title: Estonian grammar
text: # Estonian grammar
  
  Estonian grammar is the grammar of the Estonian language.
  
  ## Grammatical processes
  
  ### Consonant gradation
  
  Estonian consonant gradation is a grammatical process that affects obstruent consonants at the end of the stressed syllable of a word. Gradation causes consonants in a word to alternate between two grades, termed "strong" and "weak", depending on the grammar. Some grammatical forms trigger the weak grade, while others retain the strong grade. It is not predictable which form will have which grade; this must simply be memorised. Not all words show gradation. In particular, words with stems of three or more syllables generally do not gradate, nor do words with stems of one syllable.
  
  Gradation correlates with the appearance of extra length on a syllable. When a syllable is long, the strong grade will always be accompanied by extra length. The weak grade may or may not have extra length, depending on other factors. These are mentioned at Estonian phonology – Suprasegmental length. Some words show gradation only through the presence or absence of extra length, and the consonants themselves do not change. In this article, extra length is shown with a backtick ` before the vowel of the syllable.
  
  The gradation patterns of geminate (long) consonants are relatively simple:
  
  * Standing alone after a short vowel, the strong grade appears as a double voiceless consonant, while a single voiceless consonant appears in the weak grade.
  * After a long vowel, or in a consonant cluster, the strong grade appears with a single voiceless consonant, while a voiced consonant appears in the weak grade.
  * Long ss only gradates when it appears at the end of a cluster, with s appearing in the weak grade.
  
  | Strong | Weak | Example |
  | - | - | - |
  | pp | p | s`epp: sepa |
  | tt | t | v`õtta: võtan |
  | kk | k | h`akkama: hakata |
  | p | b | k`upja: kubjas, k`ilp: kilbi |
  | t | d | s`aatev: saadan, k`artma: kardan |
  | k | g | v`ilkuma: vilgun |
  | ss | s | k`irss: kirsi |
  
  Patterns for single plosives are more varied and unpredictable. The weak grade may involve disappearance of the consonant altogether, with further consequences for vowels and extra length.
  
  | Strong | Weak | Example | Notes |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | b | v | k`aebama: kaevata | |
  | b | ∅ | tuba: t`oa | When next to u. |
  | d, t | ∅ | `aed: aia, l`eht: lehe | Voiceless t appears in the cluster ht. |
  | d, t | j | rada: raja | When followed by a and preceded by a short vowel other than e or i. |
  | g, k | ∅ | `arg: ara, lugema: l`oen, h`ahk: haha | Voiceless k appears in the clusters hk and sk. |
  | g, k | j | m`ärg: märja | When followed by a or e and preceded by l or r which is preceded by e, ä or ü. |
  
  There are also four special assimilative patterns:
  
  | Strong | Weak | Example |
  | - | - | - |
  | mb | mm | h`amba: hammas |
  | nd | nn | k`andma: kannan |
  | ld | ll | p`õld: põllu |
  | rd | rr | k`ord: korra |
  
  When a consonant is reduced to zero in the weak grade, this may cause the vowels of the two adjacent syllables to come together. These vowels undergo several changes:
  
  * If the first vowel is long, it is shortened. Examples: r`oog: r`oa, n`eedma: n`ean.
  * If either vowel is i, u or ü, it is lowered to e, o or ö respectively. Examples: nuga: n`oa, s`aagima: s`aen, süsi: s`öe.
  * If the first vowel is a diphthong ending in e, the e becomes j. Examples: p`oeg: poja, 'aeglema: ajelda.
  * If the first vowel is a diphthong ending in u, the u becomes v. Examples: h`aug: havi.
  * If the first vowel is a diphthong ending in any other sound, the second vowel is removed if it is identical. Examples: t`eadma: t`ean, l`iug: l`iu.
  
  ### Assibilation
  
  Assibilation is a change that happened in Proto-Finnic: the sequence ti became si. This change is no longer productive or predictable, but a fair number of nouns still display the effects in certain forms. The effect is visible in that sometimes s appears where there would otherwise be a t or d. This also creates new variants of the gradation patterns mentioned above, with s appearing in some of the forms in both the strong and weak grade.
  
  For example:
  
  * käsi, genitive singular käe, illative singular kätte, partitive plural käsi.
  * uus, genitive singular uue, illative singular uude, partitive plural uusi.
  * vars, genitive singular varre, illative singular varde, partitive plural varsi.
  * kaas, genitive singular kaane, illative singular kaande, partitive plural kaasi. Also an example of another change that happened in some words, in which n disappeared before s. Consequently, there is no n in the forms that have assibilation.
  * kolmas, genitive singular kolmanda. Here, too, n disappeared before s.
  * kaks, genitive singular kahe, illative singular kahte. In this particular case, ht becomes ks where assibilation occurred.
  * minema, first-person singular present lähen, first-person singular past läksin. Same as above.
  
  ## Nouns
  
  | Case | Singular ending | Plural ending | Meaning/use | Answers to question; notes |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Basic/grammatical cases |||||
  | Nominative | ∅ (with or without vowel) | -d | Subject, object of imperative, (in plural) complete (telic) object | Who? What? |
  | Genitive | ∅ (with vowel) | -de/-te | Possession, relation, (in singular) complete (telic) object | Whose? His?/Hers? |
  | Partitive | -d, -t, ∅ (with vowel) | -id, -sid, ∅ (modified vowel) | Partial object, indefinite amount | Whom? Him?/Her? |
  | Interior ("in") locative cases |||||
  | Illative | -sse, -∅ (with vowel) | -desse/-tesse, -isse | In, into | Whither? |
  | Inessive | -s | -des/-tes, -is | In, inside | Wherein? |
  | Elative | -st | -dest/-test, -ist | Out of | Whence? |
  | Exterior ("on") locative cases |||||
  | Allative | -le | -dele/-tele, -ile | Towards, onto | Whither? |
  | Adessive | -l | -del/-tel, -il | At, on, upon | Whereon?, on top of |
  | Ablative | -lt | -delt/-telt, -ilt | From, off | Whereof?, off of |
  | Other cases |||||
  | Translative | -ks | -deks/-teks, -iks | Becoming, turning into | |
  | Terminative | -ni | -deni/-teni | Till, until, up to, towards (a person, a thing) | |
  | Essive | -na | -dena/-tena | Being, acting as, as people/things | |
  | Abessive | -ta | -deta/-teta | Without, lacking, bereft of | |
  | Comitative | -ga | -dega/-tega | With, in company of, in combination with | |
  
  Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of a noun, which is formed from:
  
  * singular genitive: singular cases except nominative and partitive, plural nominative,
  * singular partitive: plural genitive,
  * plural genitive: plural cases except nominative and partitive.
  
