A review of the ethnological investigations in the Dutch Indian archipelago
Eerde, J. C. van (Johan Christiaan), 1871-1936
K. N. Aardrijsk. Gen. vol. 5 (1881) p. 34 et seq. C. Snouck Hukgronje: Nota van wenken, die bij de aanraking met hoofden en bevolking van het Gajoland te behartigen zullen zijn. Batavia, 1902. Inventaris van voorwerpen, verzameld in de Gajolanden gedurende de excursie onder Majoor Van Paalen in 1901, Notulen Bat. Gen. vol. 40 (1902), App. I. G. C. E. VAN Paalen: Journaal van den commandant der maréchaussée-colonne ter achtervolging van den Pretendent Sultan in de Gajolanden, Ind. Mil. Tijdschr. 1902, extra App. No. 2. C. Snouck Hurgronje: Het Gajolanden en zijne bewoners, Batavia, 1903. B. Hagen: Pie Gajolander auf Sumatra, Jahresber. des Frankfurter Vereins für Geogr. und Statist. 66e/67e jrg. (1903) p. 29 et seq, C. Snouck Hurgronje: Pe blauwe Prinses in het Gajo-meer, Album Kern, Leiden 1903. B. Hagen: Pie Gajos auf Sumatra, Globus vol. 86 (1904) p. 24 et seq. Instructie voor den Luitenant-Kolonel van den Generalen Staf G. C. E. van Paalen, kommandant van de marécbaussée-colonne op excursie naar de Gajo- en Alaslanden enz. (Bijlagen Hand. Stat. Gen. 1904—1905 No. 4/40 b.). J. C. J. Kempees; Pe tocht van Overste Van Paalen door de Gajo-, Alas- en Bataklanden, Amsterdam, 1905. Inventaris van voorwerpen, afkomstig van de Gajo-, Alas- en Bataklanden, verzameld door Luitenant-Kolonel G. C, E. van Paalen (1901 — 1904), tentoongesteld in het Museum van het Bat. Gen. van K. en W. van 5 — 12 Februari 1905. Batavia, 1905. Genees Kundig rapport betreffende de excursie naar de Gajo- en Alaslanden onder den Luitenant-Kolonel G. C. E., van Paalen. Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1905, extra App. No. 15. G. C. E. van Paalen: Verslag van den tocht naar de Gajo- en Alaslanden in de maanden Februari tot en met Juli 1904. Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1905, extra App. No. 14. The same: Nota over het Alasland, Tijdschr. K. N. Aardrijksk. Gen. series vol. 24 (1907) p. 204 et seq. J. F. Niermeyer: Gajo’s en Nederlanders. Amsterdammer 2 en 9 April 1905. G. Nijpels: Gezag in de Gajo- en Alaslanden, Ind. Gids 1905 vol. I p. 102 — 103. R. Pick: Pas Gajoland und seme Bewohner. Milt. d. K. K. Geograph. Gesellsch. in Wien 1907, p. 379 et seq. G. A. J. Hazeu: Gajosch Nederl. woordenboek. Batavia, 1907. Instructie voor de onderafdeelingschefs in de Gajo- en Alaslanden van 27 Januari 1909. W. Volz: Pe Gajo- en Bataklanden (lecture Tijdschr. K. N. Aardrijksk. Gen. 2n<^ series vol. 26 (1909) p. 535 et seq. C. van Vollenho Von Het adatrecht van Nederlandsch-Indië, Leiden, afl. Hl (1909) p. 226 et seq. and afl. IV (1911) p. 229 et seq. W. Volz: Nord Sumatra vol. II (Pie Gajolander), Concerning the Bataks there is a bibliography (1907, with supplement 1910), as well as a gazetteer “Do Bataks Spiegel” (1910, with supplements 1913 and 1916) from the pen of M. Joustka; a few other publications, also from the Batak Institute, deal with this group. The Menang Kaban Malays are described in the large works of the Central Sumatran Expedition and of Maass, both already mentioned; further in a résumé “Minangkaban” by M. Joustra (Leiden, n.d.). The East Coast Malays are much more difficult of access; the information concerning these people has to be collected from all sorts of sources and is then generally of rather ancient date. They have been referred to by the following government officials: Netscher, Neumann, Humans van Anrooy, van Dijk, Kroesen and Westenberg; complementary details are further given by Swettenham, Blagden and in Martin’s book “Inlandstamme” (1905) and the literature therein quoted, as well as in the accounts of the Rian Archipelago (de Bruyn Kops, Netscher, Schot, de Boer and the Bulan Tnjn (T. K. N. A. G. 1898). Concerning the Southern Sumatrans there is again a considerable literature and a summary, “Overzicht van Ziiid-Siimatra” by G. F. de Bruyn Kops (1919). In addition, ethnographical literature must be consulted in the reports of the Central Sumatran Expedition and Izerman’s journey, older papers by De Südamer, van Vloten, Wesly, Helfrich, etc. and the large work by Dr. R. Broersma, “De Lampongsche districten” 1916. Ethnographers fortunately reached the natives of the interior of Sumatra in time for the main characters of their primitive civilisation to be recorded. Hagen’s assertions about the Kubu’s were amplified and corrected by van Dongen (1906, 1910). A short list of references to this people may be found in Tijdschr. voor Geschiedenis, Land- en Volkenkunde 1915, p. 283; the references to the Kurinchi have been... Berlin, 19P2. 