' Nearly all of these have more or less value to mankind, or else they are positively baneful. A knowledge of the latter is just as important as that of the former ; more espe- cially is it necessary to learn how the seeds of the latter are dis- tributed. The ' down ' of the Canada thistle and the dandelion, and the winged seeds of the maple may be used to illustrate this. It is a good plan to encourage pupils to collect and prepare a herbarium for the use of the school, arranging and classifying the plants of the neighborhood more with reference to their commer- cial and economic value than with respect to their botanical places. Specimens of all the timber growing in the district may be profit- ably collected and preserved ; one side of the specimen being left in its natural state, the other planed, and dressed with oil. Animals. — The study of animal life is also an important factor in the legitimate work of geography. In many instances the study may be made observational. The habits and characteristics of domestic animals will furnish a fund of useful information. It will be well also to discriminate between wild animals that are 16 HINTS TO TEACHERS useful and those that are hurtful to the husbandman. The study of the birds and insects with which the pupil is familiar will be one of great utility. If the pupils are encouraged to make a classified list of all the forms of animal life found in the district, the extent of the list will be a matter of surprise. When the list is discussed in detail, it will probably lead to the discovery that, in general, insects have the various forms of grub, chrysalis, and articulate stage. Much may be done by reading stories about wild animals ; in every case supplementing the story by pictures. The latter may be obtained in colors for a very small sum of money. Perhaps more can be done in the way of developmental work by skilful questioning than by observation and reading. The value of the list of questions given in Frye's ' Child and Nature,' pp. 112 and 113, will be manifest to every live teacher. Minerals. — There are few districts which do not abound in mineral wealth. In the prairie states the list will be found to be surprisingly large, while in the rolling and mountainous regions the list may easily be extended beyond the limit of utility. The most important are, of course, the minerals of economic use. It will be well to have a collection of from fifty to one hundred of these, which should be labelled and mounted either on a block or a piece of stout card. It should comprise, among others, spec- imens of the different varieties of coal arranged in a series ; sev- eral varieties of iron ore, notably hematite, Iimonite, magnetite, lodestone, and pyrites. Copper, zinc, nickel, lead, quicksilver, and tin ores may be obtained without much difficulty, and in every case the metal yielded by the ore should be exhibited. Native specimens of rock-salt, sulphur, gypsum, and the ochres may be obtained at a trifling expense. Equally important are the building stones, such as granite (syenite and gneiss), brown sandstone, white sandstone, marble, and other limestones, slate, clay, etc. It is best to have the pupils themselves collect or obtain the specimens. They should be labelled and mounted in as attractive a manner as possible. OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 17 The Atmosphere. — It is well to impress the fact that the atmosphere is just as much a part of the earth as the water or the solid rock. Do not allow the notion to be developed that all space is filled with air, and do not convey the idea that the earth ' floats in air.' Emphasize the fact that the air is the outer part of the earth, and moves with it in space. That air has weight is always more or less difficult to demon- strate to a class, not because it may not be shown by simple experiments, but from the very common opinion that there is a force generally known as l suction.' The boy's toy called the ' sucker,' a piece of thick, pliable leather, with a string fastened to the centre, is instructive as a means of illustration. When the sucker is saturated with water, and pushed firmly against a smooth board or a polished boulder, it requires considerable force to pull it away. The most convincing proof of the weight of air, how- ever, may be found in the fact that a two-gallon glass jar, when exhausted by means of the air-pump, loses about half an ounce in weight. It will be well, also, to develop the fact that the column of mer- cury in the barometer exactly balances or weighs a column of air of equal area. A serviceable barometer may be easily constructed by inverting a tube about thirty-six inches long, filled with quick- silver, so that the open end rests in a small vessel half full of the same metal. Measure the height of the quicksilver in the tube, and fasten upon it a paper scale of inches and tenths so as to mark the height of the column. The instrument thus constructed will show the changes in the pressure (weight) of the atmosphere with reasonable accuracy. Show by any of the well-known experiments that air when heated expands in volume, therefore becoming, bulk for bulk, lighter than cold air. The boy's whirligig held over a hot stove at once acquires a rapid motion because of the ascending current of warm air. Do not allow the impression to obtain that hot air ' rises ' because of its lightness. What really occurs is, that heavier cold air flows in and pushes it upwards. 