  Singular nominative, singular genitive and singular partitive are not predictable and have to be taken from the vocabulary (gradation may also apply).
  
  Singular genitive always ends in vowel. When formed from a stem that ends in consonant, it can take the following endings: -a, -e, -i, -o, -u.
  
  Singular partitive can take the following endings: -d, -t, -a, -e, -i, -u.
  
  Plural partitive is formed from either singular genitive or singular partitive and can take the following endings (some words have two forms):
  
  * -id: one-syllable words with long vowels aa, ee, õõ, uu, öö, ää, two-syllable words with long vowels or endings -em, -en, -el, -er, -ar, -ur, -e, -ne, -s or singular genitive with one or three syllables, three-syllable words with endings -ne, -s,
  * -sid: one-syllable words with long vowels ii, üü or a diphthong, two-syllable words with short vowels, three-syllable words with endings -um, -on, -er, -ar, -är, -ov, -nna,
  * -e: words with singular partitive endings -i, -u, -j, or singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing u,
  * -i: words with singular partitive ending -e, or singular partitive ending on consonant with singular genitive ending -e, or singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing vowels e, o, ä, ö, ü or a diphthong with one of these vowels as the first sound with the exception of ei, äi,
  * -u: words with singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing vowels a, i, õ or diphthongs ei, äi.
  
  Singular illative has a short form in some words. It can take the following endings: -de, -he, -hu, -a, -e, -i, -u. In case it takes the vowel ending, this vowel is the same as the ending vowel of the singular genitive form of the given word, but the vowel (if it is already long or a diphthong) or its preceding consonant (if the vowel is short and the consonant either short or long) is lengthened to the third degree and thus becomes overlong. If illative ends with -sesse, then the short form is -sse.
  
  Plural illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative have a short form in some words. If the plural partitive ends with -id, then the short plural stem is this form without -d (instead of plural genitive with -de-); if it ends with a vowel, then the short plural stem is this form; if it ends with -sid, then the short plural cannot be formed.
  
  Emphasis: noun + -gi (after a final voiced consonant or vowel) / -ki (after a final voiceless consonant).
  
  New nouns can be derived from existing nouns, adjectives and verbs using suffixes like -ja (agent, from -ma infinitive), -mine (gerund, from -ma infinitive), -la, -nna, -tar, -ur, -stik, -ndik, -nik, -ik, -k, -ng, -lane, -line, -kene, -ke, -e, -ndus, -dus, -us, -is, -kond, -nd, -istu, -u.
  
  ### Pronouns
  
  Declension of personal pronouns :
  
  | | | 1 | 2 | 3 |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | singular | nominative | m(in)a | s(in)a | t(em)a |
  | singular | genitive | m(in)u | s(in)u | t(em)a |
  | singular | partitive | mind | sind | teda |
  | plural | nominative | m(ei)e | t(ei)e | n(em)ad |
  | plural | genitive | m(ei)e | t(ei)e | nende |
  | plural | partitive | meid | teid | neid |
  
  * reflexive (nominative – genitive – partitive, singular / plural): ise – enese/enda – ennast/end / ise – eneste/endi – endid (-self)
  * demonstrative (nominative – genitive – partitive, singular / plural): see – selle – seda / need – nende – neid (this/that), too – tolle – toda / nood – nonde – noid (yonder)
  * interrogative (nominative – genitive – partitive): kes – kelle – keda (who), mis – mille – mida (what), milline – millise – millist (which out of many), kumb – kumma – kumba (which out of two)
  * existential (nominative – genitive – partitive): keegi – kellegi – kedagi (someone), miski – millegi – midagi (something), mõni – mõne – mõnda (some), ükski – ühegi – ühtegi (one)
  * free choice (nominative – genitive – partitive): mingi – mingi – mingit (anyone/anything/any), kumbki – kummagi – kumbagi (either)
  * universal (nominative – genitive – partitive): kõik – kõige – kõike (everyone/everything/each), mõlemad – mõlema – mõlemat (both)
  
  ## Cases
  
  There are traditionally considered to be 14 noun cases in Estonian:
  
  | # | Case | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | | Example in Estonian | Example in English | Example in Estonian | Example in English |
  | 1 | Nominative | ilus raamat | a beautiful book | ilusad raamatud | beautiful books (as subject or total object) |
  | 2 | Genitive | ilusa raamatu | of a beautiful book; a beautiful book (as total object) | ilusate raamatute | of beautiful books; |
  | 3 | Partitive | ilusat raamatut | a beautiful book (as a partial object) | ilusaid raamatuid | beautiful books (as a partial object) |
  | 4 | Illative | ilusasse raamatusse | into a beautiful book | ilusatesse raamatutesse | into beautiful books |
  | 5 | Inessive | ilusas raamatus | in a beautiful book | ilusates raamatutes | in beautiful books |
  | 6 | Elative | ilusast raamatust | from a beautiful book | ilusatest raamatutest | from beautiful books |
  | 7 | Allative | ilusale raamatule | onto a beautiful book | ilusatele raamatutele | onto beautiful books |
  | 8 | Adessive | ilusal raamatul | on a beautiful book | ilusatel raamatutel | on beautiful books |
  | 9 | Ablative | ilusalt raamatult | off a beautiful book | ilusatelt raamatutelt | off beautiful books |
  | 10 | Translative | ilusaks raamatuks | [to turn] (in)to a beautiful book | ilusateks raamatuteks | [to turn] (in)to beautiful books |
  | 11 | Terminative | ilusa raamatuni | up to a beautiful book | ilusate raamatuteni | up to beautiful books |
  | 12 | Essive | ilusa raamatuna | as a beautiful book | ilusate raamatutena | as beautiful books |
  | 13 | Abessive | ilusa raamatuta | without a beautiful book | ilusate raamatuteta | without beautiful books |
  | 14 | Comitative | ilusa raamatuga | with a beautiful book | ilusate raamatutega | with beautiful books |
  
  Locative cases make up six or eight of these fourteen (depending on interpretation).
  
  There are also some additional cases such as the instructive (jalgsi, "by foot"; käsitsi, "by hand"), or the similarly formed prolative (meritsi, "by the way of the sea"), which are not traditionally counted among the 14 grammatical cases.
  
  ## Adjectives
  
  ### Inflection and derivation
  
  Inflectional endings are added to the stem of an adjective, which is formed like the one for nouns. However, adjectives do not have terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative cases.
  