11. W. Fischsr: Catalogus van ’s Rijks Ethnograpbisch Museum vol. YI (Atjèh, Gajo- eii Alaslanden), Leiden, 1912. Nota betreffende het landschap Seibödjadf Bijdr. T. L. en Vk. vol. 67 (1912) p. 439 et seq. M, Joustra: Gegevens en aanwijzingen omtrent adatrecht bij de G Ajos en de Batak's getrokken mit de Woordenboeken, Adatrechtbundel VI (1913) p. 21—147. Van Eybergen: Atjähl “up to date”, Tijdschr. Binn. Best. vol. 46 p. 1 et seq. H. H. van Kol; Driemaal dwars door Sumatra en zwerfstöcken door Bah, Rotterdam, 1914. Mr. P. A. F. Blom: Kentrekken van het verwundet schädig, familie- en erfrecht bij de volken van Ágyptië (proefschrift 1914) p. 36—41. AV. Baptist: Siah Oetama, een Gajosche legende, Aarde en haar volken jrg. 51 (1915) p. 159—161. Med. van het Encyclop. Bur., De Buitenbezittingen vol. li afl. 2 (Atjèh en Onderhoorigheden), 1917. J. J. Sporry: Het N AV. Gajoland (het Meergebied), Jaarversl. Topogr. Dienst in N.-I. over 1917, p. 216 et seq. F. F. Milius: Opvoer naar de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loeös, Ind. Milit. Tijdschr. 1919 p. 1018—1022. J. Kreemer: De bewoners van de Gajoe Loe En Alsace van Nederlandsch-Indië, Amsterdam, 1920, vol. I p. 80—120. The same: Atjèh, Leiden, 1922. Collected by van Aken (Medecl. Encyclop. Bureau YIII, 1915). Swab wrote in Tijdschr. K. N. Aardrijksk. Gen. 1916 a)out.Redjang. For the Lubu’y in Mandailing we still depend on the discriptions by Heytino, VAN Ophuysen, Kreemee, van Dijk, etc. The islands along the western coast of Sumatra also harbour a very interesting population which requires further study in spite of the efforts of missionaries, of civil servants and of scientific travellers to collect good data. Of separate works there may be mentioned: Modigliani (1890), and Schroder (1917) on Mas, Maass on Mentawei (1902); numerous papers in periodicals dealing with the islands of this chain, which extends from Simalur to Engano, must per force remain unmentioned. The Dutch have now been settled in Java for more than three centuries and throughout the island the activities of their government are many-sided and intensive. Ryckloff van Goens gave as early as 1656 a “Corte Beschryvinge van ’t Eyland Java” (Bydragen 1856 p. 366); nevertheless a good ethnographical description is wanting. We know more about the Achehnese and the Toradja, the Gajo and the Balinese than we do about the Javanese. Is the reason that, within the space of twenty years, the Gajo, on account of their smaller number, could be better investigated than the tens of millions in Java during a couple of centuries? Or is the reason that the power of the colonial government in Java was so great as to render the peculiarities of the population unimportant? Or again, was it because in this island, “where no one has time”, no opportunity remained for reflection and the study of what is, after all, the most important subject in Java, its population? What? Ever the answer to these questions, the literature is overwhelming but the good works are a select few. From Raffles’ “History of Java” (1817) to Chailley’s “Java et ses habitants” (1914) there is a century of the policy of “the Dutch in Java” (Clive Day 1904). Yan Imhoff’s journey of 1743 (Bijdragen 1853) is separated from Augusta de Wit’s “Facts and Fancies” (1905) by a century and a half and yet we remain quite unsatisfied with the picture which Mayer gives us of the life of the people in Java (1897) or with his sketch of the Javanese as