A method may include obtaining a machine-learning model trained with respect to a subject. The machine-learning model may be based on a plurality of factors that correspond to the subject. The method may include obtaining human provided information regarding the subject. The expert information may indicate relationships between the plurality of factors with respect to how the plurality of factors affect each other. The method may include generating a structural causal model that represents the relationships between the plurality of factors based on the expert information. The method may include identifying, as a confounding factor and based on the structural causal model, a factor of the plurality of factors that causes a confounding bias in the machine-learning model. The method may include estimating the confounding bias based on the identified confounding factor.
IDENTIFYING AND QUANTIFYING CONFOUNDING BIAS BASED ON EXPERT KNOWLEDGE