  Comparison of adjectives :
  
  | | Type |
  | - | - |
  | Degree | General |
  | Positive | – |
  | Comparative | -m |
  | Superlative | -im / kõige -m |
  
  The stem for the comparative and superlative forms is the singular genitive of an adjective; if a word has two syllables in the genitive or a vowel following -ke(se), then -ke(se) is left out and the last vowel in the stem changes to -e. The genitive and the partitive of the comparative itself are formed with -a and -at.
  
  New adjectives can be derived from existing words by means of suffixes like:
  
      -v (active present participle, from -ma infinitive),
      -nud (active perfect participle, from -da infinitive),
      -tav (passive present participle, from -tud participle),
      -tud (passive perfect participle), and -lik, -line, -lane, -ne, -ke, -kas, -jas, -tu.
  
  Antonym can be formed by prepending eba or mitte to an adjective. Eba- is considered to be the only derivational prefix in Estonian; as mitte can also occur as a separate word, mitte + adjective can be regarded as a compound rather than derivative. Alternatively, for an adjective formed from a noun or a verb, an antonym can often be constructed using the suffix -tu or -matu.
  
  ### Articles
  
  Estonian has no definite and indefinite articles. The function of the definite article can be performed by the demonstrative pronoun see ‘this’; and the function of the indefinite article can be performed by the indefinite pronoun üks, developed from the numeral ‘one’. (Pajusalu 2001)
  
  See
  
  this
  
  elu
  
  life
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  vaid
  
  only
  
  vaev
  
  trouble
  
  ja
  
  and
  
  viletsus.
  
  misery
  
  See elu on vaid vaev ja viletsus.
  
  this life be.3SG only trouble and misery
  
  ‘Life is only trouble and misery.’
  
  Siia
  
  here.ILL
  
  pidi
  
  must:PAST.3SG
  
  üks
  
  one
  
  maja
  
  house
  
  tulema.
  
  come:MINF
  
  Siia pidi üks maja tulema.
  
  here.ILL must:PAST.3SG one house come:MINF
  
  ‘It is said that a house will be built here.‘
  
  ### Agreement
  
  Adjectival modifiers (including ordinals, demonstratives, and present participles) agree with their heads in case and number. In the terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative the modifier agrees only in number and remains in the genitive. See Case table above.
  
  Most modifiers occur in the pre-noun position:
  
  * a) demonstratives, e.g. see mees ‘this man’;
  * b) adjectives, e.g. vana mees ‘old man’;
  * c) quantifiers, e.g. kaks meest ‘two men’, kõik mehed ‘all men’;
  * d) participles, e.g. jalutav mees ‘a walking man’,
  * e) genitives, e.g. venna raamat ‘brother’s book’, eesti keel ‘Estonian language’;
  * f) some oblique-case substantive modifiers, e.g. puust maja ‘wooden house’, nokaga müts ‘beaked cap’.
  
  Post-noun substantive modifiers take the form of various kinds of adverbials, e.g. uks eluruumidesse ‘the door to dwelling rooms’,sõit linna ‘the drive to town’, vestlus sõpradega ‘conversation with friends’, mure laste pärast ‘worry about children’, tagatis eduks ‘key to success’, etc.
  
  Adjectival modification :
  
  | Case | Singular "big man" | Plural "big men" |
  | - | - | - |
  | Nominative | suur mees | suured mehed |
  | Genitive | suure mehe | suurte meeste |
  | Partitive | suurt meest | suuri mehi |
  | Illative | suuresse mehesse | suurtesse meestesse |
  | Inessiv(e) | suures mehes | suurtes meestes |
  | Elative | suurest mehest | suurtest meestest |
  | Allative | suurele mehele | suurtele meestele |
  | Adessive | suurel mehel | suurtel meestel |
  | Ablative | suurelt mehelt | suurtelt meestelt |
  | Translative | suureks meheks | suurteks meesteks |
  | Terminative | suure meheni | suurte meesteni |
  | Essive | suure mehena | suurte meestena |
  | Abessive | suure meheta | suurte meesteta |
  | Comitative | suure mehega | suurte meestega |
  
  The non-agreement of the last four cases in Estonian is the manifestation of postpositionality of the affixes of the above cases. Postpositionality implies that there is no need to repeat the case endings in coordinated phrases, e.g. naise(ga) ja mehega ‘with a man and a woman’. The above affixes were treated as postpositions in earlier grammars, and some grammarians still follow this tradition. Only the comitative evolved directly from a postposition; the other cases followed suit.
  
  ### Pro-adjectives
  
  * numeral (nominative – genitive – partitive, with noun in singular nominative for 1 and in singular partitive for others): null – nulli – nulli (0), üks – ühe – üht (1), kaks – kahe – kaht (2), kolm – kolme – kolme (3), neli – nelja – nelja (4), viis – viie – viit (5), kuus – kuue – kuut (6), seitse – seitsme – seitset (7), kaheksa – kaheksa – kaheksat (8), üheksa – üheksa – uheksat (9), kümme – kümne – kümmet (10), -teist(kümmend) – -teist(kümne) – -teist(kümmet) (11–19), -kümmend – -kümne – -kümmet (20–90), sada – saja – sadat (100), -sada – -saja – -sadat (200–900), - tuhat – - tuhande – - tuhandet (1.000–999.000), - miljon – - miljoni – - miljonit (1.000.000–999.000.000), - miljard – - miljardi – - miljardit (1.000.000.000); ordinal: esimene – esimese – esimest (1.), teine – teise – teist (2.), kolmas – kolmanda – kolmandat (3.), cardinal_genitive-s – cardinal_genitive-nda – cardinal_genitive-ndat (others)
  * demonstrative (nominative – genitive – partitive, singular / plural): niisugune – niisuguse – niisugust (this kind), see – selle – seda / need – nende – neid (this/that), too – tolle – toda / nood – nonde – noid (yonder)
  * interrogative (nominative – genitive – partitive): missugune – missuguse – missugust (what kind), milline – millise – millist (which)
  * existential (nominative – genitive – partitive): mingisugune – mingisuguse – mingisugust (some kind), mõni – mõne – mõnda (some)
  * free choice (nominative – genitive – partitive): mingisugune – mingisuguse – mingisugust (any kind), ükskõik milline – ükskõik millise – ükskõik millist (any)
  * universal (nominative – genitive – partitive): kõik – kõige – kõike (every kind), iga – iga – iga (every)
  
  ## Adpositions
  
  The following lists are not exhaustive.
  
