You are here

Sexual Reproduction

5 April, 2016 - 12:50

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction
  • Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities

Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The fact that most eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is the only mode of reproduction. And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically identical to the parent may appear to be more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat, offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can produce offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not require another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or attracting a mate. That energy can be spent on producing more offspring. Indeed, some organisms that lead a solitary lifestyle have retained the ability to reproduce asexually. In addition, asexual populations only have female individuals, so every individual is capable of reproduction. In contrast, the males in sexual populations (half the population) are not producing offspring themselves. Because of this, an asexual population can grow twice as fast as a sexual population in theory. This means that in competition, the asexual population would have the advantage. All of these advantages to asexual reproduction, which are also disadvantages to sexual reproduction, should mean that the number of species with asexual reproduction should be more common.

However, multicellular organisms that exclusively depend on asexual reproduction are exceedingly rare. Why is sexual reproduction so common? This is one of the important questions in biology and has been the focus of much research from the latter half of the twentieth century until now. A likely explanation is that the variation that sexual reproduction creates among offspring is very important to the survival and reproduction of those offspring. The only source of variation in asexual organisms is mutation. This is the ultimate source of variation in sexual organisms. In addition, those different mutations are continually reshuffled from one generation to the next when different parents combine their unique genomes, and the genes are mixed into different combinations by the process of meiosis. Meiosis is the division of the contents of the nucleus that divides the chromosomes among gametes. Variation is introduced during meiosis, as well as when the gametes combine in fertilization.

Evolution In Action

The Red Queen Hypothesis

There is no question that sexual reproduction provides evolutionary advantages to organisms that employ this mechanism to produce offspring. The problematic question is why, even in the face of fairly stable conditions, sexual reproduction persists when it is more difficult and produces fewer offspring for individual organisms? Variation is the outcome of sexual reproduction, but why are ongoing variations necessary? Enter the Red Queen hypothesis, first proposed by Leigh Van Valen in 1973. 1 The concept was named in reference to the Red Queen's race in Lewis Carroll's book, Through the Looking-Glass,in which the Red Queen says one must run at full speed just to stay where one is.

All species coevolve with other organisms. For example, predators coevolve with their prey, and parasites coevolve with their hosts. A remarkable example of coevolution between predators and their prey is the unique coadaptation of night flying bats and their moth prey. Bats find their prey by emitting high-pitched clicks, but moths have evolved simple ears to hear these clicks so they can avoid the bats. The moths have also adapted behaviors, such as flying away from the bat when they first hear it, or dropping suddenly to the ground when the bat is upon them. Bats have evolved “quiet” clicks in an attempt to evade the moth’s hearing. Some moths have evolved the ability to respond to the bats’ clicks with their own clicks as a strategy to confuse the bats echolocation abilities.

Each tiny advantage gained by favorable variation gives a species an edge over close competitors, predators, parasites, or even prey. The only method that will allow a coevolving species to keep its own share of the resources is also to continually improve its ability to survive and produce offspring. As one species gains an advantage, other species must also develop an advantage or they will be outcompeted. No single species progresses too far ahead because genetic variation among progeny of sexual reproduction provides all species with a mechanism to produce adapted individuals. Species whose individuals cannot keep up become extinct. The Red Queen’s catchphrase was, “It takes all the running you can do to stay in the same place.” This is an apt description of coevolution between competing species.
{"cc_re__cc_re__cc_by_sa_4_0": [">\r\n            \t  5 April, 2016 - 12:50    </footer>\r\n  \r\n  <div class=\"content clearfix\">\r\n    <div class=\"field field-name-field-content field-type-text-long field-label-hidden\"><div class=\"field-items\"><div class=\"field-item even\"><div class=\"dita-book-content    \"><div class=\"attribution\"><div class=\"cc-lic cc_l40 lic_by-sa\"><div class=\"ccl_icon\"><img src=\"https://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/sites/opentextbooks/files/book_profile/cc_icon/by-sa.png\" /></div><div class=\"ccl_desc\">Available under <a href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/\" target=\"_blank\" >Creative Commons-ShareAlike 4.0 International License</a>. </div></div></div>\n    <div class=\"section learningobjective\">\n      <p class=\"title sectiontitle learningobjectivetitle\">\n        Learning Objectives\n      </p>\n      <p class=\"p p\">\n        By the end of this section, you will be able to:\n      </p>\n      <ul>\n        <li class=\"p p\">Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction\n        </li>\n        <li class=\"p p\">Desc", ".org.hk/sites/opentextbooks/themes/otb/images/acknowledgement/HKMU_253.png\" alt=\"HKMU\" style=\"margin-top:5px;width:194px; max-width:100%;\" /></a>\n</div>\n<div style=\"width:30%; padding:0 5%; float: left;\">\nProject supported by <br /><img src=\"https://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/sites/opentextbooks/themes/otb/images/acknowledgement/logo-hkjcct.jpg\" alt=\"HKJCCT\" width=\"267\" height=\"50\" style=\"margin-top:5px;width:auto; max-width:100%;\" />\n</div>\n<div style=\"width:30%; float: left; text-align:right;\">\n<a href=\"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"display:block;\"><img src=\"https://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/sites/opentextbooks/themes/otb/images/acknowledgement/cc-logo-by-sa.png\" alt=\"Creative Commons\" width=\"88\" height=\"31\" style=\"width:auto; max-width:100%;\" /></a>\nContent on this site is licensed under a \nCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License \nexcept where otherwise noted.\n</div>\n</div>  </div>\n</div>\n  </div>\n                      </div> <!-- /#footer-columns -->\r\n    \r\n  </div></div> <!-- /.section, /#footer-wrapper -->\r\n\r\n</div></div> <!"]}