A London encyclopaedia, or universal dictionary of science, art, literature and practical mechanics : comprising a popular view of the present state of knowledge : illustrated by numerous engravings, a general atlas, and appropriate diagrams
Curtis, Thomas, fl. 1820
fM ..-s^>, .1^" <^^ ■^-■'■%Yi THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES ^ *" '^i^^;^^i .an. BferaSi^ r.,:^ n ^20tj8&^ w|^ r^ j^jjIgL^ ^Ll ^^^i^^ ^^'^i ^>!^n> f\ ^y ? ^^•^^a ft r- ■ <h \n-rA. f ^li'^Al L^'^f :^ ^p ?^i ^A ^ mi >•/* mkh H^^ f^nf^'-^ 'H i/^' g^ ttl ./ftiilli^i' TFIK LONDON ENCYCLOPEDIA. VOL. XIX. ROME TO SEDUCTION. J. Hi.Mi,ii, rriiiter, Catlii! .>ire<!i, London. THE LONDON ENCYCLOPAEDIA, OR UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, ART, LITERATURE, AND PRACTICAL MECHANICS, COMPRISING A POPULAR VIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE. ILUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS KNGRAVINGS, A GENERAL ATLAS, AND APPROPRIATF. DIAGRAMS. Sic oportet ad librum, presertim miscellanei generis, legendum accedere lectorem, ut solet ad coauviuni ronviva civills. ronvivator annititur omnibus satisfacere; et tamen si quid apponitur, quod hujus aut illius palato non respoDdeat, et hie et ille urbane dU itnulant, et alia fercula probant, ne qiiidcontristentconvivatorem. Eroimtu. A reader should sit down to a book, especially of the miscellaneous kind, as a well-behaved risitor does to a banqueL The master of the feast exerts himself to satisfy his sruesu ; but if, after all his care and pains, something should appear on the table that does not suitthi^ or that person's taste, they politely pass it over without notice, and commend other dishes, that they may not distress a kind host. Trnmltilion. BY THE ORIGINAL EDITOR OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA METROPOLITANA, ASSISTED BY EMINENT PROFESSIONAL AND OTHER GENTLEMEN. IN TWENTY-TWO VOLUMES. VOL. XIX. LONDON : PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE ; SOLD BY N. HAILES, PICCADILLY; E. WILSOV, ROYAL EXCHAVGE ; J. MASON, CiTY ROAD BOWDERY & KERRY, OXFORD STREET: ORIFFIN & CO. GLASGOW: J. GUMMING, DUBLIN : M. BAUDRY, PARIS : F. FLEISCHER, LEIPSIC : AND WHIPPLE & LAWRENCE, SALEM, NORTH AMERICA. 1829. THE LONDON ENCYCLOPAEDIA. KB. ^.11 ROME. Carus, Numerian, and Carinus. — Carus, who was praetorian prefect to the deceased em- peror, was chosen by the army to succeed him ; and he, to strengthen his authority, united with him his two sons Carinus and Numerian in command; the former of whom was as re- markable for his vices, as the latter was for his virtues. Carus had scarcely time to punish the murderers of the late monarch, when he was alarmed by a fresh irruption of the Sarmatians, over whom he gained a signal victory. The Persian monarch also made some attempts upon the empire ; but Carus assured his ambassadors that, if their master persisted in his obstinacy, all his fields should shortly be as bare as his own bald head: a dreadful battle ensuing, he once more gained a complete victory. But he was shortly after struck dead by lightning in his tent, with many others around him. Numerianus was inconsolable for his death ; and brought a dis- order upon his eyes, we are told, with weeping. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited the ambition of Aper, his father-in- law, who supposed that he could now, with- out danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore hired a villain to murder the emperor in his litter ; and, to conceal the fact, gave out that he was alive, but unable to endure the light. In this manner was the dead body carried about for some days, Aper continuing to attend it with the utmost respect, and to take orders as usual. However, the offensiveness of its smell, at length discovered the treachery, and excited a univer- sal uproar. In the midst of this tumult, Dio- clesian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen emperor, and with his own hand slew Aper, having thus, as it is said, ful- filled a prophecy, that he should be emperor after he had slain a boar, alluding to the name of his rival. Carinus did not long survive his father and brother; for givin'g himself up to his vices, and opposing the new-made emperor, the competitors led their forces into Mcesia; where, Dioclesian being victorious, Carinus was slain by a tribune of his own army, whose wife he had formerly abused. Dioclesian and Maximian. — Dioclesian re- ceived his name from Dioclea, the town in which he was born ; and was about forty years old when he was elected emperor. He pardoned all who had joined Carinus. Conscious also that the weight of the empire was too heavy for one alone to sustain, he took in Maximian, his general, as a partner in the throne. There never was a period in which the empire had more nu- merous or formidable enemies to oppose. In Vol. XIX. -Part 1. Gaul the peasants and laborers made a dan- gerous insurrection, under Amandus and Helia- nus, but were subdued by Maximian. Achilleus, who commanded in Egypt, proclaimed him- self emperor; and it was not without many bloody engagements that he was overcome. In Africa, the Roman legions, joined with many of the natives, seized upon the public revenues, and plundered those who continued in their duty. These were also subdued by Maximian. About the same time a principal commander in Britain, named Carausius, then proclaimed himself emperor, and possessed himself of the island. To oppose this general, Maximian made choice of Constantius Chlorus, whom he created Cjesar, and married to Theodora his daughter-in- law. About this time also Narses, king of Persia, began a dangerous war, and invaded Mesopota- mia. The