  Postpositions
  
  * with the genitive case and declinable (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): alla – all – alt (under), ette – ees – eest (in front of), juurde – juures – juurest (at), järele – järel – järelt (after), keskele – keskel – keskelt (in the middle), kohale – kohal – kohalt (above), kõrvale – kõrval – kõrvalt (beside), kätte – käes – käest (in the hand of), lähedale – lähedal – lähedalt (near), peale – peal – pealt (on), sisse – sees – seest (in), taha – taga – tagant (behind), vahele – vahel – vahelt (between), äärde – ääres – äärest (by)
  * with the genitive case and non-declinable: eest / jaoks (for), järgi (according to), kaudu (via), kohta (about), pärast (on account of), vastas (vis-à-vis), vastu (against), üle (over), ümber (around)
  * with the partitive case: mööda (along)
  * with the elative case: alla (down), läbi (through), peale / saadik (since)
  
  Prepositions
  
  * with the genitive case: läbi (through), peale (besides), üle (over), ümber (around)
  * with the partitive case: alla (down), enne (before), kesk / keset (amid), mööda (along), piki (alongside), pärast (after), vastu (against)
  * with the terminative case: kuni (until)
  * with the abessive case: ilma (without)
  * with the comitative case: koos / ühes (with)
  
  ## Verbs
  
  The inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of a verb, which is formed from:
  
  * indicative mood active voice singular first person of positive present tense (by dropping -n): indicative mood active voice of present tense, conditional mood active voice of present tense, imperative mood active voice singular second person of present tense,
  * -ma infinitive (by dropping -ma; if the stem ends with a consonant, an additional -i- is added in the singular third person of the imperfect or an additional -e- is added in the singular nominative of the participle, the consonant is doubled if it was short and preceding a short vowel; if the stem ends with -e while being two-syllable or if it ends with a long vowel, then the -s- is left out in all numbers and persons, ei is changed to i, a long vowel becomes short and o, ö are changed to õ): indicative mood active voice of positive imperfect, quotative mode active voice of present tense,
  * -da infinitive (by dropping -da / -ta / -a; long final l, r become short, in spoken language -nud is shortened to -nd): indicative mood active voice of negative imperfect, indicative mood active voice of pluperfect, imperative mood active voice of present tense except singular second person, active voice of perfect,
  * participle of passive voice perfect (by dropping -tud): passive voice.
  
  Present tense form and -tud participle are derived from the infinitives on the basis of gradation.
  
  -ma infinitive indicates real action, i.e. action that does happen, has happened, or will happen. It can be declined: -ma (illative), -mas (inessive), -mast (elative), -maks (translative), -mata (abessive). The verb that precedes it also usually implies real action: harjunud lugema ‘accustomed to reading’, lähen lugema ‘I go to read’, käib vaatamas ‘goes looking’, olen valmis/nõus aitama ‘I am ready/in agreement to help’, saan hakkama ‘I can manage’.
  
  -da infinitive indicates hypothetical action, i.e. the idea of the action rather than real action. It can be declined: -des (inessive). It is used in the following cases:
  
  * In a compound verb when it refers only to the idea of the action: tahan magada ‘I want to sleep’, oskan lugeda ‘I know how to read’, saan hakata ‘I can start’, võid küsida ‘you can ask’, õhus oli tunda ‘it could be felt in the air’,
  * In a subordinate clause that refers only to the idea of the action: et paremini näha ’in order to see better’, kui homme hommikul kell kuus ärgata ‘if waking up tomorrow morning at six’, kui mõelda asjalikult ‘if you think about it’.
  * As part of a participle where it refers only to the idea of the action: kasutada olev ‘able to be used’, aimata laskev ‘unpredictable’.
  
  ### Verb derivation
  
  The following suffixes add meaning to a stem.
  
  **-ta-**
  
  
      creates a verb from a noun
      makes a verb transitive
  
  **-u-, -i-**
  
  
      reflexive
  
  **-el-, -le-**
  
  
      reciprocal
  
  **-ne-**
  
  
      translative
  
  **-ata-**
  
  
      momentane
  
  **-el-, -skle-**
  
  
      frequentative
  
  **-tse-**
  
  
      continuous
  
  ### Conjugation paradigms
  
  Regular types :
  
  | | | I | II | III | IV | V | VI |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | ma-infinitive | ma-infinitive | elama | õppima | hüppama | riidlema | söötma | tulema |
  | Past | 1st singular | elasin | õppisin | hüppasin | riidlesin | söötsin | tulin |
  | Past | 3rd singular | elas | õppis | hüppas | riidles | söötis | tuli |
  | tud-participle | tud-participle | elatud | õpitud | hüpatud | riieldud | söödetud | tuldud |
  | Present passive | Present passive | elatakse | õpitakse | hüpatakse | riieldakse | söödetakse | tullakse |
  | da-infinitive | da-infinitive | elada | õppida | hüpata | riielda | sööta | tulla |
  | Imperative | 2nd plural | elage | õppige | hüpake | riielge | söötke | tulge |
  
  ### List of endings
  
  Conjugation of verbs :
  
  | | | | | Tense | Tense | Tense | Tense | Tense | Tense | Tense | Tense |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | | | | Present | Present | Imperfect | Imperfect | Perfect | Perfect | Pluperfect | Pluperfect |
  | Mood | Voice | Number | Person | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative |
  | Indica­tive |
  | Indica­tive | Active |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Singular | First | -n | ei – | -sin | ei -nud | olen -nud | ei ole -nud | olin -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Singular | Second | -d | ei – | -sid | ei -nud | oled -nud | ei ole -nud | olid -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Singular | Third | -b | ei – | -s | ei -nud | on -nud | ei ole -nud | oli -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Plural | First | -me | ei – | -sime | ei -nud | oleme -nud | ei ole -nud | olime -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Plural | Second | -te | ei – | -site | ei -nud | olete -nud | ei ole -nud | olite -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Active | Plural | Third | -vad | ei – | -sid | ei -nud | on -nud | ei ole -nud | olid -nud | ei olnud -nud |
  | Indica­tive | Passive | / | / | -takse | ei -ta | -ti | ei -tud | on -tud | ei ole -tud | oli -tud | ei olnud -tud |
  | Condi­tional |
  | Condi­tional | Active |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Singular | First | -ksin | ei -ks | / | / | oleksin -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Singular | Second | -ksid | ei -ks | / | / | oleksid -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Singular | Third | -ks | ei -ks | / | / | oleks -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Plural | First | -ksime | ei -ks | / | / | oleksime -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Plural | Second | -ksite | ei -ks | / | / | oleksite -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Active | Plural | Third | -ksid | ei -ks | / | / | oleksid -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | / |
  | Condi­tional | Passive | / | / | -taks | ei -taks | / | / | oleks -tud | ei oleks -tud | / | / |
  | Impera­tive |
  | Impera­tive | Active |
  | Impera­tive | Active | Singular | Second | – | ära – | / | / | / | / | / | / |
  | Impera­tive | Active | Singular | Third | -gu | ärgu -gu | / | / | olgu -nud | ärgu olgu -nud | / | / |
  | Impera­tive | Active | Plural | First | -gem | ärgem -gem | / | / | / | / | | / | / |
  | Impera­tive | Active | Plural | Second | -ge | ärge -ge | / | / | / | / | / | / |
  | Impera­tive | Active | Plural | Third | -gu | ärgu -gu | / | / | olgu -nud | ärgu olgu -nud | / | / |
  | Impera­tive | Passive | / | / | -tagu | ärgu -tagu | / | / | olgu -tud | ärgu olgu -tud | / | / |
  | Quota­tive |
  | Quota­tive | Active | / | / | -vat | ei -vat | / | / | olevat -nud | ei olevat -nud | / | / |
  | Quota­tive | Passive | / | / | -tavat | ei -tavat | / | / | olevat -tud | ei olevat -tud | / | / |
  
