title: Pashto grammar
text: # Pashto grammar
  
  Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case (direct, oblique, ablative and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms.
  
  In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é.
  
  ## Pronouns
  
  * Note: هغه as a demonstrative pronoun (that) has initial stress [háğa] whereas the personal pronoun (he, she, it) has final stress [hağá].
  
  ### Personal pronouns
  
  | | | | | (English) | Direct | Indirect |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | singular | singular | singular | I | زه zə | ما mā |
  | 1st person | plural | plural | plural | we | موږ\مونږ muẓ̌/munẓ̌ | موږ\مونږ muẓ̌/munẓ̌ |
  | 2nd person | singular | singular | singular | you (sing.) | ته tə | تا tā |
  | 2nd person | plural | plural | plural | you (plur.) | تاسو\تاسې tā́so/tā́se | تاسو\تاسې tā́so/tā́se |
  | 3rd person | visible | singular | masc. | he | دی day | دۀ də |
  | 3rd person | visible | singular | fem. | she | دا dā | دې de |
  | 3rd person | visible | plural | plural | they | دوی dui | دوی dui |
  | 3rd person | invisible | singular | masc. | he (invis.) | هغه hağá | هغۀ hağә́ |
  | 3rd person | invisible | singular | fem. | she (invis.) | | هغې hağé |
  | 3rd person | invisible | plural | plural | they (invis.) | هغوی hağúi | هغوی hağúi |
  
  ### Demonstrative pronouns
  
  دغه dağa (this) :
  
  | Direct | دغه dáğa |
  | - | - |
  | Indirect | دې de |
  
  هغه háğa (that) :
  
  | | Singular | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | | Masc. | Fem. | Plural |
  | Direct | هغه háğa | هغه háğa | هغه háğa |
  | Indirect | هغۀ háğә | هغې háğe | هغو háğo |
  
  ### Possessive pronouns
  
  There is no plural form with nouns.
  
  Independent forms :
  
  | | | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | 1st person | 1st person | زما zmā | زموږ\زمونږ zamuẓ̌/zamung |
  | 2nd person | 2nd person | 2nd person | ستا stā | ستاسو stā́so |
  | 3rd person | visible | masc. | د دۀ də də | د دوی də dúi |
  | 3rd person | visible | fem. | د دې də de | د دوی də dúi |
  | 3rd person | invis. | masc. | د هغۀ də hağә́ | د هغوی də hağúi |
  | 3rd person | invis. | fem. | د هغې də hağé | د هغوی də hağúi |
  
  Enclitic forms :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | مې me | مو mo, mu |
  | 2nd person | دې de, di | مو mo, mu |
  | 3rd person | يې ye | يې ye |
  
  ### Interrogative pronouns
  
  | | | who | which | which [ord. numbers] Literary | which [ord. numbers] Yusapzai | what | how many | how much | how |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Direct | Masc. | څوک tsok | کوم kom | څووم tsowə́m | څويم swajə́m | څه tsə | څومره tsómra | څونه tsóna | څنګه tsə́nga |
  | Direct | Fem. | څوک tsok | کومه kóma | څوومه tsowə́ma | څويمه swaima | څه tsə | څومره tsómra | څونه tsóna | څنګه tsə́nga |
  | Oblique | Masc. | چا čā | کوم kom | څووم tsowə́m | څويم swajə́m | څه tsə | څومره tsómra | څونه tsóna | څنګه tsə́nga |
  | Oblique | Fem. | چا čā | کومې kóme | څوومې tsowə́me | څويمې swaime | څه tsə | څومره tsómra | څونه tsóna | څنګه tsə́nga |
  
  **Indefinite**
  
  * In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ 'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ 'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ 'something'.
  * When هر /har, ar/ 'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone [هر څوک], everything [هر څه], each one [هر یو]
  
  ## Nouns
  
  ### Case and gender
  
  Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative (also known as oblique II) and vocative. The oblique case is used as prepositional case as well as in the past tense as the subject of transitive verbs (i.e. in ergative construction), and the ablative case is used with certain prepositions and with some numerals.
  
  There are two genders: masculine and feminine. Gender of a noun is indicated by its ending. Animate nouns' gender agrees with biological gender regardless of the ending.
  
  | Masculine Nouns | Masculine Nouns | Feminine Nouns | Feminine Nouns |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Ending Phoneme | Ending Phoneme | Ending Phoneme | Ending Phoneme |
  | Ends in diphthong oɪ | Ends in diphthong oɪ | Ends in diphthong əi | Ends in diphthong əi |
  | زوی zoy | son | هوسۍ hosә́i | deer |
  | Ends in diphthong ɑi | Ends in diphthong ɑi | Ends in e | Ends in e |
  | ځای dzā́y | place | ملګرې malgә́re | friend [female] |
  | Ends in unstressed aɪ | Ends in unstressed aɪ | Ends in unstressed a | Ends in unstressed a |
  | ګاډی gā́ḍay | car | ژبه žә́ba | tongue, language |
  | Ends in stressed aɪ | Ends in stressed aɪ | Ends in o | Ends in o |
  | سړی saṛáy | man | پيشو pišó | cat |
  | Ends in stressed a [few nouns] | Ends in stressed a [few nouns] | Ends in stressed a [most nouns] | Ends in stressed a [most nouns] |
  | ګېنډه genḍá | rhino | مېله melá | a fair |
  | Ends in ə | Ends in ə | | |
  | ورارۀ wrārә́ | brother's son | | |
  | Ends in consonant [most nouns] | Ends in consonant [most nouns] | Ends in consonant [few nouns] | Ends in consonant [few nouns] |
  | تنور tanúr | oven | مېچن mečә́n | handmill |
  | Ends in u | Ends in u | | |
  | څانډو tsānḍú | husband of a wife's sister | | |
  | Ends in diphthong aw | Ends in diphthong aw | Ends in əw | Ends in əw |
  | پلو paláw | side | کټو kaṭә́w | cooking pot |
  | End in i [only for professions] | End in i [only for professions] | End in i [most nouns] | End in i [most nouns] |
  | دوبي dobí | washerman | بدي badí | hostility |
  | Ends in ɑ [few nouns] | Ends in ɑ [few nouns] | Ends in ɑ [most nouns] | Ends in ɑ [most nouns] |
  | ماما māmā́ | maternal uncle | رڼا raṇā́ | light |
  
  Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as demonstratives. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" – "a hospital".
  
  ### Class 1
  
  **Masculine nouns**
  
  Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان -ā́n in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه -úna. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ meṛә́ "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه meṛúna, and پل pul "bridge" is animate — پلان pulā́n.
  
  The nouns ending in -i, -ā (these are always animate) or -u (these can be both animate and inanimate) take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels.
  
  Words ending in -āCә́ pattern (like وادۀ wādә́ "wedding") have short -a- in plural.
  
  Ending in a consonant (animate) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | | ان ā́n |
  | Oblique | | انو ā́no |
  | Ablative | ه a | انو ā́no |
  | Vocative | ه a | انو ā́no |
  
  Ending in a consonant (inanimate) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | | ونه úna |
  | Oblique | | ونو úno |
  | Ablative | ه a | ونو úno |
  | Vocative | ه a | ونو úno |
  
  Ending in -ә́ (animate) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ۀ ә́ | ان ā́n |
  | Oblique | ۀ ә́ | انو ā́no |
  | Ablative | ۀ ә́ | انو ā́no |
  | Vocative | ۀ ә́ | انو ā́no |
  
  Ending in -ә́ (inanimate) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ۀ ә́ | ونه úna |
  | Oblique | ۀ ә́ | ونو úno |
  | Ablative | ۀ ә́ | ونو úno |
  | Vocative | ۀ ә́ | ونو úno |
  
  Ending in -i :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ي i | يان yā́n |
  | Oblique | ي i | یانو yā́no |
  | Ablative | ي i | یانو yā́no |
  | Vocative | ي i | یانو yā́no |
  