human being (1894); this in spite of Poensen’s character sketches (Med. Med. Zendgen. XXIII) and their predecessors. This dissatisfaction does not exclude the gratitude which we owe to penetration and diligence shown by Yeth in the compilation of his “Java” (1878 revised edition 1896), but since then we have been spoiled by the Achehnes. and the Toradja and we now demand something better. Meanwhile, we have an encyclopaedia of the Sundanese in de Haan’s Priangan (1910); of the Baduj’s there is an important sketch by Jacobs and Meyer (1891), and the Native States are dealt with in Rouffaer’s competent encyclopaedic article; concerning the Madurese there is a great shortage of ethnographical data in comparison with linguistic ones; for the population of Java and Madura as a whole there is, in addition to a huge number of articles in periodicals, a library with indexes (Hasselman, Steinmetz), giving the results of the so-called “Welvaartsonderzoek” 1905 — 20 (Investigation of Social Conditions). There are three circumstances which permit us to hope that a good book on the population of Java may be evolved. Firstly, because at the instance of Beanues, the Hindu society of ancient Java continues to be thoroughly investigated by past and present members of the Archaeological Service. Secondly, because a solid basis for a Mohammedan history of Java has been laid down in a number of Leiden dissertations, the writers of which now see Java with ethnologically trained eyes. Thirdly, because among educated Javanese, a consciousness of nationality is accompanied by an appreciation of their own civilisation. Passing on to the islands to the east of Java, we leave out Bali because this island was alredy treated above (Section 3) and come to the population of the other Small Siam Islands, including the Mohammedan Saks of Lombok. To the east this group ends with the natives of Timor, Sumba, and Boti. The standard works on this population are limited to linguistic books by Jonker on the languages of Bima and Boti; for the rest we have to rely on periodical publications, which, however, contain some important papers. Zollinger began the series (1847 — 50); Elbert expedition visited the island in question (1910 — 12); Jasper described them (1908); and further there are associated with these islands the names of various missionaries and those of Freiss (1860), Boos (1877), Couvreur (1908), Beckering (1911), ten Kate (1914), Stapel (1914) and Van Staveren (1915). Concerning Endeh, see Med. Encyclop. Bureau XKYl (1921), and concerning the Timor group, ibid. Ill (1914), also Wielenga (1913), Wanner (1913), Grijzen (1904) and others. Dr. Kruyt is at present engaged in amplifying in various periodicals what the above writers have reported. The Moluccas and Neio Guinea have already been dealt with (Sec. 5 and 7). Our ethnographical knowledge of the population of Celebes centres around the above mentioned work of Adriani and Kruyt on the Baree-speaking Toradja (1914) and round the later publications of these missionaries. There are also valuable data concerning the population of the Northern and South-western regions of this island, which was already visited by Europeans in the first half of the sixteenth century, so that it contains old settlements, centres of native Christianity. Graaeland’s “Minahassa” (1869, 1898), Jellesma (1903), Meded. Encyclop. Bureau 11 (1912); the already mentioned works by the Swiss explorers Saasin (1905), Gkubauek’s Kopfjager (1913), Elbert’s Simda expedition (1910-1912) and latterly Kaudern’s I Celebes Obygder (1921), are of more or less importance through their text or their illustrations. For the Mohammedan population of the South-western Peninsula we must still rely on “Bijdragen” by Matthes (1875) with the accompanying ethnographical data. Atlas, and merely refer, among older writers, to Donselaar (1855), Bakkers (1865), and among later ones to Kooeeman (1883), Niemann (1899), Asselbergs (1894), Erdmans (1897), van Macle (1901 — 02). In 1889, PosEwiTz compiled his bibliography of Borneo before