18 HINTS TO TEACHERS The mutual but adverse motions of cold and warm currents of air may be best shown by the time-worn experiment of holding two lighted candles, one at the top, the other at the bottom of a door which opens into a heated room. In the study of the winds, it is not easy to find an illustration of wider application than this. It is an excellent plan to have pupils observe daily the motions of the winds, especially the direction of the wind which precedes storms and that with which the storm clears. The moisture in the atmosphere may be shown in different ways. The ' drying up ' of pools of water after a rain, the evapora- tion of water in an open vessel exposed to the air, and the disap- pearance of the dew after sunrise, may be made the subjects of extremely entertaining lessons. That moisture is present in the dry air of a room may be shown by filling a pitcher or other vessel with iced water. As the atmospheric moisture is condensed on the outside of the vessel, wipe the latter, and allow it to condense again, as a further proof. Lead, step by step, to the fact that when the temperature is lowered quickly, much of the vapor of water is changed to its ordinary liquid form, and appears as dew, mist, fog, cloud, or rain. It will be an excellent plan to have pupils make daily observa- tions on the winds, clouds, and general condition of the weather. Such observations may have but little worth in themselves, but they are direct means to a very valuable end. In many instances it will be practicable to have the daily weather indications dis- played in the school-room, and in any case, good results will invariably come from keeping a daily weather-record. Seasons. — Many instructive lessons may be drawn from the study of the astronomical side of geography. With primary pupils these will of necessity be fragmentary and incomplete. The pupil will, however, become familiar with many facts which will render the study of mathematical geography far easier in after years. Have the pupils note the position of the sun at different times in the day, and explain to them the phenomena of its apparent motions. Note also the change in the position of the sun at ris- OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 19 ing or at setting during each month in the year. Measure the shadow of any fixed object at noon, during the successive months in the year. Some of these phenomena will be difficult of explana- tion to younger pupils, and it is perhaps better to attempt none — certainly none that will confuse. It will be practical, however, to connect the low noon sun and its northerly position at rising and setting, with the short days, long nights, and cold weather of win- ter. This, at least, can be understood by the most immature pupils. The foregoing chapter, as is designated by its title, is intended to suggest a certain line of out-of-door work. Some of the ideas suggested are doubtless beyond the comprehension of very young pupils ; others may be profitably repeated in a more systematic order when the pupil has reached advanced work in geography. The success of out-of-door work will depend mainly on the judg- ment of the teacher in selecting the material for the illustration of these object lessons. It will depend largely, also, upon the skill in interpreting natural phenomena, for any teacher who imagines that such work can be done without careful preparation will fail ignominiously in accomplishing tangible results. The teacher must not only acquaint himself with the study of physiography in general, but also with that of the district in detail in order to im- part lessons that carry conviction. During the period in which the out-of-door work is carried on, the more systematic in-door lessons should not be neglected. If a text-book is used, supplement and illustrate it with the moulding- board, with pictures, and with instructive stories from authentic books of travel.1 If the mental pictures can be imprinted in the pupil's mind, almost any means will justify the end. With the consideration of the foregoing topics, which may em- brace a period of two years of time, there is a certain amount of 1 Do not forget that there is much worthless literature under the name of books of travel. The books and sketches of inexperienced tourists who make flying trips through foreign places may be entertaining, but they are generally incorrect with regard to geographical information. 