Persians, however, were overcome in a decisive engagement, and their camp plundered and taken. There only remained, of all the ene- mies of the empire, those who lay to the north- ward, the Goths, Sarmatians, Alani, Quadi, &c., who poured down in incredible numbers. Du- ring this period, as if the external miseries of the empire had not been sufficient, the tenth and last great persecution raged against the Chris- tians. It exceeded all the former in severity; and, such was the zeal with which it was pursued, that, in an ancient inscription, we are informed that they had effaced the name and superstition of the Christians. Their attempts, however, were but the malicious efforts of an expiring party ; for Christianity soon after was established by law. In the midst of the troubles raised by this persecution, and of the contests that struck at the internal parts of the state, Dioclesian and Maximian surprised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations. Historians are much divided concerning the motives that thus" induced them to give up those honors which they had pur- chased with so much danger. When some at- tempted to persuade Dioclesian to resume the empire, he replied, * That, if they knew his pre- sent happiness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it.' Maximian, his partner in the empire and in resignation, was by no means so contented. He conducted various in- trigues for a return to power, and endeavouring to force his own daughter, and destroy her hus- band, he was detected, and condemned to die by whatever death he should think proper ; Lac- tantius tells us that he chose hanging. Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius. — Upon, the resignation of the two emperors the B ROME. two Cxsars were universally acknowledgeii as their successors. Tliey agreed to divide the em- pire, Coiistantius being ai)poiiUed to govern the western parts ; namely, Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with Spain, Gaul, Bri- tain, and Germany : Galcrius had the eastern parts; to wit, lUyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the Lesser Asia, witli Kgypt, Syria, Judea, and all the countries eastward. The greatness of the division, however, soon induced the emperors to take in two partners more, Severus and Rlaxi- min, who were made Ca-sars, and assisted in the conducting of afl'airs : so that the empire now was under the guidance of four persons, all in- vested with supreme authority. We are informed but of few particulars of the reign of Constantius, except a detail of his character, which appears in every light most amiable. In the second year of his reign he went over into Britain ; and, leaving his son Constantine as a kind of hostage m the court of his partner in tlie empire, took up his residence at York. Here, when ill past recovery, he sent for him, and, raising himself up in his bed, gave him his dying instructions. In the mean time Galerius, Constantius's partner, being informed of Constantine's advancement, testified the most ungovernable rage; declar- ing Severus emperor in opposition. About this time also another pretender to the empire started up. This was Maxentius, who was very much favored by the soldiers, whom he permitted to pillage at discretion. To oppose Maxentius Severus led a numerous army towards Rome; but his soldiers, considering against whom they were to fight, immediately abandoned him. To revenge his death Galerius marched into Italy, resolving to destroy the whole senate. Ilis sol- diers however, upon approaching the capital, began to waver ; when he had recourse to en- treaties, imploring them not to abandon him; and, retiring, made Licinius, the son of a poor laborer in Dacia, Caesar, in the room of Severus. Soon after he was seized with a disorder which baffled all the skill of his physicians, and carried him off after he had languished in torments for nearly a year. His cruelty to the Christians was one of the many crimes alleged against him; but he abated much of his severities against them in his illness. Maxentius.— Constantine, being thus deli- vered from his greatest opponent, now possessed more power than any of his rivals. The empire was at that time divided between him and three others : Maxentius, who governed in Rome, a person of a cruel disposition, and a stedfast sup- porter of paganism; Licinius, who was adopted by Galerius, and commanded in the east ; and Maximin, who had formerly been declaredCa;sar with Severus, and who also governed some of the eastern provinces. For some time all things seemed to wear a peaceful appearance : till either ambition or the tyrannical conduct of Maxentius induced Constantine to engage in an expedition to expel that commander from Rome, and to make the proper preparations for marching into Italy. Cpon this occasion he formed a resolu- tion which nroduced a mighty change in the po- litics as w«ft as the morals of mankind, and gave a new turn to tlie councils of the wise aiui the pursuits of the ambitious. See in his life, article CoNST.vNTiNK, tlie account of his conversion to Christianity. After tliis he consulted with several of the principal teachers of Cliristianity, and made a public avowal of that persuasion, thus attaching to his interest his soldiers, who were mostly Christians. He lost no time in entering Italy with 90,000 foot and 8000 horse ; and soon ad- vanced to the very gates of ]{ome. Maxentius, who hud long given himself up to ease and de- baucheries, now began to make preparations when it was too late. He first put in practice all the superstitious rites which paganism taught to be necessary; and then consulted the Sibylline books, whence he was informed that on