  Emphasis: verb + -gi (after a final voiced consonant or vowel) / -ki (after a final voiceless consonant), verb + küll (positive), verb + mitte (negative).
  
  ## Adverbs
  
  Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of an adverb, which is formed from:
  
  * singular genitive of an adjective (-sti, -ti, -ldi, -li, -kesi): genetival type,
  * singular ablative of an adjective (-lt; some are declinable in allative, adessive, ablative): ablatival type.
  
  Some adverbs are special words – original or vestigial forms of an ancient instructive case.
  
  Pro-adverbs
  
  * demonstrative (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): siia – siin – siit (here), sinna – seal – sealt (there), nüüd (now), siis (then), seega (thus), seepärast (therefore)
  * interrogative (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): kuhu – kus – kust (where), millal (when), kuidas (how), miks (why)
  * existential (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): kuhugi – kuskil – kuskilt (somewhere), kunagi (sometime), kuidagi (somehow)
  * free choice (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): ükskõik kuhu – ükskõik kus – ükskõik kust (anywhere), ükskõik millal (anytime), igatahes (anyhow)
  * universal (illative/allative – inessive/adessive – elative/ablative): igale poole – igal pool – igalt poolt (everywhere), alati (always)
  
  Comparison of adverbs :
  
  | | Type | Type |
  | - | - | - |
  | Degree | Genetival | Ablatival |
  | Positive | – | -lt |
  | Comparative | -mini | -malt |
  | Superlative | kõige -mini | kõige -malt |
  
  ## Syntax
  
  The neutral word order in Estonian is subject–verb–object (SVO).
  
  However, as one would expect from an agglutinative language, the word order is quite free and non-neutral word order can be used to stress some parts of the sentence or in poetic texts, as in Finnish grammar. For example, consider the sentence mees tappis karu which means ‘(a/the) man killed (a/the) bear’ and uses the neutral SVO word order. The sentence can be rephrased using OVS word order as karu tappis mees—a normal Estonian sentence that could be more precisely translated as ‘it was (a/the) man who killed the bear’, i. e., the speaker emphasizes that the killer was a man, probably assuming the listener knows that a bear was killed. The other four word orders (tappis mees karu, tappis karu mees, mees karu tappis, karu mees tappis) are also possible in certain contexts, especially if more words are added to the three-word sentences. The following data (4–24, 50–72) are sourced from (Tauli, 1983) and (Erelt, 2009) at the University of Tartu.
  
  Sometimes the forms of verbs, nouns and adjectives in the sentence are not enough to determine the subject and object, e. g. mehed tapsid karud (‘the men killed the bears’) or isa tappis karu (‘father killed the bear’)—in the first sentence because in plural, the nominative case is used in Estonian both for subject and telic object, and in the second sentence because in singular, the nominative, genitive and partitive forms of the word isa are the same, as well as those of the word karu (unlike the word mees which has different forms: sg. nom. mees, sg. gen. mehe, sg. part. meest). In such sentences, word order is the only thing that distinguishes the subject and the object: the listener presumes that the former noun (mehed, isa) is the subject and the latter (karud, karu) is the object. In such situations, the speaker cannot interchange the subject and the object for emphasis (unless it is obvious from the context which noun is the subject).
  
  ### Basic clause patterns
  
  There are two basic patterns of clauses in Estonian: normal and inverted clauses (cf. also Erelt 2003, 2005a). In a normal clause the basic word order is SVX (subject – verb – nonsubject). The subject is unmarked, that is, it stands in the nominative, and the verb usually agrees with the subject in person and number. An inverted clause has the word order XVS. The clause opens not with the subject but with an adverbial or oblique, experiential clauses with an object in exceptional cases. If there is a subject-NP in the clause, it is usually indefinite. If the subject-NP is a mass noun or a count noun in the plural, quantitative indefiniteness may be optionally marked by the partitive. (5,7) In the (non-contrastive) negative clause the use of the partitive is obligatory, (e.g. ex. 8). In clauses without a nominative subject the verb is always in the 3rd person singular. In the inverted clause olema ‘be’ is the most common verb. The main types of inverted clauses include existential, possessive, experiential clauses, clauses of state and source-marking resultative clauses. In existential clauses, as in (4)–(8), the clause-initial constituent is an adverbial of location (or time), and the clause performs a presentative function. In possessive clauses the possessor is expressed as a locative phrase. The latter is represented by the nominal in the adessive case (9).
  
  Aias
  
  garden:IN
  
  olid
  
  be:PAST:3PL
  
  kasvasid
  
  grow:PAST:3PL
  
  lilled.
  
  flower:PL.NOM
  
  Aias olid / kasvasid lilled.
  
  garden:IN be:PAST:3PL / grow:PAST:3PL flower:PL.NOM
  
  ‘Flowers were / were growing in the garden.’
  
  Aias
  
  garden:IN
  
  oli
  
  be:PAST.3SG
  
  kasvas
  
  grow:PAST.3SG
  
  lilli.
  
  flower.PL.PART
  
  Aias oli / kasvas lilli.
  
  garden:IN be:PAST.3SG / grow:PAST.3SG flower.PL.PART
  
  lit. ‘There were / were growing some flowers in the garden.’
  
  Klaasis
  
  glass:IN
  
  oli
  
  be:PAST.3SG
  
  loksus
  
  slosh:PAST.3SG
  
  vesi.
  
  water.NOM
  
  Klaasis oli / loksus vesi.
  
  glass:IN be:PAST.3SG / slosh:PAST.3SG water.NOM
  
  ‘Some water was sloshing in the glass.’
  
