title: Biblical allusions in Shakespeare
text: # Biblical allusions in Shakespeare
  
  According to Dr. Naseeb Shaheen, Shakespeare, in writing his plays, "seldom borrows biblical references from his sources, even when those sources contain many references." Roy Battenhouse notes that the Shakespearean tragedy "frequently echoes Bible language or paradigm, even when the play's setting is pagan." Similarly, Peter Milward notes that despite their secular appearance, Shakespeare's plays "conceal an undercurrent of religious meaning which belongs to their deepest essence." Further, Milward maintains that although Shakespeare "may have felt obliged by the circumstances of the Elizabethan stage to avoid Biblical or other religious subjects for his plays," such obligation "did not prevent him from making full use of the Bible in dramatizing his secular sources and thus infusing into them a Biblical meaning." Milward continues that, in writing his plays (in particular, the tragedies), Shakespeare "shows the universal relevance of the Bible both to the reality of human life 'in this harsh world' and to its ideal in the heart of God." Steven Marx suggests "a thorough familiarity with the Scriptures" is a prerequisite to understanding the Biblical references in the plays, and that the plays' references to the Bible "illuminate fresh and surprising meanings in the biblical text." Marx further notes that "it is possible that Shakespeare sometimes regarded his own role of playwright and performer as godlike, his own book as potent and capacious as 'The Book'." It is important to note, as a recent study points out “The diversity of versions reflected in Shakespeare’s writing indicates that ‘Shakespeare’s Bible’ cannot be taken for granted as unitary, since it consists of a network of different translations”
  
  ## Specific examples
  
  * In 2 Henry VI, Shakespeare suggests his own biblical verses. Per Shaheen:
     * “The many biblical references that occur throughout the play are Shakespeare’s own. Shakespeare’s use of Scripture in the play can be seen in the way he drew the character of the king. [Edward] Hall depicts Henry as "a man of a meke spirite, and of a simple witte, preferryng peace before warre, reste before businesse, honestie before profite, and quietnesse before laboure…. There could be none, more chaste, more meke, more holy, nor a better creature…. He gaped not for honor, nor thirsted for riches, but studied onely for the health of his soule: the savyng wherof, he estemed to bee the greatest wisedome” [Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and Yorke, first published in 1548] (3.105). But Hall makes no biblical references when depicting Henry as a meek, pious ruler, void of ambition. Shakespeare, however, gives the entire play a religious cast, and puts many biblical references and religious expressions in the mouths of his characters.”
     * "Some of these religious utterances strongly suggest Scripture, but do not seem to be biblical references." Shaheen notes for example the lines "O Lord, that lends me life, Lend me a heart replete with thankfulness!" (1.1.19–20) and "God's goodness hath been great to thee. Let never day nor night unhallowed pass, But still remember what the Lord hath done." (2.1.82–84) contain "strong overtones of Scripture, but no actual references seem to be involved. The play contains many similar passages that are difficult to deal with, passages that are best classified as religious sentiments rather than actual biblical references."
  * In 3 Henry VI, Shakespeare took a biblical theme from a prior source and expanded its usage of biblical references. Per Shaheen:
     * “[Edward] Hall's theme [per his Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and Yorke, first published in 1548] was moral. He sought to demonstrate God's providence towards England, and repeatedly points out that those who commit evil will sooner or later be punished. Yet his account contains very few biblical references. Inspired by Hall's theme of divine retribution, Shakespeare adds biblical references that reflect that theme (1.4.168 "My blood upon your heads!"; 2.2.129 "Their blood upon thy head."; 2.6.55 "Measure for measure must be answered.").”
     * "An example of how Shakespeare added biblical references to what he found in his sources can be seen in the passage in Hall relating the death of Warwick's brother. Hall simply says: “He [Lord Fitzwater] was slayne, and with hym the Bastard of Salisbury, brother to the erle of Warwycke, a valeaunt yong gentelman." (3.181). In 2.3.14–23 Shakespeare expands that statement into a passage that contains at least three biblical references:”
        * 2.3.15: Thy brother’s blood the thirsty earth hath drunk. (Genesis 4.10–11)
        * 2.3.17: And in the very pangs of death he cried. (Compare 2 Samuel 22.5)
        * 2.3.22: [Possible biblical reference] "gave up the ghost" (Genesis 49.33; Compare also Genesis 35.18; Matthew 27.50; Acts 5.10)
        * 2.3.23: Then let the earth be drunken with our blood! (Per Shaheen, "A common biblical expression." Compare Judith 6.4; Isaiah 49.26; Revelation 17.6. Compare also Deuteronomy 32.42; Jeremiah 46.10; Ezekiel 39.19)
  * In Henry V, Shakespeare adds biblical themes to his prior sources. Per Shaheen: “[T]here is nothing in any of Shakespeare's sources that is parallel to Henry's discussion on the responsibility for war and the fate of the soldiers who die therein (4.1.124-91), or to Henry's musings on kingship (4.1.230-84), which contain a large number of biblical and liturgical references. These passages with their references are original with Shakespeare."
  * Per Shaheen, “Shakespeare’s use of the book of Revelation in Antony and Cleopatra is outstanding…. Since only three chapters of Revelation were read during Morning and Evening Prayer in the Church of England (…[reference to chapters and church days]…), Shakespeare must have privately read much of Revelation shortly before of during the composition of the play." He further states, "The references to Exodus in act 3 scene 13 are also noteworthy."
  * Per Shaheen, Timon of Athens "provides rare insights into his manner of composition and has several biblical references that are of considerable interest." He further states, "As is Shakespeare's custom throughout his plays, his use of Scripture in Timon is primarily intended to serve dramatic ends rather than to have theological significance."
  * In Macbeth, Act IV, Scene iii, Macduff offers his assistance to Malcolm, saying, “Thy royal father / Was a most sainted king; the queen that bore thee, / Oftener upon her knees than on her feet / Died every day she lived.” The last part is a direct allusion to 1 Corinthians 15, verse 31: "I affirm, by the boasting in you which I have in Christ Jesus our Lord, I die daily."
  
  All of the foregoing examples as provided by Shaheen suggest that Shakespeare was well-acquainted with the Bible and its various themes via individual verses spread throughout its various chapters enough so that he could easily expand upon any said theme with his own continuation of such verses.
  
  ## Versions of the Bible used by Shakespeare
  
  ### Geneva Bible
  
  R. A. L. Burnet states: “[A]s Professor E. P. Dickie has pointed out to me, words found in the margin [of the Geneva Bible] will not have circulated very readily nor become proverbial sayings. Shakespeare would not have heard these words either in church or in conversation; he could only have read them."
  
  ### Rheims New Testament
  
  Although Naseeb Shaheen's important study calls attention to three references to the Rheims translation of the New Testament, it overlooks a number of other allusions or correspondences. For example, Matthew 3.2 is translated in the Tyndale, Geneva, Great and Bishops’ translations as “Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand,” but in the Rheims translation it is “Do penance: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.” This significant difference in translation, of importance for the Catholic sacrament of penance and the theological notion of satisfaction for sins, occurs numerous times in the Rheims New Testament and nineteen times in Shakespeare's plays. There are some seventy other possible references, according to David Beauregard
  
  