that day the great enemy of Rome should perish. This prediction, which was equivocal, he applied to Constantine ; wherefore, leaving all things in the best posture, he advanced from the city with an army of 100,000 foot and 18,000 horse. The en- gagement was for some time fierce and bloody : till, his cavalry being routed, victory declared upon the side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the river Tiber. Constantine and Liiinius. — While this great change was proceeding, Maximin, who governed in the east, marched against Licinius with a very numerous army ; but a general engagement ensued, in which Maximin suffered a total defeat. Maximin, however, having escaped the carnage, once more put himself at the head of another ar- my, resolving to try the fortune of the field ; but death anticipated his designs. Conslantme and Licinius being nowundisputed possessors and part- ners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable continuance of their friendship and power. Pa- gan writers ascribe the rupture that unexpectedly took place between these two potentates to Con- stantine ; while the Christians, on the other hand, impute it to Licinius. Both sides exerted all their power, as usual, to prevail, and, at the head of very fornaidable armies, came to an engage- ment near Cybalis, in Pannonia. Previous to the battle Constantine, in the midst of the Christian bishops, begged the assistance of Heaven ; while Licinius, with equal zeal, called upon the pagan priests to intercede with the gods. Constantine, after an obstinate resistance from the enemy, became victorious; took their camp; and, after some time, compelled Licinius to sue for a short truce. It was indeed short : but we have ROME. pursued the rest of the history of the hrst of the Christian emperors in the article referred to. He conceived and executed the bold measure of transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantinople. The empire had long befoBe been in the most declining state ; but this gave precipitation to its downfall : it never after re- sumed its former splendor. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted to the change ; nor was there for several years any dis- turbance in the state, until the Goths renewed their inroads on the Danube. Constantine, however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straightened them that nearly 100,000 of theix number perished. The government of the em- pire was afterwards divided as follows : — Con- stantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in Gaul and the western provinces; Constantius governed Africa and lUyricum; and Constans ruled in Italy. Dalmatius, the emperor's brother, was sent to defend those parts that bordered upon tiie Goths ; and Annibalianus, his nephew, had the charge of Cappadocia and Armenia Minor. The latter part of the reign of Constan- tine was peaceful and splendid ; ambassadors from the remotest Indies came to acknowledge his authority ; the Persians, who were ready for fi'esh inroads, upon finding him prepared to op- pose, sent humbly to desire his friendship and forgiveness. He died at above sixty years old, and had reigned above thirty years. Constantine's Sons. — After the death of Constantine, the army and senate proclaimed his three sons emperors, without taking any no- tice of Dalmatius, and Annibalianus, who were soon after murdered, with Julius Constantinus the late emperor's brother, and all their friends and adherents. Thus the family of Constantine was reduced to the three sons and three ne- phews ; Gall us and Julian, the sons of Julius Constantius, and Nepotianus, the son of Eutro- pia, Constantine's sister. Of these Gallus owed his life to a malady, from which no one thought he could recover; and Julian to his infancy, being then only seven years of age. The three brothers divided among themselves the domi- nions of the deceased princes; but did not long agree. In 340 Constantine, having in vain soli- cited Constans to yield part of Italy to him, raised a considerable army ; and xmder pretence of marching to the assistance of his brother Constantius, who was then at war with the Per- sians, made himself master of several places in Italy. Hereupon Constans detached part of his army against him ; and Constantine, being drawn into an ambuscade near Aquileia, was cut off with his whole forces. His body was thrown into the Ansa; but, being afterwards discovered, was sent to Constantinople, and interred near that of his father. By the defeat and death of his brother, Constans remained sole master of all the western empire, in the quiet possession of which he continued till the year 350. This year Magnentius, the son of a native of Ger- many, finding Constans despised by the army on account of his indolence and inactivity, resolved to murder him, and set up for himself. Having gained over the chief officers of the army, he seized on the Imperial palace at Autun, and dis- tributed among the populace what sums he found ; which induced not only the ciiy, but the neighbouring country, to espouse his caus«. Constans being informed of what had passed, and finding himself unable to resist the usurper, fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, how- ever, by Gaiso, whom Magnentius had sent after him with a body of troops, and despatched at Helena, near the foot of the Pyrenees. Constantius. — Constantius had been-engaged in a war with the Persians, in which little ad- vantage had been gained on either side ; but, the Persians now giving no more disturbance, he marched against the usurpers; for besides Mag- nentius there were at this time two other- pre- tenders to the western empire. Veteranio, gene- ral