  Ending in -ā :
  
  | | Singular | Plural 1 | Plural 2 |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ا ā | ايان āyā́n | اګان āgā́n |
  | Oblique | ا ā | ايانو āyā́no | اګانو āgā́no |
  | Ablative | ا ā | ايانو āyā́no | اګانو āgā́no |
  | Vocative | ا ā | ايانو āyā́no | اګانو āgā́no |
  
  Ending in -u :
  
  | | Singular | Plural 1 | Plural 2 |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Direct | و u | وان wā́n | ګان gā́n |
  | Oblique | و u | وانو wā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  | Ablative | و u | وانو wā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  | Vocative | و u | وانو wā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  
  Examples
  
  پلار "father" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | پلار plār | پلرونه plərunə |
  | Oblique | پلار plār | پلرونو pləruno |
  | Ablative | پلاره plā́ra | پلرونو pləruno |
  | Vocative | پلاره plā́ra | پلرونو pləruno |
  
  غوږ "ear" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | غوږ ğwəg | غوږونه ğwəgúna |
  | Oblique | غوږ ğwəg | غوږونو ğwəgúno |
  | Ablative | غوږه ğwə́ga | غوږونو ğwəgúno |
  | Vocative | غوږه ğwə́ga | غوږونو ğwəgúno |
  
  لېوۀ "wolf" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | لېوۀ lewә́ | لېوان lewā́n |
  | Oblique | لېوۀ lewә́ | لېوانو lewā́no |
  | Ablative | لېوۀ lewә́ | لېوانو lewā́no |
  | Vocative | لېوۀ lewә́ | لېوانو lewā́no |
  
  زړۀ "heart" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | زړۀ zṛә́ | زړونه zṛúna |
  | Oblique | زړۀ zṛә́ | زړونو zṛúno |
  | Ablative | زړۀ zṛә́ | زړونو zṛúno |
  | Vocative | زړۀ zṛә́ | زړونو zṛúno |
  
  وادۀ "wedding" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | وادۀ wādә́ | ودونه wadúna |
  | Oblique | وادۀ wādә́ | ودونو wadúno |
  | Ablative | وادۀ wādә́ | ودونو wadúno |
  | Vocative | وادۀ wādә́ | ودونو wadúno |
  
  درزي "tailor" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | درزي darzí | درزيان darzyā́n |
  | Oblique | درزي darzí | درزیانو darzyā́no |
  | Ablative | درزي darzí | درزیانو darzyā́no |
  | Vocative | درزي darzí | درزیانو darzyā́no |
  
  باچا "king" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | باچا bāčā́ | باچايان bāčāyā́n |
  | Oblique | باچا bāčā́ | باچايانو bāčāyā́no |
  | Ablative | باچا bāčā́ | باچايانو bāčāyā́no |
  | Vocative | باچا bāčā́ | باچايانو bāčāyā́no |
  
  ماما "(maternal) uncle" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ماما māmā́ | ماماګان māmāgā́n |
  | Oblique | ماما māmā́ | ماماګانو māmāgā́no |
  | Ablative | ماما māmā́ | ماماګانو māmāgā́no |
  | Vocative | ماما māmā́ | ماماګانو māmāgā́no |
  
  ډاکو "bandit" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ډاکو ḍākú | ډاکوان ḍākwā́n |
  | Oblique | ډاکو ḍākú | ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no |
  | Ablative | ډاکو ḍākú | ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no |
  | Vocative | ډاکو ḍākú | ډاکوانو ḍākwā́no |
  
  الو "potato" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | الو alú | الوګان alugā́n |
  | Oblique | الو alú | الوګانو alugā́no |
  | Ablative | الو alú | الوګانو alugā́no |
  | Vocative | الو alú | الوګانو alugā́no |
  
  **Feminine nouns**
  
  Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings.
  
  In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه stә́rga "eye" and لار lār "way" would be سترګې stә́rge and لارې lā́re in the North, but سترګي stә́rgi and لاري lā́ri in the South, while مڼه maṇá "apple" and تخته taxtá "board" would be مڼې maṇé and تختې taxté in both dialect groups.
  
  There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې -yā́ne in the plural) and -ā or -o (they take either ګانې -gā́ne or وې -we). In Southern Pashto they are یاني -yā́ni, ګاني -gā́ni and وي -wi (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns).
  
  Ending in -a :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ه a | ې e |
  | Oblique | ې e | و o |
  | Ablative | ې e | و o |
  | Vocative | ې e | و o |
  
  Ending in a consonant :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | | ې e |
  | Oblique | ې e | و o |
  | Ablative | ې e | و o |
  | Vocative | ې e | و o |
  
  Ending in -e :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ې e | یانې yā́ne |
  | Oblique | ې e | یانو yā́no |
  | Ablative | ې e | یانو yā́no |
  | Vocative | ې e | یانو yā́no |
  
  Ending in -ā and -o :
  
  | | Plural |
  | - | - |
  | Direct | ګانې or وې gā́ne or we |
  | Oblique | ګانو or وو gā́no or wo |
  | Ablative | ګانو or وو gā́no or wo |
  | Vocative | ګانو or وو gā́no or wo |
  
  Examples
  
  اسپه "horse, mare" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | اسپه áspa | اسپې áspe |
  | Oblique | اسپې áspe | اسپو áspo |
  | Ablative | اسپې áspe | اسپو áspo |
  | Vocative | اسپې áspe | اسپو áspo |
  
  مياشت "month" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | مياشت myā́št | مياشتې myā́šte |
  | Oblique | مياشتې myā́šte | مياشتو myā́što |
  | Ablative | مياشتې myā́šte | مياشتو myā́što |
  | Vocative | مياشتې myā́šte | مياشتو myā́što |
  
  خواښې "mother-in-law" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | خواښې xwā́x̌e | خواښیانې xwax̌yā́ne |
  | Oblique | خواښې xwā́x̌e | خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no |
  | Ablative | خواښې xwā́x̌e | خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no |
  | Vocative | خواښې xwā́x̌e | خواښیانو xwax̌yā́no |
  
  رڼا "light" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | رڼا raṇā́ | رڼاوې or رڼاګانې raṇā́we or raṇāgā́ne |
  | Oblique | رڼا raṇā́ | رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no |
  | Ablative | رڼا raṇā́ | رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no |
  | Vocative | رڼا raṇā́ | رڼاوو or رڼاګانو raṇā́wo or raṇāgā́no |
  
  بیزو "monkey" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | بیزو bizó | بیزوګانې or بیزووې bizogā́ne or bizówe |
  | Oblique | بیزو bizó | بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo |
  | Ablative | بیزو bizó | بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo |
  | Vocative | بیزو bizó | بیزوګانو or بیزوو bizogā́no or bizówo |
  
  ### Class 2
  
  In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms.
  
  Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور tanúr "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز paléz "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes.
  
  There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه melma "guest", اسبه asba "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ğoba "(cow) shepherd", کوربه korba "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2.
  
  Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ğar "mountain", ور war "door", ګز gaz "gaz (unit of length)", من man "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ṭağar "rug" take ونه -úna in the plural form (غرونه ğrúna, ورونه warúna/wrúna etc).
  
  Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take (or not take) -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن.
  