the publication of larger studies which now exist on the native tribes such as Ling Roth’s book (1896) which might be called encyclopaedic; Nieuwenhuis’ “Quer durch Borneo” (1904) ; Hose and Mac Bougall’s Pagan Tribes (1914). In these studies so much excellent material has been incorporated that a “book of Borneo” might almost be written by that one who, after supplementary investigation on the spot, could survey the whole ethnological structure of the island. Such author would derive help from the linguistic material collected by Hardeland (1858 — 59), Barth (1910), Sundermann (1911 — 12) and Sidney H. Ray (1913). Section 9, Apart from a number of Imperial Gazetteers there is one thing for the possession of which the Dutch may envy the English, viz. Strachey’s “India”. The reason will be evident from the above review, for in it far too many names had to be mentioned. That would have been unnecessary if for every group of peoples, for every island, or still better for the whole of Dutch India, there existed one book giving a brief but complete account of the Indonesian population, such as was already shown to be possible for some peoples. For neither de Hollander’s Handling (1861) nor von Rosenberg’s Malayischer Archipel (1879), nor van der Lith’s Nederlandsch Oost-Indië (1893), nor Yeth’s Insulinde (based on Wallace’s The Malay Archipelago 1869), nor van Hinloopen-Labberton’s Geldustreerd Handbook (1910), nor Colijn’s Neerlands-Indie (1911 — 12), give us what we might wish. Some of these works are antiquated. As is certainly the case with Wilken's "Handleiding voor de vergelijkende volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie" of 1893. The others do not present in their composition and synthesis that unity of full experience and penetrative vision which is desirable in order to furnish a clear and accurate picture of Indonesian life. Holland indeed possesses an "Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indie" (1° edition, 4 vols. 1896 — 1905; 2° edition 1917 — 1921) which, although it has no illustrations and no maps, pays a good deal of attention to ethnographical subjects. We might call this the third encyclopædia after Valentin's work of the eighteenth century and Crawfurd's Descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands of 1856. Holland further possesses as it were the key to all that has been printed about the colonies in Eastern Asia, viz. the catalogue of the Colonial Library at the Hague (1908, with supplements) which enumerates the books, and the "Repertorium op de koloniale literatur" (7 vols. 1877 — 1880, 1895, 1901, 1906, 1912, 1917, 1922) which refers to almost all periodical publications. Whoever consults these catalogues will obtain two impressions; not only that diligent work is being carried out in Holland and in Dutch India in the domain of ethnography and ethnology, but also that there is a very rich literature, distinguished by excellent works which give a general survey of the various aspects of Indonesian civilisation. In the first place, we mention the principal books dealing with the mental civilisation. In Wilken’s collected writings there will be found a wealth of data and numerous interesting studies concerning primitive popular beliefs; also in Kruyt’s "Wimisme" 1906 and in his measures data in Bijdragen. 1918, 1919 and 1920, further in van Ossenbruggen’s "Trimitieve denken" (1916). These books deal with the subject from animistic, animo-theoretical and pre-animistic points of view and run therefore parallel to the line cited by Tylor, Durkheim and Preusz. The influence which Hinduism exerted after its arrival in the Indian Archipelago at the beginning of the Christian era, both on popular beliefs and on Indonesian society throughout the period of its action, may be traced in Kern’s “Collected Writings” (1913 etc.), Brandes’ edition of Paratraton (the latest in 1920); Kroai’s “Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst (1920, Introduction to Indo-Javanese art), and the fine monographs which have been published on some