The book of history. A history of all nations from the earliest times to the present, with over 8,000 illustrations
Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount, 1838-1922 | Thompson, Holland, 1873-1940 | Petrie, W. M. Flinders (William Matthew Flinders), Sir, 1853-1942
■ .■'■.'.:. . ; VH^^^^^^^Ik' ~ , ■ i< L - :^y^■'•• . ; ^^ Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/bookofliistoryliis12bryciala #. Baron Haymerle Count Kdroly Count Launay Prince Gortschakoft Waddington Prince Hohenlohe Lord Beaconsfield Von Radowitz Count Count St. Mouy Vallier Baron Oubril "PEACE WITH HONOUR": THE REPRESENTATIVES OF ALL TH From the painting; by Anton von We Lothar Bucher ount Andrafsy Von Dr. Count H Sadullah Bey Lord Odo Russell Lord Karaiheodori Pasha Holstein Busch Bismarck Salisbury Meheniet Ali Pasha Pnnce Bisniarck Count Schuwaloff Von Biilow lUROPEAN powers attending the BERLIN CONGRESS OF 1878 Y permission of the B«rUn Photographic Co. The Book of History H Ibistor^ of all Bations FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT WITH OVER 8000 ILLUSTRATIONS WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY VISCOUNT BRYCE, p c. d.c.l., ll.d., f.r.s. CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS W. M. Flinders Petrie, LL.D., F.R.S. UNIVERSnV COLLEGE, LONDON Hans F. Helmolt, Ph.D. EDITOR, GERMAN "HISTORY OF THE WORLD " Stanley Lane- Poole, M.A., Litt.D. TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN Robert Nisbet Bain ASSISTAXr LIBRARIAN, BRITISH MUSEUM Hugo Winckler, Ph.D. UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN Archibald H. Sayce, D.Litt., LL.D. OXFORD UNIVERSITY Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D., F.R.S. AUTHOR, "MANS PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE" Sir William Lee- Warner, K.C.S.L MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF INDIA Holland Thompson, Ph.D. THE COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK W. Stewart Wallace, M.A. UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Maurice Maeterlinck ESSAYIST, POET, PHILOSOPHER Dr. Emile J. Dillon UNIVERSITY OF ST. PETERSBURG Arthur Mee EDITOR, "THE BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE" Sir Harry H. Johnston, K.C.B., D.Sc LATE COMMISSIONER FOR UGANDA Johannes Ranke UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH K. G. Brandis, Ph.D. UNIVERSITY OF JENA And many other Specialists Volume XII EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The Crimean War . Europe in Revolution The Second Empire of France The Unification of Italy The Advance of Prussia The Franco-German War Scandinavia in the 19 th Century NEW YORK . . THE GROLIER SOCIETY LONDON . THE EDUCATIONAL BOOK CO. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XII PEACE WITH HONOUR FRONTISPIECE SIXTH GRAND DIVISION {continued) THE REMAKING OF EUROPE EUROPE AFTER WATERLOO The Restored French Monarchy The Cross and the Crescent Fall of the Bourbon Monarchy. The New Revolutionary Period The Welding of the States . The New Kingdom of Greece. The State of Religion in Europe The Spread of Liberalism. PAGE 4839 4849 4859 4871 4881 4887 4892 4898 EUROPE IN REVOLUTION The Fall of Louis Philippe Italy's Fruitless Revolt The Hungarian Rebellion. Struggles of the German Duchies The Second Republic in France The Problem of the German States Reaction in Central Europe 490s 4925 4933 4943 4949 4957 4970 THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE POWERS The United Kingdom in the Mid- Victorian Era Turkey after the Crimean War The Second Empire of France. The Unification of Italy. Prussia under King William I Prussia and Austria on the Eve of War The Advance of Prussia. The Prussian Ascendancy The Decline of Napoleon III. The French Soldiers' unrealised Dream of Victory The Downfall of the Second French Emp The Birth of the German Empire Scandinavia in the Nineteenth Century Plate • 4975 . 5005 • 5015 • 5033 • 5051 • 5063 . S069 . 5081 • S093 facing 5104 • 5105 • 5125 • 5153 2073289 THE BOOK OF HISTORY EUROPE SINCE 1871 The Close of the Victorian Era Reaction triumphant in Russia. The German and Austrian Empires France under the Third Republic Minor States of Western Europe PAGE S163 5193 5213 5223 5232 THE SOCIAL QUESTION Britain's Industrial Revolution. The Rise and Fall of Chartism. The Triumph of Trades Unions The March of Social Reform Social Problems in France Social Democracy in Germany. 5237 5245 5249 5255 5260 5268 VI THE RE-MAKING OF EUROPE EUROPE AFTER WATERLOO IV THE RESTORED FRENCH MONARCHY REACTION TRIUMPHANT IN THE LATIN STATES T~'HE restored Bourbon monarch of ■*• France found himself in an exceedingly difficult position. At his first restoration in 1814, he had been disposed to maintain the attitude of absolutism, and had con- sented to grant a constitution in the form of a concession bestowed by the benevo- lence of the Crown. This "Charta" had established two Chambers — .one of peers, nominated by the Crown, the other of representatives elected under a high franchise. But the Royalists even then had shown a zeal which Louis had not restrained for the recovery of old rights and of the old supremacy. The masses of the people had thereby been alienated. Louis