of the foot in Pannonia, had on the first news of the death of Constans, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by the legions under his command. He was a native of Upper McEsia, and advanced in years when he usurped the sovereignty ; but so illiterate that he then first learned to read. The third was Flavins Popi- lius Nepotianus, who claimed right as nephew of Constantine the Great. Having assembled a company of gladiators and men of desperate fortunes he assumed the purple on the 3d of June 350, and in that attire presented himself before the gates of Rome. The prefect Ani- cetus, who commanded there for Magnentius, sallied out against him with a body of Romans ; who were soon driven back into the city. Soon after Nepotianus made himself master of the city itself, which he filled with blood and slaughter. Magnentius, being informed of what had happened, sent against this new competitor his chief favorite Marcellinus. Nepotianus re- ceived him with great resolution ; a battle en- sued between the soldiers of INIagnentius and the Romans who had espoused the cause of Nepotianus ; but the latter being betrayed by a senator, named Heraclitus, his men were put to flight, and he himself killed, after having en- joyed the sovereignty only twenty-eight days. Marcellinus ordered his head to be carried on the point of a lance through the principal streets of the city ; put to death all those who had de- clared for him ; and, under pretence of prevent- ing disturbances, commanded a general massacre of all the relations of Constantine. Soon after, Magnentius himself came to Rome to make the necessary preparations for resisting Constantius, who was exerting himself to the utmost to re- venge the death of his brother. In the city he behaved most tyrannically : put to death many persons of distinction; seized their estates; and obliged the rest to contribute half of what they were worth towards the expense of the war. Having thus raised great sums, he assembled an army of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks, Bri- tons, Spaniards, &c. ; but, dreading the uncertain issues of war, he despatched ambassadors to Constantius with proposals of accommodation. Constantius set out from Antioch about the be- ginning of autumn ; and, passing through Con- stantinople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the deputies of Magnentius, and others from \'eteranio, who had agreed to support each other in case the emperor would hearken to no B2 R O M E. terms. The deputits of Magnentias proposed a match between liiin ami Conslantina, the sister of Constantius, and widow of Annibalianus; offering, at the sam? time, to Constantius the sister of Ma2;nenlius. T''e emperor would hearken to no terms with Magnentius ; but, that he might not have to oppose two enemies at once, concluded a separate treaty w ith \'eteranio, by which he agreed to take him fur his partner in the empire. But, when Veteranio ascended the tribunal along with Constantius, the soldiers pulled him down, saying they would acknow- ledge no emperor but Constantius. On this Veteranio threw himself at the emperor's feet, and implored his mercy. Constantius received him ^vith great kindness, and sent him into Bithynia, where he allowed him a maintain- ence suitable to his quality. Now master of all Illyricum, and of the army commanded by Veteranio, Constantius resolved to march against Magnentius. In the mean time, how- ever, on advice that the Persians were preparing to invade the eastern provinces, he married his sister Constantina to his oousin german Callus ; created him Caesar on the 16th of March; and allotted him for his share not only all the east, but likewise Thrace and Constanti- nople. About the same time Magnentius gave the title of Caesar to his brother Decentius, whom he des- patched into Gaul to defend that country against the barbarians who had invaded it; for Constantius had not only stirred up the Franks and Saxons to break into that province by promising to relin- quish to them all the places they should conquer, but had sent him large supplies of men and arms for that purpose. On this encouragement the barbarians invaded Gaul with a great army, over- threw Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to a most deplorable situation. Mean time Magnentius, having assembled a numerous army, left Italy, and, crossing the Alps, advanced into the plains of Pannonia, where Constantius, whose main strength consisted of cavalry, was waiting for him. Magnentius, hearing that his competitor was encamped at a small distance, invited him by a messenger to the extensive plains of Sciscia on the Sauve, there to decide which of them had the best title to the empire. This challenge was by Constantius received with great joy ; but, as his troops marched towards Sciscia in disorder, they fell into an ambuscade, and were put to flight. With this success Mag- nentius was so elated that he rejected all terms of peace ; after some time, a general engagement ensued at Mursa, in which Magnentius was en- tirely defeated, with the loss of 24,000 men. Constantius, though victor, is said to have lost 30,000. All authors agree that the battle proved fatal to the western empire, and greatly con- tributed to its speedy decline. After his defeat at Mursa, Magnentius retired into Italy, where he recruited his scattered forces as well as he could. But in the beginning of the following year, 352, Constantius, having assembled his troops, surprised and took a strong castle on the Julian Alps, belonging to Magnentius, without the loss of a man. After this the emperor ad- vanced ill order to force the rest ; upon winch Magnentius was struck