  With -ú/ó- :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | úC, óC | āCə́ |
  | Oblique | āCə́ | aCó |
  | Ablative | úCa, óCa | aCó |
  | Vocative | úCa, óCa | aCó |
  
  Mixed :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | úC, óC | uCúna, oCúna or əCúna |
  | Oblique | uCə́, óCə́ | uCúno, oCúno or əCúno |
  | Ablative | úCa, óCa | uCúno, oCúno or əCúno |
  | Vocative | úCa, óCa | uCúno, oCúno or əCúno |
  
  Examples
  
  پښتون "Pashtun" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | پښتون pəx̌tún | پښتانه pəx̌tānə́ |
  | Oblique | پښتانه pəx̌tānə́ | پښتنو pəx̌tanó |
  | Ablative | پښتونه pəx̌túna | پښتنو pəx̌tanó |
  | Vocative | پښتونه pəx̌túna | پښتنو pəx̌tanó |
  
  شپون "shepherd" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | شپون špún | ښپانۀ špānə́ |
  | Oblique | ښپانۀ špānə́ | شپنو španó |
  | Ablative | شپونه špúna | شپنو španó |
  | Vocative | شپونه špúna | شپنو španó |
  
  سکور "coal" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | سکور skór | سکارۀ skārə́ |
  | Oblique | سکارۀ skārə́ | سکرو skaró |
  | Ablative | سکوره skóra | سکرو skaró |
  | Vocative | سکوره skóra | سکرو skaró |
  
  تنور "oven" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | تنور tanúr | تنرونه or تنورونه tanərúna or tanurúna |
  | Oblique | تناره tanārə́ | تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno |
  | Ablative | تنوره tanúra | تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno |
  | Vocative | تنوره tanúra | تنرونو or تنورونو tanərúno or tanurúno |
  
  تول "weight" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | تول tol | تولونه tolúna |
  | Oblique | تالۀ tālə́ | تولونو tolúno |
  | Ablative | توله tóla | تولونو tolúno |
  | Vocative | توله tóla | تولونو tolúno |
  
  مېلمه "guest" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | مېلمه melmá | مېلمانه or مېلمه melmānə́ or melmə́ |
  | Oblique | مېلمانه or مېلمه melmānə́ or melmə́ | مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó |
  | Ablative | مېلمه melmá | مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó |
  | Vocative | مېلمه melmá | مېلمنو or مېلمو melmanó or melmó |
  
  غل "thief" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | غل ğal | غله ğlə |
  | Oblique | غله ğlə | غلو ğlo |
  | Ablative | غله ğála | غلو ğlo |
  | Vocative | غله ğála | غلو ğlo |
  
  غر "mountain" (exception) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | غر ğar | غرونه or (rare) غرۀ ğrúna or ğrə |
  | Oblique | غر ğar | غرونو ğrúno |
  | Ablative | غره ğára ğrə | غرونو ğrúno |
  | Vocative | غره ğára ğrə | غرونو ğrúno |
  
  دښمن "enemy" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | دښمن dux̌mán | دښمن or دښمنان dux̌mə́n or dux̌mənā́n |
  | Oblique | دښمن dux̌mə́n | دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no |
  | Ablative | دښمنه dux̌mána | دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no |
  | Vocative | دښمنه dux̌mána | دښمنو or دښمنانو dux̌mə́no or dux̌mənā́no |
  
  پالېز "kitchen garden" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | پالېز paléz | پلېزونه palezúna |
  | Oblique | پالېزۀ or پالېز palezə́ or paléz | پلېزونو palezúno |
  | Ablative | پلېزه paléza | پلېزونو palezúno |
  | Vocative | پلېزه paléza | پلېزونو palezúno |
  
  ### Class 3
  
  Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e.
  
  Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto.
  
  Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here.
  
  Ending in -ay (masculine) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural 1 | Plural 2 |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ی ay | ي i | يان yā́n |
  | Oblique | ي í | و or یو o or әyo/iyo | يانو yā́no |
  | Ablative | یه aya | و or یو o or әyo/iyo | يانو yā́no |
  | Vocative | یه aya | و or یو o or әyo/iyo | يانو yā́no |
  
  Ending in -e (feminine) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ې e | ې e |
  | Oblique | ې e | و or یو o or әyo/iyo |
  | Ablative | ې e | و or یو o or әyo/iyo |
  | Vocative | ې e | و or یو o or әyo/iyo |
  
  Ending in -əy (feminine) :
  
  | | Singular | Plural 1 | Plural 2 | Plural 3 |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ۍ, ي ə́y, i | ۍ ə́y | یانې yā́ne | ګانې gā́ne |
  | Oblique | ۍ, ي ə́y, i | و o | یانو yā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  | Ablative | ۍ, ي ə́y, i | و o | یانو yā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  | Vocative | ۍ, ي ə́y, i | و o | یانو yā́no | ګانو gā́no |
  
  Examples
  
  سپی "dog" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | سپی spáy | سپي or سپیان spí or spiyā́n |
  | Oblique | سپي spí | سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no |
  | Ablative | سپیه spáya | سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no |
  | Vocative | سپیه spáya | سپو or سپیو or سپیانو spó or spío or spiyā́no |
  
  سپۍ "she-dog" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | سپۍ spə́i | سپۍ or سپیانې or سپۍګانې spə́y or spə́iyā́ne or spə́igā́ne |
  | Oblique | سپۍ spə́i | سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no |
  | Ablative | سپۍ spə́i | سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no |
  | Vocative | سپۍ spə́i | سپیو or سپیانو or سپۍګانو spə́yo or spə́iyā́no or spə́igā́no |
  
  ملګری "male friend" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ملګری malgə́ray | ملګري malgə́ri |
  | Oblique | ملګري malgə́ri | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  | Ablative | ملګریه malgə́rya | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  | Vocative | ملګریه malgə́rya | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  
  ملګرې "female friend" :
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ملګرې malgə́re | ملګرې malgə́re |
  | Oblique | ملګرې malgə́re | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  | Ablative | ملګرې malgə́re | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  | Vocative | ملګرې malgə́re | ملګرو or ملګریو malgə́ro or malgə́ryo |
  
  ### Uncountable nouns
  
  They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms.
  
  Feminine Examples include اوړه [oṛә́ – flour], اوبه [obә́ -water], پۍ [pə́i – milk] etc.
  
  Example: اوبه – water
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | اوبه obә́ | اوبه obә́ |
  | Oblique | اوبو obó | اوبو obó |
  | Ablative | اوبو obó | اوبو obó |
  | Vocative | اوبو obó | اوبو obó |
  
  Example: پۍ – milk
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | پۍ pə́i | پۍ pə́i |
  | Oblique | پيو pə́io | پيو pə́io |
  | Ablative | پيو pə́io | پيو pə́io |
  | Vocative | پيو pə́io | پيو pə́io |
  
  Masculine Examples include: ږدن [ẓ̌dәn -sorghum], دال [dāl -lentils], شراب [šarā́b – alcohol]
  
  Example: دال – lentils
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | دال dāl | دال dāl |
  | Oblique | دالو dā́lo | دالو dā́lo |
  | Ablative | دالو dā́lo | دالو dā́lo |
  | Vocative | داله dā́la | داله dā́la |
  
  ### Irregular nouns
  
  These are limited to nouns denoting kinship.
  
  Feminine – "or" stem These include:
  
  مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/
  
  خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/
  
  ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/
  
  نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/
  
  Example:
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | مور mor | مېندې máynde |
  | Oblique | مور mor | مېندو máyndo |
  | Ablative | مورې móre | مېندو máyndo |
  | Vocative | مورې móre | مېندو máyndo |
  
  Brother and daughter ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | ورور wror | وروڼه wrúṇa |
  | Oblique | ورور wror | وروڼو wrúṇo |
  | Ablative | وروره wrorá | وروڼو wrúṇo |
  | Vocative | وروره wrorá | وروڼو wrúṇo |
  
  لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | لور lur | لوڼې lúṇe |
  | Oblique | لور lur | لوڼو lúṇo |
  | Ablative | لورې lúre | لوڼو lúṇo |
  | Vocative | لورې lúre | لوڼو lúṇo |
  
  Son
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | Direct | زوی zoy | زامن zāmə́n |
  | Oblique | زوی zoy | زامنو zāmə́no |
  | Ablative | زویه zoya | زامنو zāmə́no |
  | Vocative | زویه zoya | زامنو zāmə́no |
  
  ## Adjectives
  
  An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto [ستاينوم]. The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.
  
  | | | | Class 1 | Class 2 | Class 2 | Class 3 | Class 3 |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | | | Category 1 | Category 2 | Category 3 | Category 4 | Category 5 |
  | Masculine | Singular | Direct | - | - | - | -ay | -ay |
  | Masculine | Singular | Oblique II | -a | -a | -a | -aya | -i |
  | Masculine | Singular | Vocative | -a | -a | -a | -aya | -e |
  | Masculine | Singular | Oblique | - | -ə | -ə | -i | -i |
  | Masculine | Plural | Direct | - | -ə | -ə | -i | -i |
  | Masculine | Plural | Oblique/Vocative | -o | -o | -o | -io/-o | -yo/-o |
  | Feminine | Singular | Direct | -a | -a | -a | -əy | -e |
  | Feminine | Singular | Oblique II | -a | -a | -a | -əy | -e |
  | Feminine | Singular | Vocative | -e | -e | -e | | | -əy | -e |
  | Feminine | Singular | Oblique I | -e | -e | -e | -əy | -e |
  | Feminine | Plural | Direct | -e | -e | -e | -əy | -e |
  | Feminine | Plural | Oblique/Vocative | -o | -o | -o | -əyo/-o | -yo/-o |
  