of the Hindu temples of Java (Tjandi Tumpang, Panataran, Barabudur). Mohammedanism which in the sixteenth century succeeded in driving Hinduism out of Java, is described in the already mentioned writings of Dr. C. Snouck Hurgron. After religion, the next important aspect is the customary law of adat which has developed in accordance with the requirements of native society and has thoroughly permeated the consciousness of the people. There is probably no European nation which can point to so complete a study of customary law as can the Dutch with respect to those indigenous customs which are binding in law. In Holland, there are no official measures for collecting and codifying the customary law, no government commissions for its investigation, but a standard work “Het adatrecht van Nederlandsch-Indië” by Dr. Van Vollenhoven (the first volume appeared in 1918, the second will appear shortly), and centring round this a number of smaller hooks by the same author dealing with specific aspects of the subject; Miskenningen van het adatrecht (1909), Een adatrechtboekje voor heel Indie (1910), DeAustralien en zijn grond (1919). Dr. Van Vollenhoven has further brought about the foundation of a Committee for the study of adat law (in Holland 1909), an advisory committee for adat law (at Batavia), an adat law foundation (since 1917), the co-operation of the "Dönklingen Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië" with the "Koloniaal Instituut" and with foreign bodies also interested in this subject. Dr. van Vollenhoven is thus raising a monument of erudition for the living popular jurisprudence of the Balkans. More than twenty bulky volumes on adat law and six volumes of Pandects have already made the knowledge of this law easily accessible and the output of publications on the subject, including Leiden degree dissertations, still increases. A bibliography of the customary law of Indonesia was published in 1920 under the auspices of the Adat Law Foundation. As regards Indian plastic art, appreciation of this also has grown much during the last quarter of a century. The writings of Hein, Haddon, Foy, Richter, Rouffner, and Juynboll, von Saher, Pleyte, Jasper, Loeber, Nieuwenkamp, Nieuwenhuis, Roorda, and many others bear testimony to the wide spread admiration which the work of an anonymous Indonesian artists now excites. This applies to wood-carving, textile ornaments, metal work, and especially to Hindu-Javanese architecture and sculpture which are dealt with in the work by Dr. Krom already referred to. A bibliography of the literature on Indian industrial art may be found in Loeber’s “Techniek en sierkunst in den Indischen Archipel Dl. VI (1916). The Indian theatre has engaged the attention of Serrurier (1896), Hazeu (1897), and Juynboll (1918). With regard to music, we may refer to a thorough article in the Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indië, Vol. H, p. 812 by J. F. Snelleman; native dancing has been treated in an article by Dr. G. J. Nieuwenhuis in Internationale Archiv für Ethnographie, NXHI (1916) p. 183. There remain to be mentioned the study of literature of the Ethiopians, which, as was pointed out above, has been much cultivated, and finally native science which expressed itself especially in primitive medicine and in the calendar on which various publications exist. Section 10. We may now ask the question whether, in addition to the principal works referring to Indo-China civilization, it is not possible to become acquainted with the material, the oxpression of this civilization in other ways, and the answer would of course refer to the ethnographical manuscripts of Holland and of the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Weten schappen at Batavia. In the Mother-country, the richest is the National Ethnographic Museum at Leiden, the most compendious the “Brins Hendrik” museum at Büttterdam. A large museum of the Colonial Institute is being built at Amsterdam. There is a well-displayed collection at Leiden and there are further ethnographic exhibits at