with such terror tliat he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered the troops that guarded tlie other passes of the Alps to follow him. Thus ConsUintius, entering Italy without opposition, made himself master of Aquileia. Thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gained a considerable ad- vantage over him. Notwittistanding this loss, Constantius reduced the whole country bordeiing on the Po, and Magnentius's men deserted to him in whole troops, delivering up to him the places they had garrisoned; by which the tyrant was so disheartened that he left Italy, and retired with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, Africa, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Constan- tinus ; upon which Magnentius sent a senator, and after him some bishops, to treat of a peace; but the emperor treated the senator as a spy, and sent back the bisliops without an answer. Find- ing his affairs now desperate, and that there was no hopes of pardon, Magnentius recruited his ariwy in the best manner he could, and despatched an assassin into the east to murder Gallus Caesar. The assassin gained over some of Callus's guards ; but the plot being discovered they were all seized and executed as traitors. In 353 the war against Magnentius was carried on with more vigor than ever, and at last happily ended by a battle fought in that part of Gaul afterwards called Dauphiny. Magnentius, being defeated, took shelter in Lyons : but the few soldiers who attended him, despairing of any further success, resolved to purchase the emperor's favor by delivering up to him his rival. Accordingly they surrounded the house where he lodged ; upon which the tyrant, in despair, slew with his own hand his mother, hi's brother Desiderius, whom he had created Caesar, and such of his friends and relations as were with him; and then, fixing his sword in a wall, threw himself upon it. After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decentius, finding him- self surrounded on all sides by the emperor's forces, chose also to strangle himself. Thus Constantius was left sole master of the Roman empire. His panegyrists say that after his vic- tory he behaved with the greatest humanity, for- giving and receiving into favor his greatest enemies; other historians tell us that he now became haughty, imperious, and cruel, of which many instances are given. In this year, 353, the empire was subject to very grievous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians beyond the Rhine, and the disbanded troops of Magnentius : at Rome the populace rose on account of a scarcity of provisions. In Asia the Isaurian robbers over-ran Lycaonia and Pampliylia and laid siege to Seleucia. At the same time the Saracens committed dreadful ravages in Mesopo- tamia ; the Persians also invaded the provinces of Anthemusia on the Euphrates. But the Eas- tern provinces were not so much harassed by barbarians as by Gallus Caesar himself, who ought to have protected them. That prince was natu-rally of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical disposition ; but, elated with his successes against the Persians, he at last behaved like a madman. His cruelty is said to have been heightened by the instigations of his wife Constantina, who is ROME. by Ammianus styled the Megjera, or ' fury of her sex ;' and he adds that her ambition was equal to her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the east were filled with blood and misery. No man, however innocent, was sure to live or enjoy his estate a whole day; for, Callus's temper being equally suspicious and cruel, those who had any private enemies took care to accuse them of crimes against the state. At last the emperor being informed from all quarters of his conduct, and also that he aspired to the sovereignty, resolved upon his ruin. He wrote letters to Gallus and Constantina, inviting them both into Italy, and they durst not venture to disobey the emperor's express command. Constantina, who was well acquainted with her brother's temper, set out first, leaving Gallus at Antioch : but she had scarcely entered the pro- vince of Bithynia, when she was seized with a fever which put an end to her life. Gallus, now despairing of being able to appease his sovereign, thought of openly revolting; but most of his , friends deserted him, so that he was at last obliged to submit unreservedly to Constantius. He advanced, therefore, according to his orders ; but at Pitavium was arrested, and stripped of all the ensigns of dignity. Thence he was carried to Flanona, in Dalmatia. He confessed most of the crimes laid to his charge ; but urged as an ex- cuse the evil councils of his late wife. The em- peror, provoked at this plea, and instigated by the enemies of Gallus, signed a warrant for his ex- ecution. All this time the emperor had been engaged in a war with the Germans ; and, though he gained no advantage, the barbarians thought proper to make peace with him. This, however, was but short lived. No sooner was the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make new inroads. Against them Constantius despatched Arbetio with the flower of the army ; but he fell into an ambuscade, and was put to flight with great loss. This, however, was soon retrieved by the valor of Arintheus, who became famous in the reign of Valens, and of two other officers, who falling upon the enemy, witiiout waiting the orders of their general, put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Roman territory. The tranquillity of the empire, which ensued on this repulse of the Germans, was soon interrupted by a pretended conspiracy, but by which in the end a true one was produced. Sylvanus, a