  Klaasis
  
  glass:IN
  
  oli
  
  be:PAST.3SG
  
  loksus
  
  slosh:PAST.3SG
  
  vett.
  
  water.PART
  
  Klaasis oli / loksus vett.
  
  glass:IN be:PAST.3SG / slosh:PAST.3SG water.PART
  
  ‘Some water was sloshing in the glass.’
  
  Aias
  
  garden:IN
  
  ei
  
  NEG
  
  olnud
  
  be:PPTC
  
  ei
  
  neg
  
  kasvanud
  
  grow:PPTC
  
  lilli.
  
  flower.PL.PART
  
  Aias ei olnud / ei kasvanud lilli.
  
  garden:IN NEG be:PPTC / neg grow:PPTC flower.PL.PART
  
  ‘There were no flowers / no flowers were growing in the garden.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
  
  The possessor is typically animate, as in (9), but it may be also inanimate, as in Autol on neli ratast ‘The car has four wheels’. Estonian makes no distinction in the expression of permanent and temporal possession. Occasionally, possessive constructions may be formed according to the model of normal clauses, that is, encoding the possessor as the subject and using a special verb, such as omama, evima ‘have’ (10). The frequency of the construction is on the increase. The pattern of the normal clause is also used to form the belong-possession, using the olema-verb and the genitive possessor together with the pronoun oma ‘one’s own’ (11) or the special kuuluma-verb ‘belong’ (12). Experiential clauses can be formed according to the pattern of possessive clauses, so that the experiencer is expressed by the clause-initial oblique in the adessive, and the ‘possessed’ state is expressed by the subject-NP, as in (13). This kind of state can be expressed also by the predicate adjective (14).
  
  Jaanil
  
  Jaan:AD
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  vend.
  
  brother.NOM
  
  Jaanil on vend.
  
  Jaan:AD be.3SG brother.NOM
  
  ‘Jaan has a brother.’
  
  Jaan
  
  Jaan
  
  omab/evib
  
  have:3SG
  
  autot.
  
  car:PART
  
  Jaan omab/evib autot.
  
  Jaan have:3SG car:PART
  
  ‘Jaan has a car.’
  
  See
  
  this
  
  auto
  
  car
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  Jaani
  
  Jaan.GEN
  
  oma.
  
  own
  
  See auto on Jaani oma.
  
  this car be.3SG Jaan.GEN own
  
  ‘This car belongs to Jaan.’
  
  See
  
  this
  
  auto
  
  car
  
  kuulub
  
  belong:3SG
  
  Jaanile.
  
  Jaan:ALL
  
  See auto kuulub Jaanile.
  
  this car belong:3SG Jaan:ALL
  
  ‘This car belongs to Jaan.’
  
  Jaanil
  
  Jaan.AD
  
  oli
  
  be:PAST.3SG
  
  hakkas
  
  become:PAST.3SG
  
  hirm.
  
  fear.NOM
  
  Jaanil oli / hakkas hirm.
  
  Jaan.AD be:PAST.3SG / become:PAST.3SG fear.NOM
  
  ‘Jaan was/became afraid.’
  
  Jaanil
  
  Jaan:AD
  
  oli
  
  be:PAST.3SG
  
  hakkas
  
  become:PAST.3SG
  
  piinlik.
  
  embarrassing.NOM
  
  Jaanil oli / hakkas piinlik.
  
  Jaan:AD be:PAST.3SG / become:PAST.3SG embarrassing.NOM
  
  ‘Jaan was/became embarrassed.’
  
  The inverted clause pattern is also used in the case of some experiential verbs. In the case of some of them (e.g. meeldima ‘like’) the experiencer has to be encoded as the allative oblique (15), in others (huvitama ‘take an interest in’, hämmastama ‘amaze’, etc.) as the direct object in the partitive case (16). Most experiential verbs take a nominative experiencer, that is, the normal clause pattern, as in (17). In clauses of “state” the clause-initial adverbial of location or time is optional. The predicate may be nominal, as in (18, 19), or verbal (20). The “source-marking resultative clause” (Erelt 2005b) is a marginal type of the resultative clause, where not the resultant state (goal) is marked, as in the normal resultative clause (22), but an entity that changes its state (21).
  
  Siimule
  
  Siim:ALL
  
  meeldivad
  
  like:3PL
  
  lapsed.
  
  child:PL.NOM
  
  Siimule meeldivad lapsed.
  
  Siim:ALL like:3PL child:PL.NOM
  
  ‘Siim loves children.’
  
  Mind
  
  I:PART
  
  huvitab
  
  interest:3SG
  
  teie
  
  you.GEN
  
  arvamus.
  
  opinion.NOM
  
  Mind huvitab teie arvamus.
  
  I:PART interest:3SG you.GEN opinion.NOM
  
  ‘I’m interested in your opinion.’
  
  Ma
  
  I.NOM
  
  armastan
  
  love:1SG
  
  sind.
  
  you:PART
  
  Ma armastan sind.
  
  I.NOM love:1SG you:PART
  
  ‘I love you.’
  
  Väljas
  
  outside
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  kõva
  
  strong.NOM
  
  tuul.
  
  wind.NOM
  
  Väljas on kõva tuul.
  
  outside be.3SG strong.NOM wind.NOM
  
  ‘Outside the wind is strong.’
  
  (Väljas)
  
  outside
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  külm
  
  cold.NOM
  
  läheb
  
  get:3SG
  
  külmaks.
  
  cold:TR
  
  (Väljas) on külm / läheb külmaks.
  
  outside be.3SG cold.NOM / get:3SG cold:TR
  
  ‘It’s cold outside/it is getting cold.’
  
  (Väljas)
  
  outside
  
  müristab.
  
  thunder:3SG
  
  (Väljas) müristab.
  
  outside thunder:3SG
  
  ‘It’s thundering outside.’
  
  Poisist
  
  boy.EL
  
  kasvas
  
  grow:PAST.3SG
  
  mees.
  
  man.NOM
  
  Poisist kasvas mees.
  
  boy.EL grow:PAST.3SG man.NOM
  
  ‘The boy grew into man.’
  
  Poiss
  
  boy.NOM
  
  kasvas
  
  grow:PAST.3SG
  
  meheks.
  
  man:TR
  
  Poiss kasvas meheks.
  
  boy.NOM grow:PAST.3SG man:TR
  
  ‘The boy grew into man.’
  
  ### Case marking
  
  Isa
  
  father
  
  viis
  
  take:PAST.3SG
  
  last
  
  child:PART
  
  kooli.
  
  school.ILL
  
  Isa viis last kooli.
  
  father take:PAST.3SG child:PART school.ILL
  
  ‘The father was taking the child to school.’
  
