title: Hittite grammar
text: # Hittite grammar
  
  The grammar of the Hittite language has a highly conservative verbal system and rich nominal declension. The language is attested in cuneiform, and is the earliest attested Indo-European language.
  
  ## Basic noun and adjective declension
  
  The nominal system consists of the following cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative-locative, ablative, ergative, allative, and instrumental, and distinguishes between two numbers (singular and plural) and two genders, common (animate) and neuter (inanimate). The distinction between genders is fairly rudimentary, with a distinction generally being made only in the nominative case, and the same noun is sometimes attested in both genders.
  
  The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below, which is valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. The sample word shown is antuhsa meaning "man".
  
  | | antuhsa man c. | antuhsa man c. | antuhsa man c. | antuhsa man c. |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Singular | Plural | Plural |
  | Nominative | antuhsas | -s | antuhses | -es |
  | Ergative | antuhsanza | -anz(a) | antuhsantēs | -antēs |
  | Vocative | antuhsa | -∅ | antuhsa | -∅ |
  | Accusative | antuhsan | -n | antuhsus | -us |
  | Genitive | antuhsas | -as | antuhsas | -as |
  | Dative/locative | antuhsi | -i | antuhsas | -as |
  | Ablative | antuhsaz(a) | -az(a) | antuhsaz(a) | -az(a) |
  | Allative | antuhsa | -a | antuhsas | -as |
  | Instrumental | antuhsit | -it | antuhsit | -it |
  
  ## Verb conjugation
  
  When compared with other early-attested Indo-European languages, such as Ancient Greek and Sanskrit, the verb system in Hittite is morphologically relatively uncomplicated. There are two general verbal classes according to which verbs are inflected, the mi-conjugation and the hi-conjugation. There are two voices (active and medio-passive), two moods (indicative and imperative), two aspects (perfective and imperfective), and two tenses (present and preterite).
  
  Additionally, the verbal system displays two infinitive forms, one verbal substantive, a supine and a participle. Rose (2006) lists 132 hi-verbs and interprets the hi/mi oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice").
  
  The basic conjugational endings are as follows:
  
  Hittite Conjugation :
  
  | | Active | Active | Mediopassive |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | | mi-conj. | hi-conj. | Mediopassive |
  | Indicative Present-Future ||||
  | Sg. 1 | -mi | -(ah)hi | -hahari (-hari, -ha) |
  | 2 | -si | -ti | -ta(ti) |
  | 3 | -zi | -i | -(t)a(ri) |
  | Pl. 1 | -weni | -weni | -wasta(ti) |
  | 2 | -teni | -teni | -duma(ri) |
  | 3 | -anzi | -anzi | -anta(ri) |
  | Indicative Preterite ||||
  | Sg. 1 | -(n)un | -hun | -(ha)hat(i) |
  | 2 | -s (-t, -ta) | -ta (-sta) | -at, -ta, -tat(i) |
  | 3 | -t(a) | -s (-ta, -sta) | -at(i), -ta, -tat(i) |
  | Pl. 1 | -wen | -wen | -wastat |
  | 2 | -ten (-tin) | -ten (-tin) | -dumat |
  | 3 | -er (-ir) | -er (-ir) | -antat(i) |
  | Imperative ||||
  | Sg. 1 | -(a)llu | -allu | -(ha)haru |
  | 2 | - (-i, -t) | - (-i) | -hut(i) |
  | 3 | -du | -u | -(t)aru |
  | Pl. 1 | -weni | -weni | -wastati |
  | 2 | -ten (-tin) | -ten (-tin) | -dumat(i) |
  | 3 | -andu | -andu | -antaru |
  
  Nonfinite Verbal Forms :
  
  | Set | Verbal substantive | Infinitive | Supine | Participle |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Ia | -war (gen. -was) | -wanzi | -wan | -ant- |
  | Ib | -mar (gen. -mas) | -manzi | -wan | -ant- |
  | II | -ātar (gen. -annas) | -anna | -wan | -ant- |
  
  The Set I endings are default; the Set II endings are taken primarily by monosyllabic Ablauting mi-verbs. Within Set I verbs, the Ib endings are taken by stems ending in -u.
  
  ## Syntax
  
  Hittite is a head-final language, with it has subject-object-verb word order. It also has a split ergative alignment.
  
  Hittite syntax shows one noteworthy feature that is typical of Anatolian languages: commonly, the beginning of a sentence or clause is composed of either a sentence-connecting particle or otherwise a fronted or topicalized form, and a "chain" of fixed-order clitics is then appended.
  
  ## Literature
  
  ### Dictionaries
  
  * Goetze, Albrecht (1954). Review of: Johannes Friedrich, Hethitisches Wörterbuch (Heidelberg: Winter). Language 30.401–405.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1931). Hittite glossary: words of known or conjectured meaning, with Sumerian ideograms and Accadian words common in Hittite texts. Language, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 3–82., Language Monograph No. 9.
  * Puhvel, Jaan (1984–). Hittite Etymological Dictionary. Berlin: Mouton.
  
  ### Grammar
  
  * Hoffner, Harry A.; Melchert, H. Craig (2008). A Grammar of the Hittite Language. Winona: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-119-1.
  * Hrozný, Friedrich (1917). Die Sprache der Hethiter, ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit zum indogermanischen Sprachstamm. Ein Entzifferungsversuch. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung.
  * Jasanoff, Jay H. (2003). Hittite and the Indo-European Verb. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924905-9.
  * Luraghi, Silvia (1997). Hittite. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-076-X.
  * Melchert, H. Craig (1994). Anatolian Historical Phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-5183-697-X.
  * Patri, Sylvain (2007). L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-05612-0.
  * Rose, S. R. (2006). The Hittite -hi/-mi conjugations. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. ISBN 3-85124-704-3.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1933, 1951). Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951. First edition: 1933.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1940). The Indo-Hittite laryngeals. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
  * Watkins, Calvert (2004). "Hittite". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages: 551–575. ISBN 0-521-56256-2.
  * Yakubovich, Ilya (2010). Sociolinguistics of the Luwian Language. Leiden: Brill.
  
  ### Text editions
  
  * Goetze, Albrecht & Edgar H. Sturtevant (1938). The Hittite Ritual of Tunnawi. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. A., & George Bechtel (1935). A Hittite Chrestomathy. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
  * Knudtzon, J. A. (1902). Die Zwei Arzawa-Briefe: Die ältesten Urkunden in indogermanischer Sprache. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
  
  ### Journal articles
  
  * Hrozný, Bedřich (1915). "Die Lösung des hethitischen Problems". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. 56: 17–50.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1932). "The Development of the Stops in Hittite". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 52 (1): 1–12. doi:10.2307/593573. JSTOR 593573.
  * Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1940). "Evidence for voicing in Hittite g". Language. Linguistic Society of America. 16 (2): 81–87. doi:10.2307/408942. JSTOR 408942.
  * Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A note on the linguistic form of Hittite sheep". Revue hittite et asianique. 22: 117–118.
  * Wittmann, Henri (1973) [1964]. "Some Hittite etymologies". Die Sprache. 10, 19: 144–148, 39–43.
  * Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The development of K in Hittite". Glossa. 3: 22–26.
  * Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A lexico-statistic inquiry into the diachrony of Hittite". Indogermanische Forschungen. 74: 1–10.
  * Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The Indo-European drift and the position of Hittite". International Journal of American Linguistics. 35 (3): 266–268. doi:10.1086/465065. S2CID 106405518.
  