lead- ing man among the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there performed great exploits against the barbarians. He had been raised to his post by Arbetio, only with a design to remove him from the emperor's presence, in order to accom- jilish his ruin, which he did in the following manner : one Dynames, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters of recommendation to his friends at court ; which being granted, the traitor erased all but the subscription. He then inserted directions to the friends of Sylvanus for the carrying on a conspiracy ; and delivering these forged letters to the prefect Lampridius, they were by him shown to the emperor. Thus Syl- vanus was in a manner forced into revolt, and caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. In the mean time, Dynames having forged another letter, thf frnud wnc Hiscoverrd. and an rtiqnivv set on foot, which brought to light the whole matter. Julian seems to have been a man of extraordi- nary talents ; for though hitherto entirely buried in obscurity, and conversant only with books, no sooner was he placed at the head of an army than he behaved with the greatest bravery and skill. He was appointed governor of Gaul ; but before he set out Constantius gave him in mar- riage his sister Helena. He, however, limited his authority ; gave him written instructions how to behave ; ordered the generals who served under him to watch his actions, and strictly en- joined Julian himself not to give any largesses to the soldiery. Julian set out from Milan on the 1st of December 355, the emperor himself accompanying him as far as Pavia ; whence he pursued his journey to the Alps, attended only by 360 soldiers. On his arrival at Turin he was first acquainted with the loss of Cologne. He arrived at \'ienne before the end of the year 355. In 356 the barbarians besieged Autun. Julian marched to his relief, but found the siege raised : on which he pursued the barbarians to Auxerre and Troies, and put them to flight with a handful of men. From Troies he hastened to Rheims, where the main body of the army, commanded by JNIarcellus, awaited his arrival. Thence he took his route towards Decempagi (now Dieuze), on the Seille in Lorrain, to oppose the Germans who were ravaging that province. But the enemy attacking his rear had nearly cut off two legions. A few days after he defeated the Germans, though with great loss to his own army : the vic- tory, however, opened him a way to Cologne. Here he caused the ancient fortifications to be repaired, and the houses rebuilt ; after which he took up his winter quarters at Sens. Constan- tius entered Germany on the side of Rhaetia, laid waste the country far and wide ; and obliged the barbarians to sue for peace. He enacted two laws : 1. declaring idolatry capital ; and, 2. granting the eff'ects of condemned persons to their children and relations within the third degree. In the beginning of 357 the barbarians besieged Julian a whole month in Sens : Marcellus, the ccnitiianlcr-in-c^iiof, np\ev once offering to assist ROME. him. Julian, however, so valiantly defended himself with the few forces he had that the bar- barians at last retired. After this Constantius declared Julian commander-in-chief of all the forces in Gaul ; appointing under him one Seve- rus, an officer of great experience, and of a quite different disposition from Marcellus. On his arrival Julian raised new troops, and supplied them with arms which he found in an old arse- nal. The emperor, resolving to put a stop to the terrible devastations committed chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march directly against them. At the same time he sent Barbatio, the successor of Sylvanus, with 25,000 or 30,000 men, out of Italy, in order to enclose tlie enemy between two armies. The Leti, however, a Ger- man nation, passing between the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to surprise that wealthy city ; but, meeting with a warmer reception than they expected, contented themselves with ra- vaging the country all round it. On tlie first notice of this expedition Julian detached strong parties to guard the passages through which he knew the barbarians must return. Thus they w'ere all cut off except those who marched near the camp of Barbatio ; who was so far from cut- ting off tiieir retreat that he complained by a letter to Constantius of some officers for attempt- ing it. These officers, among whom was Valen- tinian, afterwards emperor of the west, were, by the orders of Constantius, cashiered for their dis- obedience. The other barbarians either fortified themselves in the countries which they had seized, or took shelter in the islands formed by the Rhine. Julian resolved first to attack the latter ; and with this view demanded some boats of Barbatio ; but he, instead of complying with his request, immediately burnt his boats, as he did on another occasion the provisions which had been sent to both armies, after he had plen- tifully supplied his own. Julian, not in the least disheartened with this unaccountable conduct, persuaded some of the most resolute of his men to wade over to one of the islands. Here they killed all llie Germans who had taken shelter in it. They then seized their boats, and pursued the slaughter in several other islands, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired, with their wives and booty, to their respective countries. The Roman general then retired ; but the bar- barians, falling unexpectedly upon him, cut off great numbers of his men, and returned loaded with booty. Elated with this success they assem- bled in great numbers under the command of Chnodomarius, a prince of great renown among them, and six other kings. They encamped in the neighbourhood of Strasburg. Here they were encountered by Julian, who put them to flight with the loss of 6000 or 8000 of their men slain in the field, and a greater number drowned in the river ; while Julian himself lost only 243 men and four tribunes. In this action Chnodo- marius was taken and sent to Rome, where he ?oon aftPrdip'I. .