recognised his error, and was now determined to abide by his constitution ; but the Royalists saw only that their side was uppermost. Like the English Cavaliers when Charles IL came back to " enjoy his own again," they hoped to get back all that they had lost with interest. Aims of g^^ ^^^ Enghsh Cavaliers Ro alist^ ^^^ ^^^^^* ^^'■y promptly to oya IS s j-ecognise that the old order had gone never to return ; the French Royalists were not equally capable of reconciling themselves to that doctrine. More royalist than the king, they made haste to seek to impose their views upon him. Socially, the democratising of France Iiad not been swept away under the Empire, though it had been so politically. The political centralisation of the Empire was only modified by the Charta ; but the Royalists aimed at reversing the social dcmocratisation as well. Their head- quarters were naturally established in the entourage of Artois, the king's brother, and the circle became known from his residence as the Pavilion Marsan. Louis, both from calculation and from grasp of the situation, held fast to his con- stitution, and was involved in continued conflict with his brother and the Royalists " quand meme," the party of no com- promise. He had promised an amnesty, but he did not succeed in checking the " White Terror," the outbreak of royalist violence in Southern France. In Mar- seilles, Avignon, Nismes, Toulouse, and other places disorders broke out, in which religious fanaticism also played its part. Bonapartists and Protestants . were murdered wholesale, _ * ,, ' * among them Marshal Brune, P Generals Lagarde and Ramel ; courts and local authorities were powerless to check the outrages. Fouche drew up the proscription-lists against those who were privy, or sus- pected of being privy, to the Hundred Days, but prudently forgot to put himself at the head of the list ; and while the executions of General La Bedoyere and Marshal Ney, accompanied by the horrors in Lyons and Grenoble, were bound to make the position of the king impossible, and while the foremost men of France were driven out of the country, he was conspir- ing with the Duke of Orleans, being also anxious to overthrow Talleyrand. Fouche was attacked, nevertheless, on all sides, was compelled to resign the Ministry of Police in September, 1815, and was expelled, in i8i6, as a relapsed regicide. His dismissal was followed closely by that of his rival, Talleyrand, who was appointed High Chamberlain, and replaced, to the satis- faction, and indeed at the wish, of Russia, by the former governor-general in Odessa, the Duke of Richelieu, an emigre quite unacquainted with French affairs. Louis, who could not exist without favourites, had given his heart _ K K" ^^ ^^^ former secretary of ing ]yjg^(jgj^g Mere, D6cazes, As Fouch6's successor, he sided with the Pavilion Marsan, passed sundry capri- cious and arbitrary measures to main- tain order, but was still far too mild for the ultra-Royalists, who exercised a sort of secondary government, and pro- cured Talleyrand's help against him. 4839 F&TOurttes of the HISTORY OF THE WORLD The violence of this extreme section had found its warrant in the first election to the Chamber of Deputies in which it had effected an electioneering victory. But when the Pavilion Marsan and the deputies wished to cap the repressive measures of Diazes by making a farce of the very neces- sary amnesty for their political opponents, _^ J.. Louis found it necessary to r»-* ."^*^i dissolve the Chambers, and Dissolves the ,, -o i .l ^. . the Royalist successes were Chambers , ■ j a. xu not repeated at the new election. The majority were supporters of the moderate Richelieu, while D6cazes was, comparatively speaking, a progressive. The new Chambers passed the Electoral Law of 1817, which secured power to the middle-class, in whom the ultra-Royalists saw their strongest opponents, and the prin- ciple adopted, that one-fifth of the deputies should retire annually, in fact assured an annual increase in what may be called the existing Liberzd majority. The Royalists then turned their efforts to procuring a very much lower franchise, in the belief that the peasantry would be much more amenable to the influence of clericals and landowners than the now dominant classes. RicheUeu soon found himself alarmed by what appeared to be the revival of the revolutionary spirit, emphasised at the elections of i8i8 by the appearance among the new deputies of Lafayette and Benjamin Constant. His position seemed strengthened by the success of France at the Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, where he represented her in person and procured the immediate withdrawal of the allied garrisons. Nevertheless, his representa- tions that the electoral law must be modi- fied to check the democratic movement failed to convince the king, and Richelieu retired in December, 1818. The Ministry of Dessoles, which now took the lead, was dominated by Riche- lieu's rival, D6cazes, who became Minister of the Interior. An arrangement was E t Ad effected with the Curia on UlZu. A^&ust 23rd, 1819. Freedom . J, of the Press was encouraged, and the extraordinary laws against the liberty of the subject were repealed. The