  Notes:
  
  * In the plural, both obliques and the vocative merge into a single form.
  * Singular Oblique I and plural Direct always merge into a single form.
  * The above two conditions mean that there can be at most five distinct forms for masculine adjectives (but in fact, no class distinguishes more than four).
  * For feminine adjectives, singular Oblique I and Vocative merge, while singular Direct and Oblique II merge; combined with mergers noted previously, there can be at most three distinct forms for feminine adjectives.
  * Categories 2 and 3 have stem and stress alternations among different cases. Category 3 has a basic distinction between the masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, with stem stress, and all other forms, with a (sometimes) different stem and with ending stress (e.g. masc. trīx, fem. traxá "bitter"; masc. sūr, fem. srá "red"; masc. sōṛ, fem. saṛá "cold"; fem. raṇā "light" with only one stem). Category 2 has the same stress alternation, but has three distinct stems, with stressed stem vowel 'o' or 'u' in masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, unstressed stem vowel 'ā' in masculine singular Oblique I and plural Direct, and unstressed stem vowel 'a' in all other forms (e.g. masc. sing. pōx, masc. plur. pāxǝ́, fem. paxá "ripe, cooked").
  
  ### Class 1
  
  **Case-marking suffixes**
  
  Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | | | ه a | ې e |
  | Oblique | | و o | ې e | و o |
  | Ablative | ه a | ه a | | ې e | و o |
  | Vocative | ه a | ه a | ې e | و o |
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either:
  
  * Vowel harmony
  
  or
  
  * Centralization
  
  In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Vowel harmony**
  
  Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Centralization**
  
  Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.
  
  **Class I forms with stem allomorphy**
  
  Example 1 = سپک (light – in weight)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | سپک spak spək (Southern) | سپک spak spək (Southern) | سپکه spáka spə́ka (Southern) | سپکې spáke سپکي spə́ki (Southern) |
  | Oblique | سپک spak spək (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) | سپکې spáke سپکي spə́ki (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) |
  | Ablative | سپکه spáka spə́ka (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) | سپکې spáke سپکي spə́ki (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) |
  | Vocative | سپکه spáka spə́ka (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) | سپکې spáke سپکي spə́ki (Southern) | سپکو spáko spə́ko (Southern) spóko (Southern) |
  
  The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule.
  
  Example 2 = زړور (brave)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | زړور zṛawár | زړور zṛawár zṛawə́r (Southern) | زړوره zṛawára | زړورې zṛawáre زړوري zṛawə́ri (Southern) |
  | Oblique | زړور zṛawár | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Southern) | زړورې zṛawáre زړوري zṛawə́ri (Southern) | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Sothern) |
  | Ablative | زړوره zṛawár | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Southern) | زړورې zṛawáre زړوري zṛawə́ri (Southern) | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Sothern) |
  | Vocative | زړوره zṛawár | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Southern) | زړورې zṛawáre زړوري zṛawə́ri (Southern) | زړورو zṛawáro zṛawə́ro (Sothern) |
  
  The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.
  
  **Animacy**
  
  When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example:
  
  Məʃarɑn
  
  wruɳa
  
  Məʃarɑn wruɳa
  
  'Elder brothers'
  
  ### Class 2
  
  Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( ه /‑ə́/). Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed) is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.
  
  **Case-marking suffixes**
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | -Ø | ۀ ə́ | ه á | ې é |
  | Oblique | ۀ ə́ | و ó | ې é | و ó |
  | Ablative | ه – | و ó | ې é | و ó |
  | Vocative | ه – | و ó | ې é | و ó |
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives (which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:
  
  * Syncope I
  * Back vowel lowering
  * Monophthongization
  * Lengthening
  * Syncope II
  * Epenthesis
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Syncope I**
  
  * V2 → Ø/ V́1_
  * V́1 → Ø/ _V́2
  
  If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives.
  
  Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | تېرۀ terə́ | تېرۀ terə́ | تېره terá | تېرې teré |
  | Oblique | تېرۀ terə́ | تېرو teró | تېرې teré | تېرو teró |
  | Ablative | تېرۀ terə́ | تېرو teró | تېرې teré | تېرو teró |
  | Vocative | تېرۀ terə́ | تېرو teró | تېرې teré | تېرو teró |
  
  Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Back vowel lowering**
  
  * V-stress] [+back, → V[-high]/ C_
  
  Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed.
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | پوخ pox | پاخۀ pāxə́ | پخه paxá | پخې paxé |
  | Oblique | پاخۀ pāxə́ | پخو paxó | پخې paxé | پخو paxó |
  | Ablative | پوخه póxa | پخو paxó | پخې paxé | پخو paxó |
  | Vocative | پوخه póxa | پخو paxó | پخې paxé | پخو paxó |
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | ړوند ṛund | ړاندۀ ṛāndə́ | ړنده ṛandá | ړندې ṛandé |
  | Oblique | ړاندۀ ṛāndə́ | ړندو ṛandó | ړندې ṛandé | ړندو ṛandó |
  | Ablative | ړوند ṛúnda | ړندو ṛandó | ړندې ṛandé | ړندو ṛandó |
  | Vocative | ړوند ṛúnda | ړندو ṛandó | ړندې ṛandé | ړندو ṛandó |
  
  In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Monophthongization**
  
  * a[+stress]w → V-high] [+back,
  * wa[+stress] → V-high] [+back,
  
  In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem [usually seen in the feminine tense], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed.
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | تود tod | تاودۀ tāwdə́ | توده tawdá | تودې tawdé |
  | Oblique | تاودۀ tāwdə́ | تودو tawdó | تودې tawdé | تودو tawdó |
  | Ablative | توده tóda | تودو tawdó | تودې tawdé | تودو tawdó |
  | Vocative | توده tóda | تودو tawdó | تودې tawdé | تودو tawdó |
  
  Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /tawd/.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Lengthening**
  
  * a → ā /_(C)Cə́
  
  Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Lengthening**
  
  * V[-stress] → Ø
  
  In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed.
  
  Example = سور /sur/ – red
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | سور sur | سرۀ srə | سره sra | سرې sre |
  | Oblique | سرۀ srə | سرو sro | سرې sre | سرو sro |
  | Ablative | سوره súra | سرو sro | سرې sre | سرو sro |
  | Vocative | سوره súra | سرو sro | سرې sre | سرو sro |
  
  **Stem allomorphy**
  
  **Epenthesis**
  
  * Ø → a/C_CC or CC_C
  
  If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.
  
  ### Class 3
  
  These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.
  