\fipr thp h^ittlp Julian Rdvanced with all his army to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine, and, having with difficulty prevailed upon his army to follow him, entered Germany. liere he ravaged the country, till, being prevented by snow from advancing, he began to repair the fort of Trajan, about three or four leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians, now alarmed, sent deputies to treat of a peace ; but this Julian refused to grant upon any terms. He consented, however, to a truce of seven months, upon their promising to store with provisions the fort he was building. In 358 he took the field against the Franks, wlio were divided into several tribes, tlie most powerful of vviiich were the Salii and Chamavi. The first of these he soon subdued ; after which he allotted them lands in Gaul, incprporating great numbers into his cavalry. He next marched against the Cha- mavi, whom he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine. Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the iMeuse, which had been destroyed by the barbarians; but, wanting provisions, he ordered 600 or 800 vessels to be built in Britain to bring corn from thence into Gaul. Julian continued in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of his truce with the Alemans , and then, laying a bridge of boats over the Rhine, entered their country with fire and sword. delivered up to him, he would be contented with Armenia and Mesopotamia, which had been un- justly taken from his grandfather Narses ; adding that, unless justice was done him, he would assert his right by arms. Constantius wrote in answer that as he had maintained the Roman dominions in their full extent when he was pos- sessed only of the east, he could not suffer them to be curtailed now he was master of the whole empire. In a few days, however, he sent ano- ther message with presents; being desirous at least to put off the war till he had secured the northern provinces. This embassy proved un- successful, as did also another which was sent soon after. In 359 Julian continued his endeavour for re- lieving Gaul ; erected magazines in different places ; visited the cities which had suffered most, and gave orders for repairing the fortifica- tions. He then crossed the Rhine, and pursued the war in Germany with such success that the barbarians submitted to his own terms. In the raean time the emperor, having received intelli- gence that the Limigantes had quitted the country in which he had placed them, iiastened to the banks of the Danube, in order to prevent their entering Panaonia, and nearly extirpated them. This year Constantius instituted a court of inqui- sition against all those who consulted heathen oracles. Paulus Catena, a cruel informer, was despatched into the east to prosecute them ; and Modestus, equally remarkable for his cruelty, was appointed judge. His tribunal was erected at Scythopolis in Palestine, whither persons of both sexes, and of every rank and condition, were daily dragged in crowds from all parts, and torn in pieces by racks, or publicly executed. In 359 Sapor king of Persia began hostilities. During the campaign, however, he made little progress ; having only taken two Roman forts, and destroyed tlie city of Amida, the siege of which is said to have cost hirr) 30,000 men. On the first news of the invasion, Constantius had sent Ursicinus into the east ; but his enemies prevented him from receiving the supplies ne- cessary for carrying on the war. On his return, lie was charged with the loss of Amida, and all the disasters that had happened during the cam- paign. Two judges were appointed to enquire into his conduct ; but they left the matter doubt- ful. On this Ursicinus was so much exasperated that he appealed to the emperor, and, in the heat of passion, let fall some unguarded expressions, for which he was deprived of all his employ- ments. Constantius resolved to march next year in person against the Persians, and wrote to Julian to send him part of his forces, without considering that by so doing he would have left Gaul exposed. Julian resolved to comply with the emperor's orders, but to abdicate (he dignity of Ca;sar, that he might not be blamed for the consequences. Accordingly he suffertd the best soldiers to be draughted : they were, how- ever, unwilling to leave him, and" at last pro- claimed him emperor. Whether this was done absolutely against Julian's consent is uncertain ; but he wrote to the emperor, and persuaded tlie whole army also to send a letter, in which they acquainted Constantius with what had happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as hii partner. But this was positively refused by Con- stantius, who began to prepare for war. Julian, then, causing his troops to take an oath of alle- giance to himself, with surprising expedition made himself master of the whole of lUyricum, and the important pass separating that country from Thrace. Constantius was thunder-struck with this news ; but, hearing that the Persians had retired, he marched with all his forces against his competitor. On his arrival at Tarsus in Ci- licia, however, he was seized with a feverish dis- temper, occasioned chiefly by perplexity of mind; and, at the foot of Mount Taurus, breathed his last, on the 13th of November, 361, in the forty-tifth year of his age. Julian. — By the death of Constantius, Julian became master of the empire without a rival. He had been educated in the Christian religion ; but, having secretly apostatized long before, as soon as he saw himself master of lUyricum, he openly caused the temples of the gods to be re- opened. When the messengers arrived at Naissus in lUyricum, to acquaint him with Con- stantius's death, they found him consulting the entrails of victims concernin.