Haarlem, Delft, Breda, Arnhem, Kampen, Zwolle, Deventer, Zutphen, Tilburg, Oudenbosch, Steyl, Zeist and Middelburg. The catalogue of the National Ethnographic Museum at Leiden in many volumes is an exemplary work which makes the wealth of material. readily accessible by descriptions and illustrations with literature references. It is becoming, as it were, a ledger for a large part of the material assets of Indonesian civilisation, in so far as these are represented in this rich collection. Enough has been said above to show the stimulating vitality of Dutch ethnographical research. The scientific study of ethnography and ethnography, the publications relating thereto, the collections in various museums and the sending out of expeditions, all these may be cited in evidence. This interest also finds expression in the activities of scientific societies. In this connection, we must mention in the first place the oldest scientific society in European colonies, the “Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wäetenschappen”, founded in 1778, which, in its “Verhandelingen”, “Tijdschrift”, “Notulen” (minutes) and in the catalogues of its collections, has collected a wealth of ethnographical material. In the Mother-country, we have since 1851 the “Koninklijk Institut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië”, which possesses at the Hague an excellent colonial library (with detailed catalogues), and greatly advances Indonesian ethnographic studies by the publication of its “Bijdragen” and of separate works. The “Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap” (Royal Dutch Geographical Society) at Amsterdam since 1873 has already been mentioned in this review in connection with the equipment of expeditions which produced good ethnographical results (Central Sumatra, Southern New Guinea, Ki Islands, Smaller Sunda Islands, Central Celebes, Ceram, Borneo, etc.). In the “Tijdschrift” of this society and in the works published under its auspices there are also important ethnographic data. Of late years the Geographic Society has closely co-operated with the “Maatschappij ter bevordering van het Natuurkundig onderzoek der Nederlandsche Koloniën” (1888) (Society for the scientific investigation of the Dutch Colonies), and the “Indisch Comite voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek” (1897) (Indian Committee for scientific investigation), to which we owe, for instance, the expeditions to Borneo and to New Guinea. Further, there have appeared since 1911 a number 1)er of monographs on ethnographical subjects through the mediation of an Encyclopaedic Bureau founded by the Indian Government (these monographs deal A\d.th Batjan, Acheh, the Sangi- and Talaud islands, Habinsaran, Timor, Kurinchi, New Guinea, Habinahera, Morotai, the Sula islands, Menang Kabau, Simalur, the Schouten and Padaido islands, the Batak country, Nias, Flores, etc.). Finally there was founded in 1910 at Amsterdam the Colonial Institute which desires to collect and spread knowledge concerning the Butch colonies, and has also instituted for this purpose an Ethnological section. A large ethnographic museum is l3eing built in Avhich numerous collections in the possession of the Institute will be exhibited. Systematic ethnographic study has been undertaken in this section on various ethniccd groups of Dutch India, and a number of summaries have already been published in conjunction with various smaller institutions (for Acheh, the east coast of Sumatra, Menang Kabau, Southern Sumatra, Bali and the Moluccas) which co-operate with the ethnological section of the Colonial Institute. It is hoped that this sketch may prove to those interested the stimulating character of scientific life in Holland and Dutch India, in so far as concerns the ethnography of the colonies in the far East. #■ it V' v:^ ~ui’ .i' -A ■'■f'-^-' V< f--w/ ^ •-•—^11^ f:’ ‘‘- -'■ ■ - V - . -, . '• «1 r •■ ^ è •V,' If ' 4> * ■ ■■' P'. ^ i- *‘ »v ‘ *‘*=. I ;>■’ /. fc-'t ^ ^ • "-yf -'4^14 ■■*. 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