20 HINTS TO TEACHERS other observational work which also is included in geography; namely, the study of people, their social life, government, re- ligion, etc. Much of this must be done with the aid of pictures and books of travel. Still another feature that will constantly come to the foreground is the geography of commerce. In spite of sentiment, the commercial idea is the one upon which all study and mental development centres. The opinion as to ' what ought to be ' will not change the cold facts of the case, and the study of the commercial side will always be the practical objective point of geography. We may as well open our eyes to the fact that all human energy is bent to the purpose of procuring food and shelter. The net -work of railways, the fleets of steamers and sailing vessels, the coal and iron mines, the thousands of factories, the entire energy of the husbandman, have but one end in view — to allay hunger. All the mechanical energies of man are devoted indirectly to the production and transportation of food. Is it singular then that there are a few hard-headed, unsentimental peo- ple who will persist in putting the study of geography on a com- mercial basis ? A journey through a grocery store will make a sub- ject for many excellent object lessons, and a history of the travels of a battered coin will make a subject for many a written exercise. A well-known teacher in Boston requires one or more pupils to board nearly every ship arriving at that city from a foreign port, in order to learn the character of its cargo. It is safe to affirm that the pupils of that school know something about the geography of commerce that cannot be learned from text-books. In teaching younger pupils, it will be an excellent plan to dis- play commercial products in their various stages of manufacture. For instance, the cotton industry may be illustrated by cotton in the boll, in the raw or unginned state, in the spun fibre, and in various textile fabrics. A similar plan may be adopted with other textile goods, with the common ores which yield useful metals, and with articles of ordinary food. The various grades of sugar, tea, coffee, etc., are well worth the acquaintance of the pupil ; and the usual processes through which grain passes in its journey from OUT-OF-DOOR LESSONS 21 the field to the table will be sources of instructive object lessons. If the teacher has any doubts about the value of the commercial importance of geography,1 follow the commercial history of an illustrated school book from the time the raw materials employed in its manufacture are produced, until the finished volume is placed in the hands of the pupil. In the printer and binder's establish- ment alone, nearly one hundred distinct processes are necessary to produce an electrotyped book. 1 ' In considering geography we deal with a subject particularly interesting because of its relations to man. It is the first of the elementary studies which teaches the child that he is part of a community, that the community is part of a nation, that the nation is part of the human race. He now learns how he differs from his European brothers in character, politics, society; and that these differences result from differences in the climate, the industries, and the geography of their respective countries. He begins to realize his dependence upon his fellow-beings. The coffee he drinks is prepared from beans gathered by savages in South America or in the East Indies. His tea is steeped from leaves dried by the Japanese or the Chinamen. Perhaps he sweetens his South Carolina rice with Cuban sugar. He eats mackerel caught in the fiords of Norway. Saginaw salt combines with India pepper to give relish to his Ken- tuckian sweet potato. Mediterranean sardines are served on slices of Califor- nian lemons. His dime coined from silver mined in Nevada buys dates plucked from palms in Africa. Possibly he corks his ink bottle with a bit of bark from a tree growing in Spain. Thus every article of commerce testifies to the labor of his fellow-beings far and near. Distant countries are brought nearer by handling these commodities. But this dependence upon remote parts is due to climate; and climate depends upon altitude, latitude, forests, winds, rains, oceanic currents. These subjects are not treated upon in descrip- tive geography; hence to give satisfactory explanations, the teacher must understand physical geography, which in turn must be backed by natural philosophy. Indeed, a separation of descriptive and physical geography is impossible.' — Miss T. E. Reul, in Wisconsin Journal of Education. 22 HINTS TO TEACHERS III. PICTURES AND MODELS WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHICAL FORMS. The diversified topography of the earth's surface may be summed up in the conventional term relief, and the study of the various types of relief, together with the laws which underlie it, practically comprise about all that is properly included in physical geography. Gravitation has given the earth, as well as similar heavenly bodies, a slightly modified spherical shape, but the relief features of the earth's surface are due to two agents which are continuous in operation and which are mutually opposed the one to the other. These agents are secular cooling and solar heat. In parting with its heat, the earth follows the same law that governs other bodies, contracting in bulk as the loss of heat goes on. Moreover, as the loss of heat is relatively greater in the heated interior than in what is, for