Ministry, however, at one time inclined to the Constitutionalists, at another to the ultra-Royalists, and thus forfeited the confidence of all, and depended on the personal and vacillating policy of the king, while the intensity of party feeling was increased. Even a great 4840 batch of new peers in March, 1819, did not give the Crown the hoped-for parliamen- tary support. An alteration of the elec- toral law seemed imperative ; it was essential to show fight against the Left. On November 20th, 1819, the country learnt that Dessoles was dismissed and Decazes had become first Minister. The vacillating policy of Decazes quickly estranged all parties, and they only waited for an opportunity to get rid of him. On February 13th, 1820, the king's nephew, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, the only direct descendant of Louis XV. from whom children could be expected, was stabbed at the opera, and the ultras dared to utter the lie that Decazes was the accomplice of Louvel the murderer. The royal family implored the king to dismiss his favourite, and Louis dismissed Decazes on February 21st, 1820. Richelieu became first Minister once more. Decazes went to London as ambassador, and received the title of duke. This compulsory change of minis- ters seemed to the king like his own abdication. Exceptional legislation against personal freedom was indeed _ necessary, but it increased the 0,^7,. . bitterness of the Radicals, who Bloodshed , J r • J. J.I. . p . were already furious at the men- ace of the Electoral Law of 1817. Matters came to bloodshed in Paris in June, 1820 ; the Right, however, carried the introduction of a new electoral law. The abandonment of France to the noisy emancipationists standing on the extreme Left was happily diverted. Richelieu admin- istered the country in a strictly monarchical spirit, but never became the man of the ultra-Royalists of the Pavilion Marsan. The disturbed condition of the Iberian Peninsula gave the leaders of the reaction a new justification for their poHcy and a new opportunity of applying it. Fer- dinand VII., the king so intensely desired by the Spaniards, had soon shown himself a mean despot, whose whole government was marked by depravity and faithlessness, by falsehood and distrust. He abolished in May, 1814, the constitution of 1812, which was steeped in the spirit of the French Constituent Assembly, dismissed the Cortes, and with a despicable party or camarilla of favourites and courtiers persecuted all liberals and all adherents of Joseph Bonaparte. He restored all the monasteries and brought back the Inquisi- tion, and finally plunged Spain once REACTION TRIUMPHANT IN THE LATIN STATES more into the deep darkness of the Middle Ages ; he destroyed all benefits of govern- ment and the administration of justice, filled the prisons with innocent men, and revelled with guilty associates. Trade and commeice were at a standstill, and in spite of all the pressure of taxation the treasury remained empty. The Ministries and high officials continually changed according to the caprice of the sovereign, and there was no pretence at pursuing a the influence of the Powers, particularly of Russia, Ferdinand was rudely awakened from the indolence into which he had fallen. Better days seemed to be dawning for Spain ; but the reforming mood soon passed away. Regiments intended to be employed against the rising in South America had been assembled at Cadiz, but at this centre a conspiracy against the Govern- ment in Madrid broke out. On New Year's Day, 1820, the colonel of the regi- LOUIS XVIII. OF FRANCE DRAWING UP THE "CHARTA" AT ST. OUEN IN 18U systematic policy. Such evils led to the rebellions of discontented and ambitious generals, such as Xaverio Mina, who paid the penalty of failure on the scaffold or at the gallows. Even the loyalty of the South American colonies wavered ; they were evidently contemplating defection from the mother country, in spite of all counter measures ; and the rising world power of the United States of North America was greatly strengthened- By ment of Asturia, Riego, proclaimed in Las Cabezas de San Juan on the Isla de Leon the constitution of 1812, arrested at Arcos the commander-in-chief of the ex- peditionary force together with his staff, drove out the magistrates, and joined Colonel Antonio Quiroga, who now was at the head of the undertaking. The attempt to capture Cadiz failed ; Riego's march through Andalusia turned out disastrously, and he was forced on March 4841 HISTORY OF THE WORLD iith to disband his followers at Bien- venida. Qiiiroga also achieved nothing. But the cry for the constitution of 1812 found a responsive echo in Madrid. Galicia, Asturia, Cantabria, and Aragon revolted. The royal government com- pletely lost heart, since it had too evil a conscience. The king, always a coward, _ capitulated with undignified eac ion alacrity, declared himself ready r^mp an ^^ gratify " the universal wish pain ^j ^j^^ people," and on March 9th took a provisional oath of adherence to the constitution of 1812. The whole kingdom was at the mercy of the unruly and triumphant Left. It was headed by Quiroga and Riego, and the Government was obliged to confer upon both