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—_—————— ———— —<————— — ————— —— —_—<—_—————— —————— —_—_———— ———$$$— —_— ———SSS= ———_ ——— —— ——_=—— ——— —__—_—— —_—<—<—<——<—— ——_ —— =_——— —_—_ _—— — = ——— — ————— Da a —— —————— _————— —_————————— EES) —_—_—_—_—_—_———— =—S——SS== —<$—————— ——— ———————— —— SS —_—_— —<—<—<—<—_—_—_—_—_—— —_—— —————— —— ——— ——————— —— ——$—$—$—_ —_—— —$_————$$ Te) N N 9 oO N (ae) o (a) \ = te) N. b ed +] US BINDERY HISTORICAL RESEARCHES INTO THE OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS = OF ANTIQUITY. BY A. H. L. HEEREN. ASIATIC NATIONS. INDIANS. VOL, Ui. HISTORICAL RESEARCHES INTO THE POLITICS, INTERCOURSE, AND TRADE OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY. BY A. H. L. HEEREN, KNIGHT OF THE NORTH STAR AND GUELPHIC ORDER, AULIC COUNSELLOR AND PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOETTINGEN j; AND MEMBER OF SEVERAL OTHER LEARNED SOCIETIES. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, VOme IT. ASIATIC NATIONS. INDIANS. OXFORD: PUBLISHED BY D. A. TALBOYS. 1835. OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE. ADVERTISEMENT. In preparing the following translation of Pro- fessor Heeren’s work on India, the translator has been furnished with some additional matter from the author himself, which will be found in two of the Appendixes at the end of the volume. The first contains a brief sketch of the works connected with Sanscrit literature, which have appeared since the last edition of the ‘‘ Researches,” in Germany, together with a confirmed statement of the author’s method of determining the several ages of Sanscrit classical compositions. The second comprises an interesting discussion relative to the island of Ceylon, which the Professor satisfactorily shows to have been the principal emporium of oriental commerce for upwards of two thou- sand years. The translator has also examined the French version of M. Suckau, with the view of incor- porating such of his notes as: appeared likely to throw some further light on the subject; and has at the same time added a few remarks of his own, in the humble attempt to explain, and sometimes to modify, the assertions of the author ; for these, he has only to. request the reader's favourable consideration. With regard to the orthography of the San- scrit names occurring in the body of the work, vi ADVERTISEMENT. it was at first apprehended that any attempt to correct the vicious mode of spelling adopted by some writers, from whom Heeren quotes, would unavoidably impede the reader in veri- fying the references made to them; but upon second thoughts, and particularly as there is no sort of reason why an erroneous custom should usurp the rank and authority of a legal prece- dent, the translator has uniformly endeavoured to ascertain the genuine orthography by an immediate reference to the Sanscrit originals. This, however, was a task of considerable difficulty, because, in quoting from English writers, who have adopted one mode of spelling proper names, the writers of the continent em- ploy, as might be expected, another, peculiar to themselves; so that, after a few successive alterations of this kind, by the time the words in question find their way back again to Eng- land, it is frequently no easy matter to say precisely what they stand for. In some cases, indeed, the complete restoration of the true form was altogether impracticable; as, for ex- ample, in the review of the great epic poem, the Mahabharat, which Heeren derived solely from the accounts contained in the Ayin Acbari, and of course has followed the corrupt spelling pe- culiar to the Persian writers upon India, who have disfigured the proper names of Sanscrit origin quite as much as their own were, for- merly, by the Greeks. And as the translator was unable to procure a copy of the Maha- ADVERTISEMENT. vii bharat, he has therefore been obliged to leave the barbarous spelling of the Ayin Acbari, with a few exceptions, just as he found it, in which it would certainly puzzle Ganesa himself to dis- cover any thing like a resemblance to Sanscrit orthography. The same reproach of misspelling applies also in full force to most of the San- scrit words noticed in Polier’s Mythology of the Hindus. As to the manner of representing oriental names in European letters, the system first proposed by Sir W. Jones, and recom- mended by the practice of almost every subse- quent writer in this department of literature, has been followed as the most convenient and sim- ple, and at the same time of universal applica- tion, as it enables the scholars of the continent to comprehend, at a glance, the proper way of pro- nouncing an eastern word, even when occurring in English writers, whose general pronunciation has scarcely any thing in common with that of the rest of Europe. According to this system, the vowels will be pronounced after the Italian method, while the consonants, with the excep- tion of certain aspirated forms, such as th and ph, etc. (to be pronounced as in the words nut-hook, hap-hazard, etc.) retain their English sounds unaltered. it now stands, however, it exhibits one mode of spelling in the first part, and another in the second. There is no occasion to detain the reader any longer with the trifling minutiz of verbal criticism, which it 1s probable (suppos- ing the translator to have bestowed as much care upon sentences as upon words) he may willingly choose to overlook, for objects of much greater importance, and infinitely more worthy his attention. With regard to the particular merits of the work here presented in an English dress, the public will be the most appropriate judges ; and the reputation of the author is too well established to be affected by any thing that might be offered in this place; which, besides its liability to be considered as nothing more than an attempt to bias the reader, would, to- gether with observations of another kind, be more suitably exhibited in the pages of a Review. OxFORD, May 1, 1833. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. As the following Researches are almost wholly derived from native Indian sources, which the recent study of Sanscrit literature in Europe has just opened to us, it will be requisite to give the reader a brief notice of the works I have been enabled to consult in this enquiry ; more particularly as at the time of my first edition, the state of continental blockade pre- vented me from having recourse to many va- luable works which could only be procured in England. They are as follows :— The Ramayana of Valmiki, in the original Sanscrit, with a prose translation and explan- atory notes, by William Carey and Joshua Marshman. Vol. I. containing the first book, Serampore, 1806, 4to. pp. 656. Vol. III. con- taining the latter part of the second book, Se- rampore, 1810, pp. 493. Of the seven books which compose the en- tire poem, the two first are all that has ap- peared; but unfortunately the copies of the second volume were lost in their passage to Europe, and no others, I believe, are now to be found even in England, certainly not in the libraries of the continent. It is with great re- x PREFACE. eret, therefore, that I have been obliged to confine myself to the first and third volumes only ; for it is unquestionable, that next to the Mahabharat, the Ramayana is the purest and most fertile source for the elucidation of Hindu antiquities. In preparing the first edition of my work, it was by mere chance that I was able to procure even the first volume of this poem. Nalus, carmen Sanscritum e ATahabharata, edidit, latine vertit, et adnotationibus illustravit Franciscus Bopp. Londini, 1819, 8vo. pp. Pall. Bhagavad-gita; id est, @contciw pérse, sive alm Krishnee et Arjunee Colloquium de rebus divinis, Bharatee Lmsodium. Poetam recensut, adno- tationes criticas ct interpretationem Latinam ad- ject Aug. Gul. a Schlegel. "Bonney ioe, Svo. pp. 189. The Alegha-duta, or Cloud- Messenger, a poem in the Sanscrit language, by Calidasa, translated into English verse, with notes and illustrations, by Horace Hayman Wilson. Calcutta, 4to. pp. 120. Gita-govinda, by Jayadeva, in Sir W. Jones’s Works, vol. I. Sacontala, or The Fatal Ring, by Calidasa, in Sir W. Jones’s Works, vol. VI. Fitopadesa of Vishnusarman, in Sir W. Jones’s Works, vol. VI. Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Menu; verbally translated from the original PREFACE. xi Sanscrit, with a preface, by Sir W. Jones. Calcutta, 1796, Svo. A Digest of Hindu Law, on Contracts and Successions, with a Commentary by Jagannatha Lercapanchanana ; translated from the original Sanscrit by H. Tf. Colebrooke, in three vo- lumes. London, 1801, 8vo. Upnekhat, studio Anquetil Duperron. Paris, 1801, 2 vols. 4to. Bhagavadam, ou doctrine divine, ouvrage In- dienne canonique, par Obsonville. Paris, 1788, Svo. A Grammar of the Sanscrit Language, by Charles Wilkins. London, 1804, 4to. Cosha, or a Dictionary of the Sanscrit Lan- suage, by Amara Singha, with an English in- terpretation, by Colebrooke. Serampore, 1821, 4to. Amara-Singha, sectio prima de ceelo a P. Paut- lino a Sto. Bartolomeo. Rome, 1798. Egjusdem, Vyacarana seu Samscrdamice Lin- gue Institutio. Rome, 1804. Ejusdem; Systema Brahmanicum. Rome, 1802. Ljusdem, Grammatica Samscrdamica. Rome, 790. Chrestomathia Sanscrita, quam ex codd. Ma- nuscriptis, edidit Othmarus Frank. Monachii, Woe), vol. I, II. Asiatic Researches, or Transactions of the Society instituted in Bengal, vol. I—XIV. xil PREFACE. The last volume is only known to me by par- tial extracts. Annals of Oriental Literature, part. I, I, II. London, 1821. Indische Bibliothek, von A. W. von Schlegel, Bleft..1, IT. With regard to separate treatises on India, travels, copperplate representations of ancient monuments, etc., it is unnecessary to mention them here, as they will be found quoted in their proper places. The above list, I believe, contains all the works of any importance relating to Sanscrit literature, which have hitherto been procurable in Europe. The writings of Father Paullino are included, less on account of any use I have made of them, than merely to complete the enumeration. The Grammars of Carey and Wilkins, notwithstanding their acknowledged merit, were but little applicable to my pur- pose. In the use of translations I have strictly confined myself to such as were generally al- lowed to be correct by Sanscrit scholars them- selves; rejecting, on the other hand, all poeti- cal versions, or at least imitations, similar to those of Sir William Jones, which it is obvious cannot safely be depended on. Should it ne- vertheless be objected to me that an acquaint- ance with the Sanscrit is indispensable