title: Istro-Romanian grammar
text: # Istro-Romanian grammar
  
  Istro-Romanian grammar expresses the structure of the Istro-Romanian language It is similar to those of other Eastern Romance languages.
  
  ## Morphology
  
  Istro-Romanian is thought to have evolved from Daco-Romanian (which instead may have evolved independently). The evolution shows two distinct features. Noun declension shows a rationalisation of forms: normal noun declension almost totally disappeared in Istro-Romanian, whereas verbal inflexion is more conservative and its evolution is not as pronounced.
  
  ## Grammar
  
  ### Articles
  
  Articles have two forms: definite and indefinite. The definite article may be nominal or adjectival, the nominal being added to nouns, and the adjectival placed before adjectives.
  
  The nominal forms are: for masculine nouns: -l and -le, for feminine -a in the singular, and for masculine -i and feminine -le in the plural. As in spoken Daco-Romanian, the -l of the masculine singular definite article is dropped, leaving the linking -u- vowel, e.g. DR lupul > IR lupu (the wolf), DR ursul > IR ursu (the bear), DR mielul > IR mľelu (the lamb).
  
  The -le ending is used for all masculine singular nouns ending in -e, e.g. fråtele (the brother), sorele (the sun), cărele (the dog). Some examples of masculine nouns showing case endings, nominative=accusative, genitive=dative. The vocative case is not shown as this normally corresponds with the nominative.
  
  * fiľ (son), fiľi (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | fiľu | hiljlu | iľiu | fiul | the son |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu fiľu | a hiljlui | lu iľiu | al fiului | of/to the son |
  | Nom/Acc pl. | fiľi | hiljli | iľii | fiii | the sons |
  | Gen/Dat pl. | lu fiľi | a hiljlor | lu iľii | al fiilor | of/to the sons |
  
  * socru (father-in-law), socri (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | socru | socrulu | socru | socrul | the father-in-law |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu socru | a socrului | lu socru | al socrului | of/to the father-in-law |
  | Nom/Acc pl. | socri | socri | socri | socrii | the fathers-in-law |
  | Gen/Dat pl. | lu socri | a socrilor | lu socri | al socrilor | of/to the fathers-in-law |
  
  * fråte (brother), fråţ (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | fråtele | frate | frateli | fratele | the brother |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu fråtele | a fratelui | lu frateli | al fratelui | of/to the brother |
  | Nom/Acc pl. | fråţ | fratslji | fraţili | fraţii | the brothers |
  | Gen/Dat pl. | lu fråţ | a fratslor | lu fraţilor | al fraţilor | of/to the brothers |
  
  The -a replaces -ĕ and -e, e.g. cåsĕ > cåsa (the house), nopte > nopta (the night); however a few feminine nouns ending in a stressed -e behave differently, e.g. ste > stevu (the star), ne > nevu (the snow).
  
  * fetĕ (girl), fete (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | feta | feata | feta | fata | the girl |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu feta | a featiljei | lu feta | al fetei | of/to the girl |
  
  * muľerĕ (woman), muľere (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | muľera | muljarea | muľiarea | muierea | the woman |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu muľera | a muljariljei | lu muľiarea | al muierei | of/to the woman |
  
  * ste (star), stele (pl.)
  
  | Case | Istro-Romanian | Aromanian | Megleno-Romanian | Romanian | English |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Nom/Acc sg. | stevu | steao | steua | steaua | the star |
  | Gen/Dat sg. | lu stevu | a steaoljei | lu steua | al stelei | of/to the star |
  | Nom/Acc pl. | stelele | steale | stelili | stelele | the stars |
  | Gen/Dat pl. | lu stelele | a stealilor | lu stelilor | al stelelor | of/to the stars |
  
  Neuter nouns behave as masculine nouns in the singular and feminine in the plural.
  
  * bråţ (arm), bråţe (pl.) – bråţu (the arm), bråţele (pl.)
  * os (bone), ose (pl.) – osu (the bone), osele (pl.)
  * zid (wall), zidur (pl.) – zidu (the wall), zidurle (pl.)
  * plug (plough), plugur (pl.) – plugu (the plough), plugurle (pl.)
  
  The forms of the adjectival article are ćela for the masculine and ćå for the feminine singular, and in the plural masculine ćeľ and feminine ćåle, e.g. ćela bur (the good one). The masculine indefinite article is un and feminine is o. The declension of the indefinite article has disappeared. Examples: un om (a man), un cå (a horse), o misĕ (a table), o båbĕ (an old woman).
  
  ### Adjectives
  
  Adjectives also have three genders, the masculine and feminine forms from the Latin, while the neuter form is of Slavic origin. E.g. bur, burĕ, buro (good). The comparative adjective is måi bur (better) and the superlative is ćel måi bur (the best).
  
  The adjective may precede the noun: bura zi ((the) good day), which in itself can be made definite by the change of -ĕ to -a; or follows the noun: feta muşåtĕ (the beautiful girl).
  
  ### Pronouns
  
  Definite pronouns can be personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative and interrogative.
  
  