these mutineers the rank of field- marshal. Quiroga was the more moderate of the two, and as Vice-president of the Cortes, which met on July 9th, endea- voured to organise a middle party. Riego preferred the favour of the mob ; at Madrid he received a wild ovation, August 30th to September 6th, and a hymn composed in his honour and called by his name was in everybody's mouth. Although his arrogance produced a temporary reaction, the party which he led was in the end triumphant. As cap- tain-general of Galicia and Aragon, Riego became master of the situation, and the Court was exposed to fresh humiliations. The spirit of discontent had also seized Portugal, where the reorganiser of the army, Field-Marshal Lord Beresford, conducted the government for King John VL, who was absent in Brazil. A national conspiracy against the British was quickly suppressed in 1817 ; but the feeling of indignation smouldered, and when Beres- ford himself went to Rio Janeiro for commands, secret societies employed his absence to stir up fresh sedition. The rebellion broke out on August 24th, 1820, under Colonel Sepulveda and Count . Silveira in Oporto, and Lisbon Siri7of followed suit on September _?'" ? i 15th. The juntas instituted in Discontent , .u 1 1 j. j ■ j. both places amalgamated mto one provisional government on October ist, and when Beresford returned on October loth, he was not allowed to land. The Cortes of 1821 drew up, on March 9th, the preliminary sketch of a constitution which limited the power of the Crown, as it had already been limited in Spain. All the authorities swore to it ; Count Pedro 4842 Palmella, the foremost statesman of the kingdom, advised John VL to do the same. John appeared in Lisbon, left his eldest son Dom Pedro behind as regent in Brazil, and swore to the principles of the consti- tution on July 3rd, 1821. In Italy, meanwhile, there was a strong movement on foot in favour of republi- canism and union. But few placed their hopes on Piedmont itself, for King Victor Emmanuel I. was a bigoted, narrow- minded ruler, who sanctioned the most foolish retrogressive policy, and, like William I. at Cassel, declared everything that had occurred since 1789 to be simply null and void. There was no prospect of freedom and a constitution while he con- tinued to reign. His prospective successor, Charles Felix, was as little of a Liberal as himself. The nobility and the clergy alone felt themselves happy. The hopes of better days could only be associated with the head of the indirect line of Carignan, Charles Albert, who in Piedmont and Sardinia played the role of the Duke of Orleans in France, and represented the future of Italy for many patriots even beyond the frontiers of Piedmont. In Modena, Duke Francis IV. of cace u ^j^g Austrian house did away Rule of Duke •' Ferdinand with the institutions of the revolutionary period and brought back the old regime. The Society of Jesus stood at the helm. Modena, on account of the universal discontent, became a hotbed of secret societies. In the papal states the position was the same as in Modena ; it was hardly better in Lucca, or in Parma, where Napoleon's wife, the Empress Marie Louise, held sway. In Tuscany, the Grand Duke Ferdinand III. reigned without any spirit of revenge ; he was an enemy of the reaction, although often disadvantageously influenced from Vienna. The peace and security which his rule assured to Tuscany promoted the growth of intellectual and material culture. His was the best administered state in the whole of Italy ; and when he died, in 1824, his place was taken by his son Leopold II., who continued to govern on the same lines and with the same happy results. Pius VII. and his great Secretary of State, Cardinal Consalvi, had indeed the best intentions when the States of the Church were revived ; but the upas-tree of bureaucracy blighted all prosperity. Not a vestige remained of the modem civilised lay state, especially after Consalvi was REACTION TRIUMPHANT IN THE LATIN STATES removed and Leo XII., 1823-1829, was powerless against them. The newly assumed the reins of government. Secret revived citizen militia was immediately societies and conspiracies budded, and infected by the Carbonari, which tempted brigandage took a fresh lease of life. The it with the charm of a " constitution." secret society of the Carbonari, having Guglielmo Pepe, an ambitious general, become too large for Neapolitan soil — 1808 but fickle character, became the soul of —maintained re- ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ the Carbonari in lations with the .^^H^P^^^k ^^^^^^^^^ the Sicilian army, Freemasons, who ^flp^^^^^^^ ^^^t^K^^^^. ^^'^ ^^^^ them a had influence in ^^^ '^^^^^L ^^^m^^^^^^^ considerable de- tlie Itahan dis- ^^K:- -'^^^^ ^^^Mm. m^^^^^^. ^^^^ *~*^ mihtary putes, and with ^^Hj^^ jM^^^^ ^^^B'^f^^^^^^A efficiency. He Queen Mary ^^^|^...^ W^^^B ^^^B^ JI^^^^B contemplated in Caroline of ^^^Bf^-T" /^^^^| ^^^Kl!