[' ', '-', 'three', 'or', 'four,', 'forget', 'it.”', '(10)', 'In', 'general.', 'the', 'weaker', 'the', 'association', 'the', 'mors', 'fikely', 'the', 'results', 'may', 'he', 'due', 'to', '..', '“chance”', 'or', 'to', 'any', 'of', 'a', 'number', 'of', 'me-', '‘thodological', 'flaws,', 'including', '"bias"', 'and', '‘uncontrolied', '“confounding”:', 'Because', 'of', '~', 'of', 'any', 'such', 'study,', 'these', 'have', 'been', 'called', '”', ':', 'by', 'one', 'expert', '“the', 'plague', 'upon', 'the', 'house', 'of', 'epidemiology”.', '(11)', 'ET', 'OCR', 'eee', 'kre', 'eT', 'ge,', 'Nigam', 'O', 'Not', 'statistically', 'significant', ' ', 'Confounders', 'A', 'confounder', 'is', 'an', '“interference”', 'factor', 'that', 'is', 'associated', 'both', 'with', 'the', 'disease', 'and', 'the', 'exposure', 'being', 'studied.', 'It', 'can', 'influence', 'any', 'associations', 'observed', 'and', 'must', 'therefore', 'be', 'accounted', 'for', 'in', 'eoi-', 'demiological', 'studies.', 'In', 'the', 'case', 'of', 'ETS,', 'it', 'has', 'been', 'found', 'that', 'living', 'with', 'a', 'smoker', 'influences', 'the', 'ffestyle', 'of', 'the', 'non-smoker', 'beyond', 'his/her', 'being', 'exposed', 'to', 'cigarette', 'smoke', 'in', 'the', 'room', 'air,', 'The', 'most', 'important', 'of', 'these', 'factors', 'are', 'socioeconomic', 'staius,', 'diet,', 'sedentary', 'lifestyle,', 'alcohol', 'consumption,', 'and', 'oc-', 'cupation.', 'Each', 'of', 'these', 'on', 'its', 'own,', 'for', 'example,', 'eating', 'foods', 'high', 'in', 'saturated', 'fats,', 'has', 'been', 'associated', 'with', 'lung', 'cancer.', 'Unfortunately,', 'no', 'studies', 'in', 'the', 'ETS', 'erature', 'have', 'adequately', 'accounted', 'for', 'all', '‘moortant', 'confounders.', 'Recall', 'Bias', 'Since', 'epidemiological', 'studies', 'are', 'conducted', 'by', 'submitting', 'questionnaires', 'to', 'the', 'study', 'population,', 'they', 'rely', 'on', 'the', 'indivicual’s', 'memory', 'concerning', 'his/her', 'exposure', 'to', 'ETS,', 'As', 'the', 'information', 'asked', 'for', 'often', 'goes', 'back', 'as', 'far', 'as', 'early', 'childhood,', 'it', 'is', 'clear', 'that', 'a', 'certain', 'degree', 'of', 'unreliability', 'in', 'the', 'answers', 'given', 'must', 'be', 'accounted', 'for.', 'Recall', 'bias', 'occurs', 'when', 'those', 'with', 'the', 'disease', 'are', 'more', 'likely', 'to', 'recall', 'an', 'exposure', 'than', 'those', 'without', 'the', 'disease.', 'Again,', 'this', 'has', 'been', 'ignored', 'or', 'trivially', 'addressed', 'in', 'the', 'relevant', 'studies.', 'Misclassification', 'Bias', 'Due', 'to', 'the', 'questionnaire', 'method', 'em-', 'ployed', 'in', 'epidemiological', 'studies,', 'the', 'resutts', 'are', 'based', 'on', 'the', 'assumction', 'that', 'the', 'self-classification', 'of', 'the', 'person', 'interviewed', 'as', 'a', 'non-smoker', '‘s', 'correct.', 'ily', 'be', 'imagined,', 'and', 'in', 'fact', 'has', 'that', 'a', 'number', 'of', 'people', 'i', 'claim', 'they', 'never', 'smoked', '-', 'for', 'example,', 'from', 'social', 'pressure,', 'role', 'expectations', '(women', 'in', 'societies', 'where', 'female', 'smoking', 'is', 'frowned', 'upon),', 'fear', 'of', 'higher', 'insurance', 'fees,', 'or', 'oure', 'self-', 'Celusion.', 'This', 'last', 'factor', 'is', 'a', 'well-known', 'phenomenon', 'in', 'medicine:', 'did', 'you', 'know', 'that', 'general', 'practitioners', 'have', 'a', 'rule-of-', 'thumb', 'by', 'which', 'they', 'multiply', 'the', 'habitual', 'alcoho!', 'consumption', 'stated', 'by', 'their', 'patients', 'by', 'a', 'factor', 'of', '2.5', 'in', 'order', 'to', 'arrive', 'at', 'a', 'realistic', '!evel?', '0°', '_', '2', 'No', 'Risk', '51688', '6074', ' ']