to a writer on Sanscrit literature, | answer, that my enquiries do not so much concern language as PREFACE. xill matters of fact; in proof of which, I can only appeal to the work itself. It may be as well, however, to enter some- what more into detail with regard to the par- ticular subjects discussed in the first chapter of the ensuing Researches. My object was to furnish a critical view of Hindu Archeology, whether consisting in ancient works of art, or the writings of native authors. This chapter, therefore, was intended to supply such a body of useful preliminary information as, in addi- tion to a knowledge of the language, would enable the student to prosecute his enquiries into the literature and antiquities of India. That some such introduction to the study would not only be serviceable, but even necessary, can hardly admit of doubt. When the present essay was first published, in the year 1814, there was absolutely no simi- lar compilation then in existence; and the very favourable reception awarded to my under- taking, inspired me with well-grounded hopes that I had not laboured in vain, and had even materially contributed to introduce the study of Sanscrit literature among the scholars of Germany. Since that period, however, I have not yet been able to meet with any work com- pletely satisfactory on the subject, and calcu- lated to supply all the deficiencies of our ex- isting information relative to India. Under these circumstances, it can scarcely be expected that I should furnish the reader XiV PREFACE. with a general account of Hindu antiquities, except in so far as they are connected with the particular object of the present work. I can promise no learned disquisitions on the mytho- logical, philosophical, or religious systems of the ancient Hindus; and least of all is it my purpose to institute a comparison between them and other nations in any of these points, or to investigate the probable manner in which such systems may have been communicated to other countries. An undertaking of this nature, be- sides being extremely hazardous, would alto- gether exceed the legitimate province of his- tory. Ishall therefore be satished with merely introducing the reader to the threshhold, if I may so call it, of Hindu Archeology; well aware that even such a step will not be deemed superfluous, if he would penetrate the recesses of the interior. The study and elucidation of Indian antiqui- ties from native sources, 1s, in my opinion, one of the most important additions that have been made to the literature of the present day, and will, it is hoped, enlarge its circle of acquire- ments to a much greater extent hereafter. It is not merely the esthetic merit of Sanscrit literature, great as that is, which renders it so valuable in our estimation ; the same merit also attaches to it in an historical point of view. We must, indeed, allow, that we are not yet enabled to attempt any composition resembling a consecutive critico-chronological history of PREFACE. XV ancient India; the means at our present dis- posal are far too inadequate to effect such a laborious undertaking ; and probably they will continue to be so. At the same time, however, while it carries us back into remote ages, and among a distant people, who have attained a high and peculiar degree of civilization, the an- cient literature of the Hindus discloses to our sight a new world, which is so much the more captivating, as it is entirely different from our own. I would ask, is the addition thereby made to the general history of mankind of no more value than a series of chronological tables, containing only a dry nomenclature of princes and dates? or should we be willing to receive them in exchange for the Ramayana and Ma- habharat of the Hindus, or the Iliad and Odys- sey of the Greeks ? Our present knowledge of Sanscrit literature may be said to stand nearly on the same foot- ing as that of the Greek did in Italy towards the end of the fifteenth century. The inestim- able benefits which the study of the latter has conferred upon the whole western world, are too well known ; and though it were presump- tuous, perhaps, to expect the same important consequences from the study of the Sanscrit, yet we are not without the wish and the ex- pectation, that it may also flourish and produce its own peculiar fruits. July 27, 1824. INDIANS. CHAPTER I. A Critical View of the Antiquities and Literature of India. THE ACCOUNTS WE RECEIVE OF INDIA REQUIRE AN IMPARTIAL AND UNPREJUDICED CONSIDERATION, FOR IT IS SITUATE AT A VERY REMOTE DISTANCE FROM US, AND BUT FEW OF OUR COUNTRYMEN HAVE EXAMINED IT WITH ATTENTION; AND THOSE EVEN WHO HAVE TRAVELLED THITHER, HAVE SEEN ONLY PARTS OF IT, AND WHAT THEY RELATE IS MOSTLY FROM HEARSAY. STRABO, LIB. XV. INIT. Tue historians who have enquired into the religion and learning of the East, have almost always been obliged to revert to India for in- formation in their researches. That distant country however, has at no former period at- tracted the attention of Europeans, in these particulars, so much as at the present day. From the time that it became subject to the English, it has excited their regard, not more by its productions than by its arts and litera- ture: and the learned of Great Britian now flatter themselves, that they have at length B 2 INDIANS. CHAP, I. discovered the