  Isa
  
  father
  
  viis
  
  take:PAST.3SG
  
  lapse/lapsed
  
  child.GEN/PL.NOM
  
  kooli.
  
  school.ILL
  
  Isa viis lapse/lapsed kooli.
  
  father take:PAST.3SG child.GEN/PL.NOM school.ILL
  
  ‘The father took the child/children to school.
  
  The Estonian language has no secondary or indirect object. A direct object can be in the partitive (partial object) (23), or in the genitive or nominative (total object) (24). In the affirmative clause the total object refers to definite quantity and the clause expresses a perfective activity. If at least one of the conditions is not met, the partitive is used, for example, clause (23) denotes an imperfective activity; the clause Ta jõi vett ja hakkas siis sööma ‘He drank some water and then started to eat’ denotes a perfective activity but an indefinite quantity. In the negative clause only the partial object can be used, e.g. Isa ei viinud last kooli ‘The father didn’t take the child to school’. Some verbs, such as the verbs of cognition, only take the partial object also in the affirmative, e.g. Isa armastab lapsi ‘Father loves children’. The total object in Estonian does not express the perfective aspect as strongly as in the Finnish language, and for this reason perfective adverbs are often used along with it. The total object is predominantly in the genitive. The nominative is used if the object is in the plural as in (24) or if there is (normally) no subject in the clause, and the object happens to be the most central argument in the clause, i.e. if the verb is in the imperative mood, e.g. Vii laps kooli! ‘Take the child to school!’, impersonal, e.g. Laps viiakse kooli ‘The child is taken to school’, or the da-infinitive (except cases where the da-infinitive acts also as the object), e.g. Isa ülesanne oli laps kooli viia ‘The father’s task was to take the child to school’ Measure adverbials behave similarly to the object in that they occur in the nominative/genitive or the partitive roughly under similar circumstances, e.g. Ta suusatas viis [nom] kilomeetrit / ühe [gen] kilomeetri ‘He skied five kilometres / one kilometre’ – Ta ei suusatanud ühte [part] kilomeetritki ‘He didn’t ski not a single kilometre’; Ootasin pool [nom] tundi / ühe [gen] tunni ‘I waited for half an hour / an hour’ – Ma ei oodanud ühte [part] minutitki ‘I didn’t wait even a minute’.
  
  ### Word order in the clause
  
  The basic word order in the normal clause is SVX, and in the inverted clause it is XVS. The word order is flexible, that is, pragmatic order variants are allowed in addition to the basic order. However, one can observe the following trends in the location of the verb. In non-negated declarative main clauses the finite verb tends to retain the second position in all the thematic variants (50–51) (cf. Tael 1990, Ehala 2006). The verb can be located at the end of the clause in negative clauses if the clause does not begin with the subject (52), in questions (53), and in some subordinate clauses (54). The positioning of the verb at the beginning of the clause and the resulting inversion can mark a speech act function (55)–(58) or can be used in narrative texts rendering past activities, e.g. (59) (cf. Lindström 2001b).
  
  Meie
  
  our
  
  pere
  
  family
  
  S
  
  joob
  
  drink:3SG
  
  V
  
  hommikukohvi
  
  morning_coffee.PART
  
  O
  
  kodus.
  
  home:IN
  
  A
  
  Meie pere joob hommikukohvi kodus.
  
  our family drink:3SG morning_coffee.PART home:IN
  
   S V O A
  
  Hommikukohvi
  
  morning_coffee.PART
  
  O
  
  joob
  
  drink.3SG
  
  V
  
  meie
  
  our
  
  pere
  
  family
  
  S
  
  kodus.
  
  home:IN
  
  A
  
  Hommikukohvi joob meie pere kodus.
  
  morning_coffee.PART drink.3SG our family home:IN
  
  O V S A
  
  ‘Our family drinks morning coffee at home.’
  
  Kodus
  
  home:IN
  
  ma
  
  I
  
  hommikul
  
  morning:ad
  
  putru
  
  pudding.PART
  
  ei
  
  neg
  
  söö.
  
  eat.NEGV
  
  Kodus ma hommikul putru ei söö.
  
  home:IN I morning:ad pudding.PART neg eat.NEGV
  
  ‘At home I don’t eat pudding.’
  
  Kuidas
  
  how
  
  te
  
  you
  
  hommikul
  
  morning:ad
  
  nii
  
  so
  
  ruttu
  
  quickly
  
  siia
  
  here.ill
  
  jõudsite?
  
  get:past:2pl
  
  Kuidas te hommikul nii ruttu siia jõudsite?
  
  how you morning:ad so quickly here.ill get:past:2pl
  
  ‘How did you get here so quickly in the morning?’
  
  Ma
  
  I
  
  tunnen
  
  know:1SG
  
  seda
  
  this:PART
  
  meest,
  
  man:PART
  
  kellega
  
  who:COM
  
  Jaan
  
  Jaan
  
  rääkis.
  
  talk:past.3SG
  
  Ma tunnen seda meest, kellega Jaan rääkis.
  
  I know:1SG this:PART man:PART who:COM Jaan talk:past.3SG
  
  ‘I know the man that Jaan talked to.’
  
  On
  
  be.3SG
  
  ema
  
  mother
  
  kodus?
  
  home:IN
  
  On ema kodus?
  
  be.3SG mother home:IN
  
  ‘Is the mother at home?’
  
  Käi
  
  go.imp.2SG
  
  sa
  
  you
  
  vahepeal
  
  meanwhile
  
  kodus
  
  home:IN
  
  ära!
  
  away
  
  Käi sa vahepeal kodus ära!
  
  go.imp.2SG you meanwhile home:IN away
  
  ‘Go home in the meanwhile!’
  
  Läheks
  
  go:COND
  
  nad
  
  they
  
  ometi
  
  at_last
  
  minema!
  
  away
  
  Läheks nad ometi minema!
  
  go:COND they at_last away
  
  ‘If only they would leave at last!’
  
  Oled
  
  be:2SG
  
  sina
  
  you
  
  alles
  
  so
  
  tubli!
  
  diligent
  
  Oled sina alles tubli!
  
  be:2SG you so diligent
  
  ‘How come you’re so diligent!
  
  Istun
  
  sit:1SG
  
  mina
  
  I
  
  eile
  
  yesterday
  
  oma
  
  own
  
  kabinetis
  
  study:IN
  
  ja
  
  and
  
  kirjutan
  
  write:1SG
  
  aruannet.
  
  report:PART
  
  Istun mina eile oma kabinetis ja kirjutan aruannet.
  
  sit:1SG I yesterday own study:IN and write:1SG report:PART
  
  ‘Yesterday I was sitting in my study and writing the report.’
  