  **Case-marking suffixes**
  
  Stressed
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | ی áy | ي í | ۍ ə́i | ۍ ə́i |
  | Oblique | ي í | و ó یو ə́yo/ío | ۍ ə́i | و ó یو ə́yo/ío |
  | Ablative | یه áya | و ó یو ə́yo/ío | ۍ ə́i | و ó یو ə́yo/ío |
  | Vocative | یه áya | و ó یو ə́yo/ío | ۍ ə́i | و ó یو ə́yo/ío |
  
  Unstressed
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | ی ay | ي i | ې e | ې e |
  | Oblique | ي i | و o | ې e | و o |
  | Ablative | ي i | و o | ې e | و o |
  | Vocative | یه ya | و o | ې e | و o |
  
  **Stressed**
  
  Example = زلمی (young/youth – the ی is stressed)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | زلمی zalmá y | زلمي zalmí | زلمۍ zalmə́i | زلمۍ zalmə́i |
  | Oblique | زلمي zalmí | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) | زلمۍ zalmə́i | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) |
  | Ablative | زلمي zalmí | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) | زلمۍ zalmə́i | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) |
  | Vocative | زلمیه zalmáya | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) | زلمۍ zalmə́i | زلمو zalmó زلمیو zalmío (Southern) zalmə́yo (Northern) |
  
  **Unstressed**
  
  Example = سوی (burnt- the ی is unstressed)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | سوی sə́way sə́wəy (South Western) sə́we (North Eastern) | سوي sə́wi | سوې sə́we | سوې sə́we |
  | Oblique | سوي sə́wi | سویو sə́wyo (Northern) سوو sə́wo | سویې sə́wye (Northern) سوې sə́we | سویو sə́wyo (Northern) سوو sə́wo |
  | Ablative | سوي sə́wi | سویو sə́wyo (Northern) سوو sə́wo | سویې sə́wye (Northern) سوې sə́we | سویو sə́wyo (Northern) سوو sə́wo |
  | Vocative | سویه(Northern) sə́way سوې(Southern) sə́we | سوو sə́wo | سوې sə́we | سوو sə́wo |
  
  ### Class 4
  
  This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction.
  
  But some speakers use the oblique suffixes و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases.
  
  Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí |
  | Oblique | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí |
  | Ablative | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí |
  | Vocative | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí |
  
  Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect)
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí | شمالي šamālí |
  | Oblique | شمالي šamālí | شمالو šamāló | شمالي šumālí | شمالو šamāló |
  | Ablative | شمالي šamālí | شمالو šamāló | شمالي šumālí | شمالو šamāló |
  | Vocative | شمالي šamālí | شمالو šamāló | شمالي šumālí | شمالو šamāló |
  
  ## Derivational affixes
  
  Pashto utilities morphological derivation: there is an addition to the base form or stem of a word in order to modify its meaning [not grammatical function like verbal suffixes].
  
  ### Prefixes
  
  These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones:
  
  | Prefix | Meaning |
  | - | - |
  | نا | a negative prefix to nouns or particles having the same meaning as English "un, in, dis, non" etc. |
  | بې | this means "without". When prefixed to words it is equivalent to the English "dis, less" etc. Considered a preposition. |
  | بيا | this means again. When prefixed to words it is equivalent to English "re" |
  | هم | this means same, equivalent. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "co and homo" |
  | ګڼ | this means crowded and numerous. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "multi" |
  | دوه | this means two. When prefixed with the word it is equivalent to the English "bi" |
  
  A list of examples:
  
  | | Word | English meaning | Prefixed word | English meaning |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | نا nā | وړ waṛ | suitable | ناوړ nāwáṛ | unsuitable |
  | بې be | کور kor | home | بې کوره be kóra [کور in the ablative case] | homeless |
  | بيا byā | جوړول joṛawә́l | to make | بيا جوړول byā joṛawә́l | to remake |
  | هم ham | [زولی [نارينه]، زولې [ښځينه zólay, zóle | age [classical Pashto] | همزولی، همزولې hamzólay, hamzól | coeval |
  | ګڼ gaṇ | هېواديز hewādíz | national | ګڼ هېواديز gaṇhewādíz | multinational |
  | دوه dwa | اړخيز aṛxíz | aṛx= side, íz = adjective forming suffix | دوه اړخيز dwa aṛxíz | bilateral |
  
  ### Suffixes
  
  These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones:
  
  | Prefix | Meaning |
  | - | - |
  | توب | this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form masculine concept/abstract nouns. |
  | تیا | this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form feminine concept/abstract nouns. |
  | ي | this is affixed to noun to make adjectives. |
  | ي | a suffix also used to create nouns of profession. |
  | يز [masculine] يزه [feminine] | adjectival suffix. Used to make adjectives from nouns. Becomes "yiz" if preceded by a vowel e.g. سوله=سوله ييز |
  | من | suffix that forms nouns and adjectives that mean possessing a quality or object |
  | جن | adjective-forming suffix; having the quality of the noun e.g. چنجن [worm-eaten; stubbornly picky] |
  | ين | an adjective-forming suffix applied to nouns denoting a material |
  | ور | an adjective forming suffix to show endowment/possession. |
  | م | forms ordinal number names from cardinals |
  | ښت | this is affixed to adjectives (including verbal adjectives) to show a state of being |
  | ګلوي | this is affixed to nouns to form feminine concept/abstract nouns mostly to do with association e.g. پیژند ګلوي, پلار ګلوي etc. |
  | والی | this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form masculine concept/abstract nouns. |
  | ولي | this is affixed to nouns and adjectives to form feminine concept/abstract nouns. |
  | ځی | this makes nouns denoting place of the action |
  | نه | this is the most common suffix used to makes nouns from verb. The new suffixed word has feminine gender. |
  | ون | less frequently used than نه. This also creates nouns from verbs |
  | اک | this is used to make only two nouns [خوراک and څښاک] denoting consumable noun. Like Japanese particle もの. |
  | تون | used to create nouns of place. Meaning the "(main) place of" |
  | پال [masculine] پاله [feminine] | means someone is the cherisher/nourisher of the word attached. It is like Persian پرست but unlike پرست only used for agentive nouns not as an adjective. |
  | پالنه | makes concept/abstract nouns showing the root's cherishing/fostering. Like Persian پرستي |
  | واکي | makes nouns which signify "mastery of", "rule of" or "endowment with in quality" with the root word. Related to word واک [authority]. |
  | وال | makes nouns showing that noun is a resident of that place, is engaged in the activity indicated in the root word, possessor of the root word. Like English suffix "er", "or" and "ist". |
  | واله | makes nouns denoting owenership |
  | ګر | used to form an actor noun. Denoting maker, doer, worker etc. of the root. |
  | چي | an agent-noun suffix borrowed from Ottoman Turkish. Only used with borrowed words. |
  | ګوټی | a diminutive suffix. Example مېز [table] – مېزګوټی [small table]. |
  | وزمه | suffix to indicate something is like/similar to the root word but not that word. Also used to denote shades of colour. |
  | نی | suffix affixed to words having to do with time and location |
  | ی | suffix affixed to place names to form a masculine noun living or found in that place |
  | ۍ | suffix affixed to place names to form a feminine noun living or found in that place |
  | ګنۍ | suffix for nouns expressing kinship/relationships |
  | وړ [masculine] وړه [feminine] | this is used exactly as the English -able. Forms adjectives meaning fit/able to be done or suitable to. |
  | يالی [masculine] يالۍ [feminine] | forms adjectives from nouns. The adjective shows a quality that can be possessed. |
  | غاړی [masculine] غاړې [feminine] | forms actor/agent nouns that have to do with an art/skill [example: لوبغاړی, سندرغاړی]. Also used to create adjective/nouns related to the throat [غاړه] such as بوږغاړی [harsh sounding] |
  | چک | an adjectival suffix showing that the new word is "somewhat" like the root word. Similar to "ish" suffix in English. |
  | ډله | this means group. It can be used as suffix to denote team, group, company etc. |
  | هار | according to Z. A. Pashtoon: "suffix used to form onomatopoeic words indicating the repetition or intensification of a sound". according to H. G. Raverty: a suffix "affixed to nouns signifying sound of any kind, in forming the plural". |
  