sources from which, not only the rest of Asia, but the whole Western World derived their knowledge and their religion. They have accordingly endeavoured to render these sources accessible to Europe, through the medium of learned dissertations on the most important points of Hindu mythology and civilization, as well as by translations of native works. These enquiries have given rise to corresponding ones in Germany; the number of students in this department of letters has greatly increased; the sacred language of In- dia together with its literature and poetry have been introduced to our acquaintance; and edi- tions of Sanscrit works printed in the original character have issued from the German press, as well as from those on the banks of the Ganges and the Thames. Were it possible clearly to define and cha- a Sir W. Jones the first president of the Asiatic Society founded at Calcutta in 1784, has undoubtedly the credit of having originated these studies, and by his own exertions contributed to render them worthy the notice and favourable consideration of the European world. What other scholar indeed but himself could have brought to the task such multifarious acquirements, such a profound knowledge of languages, such extensive views of history, so rich a vein of poetic feeling, and, in a word, such a pre- dominant taste for every thing Oriental? And if occasionally his amiable enthusiasm hurries him beyond the limits of true criticism, we can easily excuse it in one who was the means of exciting the same spirit equally in others, and thus giving due effect to the important axiom, that Hindu An- tiquities can only be satisfactorily explored in the country itself. Of the writings of the above Society contained in the Asiatic Researches I have only consulted the first twelve vols. (1—4 of the 4to. edit. and 5—12 of the 8vo.) not having been able to procure the thirteenth which was all then published. The essays of Sir. W. Jones may be found also in his Works, vol. 1—6 4to. edit. CHAP. I. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. rs racterize in all its extent, the influence which this most cultivated people of the East has ex- ercised upon the rest of the world, we could scarcely then doubt the probability of our being able to supply one of the most important chasms in the present history of the civilization of mankind. The Hindus, however, have been always too much occupied with themselves to pay much attention to other nations, except when obliged by invasion and conquest; they have therefore, as it would seem, preserved no information for us on the subject; and the con- clusions which might be drawn from a com- parison of their knowledge and _ institutions with those of other countries, however probable are yet by no means certain; and even sup- posing they were, we shall still have to reply to such questions as the following. What do we really know of the ancient learning of this people? Of their religion, their poetry, their arts, their political institutions, or of their com- merce, and their influence upon other nations? From what sources do we derive this know- ledge? And to what extent are these sources themselves clear and authentic, or the reverse ? We must satisfy ourselves upon all these points before we can even pronounce upon our ability to compose an historical sketch of that olden time when the Hindus, as yet their own mas- ters, and not bowed down under the yoke of a foreign conqueror, had free and unfettered li- berty of developing the national character. B2 4 INDIANS. CHAP. I. Such an enquiry as this however, is one of the most difficult for many reasons. First of all the very abundance of materials itself is one obstacle. And again, notwithstanding the vast accumulation of facts, we are perpetually meeting with great and important chasms, Add to this the still greater number of difficul- ties naturally inherent in the subject, which im- pede the progress of investigation, and which can only be removed by an intimate acquaint- ance with the spirit and ways of thinking pecu- har to Eastern nations; it is by such means alone that we can hope to arrive at more ample and satisfactory conclusions. It is true we have one great advantage here which does not assist our researches into most other nations of antiquity—it is the fact that the Hindus still exist as a people. Completely separate by their customs and religion from the rest of the world, and disdaining to make converts, they have thereby preserved their na- tional existence. Even the foreigners who have settled among them, and what is still more surprising their very conquerors, remain altogether as distinct and isolated as they would be in their own native land. It is this exclusive character which renders communica- tion with them so difficult, and checks all our enquiries. And though it is very probable they would not under all circumstances main- tain the same reserve towards a foreigner, who knew how to insinuate himself into their confi- CHAP. I. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 5 dence, yet travellers too often bring with them preconceived opinions, or are deficient in that kind of knowledge which will enable them to profit by the information they may obtain: and moreover instances are by no means rare of the fact, that a desire of flattering strangers will often induce a cunning Hindu to furnish them with statements either absolutely false, or at least so artfully mixed up with what is true as not to be worthy of confidence». The Hindu passes as it were a kind of spirit- ual existence in ages long since gone by. The present is to him an age of profound corruption, and according to his legendary notions a still more deeply corrupted era is to ensue, until the restoration of a former happy state shall introduce a new and better order of things. But this present age, truly so named by us, is no other than what an European writer would generally term “‘The Age of History.” The Brahman, however, looks down upon it with a glance of indifference, if not of actual contempt. His soul discovers more abundant nourishment in the contemplation of those far distant periods of time when the mighty Vishnu, disguised as Rama, made war on the Demons, or when, in the character of Krishna, he became the re- storer of a better order of things. What could » Wilford (Asiat. Res. vol. viii, p. 250, &c.), with noble frankness, admits this to have been the case with respect to his essay on Egypt and the Nile. (Asiat. Res. vol. iti.) His Hindu teacher had falsified the names of places occurring in the MSS. from which he borrowed his materials. 6 INDIANS. CHAP. I. induce him to condescend to the survey of this present age of misery? What could reconcile lim to such studies as those to which we are indebted for our critical history of his country- men? To no purpose should we search for a native of this description, and yet, nevertheless, to the Hindu, such as he is, does the European apply for information. The grand object, therefore, of a writer who would describe this singular people, would be to make himself a Hindu among Hindus, without at the same time divesting himself of the character of an Euro- pean. Whoever has satisfied himself of the difficulty of fulfilling these requisites, must ne- cessarily in proportion as he distrusts his own abilities, be obliged to make larger claims upon the impartial judgment of his readers. Even though he had in person visited the banks of the Jumna and the Ganges, and received in- struction at the feet of the most learned pundits of Benares, yet he must still allow the impossi- bility of fully complying with the pre-requisites to his task. How then must the difficulties be increased to one who living under a dreary northern sky, has never beheld the gorgeous magnificence of an Indian climate; who, out of all its rich literature is acquainted with but a few detached fragments; and who, in order to obtain even this scanty knowledge, must con- tent himself with translations, themselves pro- bably imperfect and incorrect ? We have however (thanks to the preparatory cuap.1. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 7 labours of English scholars) arrived suffici- ently far on our way, to be able to fix on some certain point of view from which we can take a comprehensive survey of the whole field of In- dian antiquities and literature, though many portions of it still remain enveloped in mist and obscurity. It will therefore be our principal task to determine the correctness and extent of our sphere of vision, as well as to ascertain the degree of clearness with which the several ob- jects strike our view. It is indeed always a considerable point gained, when we are able to distinguish what we know from that which we are ignorant of. Since then the cbject of our enquiries has been thus determined, it follows, of course, that we have here nothing to do with laying down systems of Hindu religion and philosophy by themselves, nor with starting hypotheses, as for example, touching the earliest connection of In- dia with Egypt, or the transmission of Hindu civilization into the Western World, etc. (al- 8 INDIANS. CHAP. I. though probably we shall have occasion now and then to advert to these subjects): as little do we propose to contradict those learned men who have written upon these topics. Our end will be attained when we have discovered a fixed standard, by reference to which we can examine and set a just value upon their re- searches. The general opinion of ancient as well as of modern times is unanimous in considering the Hindus as one of the earliest, if not in fact the oldest, civilized nation in the world. The criti- cal enquirer however has an undoubted right to demand upon what foundation this universal opinion of the high antiquity of the Hindus rests ; and whether the bare assertion of the na- tives themselves be equivalent to an absolute verification of the fact? Or, have not we also good reasons for being incredulous in an equal ratio to their own exaggerated accounts of their antiquity, particularly as it appears more and more evident that India is the last place to look to for any thing like authentic systems of chronology? To this question however we shall only be able to furnish a decisive answer in the sequel of our enquiry. In the mean time it will merely be necessary at the outset to define with somewhat more precision the ra- ther vague acceptation of the words ‘high an- tiquity.” Allowing as we do the Hindus to be & most ancient people, we are not therefore obliged to appeal to their chronological series of cuapr.t. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 9 years reckoned by the million, nor indeed with several English writers, need we go so far back even as the deluge, at which period according to their caiculations, the fourth age of the Hin- dus, the age of corruption, began. Under the the title of high antiquity we generally compre- hend that space of time which extends to the tenth century before the Christian era. The historic records of no other people, if we except the Jews, reaches beyond this point. All that goes further back is concealed beneath the cloak of tradition and hieroglyphics, and as long as we can draw no broad line of demarca- tion in the case, the definition just laid down will generally be found sufficient for our pur- pose. Whether the civilization of India reaches back to one thousand years before the Christian era, as is pretty certain, or even to two, which is not improbable, can never be a question al- together devoid of interest. rived partly from Grecian sources, and partly from the accounts of the natives themselves. The first of these authorities has already, in great measure, been weighed and examined in our work on Persian India, and the writers themselves are too well known to require any critical notice in this place. I shall content myself therefore with repeating the general conclusion deduced from their histories, that, at the period of the Macedonian invasion, nearly three hundred and fifty years before the commencement of our era, the Hindus already appeared to have reached the same degree of refinement and civilization both in public and private life, which they subsequently maintain- ed: we are therefore fully authorized in the conclusion, that this civilized state must then have been several hundred years in existence, and even extend as far back as that “‘ high an- tiquity”’ above defined. The present Enquiry then will be limited solely to a consideration of Indian sources of information: these are of a twofold description ; Monuments and Writings. Each kind will therefore require a separate ex- amination. The monuments still remaining of Indian architecture, considered with a view towards furthering our knowledge of the people, are scarcely less important than those on the banks of the Nile are for a similar purpose with re- spect to the Lgyptians. Who has not, even though he may be ignorant of all else, at least coap.1. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 11 heard something of those stupendous erections to be seen in the islands of Salsette and Ele- phanta? These serve to confirm the remark, that the more India is examined, the greater variety of illustrative subject-matter, in this point of view, presents itself to the enquirer. But before we can regard Hindu monuments as authentic sources of information on the anti- quities of India, we ought previously to ascer- tain the extent of our acquaintance with them ; —how far in connection with this object they have already been examined—to what degree they are capable of further illustration? And moreover, what are the conclusions, particularly with respect to the antiquity of the nation, which we are enabled to deduce from our pre- sent knowledge of them? Our first endeavour then will be to furnish a satisfactory reply to each of these questions. We are indebted for almost all that we know of Indian monuments to the labours of English- men. Neither the Portuguese nor the Dutch, nor yet the French, have employed their minds on the subject, if we except a few occasional remarks occuring in books of Travels. But partial notices and even descriptions in detail, explain but little when unaccompanied with accurate engravings. The English have pre- sented us with several magnificent works on India, but they have for the most part con- sidered the subject in a very different light. It was rather their aim to represent Indian na- 12 INDIANS. CHAP. I. ture in general as it now appears, than to give a description of the Hindus of antiquity. The great work of Hodges is composed with this design’. The two volumes of copperplate il- lustrations contain only two pages descriptive of ancient Hindu temples, the pagodas, namely, of Deogur and Tanjore. In a work indeed of this kind every thing is calculated more for ef- fect than to give a true and correct representa- tion; and moreover the whole manner of Hodges is very little adapted to convey an adequate idea of Hindu architecture, as he gives nothing but sketches and views. As far as I am aware, before any thing of importance towards illustrating these monu- ments appeared in England, a native of Ger- many had already gained the credit of leading the way, and had given a description of the rock excavations at Elephanta*. The name of Niebuhr is a sufficient guarantee for the cor- rectness of his copies, and we are indebted to that enterprising traveller for a ground-plan of the rock temple, a design of one of the pillars with its dimensions, and seven plates represent- ing the bas-reliefs on the walls. His drawings of Elephanta are even now the most accurate that we have, though he describes only a few of the bas-reliefs, sufficient however to give us ¢ Views of Hindostan, vol. i. 11. Other works, such as Pennant’s Views of Hindostan, which contain no designs of ancient monuments, I shall pass over in silence. @ Niebuhr’s Travels, vol. ii, 1778, plates 11—x1. cuap. 1. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 13 some notion of Hindu sculpture. A large field still remains open to future draughtsmen. Nevertheless Niebuhr’s attempt was so much the more meritorious in that it appears to have given the first impulse to British zeal and acti- vity. A few years afterwards there appeared in London, a work under the title of, ‘‘ The An- cient Monuments of India, by R. Gough*.” In this production, however, we meet with evident proofs of the low state in which Indian arche- ology still continued in England. It contains mercly a notice of the writers who have spoken about Salsette and Elephanta; Niebuhr is translated word for word, and the accompany- ing plates are all copied from his designs: only one new engraving is added, containing ground- plans of the rock temples of Salsette and some others, together with a view of that island, and two or three inscriptions. Our knowledge of Indian monuments is not therefore much in- creased by this meagre compilation. We are indebted for a more accurate acquaintance with the temples of Salsette to Lord Valentia. The foundation of the Asiatic Society at Cal- cutta about this time, under the auspices of Sir William Jones, led us to expect fresh informa- tion respecting the monuments of India. Such subjects, it is true, were not excluded from the researches of the Society, but their principal attention was directed to languages, literature, ¢ A Comparative View of the Ancient Monuments of India, by R. Gough, London, 1785. 14 INDIANS. CHAP. I, and science, and what notices they have given of Hindu monuments are confined to the de- scription of certain pagodas, chiefly those of Ellora and Mavalipuram, and some _ pillars charged with inscriptions. Thankfully as we acknowledge even these, our gratitude would have been much greater had we been favoured with more drawings, and on a larger scale. Although since the appearance of Gough’s work, designs of monuments had been given in various books of Travels and other writings’; yet the splendid work of the Daniells® was the first exclusively devoted to the monuments of Hindu architecture. Their plan comprised the whole extent of Indian antiquities, and even the buildings of modern time, particularly those of the Mogul period. But even this work, if I may be allowed to judge from what I have seen of it, appears more calculated to charm the eye than inform the understanding. The em- ployment of colours is scarcely capable of giv- ing an accurate idea of architecture, because it unintentionally embellishes too much, and that this latter is even sometimes done with design a modern traveller is obliged to confess*. How often indeed does suspicion force itself upon the mind of the beholder that these paintings f As in Maurice’s History of Hindostan, 1794, &c. Crawfurd’s Sketches of Hindostan, and others. & Antiquities of India, from the Drawings of Thomas Daniell, engraved by himself and William Daniell, taken in the years 1790, 1793. h Lord Valentia’s Travels, vol. i, p. 357. cuap.t. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 15 are too beautiful to be true! Besides, the edi- tors of this publication were artists and not scholars; neither are the monuments there de- signed classed according to time and nation: and we feel the want of a learned commentary to give us the previous instructions under what era to arrange them. It is impossible there- fore with no better materials than these to com- pose a history of Hindu architecture. The work of Mons. Langleés’, finished but a short time before his death, presents, it is true, only designs of monuments already known, af- ter the original drawings of the Daniells and others; but it is nevertheless of great merit, be- cause he has incorporated a variety of informa- tion dispersed abroad in costly and scarce col- lections, and has thereby materially abridged the labours of the student. With reference, however, to the accuracy of the monuments of Elephanta designed by them both, it appears to me upon comparison that the preference is due to Niebuhr. The scale too of the designs, | think, is not sufficiently large to convey a just idea of the original. The great in architecture can only be represented by corresponding great- ness in the delineation. At the same time the work above mentioned proves, in a striking manner, that we have as yet scarcely passed even the threshold of a perfect acquaintance with Hindu monuments. The learned Orient- ' Monumens Anciens et Modernes de I’Inde en 150 Planches, par L. Langlés, Puris, 1813. 16 INDIANS. CHAP. 1. alist has not even ventured to classify the buildings according to their age, style, and the particular architects; but has followed rather a geographical plan, in proceeding from south to north. Among modern travellers, Lord Valentia has distinguished himself above all others by pre- senting us with correct drawings“ of particular ancient monuments, with which we were previ- ously altogether, or at least but imperfectly, acquainted. Since this period, a considerable number of Travels and other publications con- nected with India have made their appearance; but I have not been able to meet with any re- markable illustrations, or descriptions of monu- ments contained therein. Fortunate indeed would it have been for our labours, had these interesting relics employed the hand and exercised the ingenuity of a Wood or a Stuart! Every opinion delivered upon architectural remains, must always be hazardous and uncertain when we have no plans on an accurate and extensive scale to guide our judgment. But nevertheless, we cannot still be said to grope our way in perfect darkness. The works above mentioned have contributed a good deal towards showing the path, and have led to conclusions which are of the greatest importance to a correct knowledge of Indian antiquities. k See the copperplate engravings attached to his Travels. carp. 1. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 1 The monuments of Hindu architecture natu- rally divide themselves into three classes ; the first, comprises subterraneous temples hewn out of the rock: the second, contains those temples which have been similarly formed upon the surface, but have also portions of the structure under ground; the third, includes buildings, properly so called. They have all a common connection with religious purposes, being dedicated as well to the worship of Vishnu and Siva or Mahadeva, whose followers exist to this day, as also to Buddha, whose sect, long since expelled this part of India, still sub- sists universally in Ceylon and the Ultra-Gan- getic continent. I enumerate the above three classes in the order which appears to agree also with the date of their construction. If this be but a conjecture, there certainly is every appearance of probability in its favour, for it can scarcely be maintained that a people, who had already been accustomed to build in the open air, should subsequently begin to lodge their divinities in underground temples; on the contrary it appears more natural on the very face of things that excavation of the rock should have preceded its exterior embellishment. Whichever be the real state of the case we must necessarily divide them into three classes, of each of which we will now attempt to give a correct view in succession. The rock temples of the first kind are found in various parts of India, and are probably not C 18 INDIANS. CHAP. I- all known to us even at the present day. Al- though in the plains of Bengal and the Punjab, the nature of the ground does not admit of their construction, yet, on the other hand, the whole of the peninsula on this side of the Ganges is traversed by a rocky chain of Ghauts, at present in great measure unexplored. The nature of this country itself would seem to suggest the conveni- ence of underground habitations, where neither the vertical rays of the sun, nor the impetuous torrents of the rainy season could penetrate. The natives of many other portions of the globe have adopted similar contrivances; and in pro- portion to the more extensive scope allowed by them to the introduction of science, so will it appear less wonderful that a people in such a situation, and not deficient in tools, should ex- ercise their ingenuity in this way’. The same kind of habitation which a man would con- struct for himself, he would also appropriate to his gods. It was a religious feeling which transformed a hut into a temple. But an ex- cavation of the rock would seem just so much the more obvious to him as it favoured his de- sign of rendering these monuments of his reli- 1 Even the naked Hottentots are in the habit of sketching rude designs on the walls of their huts. But what a wide interval is there between an African kraal and a Hindu rock temple! and yet the refined artifice ob- servable in the latter, must have previously traced the intermediate steps between the two extremes. An authentic account of the rise and progress of grotto architecture (were sufficient materials at hand), would doubt- less lead to new and interesting conclusions respecting the general history of mankind. cHap.t. ANTIQUITIES AND LITERATURE. 19 gion imperishable. A design which is appa- rent in the monuments themselves; and which is exhibited still more strongly among all na- tions in proportion as we go further back into their antiquity. But the extent of these build- ings in India, the vastness of the plan, the care displayed in the execution, the richness of the ornaments which adorn the walls, often indeed fantastic yet still finished with great taste, all conspire together in exciting the admiration and surprise of the observant traveller; and im- mediately suggest to his mind the propriety of a remark which one has so often occasion to make, when contemplating the gigantic works of remote antiquity, that such stupendous edi- fices could hardly have been the production of one generation, but must have required the peaceable and uninterrupted labour of upwards of a century to bring them to completion. We shall now proceed to detail in regular order the accounts of those monuments which are al- ready made known to us. The rock temple in the small island of Ele- phanta”, near Bombay, has been the most fre- quently visited of any. This, together with the adjacent buildings, is hewn solely out of the rock, and forms consequently a perfect grotto. The temple itself, exclusive of the apartments and chapels attached, is about one ™ So called by Europeans from a colossal figure of an elephant hewn out of the stone; the head and neck are now fallen off, and the whole statue threatens approaching ruin. Langlés, vol ii, p. 148. Cre 20 INDIANS. CHAP. I. 