^^^S«^^^H ^^^^ ^ Naples. Later, ^^^^^^^^l ;'^^^^H ^^^^^S^^Wl^^B ^^ ^^^ k^i^g> ^^^ the Government ^^^^^^m^'f^^^^^m ^^^^^^^^'^^^>^^V Emperor and vainly tried to ^^^^^^L^tK^^K WJ^^wE'^^l^iHF ^^P^^^^ 0^ -^u^' suppress the ^^^^^I^^^^^F ^^B^KjLjBJ^^y tria, and Met- Carbonari, who, ^^^^^^^HuS^^w ^^HH^M^cl^r ternich, at a though degraded ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^B^Bi^r review. The by the admission ^^^^^^^^ ^^[^^J^^ plan was not of the most no- ^he duke of richelieu and decazes executed, but the toriouS criminals The Duke of Richelieu, an emig^r<5 and formerly governor-general at Spell of thC >iarl o-Qinprl Q lir>lrl Odessa, was appointed to succeed Talleyrand as High Chamberlain CT->anicli inciii- naa gamea a noia though he was quite unacquainted with French affairs, while Decazes, -^PaniSH mSUf- On every stratum who supported the Bourbon restoration, became a great favourite of rection and the r cnri At \7 ^® king. He was dismissed in 1S20, and went to London as ambassador, The misgovernment of Naples and Sicily gave a plausible excuse for revolutionary agitation. Pepe assumed the lead of the movement, which spread far and wide, and marched upon Naples. The Ministry changed. Ferdinand placed the govern- ment temporarily in the hands of his son Francis, who was detested as the head of the Calderari, and the latter accepted the Spanish consti- tution on July 7th, a policy which Ferdinand confirmed. On the 9th, Pepe entered Naples in triumph, with soldiers and militia ; and Ferdinand, with tears in his Sicilian subjects by abolishing Riego was at the head of the Madrid eyes, took the oath to the the constitution which Lord a^^^tu^Utou^'clisLtrousfy' constitution on the 13th, in Bentinck had given them in and he disbanded his followers. He the palace chapel. The x8i2. The police and the ^^^ ^^"^^'^ ^* "^^"""^ '" ''^'- Bourbons began to wear the judicial system were deplorably bad ; the Minister of Police was the worst robber of all, and the head of the Cal- derari, a rival reactionary society. The army was neglected. Secret societies and bands of robbers vied with each other in harassing the country, and the Government colours of the Carbonari. Pepe, as commander-in-chief and captain-general of the kingdom, was now supreme ; but Ferdinand hastened to assure the indig- nant Metternich that all his oaths and promises had been taken under com- pulsion and were not seriously meant. 4843 HISTORY OF THE WORLD Sicily no longer wished to be treated as a dependency of Naples, and claimed to receive back the constitution of 1812. Messina revolted, and Palermo followed the example on July 14th ; on the i8th there was fighting in the streets of Palermo. The governor, Naselli, fled, and the mob ruled ; immediately afterwards a provisional _ government was installed. The ^. **L ° independent action of Sicily the Governor ^ , . j- . - • j^ Ij. aroused great discontent in Naples. General Florestan Pepe was despatched to Sicily with an army, and he soon made himself master of the island. But the Crown repudiated the treaty concluded by him with the rebels on October 5th, and sacrificed Pepe to the clamour of the Neapolitan Parliament ; the gulf between the two parts of the kingdom became wider. Met- temich had been unmoved by the tidings of the Spanish agitation, but he was only the more enraged when he heard what had occurred in the Two Sicilies. He put all blame on the secret societies, and praised the good in- tentions of Ferdinand's " paternal " government. The insurrection in Spain had made such an impression on Alexander that in a cir- cular of May 2nd, 1820, he invoked the spirit of the JOHN VI. OF PORTUGAL TT1A11- J -L-j After acting- as regent for his Holy Alliance, and emphasised mother, he succeeded to the throne ; the danger of illegal COnstitU- a rebellion broke out in 1820, and tions. Metternich strength- ^^"^ '^'"^ agreed to a constitution Ferdinand was at once ready A i • _ i • limiting the power of the Crown, x u i l • j i " " "" to break his word, and was condemned by the British nation. It was Metternich's primary object that the congress should approve the march of an Austrian army into Naples, and he induced the congress to invite Ferdinand to Troppau. Alexander always clung closer to the wisdom of Metternich, and the latter skilfully used the report of a mutiny among the Semenoff guards as an argument to overcome the Liberalism of the tsar. Alexander saw before his own eyes how the Spanish and Italian military revolts excited imitation in the Russian army. Frederic WilHam was equally conciliatory to Metternich, and was more averse than ever to granting a constitution on the model of Hardenberg's schemes. In the protocol of November 19th, Austria, Prussia, and Russia came to an agreement, behind the back of the two Western Powers, as to the position which they would adopt towards revolutions, and as to the maintenance of social order ; but France and Great Britain rejected the idea of changing the principles of international law. Fer- dinand took fresh oaths to his people and set out for Troppau. After Christmas the con- gress closed at Troppau, but was continued in January, 1821, at Laibach. Most of the Italian governments were represented. Metternich again took over the presidency. ened the Austrian forces in Upper Italy, and stated, in a circular to the Italian courts, that Austria, by the treaties of 1815, was the appointed guar- dian of the peace of Italy, and wished for an immediate