  A list of examples:
  
  | | Word | English meaning | Prefixed word | English meaning |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | توب tob | بربنډ barbə́nḍ | nude | بربنډتوب barbənḍtób | nudeness/nudity |
  | تیا tyā | روغ roğ | healthy | روغتيا roğtyā́ | health |
  | ي i | ولس (w)ulə́s | nation | ولسي (w) uləsí | national |
  | ي i | ترکاڼ tarkā́ṇ | carpenter | ترکاڼي tarkāṇí | carpentry |
  | يز/يزه iz/iza | لمر lmar | sun | لمريز lmaríz لمريزه lmaríza | solar |
  | يز/يزه yiz/yiza | وټه wáṭa | economy | وټه ييز waṭayíz وټه ييزه waṭayíza | economic |
  | من man | لانجه lānjá | problem | لانجمن lānjamán lānjamə́n | problematic |
  | جن jən | کرکه krә́ka | repugnance | کرکجن krәjә́n | someone who is repugnant to something |
  | ين in | زر zar | gold | زرين zarín | golden |
  | ور war | ګټه gáṭa | profit | ګټور gaṭawár | advantageous |
  | م am/əm | اووه uwə́ | seven | اووم uwə́m | seventh |
  | ښت əx̌t | جوړ joṛ | made/built | جوړښت joṛə́x̌t | structure |
  | ګلوي galwi | پلار plār | father | پلارګلوي plār | paternity |
  | والی wālay | اوږد uẓ̌d | long | اوږدوالی uẓ̌dwā́lay | length/height |
  | ولي wali | ورور wror | brother | ورورولي wrorwalí | brotherhood |
  | ځی dzay | ښوول x̌owə́l | to teach | ښونځی x̌owə́ndzay | school |
  | نه əna | غوښتل ğox̌tə́l | to demand | غوښتنه ğox̌tə́na | demand |
  | ون un | بدلول badlawə́l | to change | بدلون badlún | change |
  | اک āk | څښل tsx̌ə́l خوړل xwaṛə́l | to drink to eat | څښاک tsx̌āk خوراک xwaṛā́k | drink food |
  | تون tun | پوهنه pohə́na | knowledge | پوهنتون pohəntún | university |
  | پال/پاله pal/pāla | مېلمه melmá | guest | مېلمه پال melmapā́l مېلمه پاله melmapā́la | host |
  | پالنه pālana | مېلمه melmá | guest | مېلمه پالنه melmapālə́na | hospitality |
  | واکي wāki | پلار plār | father | پلارواکي plārwākí | patriarchy |
  | وال wāl | ليک lik | writing | ليکوال likwā́l | writer |
  | واله' wālə | غنم ğanə́m | wheat | غنم واله ğanəmwālə | wheat-merchant |
  | ګر gər | کوډه kóḍa | magic | کوډګر koḍgə́r koḍgár | magician |
  | چي chi | توپ top | cannon | توپچي topčí | cannoneer |
  | ګوټی goṭay | کتاب kitā́b | book | کتاب ګوټی kitābgóṭay | booklet |
  | وزمه wazma | تور tor | black | تور وزمه torwázma | blackish |
  | نی (a)náy | کال kāl | year | کالنی kālanáy | annual |
  | ی áy | جاپان jāpā́n | Japan | جاپانی jāpānáy | a Japanese male |
  | ۍ ə́i | جاپان jāpā́n | Japan | جاپانۍ jāpānə́i | a Japanese female |
  | ګنۍ ganai | پلار plār مور mor | father mother | پلارګنۍ plārganə́i مورګنۍ morganə́i | paternal-family maternal-family |
  | وړ/وړه waṛ/waṛa | خندا xandā́ | laughter | خنداوړ xandāwáṛ خنداوړه xandāwáṛa | laughable |
  | يالۍ /يالی yālay/yālə́i | ننګ nang | honor | ننګيالی nangyāláy ننګيالۍ nangyālə́i | honorable |
  | غاړې /غاړی ğāṛay/ğāṛe | سندره sandə́ra | song | سندرغاړی sandərğā́ṛay سندرغاړې sandərğā́ṛe | singer |
  | چک cak | سپين spin | white | سپين چک spinčák | whitish |
  | ډله ḍala | لوب lob | root word of play | لوبډله lobḍála | team (sports) |
  | هار hār | پړک pṛak | slap/clap | پړکهار pṛakahā́r | clapping/sounds of claps |
  
  ### Creating new words
  
  Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes
  
  Example:
  
  Creating a new word process :
  
  | Existing word | Existing suffix | New word |
  | - | - | - |
  | غو ğo | ييز yíz | غوييز ğoyíz |
  | sex | adjective-forming suffix | sexual |
  
  ## Infinitive
  
  This is called Kaṛnúmay [کړنومی] in Pashto that is "the name of a verb". It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun.
  
  Formed: Past Imperfective Stem + verbal ل (ә́l) :
  
  | Conjugation Class | Conjugation Class | Past Imperfective Stem | Infinitives |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st | 1st | -کېدked-become-کېدked-become | کېدلkedә́lto becomeکېدلkedә́l{to become} |
  | 2nd | 2nd | -ننوتnənawat--ننوتnənawat- | ننوتلnənawatә́lto enterننوتلnənawatә́l{to enter} |
  | 3rd | Joined | -ښخوx̌axaw-do bury-ښخوx̌axaw-{do bury} | ښخولx̌axawә́lto buryښخولx̌axawә́l{to bury} |
  | 3rd | Unjoined | -سوچ کوsoč kaw-do think{-سوچ کو}{soč kaw-}{do think} | سوچ کولsoč kawә́lto think{سوچ کول}{soč kawә́l}{to think} |
  
  Example: وکړل [past perfective tense of the transitive verb کول – "to do"] shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.
  
  Hağúi
  
  they:DIR:3:PL
  
  pә
  
  on:PREP
  
  xpә́lo
  
  own:OBL:M:PL
  
  ke
  
  on:POST
  
  wahә́l
  
  to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL
  
  wә́kṛəl
  
  do:PST:PRF:3:PL
  
  Hağúi pә xpә́lo ke wahә́l wә́kṛəl
  
  they:DIR:3:PL on:PREP own:OBL:M:PL on:POST to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL do:PST:PRF:3:PL
  
  They have fought amongst themselves
  
  ### Double infinitives
  
  These are formed by combining two infinitives – either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive.
  
  | Simple infinitive | Prefixed infinitive | Double infinitive |
  | - | - | - |
  | تلل [going] | راتلل [coming] | تلل راتلل [coming and going] |
  | ګرځېدل [to walk/walking] | راګرځېدل [to repass] | ګرځېدل راګرځېدل [walking about] |
  
  – or by combining two simple infinitives:
  
  | Simple infinitive 1 | Simple infinitive 2 | Double infinitive |
  | - | - | - |
  | خوړل [eating] | څښل [drinking] | خوړل څښل [eating drinking] |
  | وهل [beating/hitting] | ټکول [knocking] | وهل ټکول [beating] |
  
  ## Verb
  
  * Pashto has three tenses: Past, present and future.
  * The future tense is the same as present tense with the exception of markers.
  * Aspect: Pashto in every tense has perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action while the imperfective aspect indicates continuous or habitual action.
  * Pashto verbs are of four categories: simple verbs, prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs.
  * Prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs are separable.
  * Pashto verbs can be conjugated by the bases they have.
  * Present and imperative forms are formed on present bases. Past, optative, and infinitive forms are formed on past bases.
  * Based on the stems they classed as either single stemmed, two stemmed or multiple stemmed
  * Verbs agree in person and in number with either the objects or subjects of sentences, depending on tense and construction.
  * Agreement is indicated with verbal suffixes following the verb stem which indicate person and number.
  
  ## Verbs: categories
  
  ### Simple verbs
  
  They are in the morpheme state.
  
  Examples:
  
  | Infinitive | Transliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | تلل | tlə́l | to go |
  | وتل | watə́l | to go out |
  | ګرځېدل | gardzedə́l | to walk |
  | کول | kawə́l | to do |
  | خوړل | xwaṛә́l | to eat |
  
  ### Prefixed verbs
  
  These are described below as doubly irregular.
  
  They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.
  
  **Deictic prefixed verb**
  
  These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.
  
  | Prefix | Direction | Example | Example meaning |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | را rā | towards 1st person | راتلل rā tlә́l | to come |
  | در dər/dar | towards 2nd person | درتلل dәr tlә́l | to go towards you |
  | ور wər/war | towards 3rd person | ورکول wәr kawә́l | to give |
  
  **Non-productive prefixed verbs**
  
  Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of.
  
  | Prefix | Transliteration | Example | Example meaning |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | کښې | kxe [Northern] kṣ̌i [Southern] | کښېوتل kxewatә́l | to drop into |
  | کې | ke [Northern] ki [Southern] | کېښودل kex̌awdә́l | to put |
  | نن | nəna | ننوتل nənawatә́l | to enter |
  | پورې | pore | پورې ايستل pore istә́l | to traverse |
  | تېر | ter | تېروتل terwatә́l | to get mistaken |
  | پرا | prā | پرانيستل prānistә́l | to open |
  | پرې | pre | پرېوتل prewatә́l | to lie down |
  
  Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix [پرې] is separated from the verb stem [کول] by a second position clitic [يې]
  
  pré
  
  cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR
  
  ye
  
  it/he/she:3:WK
  
  kṛá
  
  cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG
  
  pré ye kṛá
  
  cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR it/he/she:3:WK cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG
  
  Cut it
  
  ### a-initial verbs
  
  These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/.
  