^ the event of his journey : and he immediately set out for Con- stantinople. At Heraclea he was met by almost all the inhabitants of this metropolis, into which he made his public entry on the 11th of Decem- ber 361, attended by the senate, magistrates, and nobility. Here he was again declared emperor by the senate ; and, as soon as that ceremony was over, caused the obsequies of Constantius to be performed with great pomp. His first care was to enquire into the conduct of the late em- peror's ministers. Several of these, having been found guilty of enormous crimes, were con- demned and executed ; particularly a noted in- former Catena, and another named Apodamus, were sentenced to be burnt alive. Along with these, however, was put to death Ursula, a man of unexceptionable character, to whom Julian himself was highly indebted. He next set about reforming the court : reduced the officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,000 to seventeen; and discharged thousands of cooks, barbers, &:c., who by their large salaries drained the exchequer. The curiosi, whose office it was to inform the emperor of what had passed in the different pro- vinces, were all discharged. Thus he was enabled to ease the people of the heavy taxes with which they were loaded, by abating a fifth part of them throughout the empire. Julian next invited to court the philosophers, ma- gicians, &c., from all parts ; but did not raise any persecution against the Christians. On the contrary, he recalled from banishment the ortho- dox bishops who had been exiled during the former reign ; with a design, however, as is ob- served both by the Christian and Pagan writers, to sow dissensions in the church. As the Per- sians were now preparing to carry on the war with vigor, Julian resolved to march against them in person. But before he set out he formed at Constantinople a large harbour to sV.elter the ships from the south wind, built a magnificent porch leading to it, and erecttd a fine library, in which he lodged his bcok;^. In May 362 he de- ROME. parted for Antioch ; and on the 1st of January, 363, renewed in that city the sacrifices of Ju- piter for the safety of the empire. During his stay he continued his preparations for the Per- sian war, consulting tlie oracles, aruspices, ma- gicians, &c. Those of Delphi, Deios, and Dodona, assured him of victory. The aruspices, indeed, and most of his courtiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to divert him from his expedition ; but the flattering answers of the oracles, and the desire of adding the Persian mo- narch to the many kings he had already seen humbled at his feet, prevailed. Many nations sent deputies ottering their assistance; whose offers he rejected, telling them that the Romans were to assist their allies, but stood in no need of any assistance from them. He likewise rejected, and in a very stern manner, the offers of the Sa- racens; answering, when they complained of his stopping the pension paid them by other empe- rors, that a warlike prince had steel, but no gold. However, he wrote to Arsaces, king of Armenia, enjoining him to keep his troops in readiness to execute the orders he should transmit to him. Julian now sent orders to his troops to cross the Euphrates, designing to enter the enemy's coun- try before they had notice of his march ; and proceeded himself to Litarba. Thence he went to Beraea, where he halted a day, and exhorted the council to restore the worship of the gods ; as he did also at Batna; ; and was well pleased with the inhabitants for having before his arrival restored that worship. He now pursued his journey to Hierapolis, the capital of Euphrate- siana, which he reached on the 9th of March. As he entered this city, fifty of his soldiers were killed by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapo- lis on the 13th of March ; and, having passed to Euphrates on a bridge of boats, came to Batnie a city of Osrhoene, about ten leagues from Hierapolis. From Batnae he proceeded to Carrha;; where, in the famous temple of the moon, it is said he sacrificed a woman. While he continued in this city, he received advice that a party of the enemy's horse had broken into the Roman territories : on which he resolved to leave an army in Mesopotamia, while he ad- vanced on the other side of the country into the Persian dominions. This army consisted, ac- cording to some, of 20,000, others say of 30,000, chosen troops. It was commanded by Procopius, and Sebastian, a famous Manichean who had been governor of Egypt. These two were to join Arsaces king of Armenia, to lay waste the plains of Media, and meet the empe- ror in Assyria. To Arsaces Julian himself wrote, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did not execute the orders ^iven him ; and telling him that the God he adored would not be able to screen him from his indignation. There were two roads leading from Carrhse to Persia ; the one to the left by Nisibis; the other to the right through Assyria,along the banks of the Euphrates. Julian chose the latter, but caused magazines to be erected on both roads ; and, after having viewed his army, set out on the 25th of March. 