convenience, called the crust, the contraction of the interior mass is greater than that of the exterior crust, so that the latter, in fitting itself about a constantly shrinking mass, must of necessity become wrinkled and cockled. The operation of this law has raised the immense masses of land we call continents above the level of the sea, wrinkled and crumpled the surface into the long, corrugated folds we call mountain- ranges, and cockled level surfaces into plateaus or depressed them into basins. In short, all the great disturbances of level that are even now going on, are due mainly to the secu- lar cooling of the earth. The effect of solar heat upon the earth's surface is just the oppo- site. Lifting the water from the ocean as an invisible vapor, it pours it upon the land \ and in the form of rain, frost, ice, or run- PICTURES AND MODELS 23 ning streams, the water is constantly at work tearing away the mountains and levelling off the various inequalities of surface. By the action of this agent mountain-ranges are sculptured into ridges, and their flanks are re-formed into the piedmont lands about their bases ; while the finer detritus is carried to the sea and cast along the shore in the form of spits, or spread over the val- leys, forming wide alluvial plains. Canons are cut in high pla- teaus, or, perhaps through mountain-ranges, and lake-basins are filled and levelled. So constant and persistent is the operation of this force that almost every passing shower leaves its visible mark on the earth's surface. Now these changes do not come about hap-hazard, nor is each a law and type unto itself. On the contrary, just as we discern types in botany or in natural history, — just as the operation of cer- tain laws will produce typical forms and structures, — so also the operations of the forces which most concern physical geography may be reduced to types, and these types are reasonably constant in form and in structure. Moreover, if we recognize physical geog- raphy as a science, we must recognize types of earth-sculpture, just as in the study of natural history we recognize types of organic structure. The study of relief may be accomplished in various ways. The teacher may convey the concepts orally to the pupil, and if the former has been so fortunate as to have seen something of the world, and has the capability to vividly impart instruction, much excellent work may be accomplished. It is perhaps natural, under such circumstances, to resort to the use of pictures. Even with advanced classes the live teacher will find her pictorial scrap- book about as useful as the text-book. The various illustrated papers, especially such as Frank Leslie's, Harper's, the Scientific American, and the illustrated magazines, always contain a host of excellent illustrations. Generally, those pictures are the most valuable which present a broad stretch of country with consider- able diversity of area. No other view of a landscape is so beau- tiful or so instructive as that which one obtains from a great 24 HINTS TO TEACHERS elevation. One who has not beheld this vast abyss from some overhanging buttress of Point Sublime, cannot well comprehend the profound depths of the Grand Canon of the Colorado j nor is it possible to appreciate the immensity of the Rocky Mountains without viewing the gigantic folds and sculptured peaks from some point like Bellevue, Sierra Blanca, or Gray's Peak. And the reason is obvious. It is not merely a matter of height nor of depth, nor of the vast proportions of any one object. It is the far-reaching panoramic view which enables one not only to behold an individual feature, but also to measure and contrast it with all other features, that so delights the mind. It goes without saying that a well-chosen series of pictures is better than a volume on improved methods of teaching. Perhaps it would not be going too far to say that a skilful teacher of physical geography could do better work with a carefully selected series of pictures and models without the text, than by using a manual which was all text and no pictures. In the use of pictures, success will largely depend on the judg- ment of the teacher in making the selections. The essential point is to take such as shall represent types : for use in political geography, these may be supplemented by a miscellaneous list which shall include modes of transportation, bird's-eye views of cities, and the various industries, and studies in -social life. With respect to the classified types in physical geography, the following list will be found useful.1 Coast-forms. — The high, rock-bound shore, with deep inden- tations : The coasts of Maine, Scotland, Alaska, etc., are examples. The cliff-girt coast with a low, sandy beach : The cliffs at New- port are examples. The low, sandy shore partly enclosed by long, wave-formed islands, or sand-spits : The Jersey coast is an example. 1 Many excellent photographs representing the various types of earth- sculpture may be procured through Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. A large num- ber of finely colored views may be procured from the Prang Educational Company. 