armed interference in the affairs of Naples ; but he encountered strong opposition in Paris and in St. Petersburg. Alexander, whom Metternich actually suspected of Carbonarism, advised a conference of sovereigns and Ministers ; the conference met on October 20th, 1820, at Troppau. Alexander brought with him Capodistrias, an enemy of Metternich ; Francis I. brought Metternich and Gentz ; Frederic William III. was accompanied by Hardenberg and Count Giinther von Bern- storff ; the Count de la Ferronays appeared on behalf of Louis XVIII. ; and Lord Stewart represented the faint-hearted poUcy of his brother Castlereagh, which 4844 declared that his concessions were extorted from him. The King of France at first hesitated. A miracle seemed to have been performed on behalf of the French Bour- bons : the widow of Berry gave birth, on September 29th, 1820, to a son, the Duke Henry of Bordeaux, who usually appeared later under the name of Count of Cham- Th "M"r 1 " ^^^^- The legitimists shouted ^f tk v k ^or joy, talked of the miracu- 01 the JP rench , il'ij i^ 1 ^ 1 g . lous child who would console his mother for the death of Hector, " the stem of Jesse when nearly withered had put forth a fresh branch." The child was baptised with water which Chat- eaubriand had drawn from the Jordan. The Spanish Bourbons looked askance at the birth ; they were already speculating on the future succession to the throne, and the Duke of Orleans secretly suggested in the English REACTION TRIUMPHANT IN THE LATIN STATES Press suspicions of the legitimacy of the* child. Louis successively repressed several military revolts, but had constantly to struggle with the claims of the ultras, who embittered his reign. Although in his heart opposed to it, he nevertheless as- sented at Laibach to the programme of the Eastern Powers. Austria sent an army under Frimont over the Po, and upheld the fundamental idea of a constitution for the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand agreed to everything which Mettemich arranged. France did not, indeed, at first consent to that armed interference with Spain which Alexander and Mettemich required. On Feb- ruary 26th, 1821, the deli- berations of the congress terminated. The Neapolitan Parliament, it is true, defied arrival, accepted, contrary to his inward conviction, the new constitution, and swore to it on March 15th. Charles Felix, how- ever, considered every administrative measure null and void which had not emanated from himself. Charles Albert was jxuiic-stricken, resigned the regency, and left the country. Alex- ander and Mettemich agreed that there was need of armed intervention in Piedmont. Austria feared also the corrup- tion of her Italian provinces, and kept a careful watch upon those friends of freedom who had not yet been arrested. At Novara, on April 8th, the Imperialists under Marshal Bubna, won a victory over the Piedmontese insurgents, which was no less decisive than that of Rieti had been in VICTOR EMMANUEL I Naples. Piedmont was occu- the threats of the Eastern King: of Sardinia from is u, he was pied by the imperial army ; the Powers, and declared that hs'fetroiret^T^^S^^^^^^ junta resigned, and Victor Ferdinand was their prisoner, |:>s»ngr >« i*-i> and he abdicated in Emmanuel renewed his abdica- ,,,,., , , .^ , favour of ms brother Charles Fehx. .. . -i ,, , -vt- and that therefore his resolu- tion on April 19th, at Nice, tions were not voluntary. But their Charles Felix then first assumed the royal preparations for resistance were so de- title and decreed a criminal inquiry. On fective that the Austrians had an easy task. The Neapolitan army broke up after the defeat of GugHelmo Pepe at Rieti on March 7th, 1821, and on March 24th Frimont's army marched into Naples with sprigs of olive in their helmets. Pepe fled to Spain. In Naples the re- action perpetrated such ex- cesses that the Powers inter- vened ; the victims were countless, while the Austrians maintained order. In Piedmont the revolu- tion broke out on March loth, 1821 ; Charles Albert of Carignan did not keep aloof from it. The tricolour flag, red, white, and green, of the Kingdom of Italy was October i8th he made his entry into Turin amid the mad rejoicings of the infatuated mob, suppressed every sort of poHtical party, and mled in death-like quiet, being supported by the bayonets of Austria and by the do- minion of the Jesuits in Church, school, and State. The Austrians did not leave his country until 1823. On May I2th, 1821, a proclama- tion issued from Laibach by the Eastern Powers announced to the world that they had rescued Europe from the intended general revolution, and that their weapons alone served to uphold the cause of right and justice. Mettemich, promoted by GUGLIELMO PEPE - i_ re r hoisted in Alessandria, and a An ambitious general, but fickle the emperor to the office of provisional junta on the t'h^"t\1rona^'i 'n thTlicma„Trmyf Chancellor of State, stood at Spanish model was assembled, and in 1820 he assumed supreme the zenith of his success when, Turin proclaimed the parlia- p°^^' " commander -m- chief, on May 5th, 1821, Napoleon I., mentary constitution on March nth, and the Carbonari seized the power. Victor Emmanuel