  Examples:
  
  | Infinitive | Transliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | اڼول | aṇawə́l | to gather |
  | استول | astawə́l | to send |
  | اخيستل | axistə́l | to buy |
  
  Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that
  
  they take the prefix و /wə́/ for perfective forms.
  
  وا
  
  wā́
  
  buy:AOR
  
  مې
  
  me
  
  I:SG:WK
  
  خيستل
  
  xistəl
  
  buy:PST:3PL:M
  
  وا مې خيستل
  
  wā́ me xistəl
  
  buy:AOR I:SG:WK buy:PST:3PL:M
  
  I bought them
  
  Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress.
  
  Example: initial stress
  
  ا
  
  á
  
  buy:CONT
  
  مې
  
  me
  
  I:SG:WK
  
  خيستل
  
  xistəl
  
  buy:PST:3PL:M
  
  ا مې خيستل
  
  á me xistəl
  
  buy:CONT I:SG:WK buy:PST:3PL:M
  
  I was buying them
  
  Example: non-initial stress
  
  اخيستل
  
  axistə́l
  
  buy:CONT:PST:3PL:M
  
  مې
  
  me
  
  I:SG:WK
  
  اخيستل مې
  
  axistə́l me
  
  buy:CONT:PST:3PL:M I:SG:WK
  
  I was buying them
  
  ### Compound verbs
  
  There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.
  
  **First category**
  
  These are formed by adding ول [-wә́l] and ېدل [edә́l] verbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel.
  
  Example:
  
  | Word | Word | Verb formed |
  | - | - | - |
  | ښخ x̌ax | adjective, singular, mas | ښخول x̌awә́l |
  | ښخ x̌ax | buried | to bury |
  
  **First category**
  
  **Exceptions**
  
  There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.
  
  | Word | Word | Verb formed |
  | - | - | - |
  | سوچ soč | noun, singular masculine | سوچ کول soč kawә́l |
  | سوچ soč | though | to think |
  
  **Second category**
  
  These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel.
  
  Examples:
  
  | Word | Word | Verb formed |
  | - | - | - |
  | ښايسته x̌āistá | adjective, feminine, class 4 | ښايسته کول x̌āista kawә́l |
  | ښايسته x̌āistá | pretty | to make pretty |
  | ستړی stә́ṛay | noun, sing. masc., class 3 | ستړی کول stəṛay kawә́l |
  | ستړی stә́ṛay | tired | to tire |
  
  ## Verbs: conjugation classes
  
  These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above:
  
  * First Conjugation Class: Simple Verbs and A-Initial Verbs
  * Second Conjugation Class: Prefixed Verbs
  * Third Conjugation Class: Compound Verbs
  
  ## Verbs: bases
  
  Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb.
  
  Aspect
  
  The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs [prefixed verbs, a-initial and compound verbs] by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement.
  
  Tense
  
  The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives).
  
  For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives).
  
  For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy.
  
  Bases
  
  Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:
  
  1. present perfective
  
  2. present imperfective
  
  3. past perfective
  
  4. past impefective
  
  Inflection
  
  In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:
  
  * a verbal suffix
  * an imperative or optative suffix, or
  * an adjectival suffix (to form a participle)
  
  ## Verbs: Single Stems
  
  These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle. These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.
  
  ### First Conjugation Class
  
  **Transitve**
  
  Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"
  
  | Verb | Stem | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Verb | Stem | -وتړ wә́ taṛ- | -تړ taṛ- | -وتړل wә́ taṛ әl- | -تړل taṛә́l- |
  | تړل taṛә́l | تړ taṛ | -وتړ wә́ taṛ- | -تړ taṛ- | -وتړل wә́ taṛ әl- | -تړل taṛә́l- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * present imperfective base = stem
  * present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem
  * past imperfective base: stem+ ل /ə́l/ (suffix obligatory)
  * past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ل /əl/(suffix obligatory)
  
  **Intransitve**
  
  Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"
  
  | Verb | Stem | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Verb | Stem | -ورسېږ wә́ raseẓ̌- | -رسېږ raseẓ̌- | -(ورسېد(ل wә́ rased(ә́l)- | -(رسېد(ل rásed- |
  | رسېدل rasedә́l | رس ras | -ورسېږ wә́ raseẓ̌- | -رسېږ raseẓ̌- | -(ورسېد(ل wә́ rased(ә́l)- | -(رسېد(ل rásed- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * present imperfective base: stem+ ېږ /eg/
  * present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ېږ /eg/
  * past imperfective base: stem + ېد /ed/ (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  * past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem + ېد /ed/( + ل /əl/— prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  
  ### Second Conjugation Class
  
  In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
  
  Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)"
  
  | Verb | Stem | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Verb | Stem | -راوړ rā́ wṛ- | -راوړ rā wṛ- | -راوړل rā́ wṛә́l- | -راوړل rā wṛә́l- |
  | راوړل rāwṛә́l | راوړ rā wṛ | -راوړ rā́ wṛ- | -راوړ rā wṛ- | -راوړل rā́ wṛә́l- | -راوړل rā wṛә́l- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * present imperfective base = stem
  * present perfective base: stressed prefix + stem
  * past imperfective base: prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)
  * past perfective base: stressed prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)
  
  ## Verbs: Two Stems
  
  These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle
  
  These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.
  
  ### First Conjugation Class
  
  The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:
  
  a) where ل is replaced by ن in the present tense: :
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Present | Present | Past Stem | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfect |
  | وژل wažә́l | وژن wažən | -و وژن wә́ wažən- | -وژن wažən- | وژ waž | -(و وژ(ل wә́ waž(əl)- | -(وژ(ل waž(ә́l)- |
  
  b) where و is added in the middle in the present tense: :
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Present | Present | Past Stem | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfect |
  | بلل balә́l | بول bol | -و بول wә́ bol- | -بول bol- | بل bal | -(و بل(ل wә́ baləl- | -(بل(ل bal(ә́l)- |
  
  c) The verb ختل [to climb]: :
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Present | Present | Past Stem | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfect |
  | ختل xatә́l | خېژ xež | -و خېژ wә́ xež- | -خېژ xež- | خت xat [or خوت xot] | -(و خت(ل wә́ xat(əl)- | -(خت(ل xat(ә́l)- |
  
  d) where دل is dropped in the present tense: :
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Present | Present | Past Stem | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfect |
  | پېژندل pežandә́l | پېژن pežan | -و پېژن wә́ pežan- | -پېژن pežan- | پېژند pežand | -(و پېژند(ل wә́ pežand(əl)- | -(پېژند(ل pežand(ә́l)- |
  | اوبدل obdә́l | اوب ob | -و اوب wә́ ob- | -اوب ob- | اوبد obd | -(و اوبد(ل wә́ ob(əl)- | -(اوبد(ل obd(ә́l)- |
  
  Or they can be share no similar sounds
  
  Example: the verb لیدل [to see]
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Present | Present | Past Stem | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfect |
  | لیدل lidә́l | وین win | -ووین wә́ win- | -وین win- | لید lid | -(ولید(ل wә́ lid(əl)- | -(لید(ل lid(ә́l)- |
  
  In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle:
  
  Notes:
  
  * present imperfective base = present stem
  * present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present stem
  * past imperfective base: past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  * past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  
  ### Second Conjugation Class
  
  As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.
  