  ### Interrogatives
  
  Polar questions are formed by means of the clause-initial interrogative particles kas (60) or ega (in negative clauses, as in [61]), verb fronting (62), or rising intonation (63). In spoken language questions can be formed also by the clause-final particle või, which developed from the disjunctive conjunction (64) (cf. Lindström 2001a). Questions begin with an interrogative word (interrogative pro-forms or kas (yes/no-question), eks (yes-question), ega (no-question)), followed by the SVO word order (in spoken language, interrogative words are sometimes left out, but instead there is either a change in intonation or VSO word order); answers: jah/jaa (yes), ei (no). An adjective precedes the noun it modifies. An adverb of time precedes an adverb of place.
  
  Content questions are formed by means of interrogative pronouns and pro-adverbs, which are positioned at the beginning of the sentence (64, 65)(WH-fronting):
  
  Kas
  
  Q
  
  sa
  
  you
  
  tuled
  
  come:2SG
  
  täna
  
  today
  
  koju?
  
  home.ILL
  
  Kas sa tuled täna koju?
  
  Q you come:2SG today home.ILL
  
  ‘Will you come home today?’
  
  Ega
  
  NEG.Q
  
  sa
  
  you
  
  (ei)
  
  (NEG)
  
  tule
  
  come.NEGV
  
  täna
  
  today
  
  koju?
  
  home.ILL
  
  Ega sa (ei) tule täna koju?
  
  NEG.Q you (NEG) come.NEGV today home.ILL
  
  ‘Won’t you come home today?’
  
  On
  
  be.3SG
  
  sul
  
  you:AD
  
  täna
  
  today
  
  aega?
  
  time.PART
  
  On sul täna aega?
  
  be.3SG you:AD today time.PART
  
  ‘Do you have any time today?’
  
  Sa
  
  you
  
  armastad
  
  love:2SG
  
  mind?
  
  I:PART
  
  Sa armastad mind?
  
  you love:2SG I:PART
  
  ‘Do you love me?’
  
  Ta
  
  s/he
  
  läks
  
  leave:PAST.3SG
  
  ära
  
  away
  
  või?
  
  or
  
  Ta läks ära või?
  
  s/he leave:PAST.3SG away or
  
  ‘Did s/he leave or?’
  
  Kes
  
  who
  
  sa
  
  you
  
  oled?
  
  be:2SG
  
  Kes sa oled?
  
  who you be:2SG
  
  ‘Who are you?’
  
  Kuhu
  
  where
  
  te
  
  you.PL
  
  lähete?
  
  go:2PL
  
  Kuhu te lähete?
  
  where you.PL go:2PL
  
  ‘Where are you going?’
  
  ### Negation
  
  Clausal negation in Estonian is expressed by means of the negative particle ei, which usually precedes the verb, e.g. (67). The particle ei is historically the 3sg form of the previous negative auxiliary. Standard clausal negation is asymmetric, that is, the structure of the negative construction differs from the affirmative not only by the presence of the negative particle but in various other ways, too, first and foremost by the non-finiteness of the main verb (Miestamo 2000). In Estonian the main verb does not carry inflections of the person and the number appearing in the connegative form in the present and in the past participle in the past (see example [67]). The other secondary modifications of standard negation include changes in case marking and word order. In a negative clause direct objects appear only in the partitive case. In the case of the inverted type of clause the same applies to the subject (cf. 2). The connegative form of the verb may be located at the end of the clause in negative clauses (cf. 6). In the imperative and the jussive prohibition is expressed by the partially inflected negative auxiliary ära (2sg), ärge (2pl), ärgem (1pl), ärgu (3sg/pl) together with the imperative form of the main verb (68). Unlike the negative particle ei, the auxiliary verb ära may be separated from the main verb by other words (69). In the case of constituent negation the scope of negation is marked by emphasis and optionally by the negative particle mitte (70, 71). The particle is placed immediately before the negated constituents, whereas the verb is optionally (but in the case of negated indefinites obligatorily) also in the negative form. The particle mitte is also used to express negation within an infinitive clause (72).
  
  Täna
  
  today
  
  ajalehed
  
  newspaper:PL
  
  ei
  
  NEG
  
  ilmu/ilmunud.
  
  appear:NEGV.PPTC
  
  Täna ajalehed ei ilmu/ilmunud.
  
  today newspaper:PL NEG appear:NEGV.PPTC
  
  ‘Today newspapers are not/were not published.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
  
  On DO Fronting:
  
  Ära
  
  IMP.NEG
  
  tee
  
  make.IMP.2SG
  
  rumalusi!
  
  stupid_thing.PL.PART
  
  Ära tee rumalusi!
  
  IMP.NEG make.IMP.2SG stupid_thing.PL.PART
  
  ‘Don’t act stupid!’
  
  Ära
  
  IMP.NEG
  
  homme
  
  tomorrow
  
  tule!
  
  come.IMP.2SG
  
  Ära homme tule!
  
  IMP.NEG tomorrow come.IMP.2SG
  
  ‘Don’t come tomorrow!’
  
  Constituent negation:
  
  See
  
  it
  
  ei
  
  NEG
  
  ole
  
  be.NEGV
  
  see
  
  it
  
  on
  
  be.3SG
  
  (mitte)
  
  (NEG)
  
  raha,
  
  money
  
  vaid
  
  but
  
  tunnustus.
  
  recognition
  
  See ei ole / see on (mitte) raha, vaid tunnustus.
  
  it NEG be.NEGV / it be.3SG (NEG) money but recognition
  
  ‘It is not the money but recognition.’
  
  Mind
  
  I:PART
  
  ei
  
  NEG
  
  häiri
  
  disturb.NEGV
  
  (*häirib)
  
  (*disturb:3SG)
  
  (mitte)
  
  (NEG)
  
  miski.
  
  something
  
  Mind ei häiri (*häirib) (mitte) miski.
  
  I:PART NEG disturb.NEGV (*disturb:3SG) (NEG) something
  
  ‘Nothing can disturb me.’
  
  Palun
  
  beg:1SG
  
  teid
  
  you:PART
  
  mitte
  
  NEG
  
  karjuda!
  
  shout:DINF
  
  Palun teid mitte karjuda!
  
  beg:1SG you:PART NEG shout:DINF
  
  ‘Don’t shout please!’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
  
  ### Modifiers
  
  See Adjectival Agreement.
  
  ### Conjunctions
  
  * aga (but)
  * et (that)
  * ja (and)
  * kas (whether)
  * kui (if)
  * nagu (as)
  * sest (because)
  * või (or)
  