I. abdicated on March 13th in favour of his brother Charles Felix. Charles Albert, a vacillating and untrustworthy ruler, who was regent until the latter's the man who had contested his importance and had ruled the world far more than Met- temich, died at St. Helena. The black and 3^ellow flag waved from Milan to Palermo ; princes and peoples bowed before it. Legitimacy had curbed the revolutionary 4S45 HISTORY OF THE WORLD craving, and Italy was further from unification than ever. The apostles of freedom and unity, men like Silvio Pellico, disappeared in the dungeons of the Spielberg and other fortresses in Austria. Russia was now on the most friendly terms with Austria. The result was soon seen when the monarchs and Ministers, still . p at Laibach, received tidings n ra o ^^ disorders in the Danubian Conspiracy ..... j • /- j and A h principalitiesandm(Treece,and y ^j^^ ^^^^^ under Metternich's in- fluence, repudiated the Greek leader, Ypsi- lanti, who had built on the theory that he could reckon on the warm support of Russia. In Spain the Liberals made shameless misuse of their victory, and limited the power of the king to such a degree that he naturally tried to effect a change. His past was a guarantee that Ferdinand VII. would not be at a loss for the means to his end. He courted the intervention of the Continent ; but Louis XVIII. and Richelieu preferred neutrality. The ultra- Royalists, however, became more and more arrogant in France. The Pavilion Marsan expelled Richelieu in December, 1821, and brought in the Ministry of Villele; the reaction felt itself fully victorious, and the clergy raised their demands. The Carbonari was introduced from Italy, and secret societies were formed. New conspiracies of republican or Napoleonic tendency followed, and led to executions. The power of the ultras became gradually stronger in the struggle ; party feeling increased, and even Count Villele was not royalist enough for the ultras. Ferdi- nand VII., on the contrary, favoured the Radicals, in order to employ them against the Liberals. Riego became President of the Cortes of 1822. A coup de main of the Guards to recover for Ferdinand the absolute power failed in July, 1822, and Ferdinand surrendered those who had sacri- ficed themselves for him. In the north guerrilla bands spread in every direction j^ J. .on his behalf ; in Seo de Urgel E a /**" a regency for him was estab- Castl h ^^^^^^ °^ August 15th, and an ** alliance entered into with France. At the preliminary deliberations for the congress intended to be held at Verona, Metternich reckoned upon his " second self," Castlereagh, now the Marquess of Londonderry ; but the latter died by his own hand on August 12th, 1822. His successor in the Foreign Office, George Canning, a "Tory from inward conviction, 4846 a modern statesman from national neces- sity," broke with the absolutist-reactionary principles of the Holy Alliance, and entered the path of a national independent policy, thus dealing a heavy blow at Metternich and Austria. Metternich and Alexander stood the more closely side by side. The congress of sovereigns and Ministers at Verona was certainly the most bril- liant since that of Vienna. In October, 1822, came Alexander, Francis, and Fre- deric William ; most of the Italian rulers, Metternich, Nesselrode, Pozzo di Borgo, Bernstorff, and Hardenberg ; France was represented by Chateaubriand, the Duke of Laval-Montmorency, Count La Ferro- nays, and the Marquis of Caraman ; Great Britain by Wellington and Viscount Strangford. Entertainments were on as magnificent a scale as at Vienna. Metter- nich wished to annul the Spanish and Portuguese revolution, and with it the extorted constitution ; the Eastern Powers and France united for the eventuality of further hostile or revolutionary steps being taken by Spain ; Great Britain excluded itself from their agreements, while Chateaubriand's romanticism in- -. toxicated the tsar. When the °"p"**° Greeks at the congress sought y help against the Turks, they were coldly refused. On the other hand, an understanding was arrived at about the gradual evacuation of Pied- mont by the Austrians ; the army of occupation in the Two Sicilies was reduced ; and good advice of every sort was given to the Italian princes. The Eastern Powers and France saw with indignation that Great Britain intended to recognise the separation of the South American colonies- from Spain, and their independence, ac- cording to the example given by the United States of North America, in March, 1822. The Congress of Verona ended toward the middle of December. Chateaubiiand, now French Minister of Foreign Affairs, urged a rupture with Spain, at which Louis and Villele still hesitated. The threatening notes of the Powers at the Verona congress roused a storm of passion in Madrid, while the diplomatists in Verona had set themselves the question whether nations might put kings on their trial, as Dante does in his Divine Comedy, and whether the tragedy of Louis XVI. should be repeated with another background in the case of Ferdi- nand VII. The Spanish nation revolted REACTION TRIUMPHANT IN THE LATIN STATES af^ainst the arrogance of foreign interference. The rupture was made ; the