In the above, statements (1) and (2) may be causally linked or not. It's even possible that the literacy programs proposed by the city administration were detrimental but other effects caused overall literacy to increase. It seems reasonable to infer that statement (2) caused statement (1) but it's important to consider all factors before inferring causation from observational measurements.
spam fails_task lang_mismatch pii not_appropriate hate_speech sexual_content quality toxicity humor helpfulness creativity violence