ambassadors of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France left Spain in January, 1823. The adven- turous George Bessitres ventured on an expedition to Madrid ; but the Spanish hope of British help against France, which was intended to carry out the armed interference, was not fulfilled. Louis XVIII. placed his ne])hew, Duke Louis of Angouleme, at the head of an army of 100,000 men. which was to free Ferdinand from the power of the Liberals and put him once again in possession of despotic power. In the Chamber at Paris the Liberals, indeed, loudly de- cried the war, and trembled at the suppression of the Spanish revolution, although Canning openly desired the victory of the Spanish people. Ferdinand and the Cortes went to Seville. Angouleme crossed . the frontier stream, the Bidassoa. on April 7th, and found no traces of a popular rising ; nevertheless, he advanced, without any opposition, was hailed as a saviour, and entered Madrid on May 24th. He appointed a temporary regency, and in order not to hurt the national pride, avoided any inter- ference in internal affairs, although the reactionary zeal of the regency caused him much uneasiness, and only re- tained the supreme military command. But the Cortes in Seville relieved the king of the conduct of affairs and carried him off to Cadiz. Victory followed the French flag. The Spaniards lost heart, and were defeated or capitulated. Angouleme made forced marches to Cadiz, and on the night of August 31st stormed Fort Trocadero, which was considered impregnable. An expedition of Riego to the Isla de Leon ended in his anest, and on September 28th the Cortes, in consequence of the bombard- ment of Cadiz, abandoned their resistance. Ferdinand VII. voluntarily promised a complete amnesty and made extensive CHATEAUBRIAND This eminent French writer and poli- tician supported the Restoration mon- archy from 1814 till 1824. He was created a vicomte, and for two years repre- sented France at the British Court. DONA MARIA II. DA GLORIA The crown of Portugal was re- nounced by Pedro IV., of Brazil, in favour of his daughter, but when Dom Miguel proclaimed himself king in 1828 she returned to her father, and was restored in 1834. professions. He was accorded a state reception by Angouleme on October ist, and was proclaimed as absolute monarch by a large party among the Spaniards. But hardly was he free before the perjurer began the wildest reaction. Many members of the Cortes and the regency fled to England to escape the gallows, and Ferdinand exclaimed : " The wretches do well to fly from their fate ! " The Powers of Europe viewed his action with horror. Angouleme, whose warnings had been scattered to the winds, left Madrid in disgust on Nov- ember 4th. Riego was hanged at Madnd on November 7th, 1823 ; on the 13th Ferdinand returned triumphant, only to reign as detestably as before. Talle5Tand called the war of intervention the begin- ning of the end ; the result of it was that Spain floundered further into the mire. The ultras tormented the country and Ferdinand himself to such a degree that he began to weary of them. The colonies in South America were irretrievably lost ; all the subtleties of the congress at Verona and of Chateau- briand could not change that fact. At Canning's proposal the British Government, on Januarj' ist, 1825, recognised the independence of the new republics of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and Mexico. This was a fresh victory over the principle of legitimacy, which had been alwaysemphasised by Austria, Spain, and France, as well as by Russia and Prussia. The Spanish insurrection naturally affected the neigh- bouring country of Portugal. The September Constitution of 1820, far from improving matters there, had actually introduced new difficulties. Constitutionalists and abso- lutists were quarrelling violently with each other. Dom Pedro, son of John VI., who had been appointed regent in Brazil, saw himself compelled by a national party, which wished to make Brazil an indepen- dent empire, to send away the Portuguese 4847 HISTORY OF THE WORLD troops. He assumed in May, 1822, the title of permanent protector of Brazil, and convened a national assembly at Rio de Janeiro, which on August ist and on September 7th announced the inde- pendence of Brazil, and proclaimed him, on October 12th, 1822, Emperor of Brazil, under the title of Dom Pedro I. The Portuguese were furious, but were never able to reconquer Brazil. Queen Charlotte, wife of John and sister of Ferdinand VII., a proud and artful woman, refused to take the oath to the Portuguese constitution, to which John swore, and, being banished, conspired with her younger son, Dom Miguel, the clergy, and many nobles, to restore the absolute monarchy. A counter re- volution in February, 1823, r- failed, it is true, but Dom Miguel put himself at its head, and Lisbon joined his cause. The weak John sanctioned this, and cursed the consti- tution ; the Cortes were dissolved. John promised a new constitution, and trium- phantly entered Lisbon with his son on June 5th. Por- tugal was brought back to absolutism. John was a mere on March loth, 1826, reigned for a short period over his native country as Pedro IV. 