  Example one: the verb پرېښودل [to leave]
  
  | Verb | Present Stem | Past Stem | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present Stem | Past Stem | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | پرېښودل prex̌odә́l | پرېږد preẓ̌d | پرېښود prex̌od | -پرېږد pré ẓ̌d- | -پرېږد pre ẓ̌d- | -(پرېښود(ل pré x̌od(əl)- | -(پرېښود(ل pre x̌od(ә́l)- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * present imperfective base = present stem
  * present perfective base: stressed prefix + present stem
  * past imperfective base: prefix + past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc.; optional elsewhere)
  * past perfective base: stressed prefix + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  
  ## Verbs: Multiple Stems
  
  These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle.
  
  These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables.
  
  These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged:
  
  Examples:
  
  Observation: either three stemmed [ږد, کېږد, کېښود] or four stemmed [یښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود]
  
  | Verb | Meaning | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Meaning | Perfective | Imperfectiv | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | یښودل ix̌odә́l | to put | -کېږد kéẓ̌d- | -ږد ẓ̌d- | -(کېښود(ل kéx̌od(əl)- | -(کېښود(ل kex̌od(ә́l)- -(یښود(ل ix̌od(ә́l)- |
  
  Observation: Four stems
  
  | Verb | Meaning | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Meaning | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | بېول bewә́l بوول bowә́l | to take [to a place] to lead away | -بوځ bódz- | -بياي byāy- | -(بوتل(ل bótl(əl)- | -(بېو(ل bew(ә́l)- or -(بوو(ل bow(ә́l)- |
  
  Observation: Four Stems
  
  | Verb | Meaning | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Meaning | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | تلل tlә́l | to go | -و)لاړش) (w)lā́ṛ š‑- | -ځ dz- | -و)لاړل) (w)lā́ṛəl‑ | -(تل(ل tl(ә́l)- |
  
  Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور
  
  | Verb | Meaning | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Meaning | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | راتلل rā tlә́l | to come (towards 1st person) | -راش rā́ sh- | -راځ rā dz- | -(راغ(ل rā́ ğ(l)- | -(راتل(ل rā tl(ә́l)- |
  | درتلل dar tlә́l | to go (towards 2nd person | -درش dә́r sh- | -درځ dәr dz- | -(درغ(ل dә́r ğ(l)- | -(درتل(ل dәr tl(ә́l)- |
  | ورتلل war tlә́l | to go (towards 3rd person) | -ورش wә́r sh- | -ورځ wәr dz- | -(ورغ(ل wә́r ğ(l)- | -(ورتل(ل wәr tl(ә́l)- |
  
  Observation:Three stems:وړ [wṛ] for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem [as illustrated with پرېوتل above]
  
  | Verb | Meaning | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Meaning | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | وړل wṛә́l | to carry | -یوس yós- | -وړ wṛ- | -(یووړ(ل yówṛ(әl)- | -(وړ(ل wṛ(ә́l)- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
  * Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem
  * Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  * Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  
  ### کول and کېدل
  
  Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete [ṛ] in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech
  
  Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular.
  
  | کول kawә́l | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | کول kawә́l | | Stem | Base | Stem | Base |
  | کول kawә́l | Present | کو kaw | -کو kaw- ́ | کړ k[ṛ] | -وکړ wə́ k[ṛ]‑ |
  | کول kawә́l | Past | کو kaw | -(کو(ل kaw(ə́l)- | کړ kṛ | -(وکړ(ل wə́ kṛ(əl)- |
  
  To the verb – to become
  
  | کېدل kedә́l | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | کېدل kedә́l | | Stem | Base | Stem | Base |
  | کېدل kedә́l | Present | کېږ kéẓ̌ | -کېږ kéẓ̌- | ش š | -وش wə́ š‑ |
  | کېدل kedә́l | Past | کېد ked | -(کېد(ل ked(ə́l)- | شو šw | -(و)شو(ل) wə́ šw(əl)- |
  
  Notes:
  
  * Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem
  * Present perfective base: و /wә́/ + present perfective stem
  * Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  * Past perfective base: و /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
  
  ## Verbs: aspect
  
  Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.
  
  | | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Verb – خوړل [to eat] | زه ډوډۍ وخورم نو بيا به راشم [Once] I eat food then i'll come | زه ډوډۍ خورم I am eating | ما ډوډۍ وخوړه I ate food | ما ډوډۍ خوړه چې هغۀ راغلو I was eating when he came |
  | Nuanance | Completing the action [to eat] in the present moment | Continuing the action [to eat] in the present moment | Completion of the action [to eat] in the past | Continuity of the action [to eat] in the past |
  
  ### Stress
  
  In both aspects the stress [خج] is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.
  
  | | Aspect | Aspect |
  | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Example: Wahə́l [to beat] | ما ډوکړه ووهله | زه ډوکړه وهم |
  | Transliteration | Mā ḍukṛá wə́-wahəla | Zə ḍukṛá wahə́m |
  | Stress notes | Stress shifts to the prefix wə́ | Stress to the final verbal suffix ə́m |
  | Literal meaning | I [pronoun oblique case] small-drum [female-singular noun] beat [feminine 3rd person past tense] | I [pronoun direct case] small-drum [female-singular noun] am-beating [1st person present tense] |
  | English Equivalent | I played the small-drum. | I am playing the small drum |
  
  **First conjugation**
  
  First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/.
  
  Example:
  
  | | Aspect | Aspect |
  | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Example: Wahə́l [to beat] | ما پانګه واچوله | زه پانګه اچوم |
  | Transliteration | Mā pā́nga wā́cawə́la | Zə pā́nga acawə́m |
  | Stress notes | Stress shifts to the prefix wā́ | Stress to the final verbal suffix ə́m |
  | Literal meaning | I [pronoun oblique case] capital [female-singular noun] pour [feminine 3rd person past tense] | I [pronoun direct case] capital [female-singular noun] pour [1st person present tense] |
  | English Equivalent | I investeded | I am investing |
  
  **Second conjugation**
  
  These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme.
  
  Example:
  
  | | Aspect | Aspect |
  | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Example: K[x̌]enɑstə́l [to sit] | کښېناستم | کښېناستم |
  | Transliteration | kénɑstəm | kenɑstə́m |
  | Stress notes | Stress shifts to the prefix ké | Stress to the final verbal suffix ə́m |
  | Literal meaning | sit [1st person past tense] | sit [1st person past tense] |
  | English Equivalent | I sat down | I was sitting down |
  
  **Third conjugation**
  
  These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:
  
  * shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective
  * using the irregular perfective forms of the verbalizer (rather than the forms with و /wə́/).
  
  Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer.
  
  Example 1:
  
  | | Aspect | Aspect |
  | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective |
  | Transitive: Joṛ-awə́l [to make] | ډوډۍ مې جوړه کړه | ډوډۍ جوړوم |
  | Transliteration | ḍoḍə́i me jóṛa kṛa | ḍoḍə́i joṛawə́m |
  | Stress notes | Stress shifts to the adjective element jóṛa | Stress to the verb element in ə́m |
  | Literal meaning | food/bread [feminine noun] I [1st person sing. weak pronoun] made [singular feminine adjective] do [3rd person sing. fem. past tense] | food/bread [feminine noun] make [1st person present tense] |
  | English Equivalent | I made food | I am making food |
  
  Example 2:
  
  | | Aspect | Aspect | Note |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | | Perfective | Imperfective | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  | Intransitive: Joṛ-edə́l [to get made] | کور جوړ شه | کور جوړېږي | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  | Transliteration | kor jóṛ šə | kor joṛéẓ̌i | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  | Stress notes | Stress shifts to the adjective element jóṛ | Stress to the verbal element in éẓ̌i | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  | Literal meaning | house [masc. sing. noun] made [singular masc. adjective] do [3rd person sing. masc. past tense] | house [masc. sing. noun] make [1st person present tense] | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  | English Equivalent | The house got made | The house is getting made | The verbal suffix ېږ [éẓ̌] is stressed in the imperfective. Due to this the final syllable ي[i] in our example is not stressed. Compare the past imperfective sentence کور جوړېده kor joṛedə́ The house was getting made Here the normal rules of aspect-stress are followed with the final syllable də́ being stressed. |
  
  ## Verbs: verbal suffixes
  
  Pashto utilises verbal suffixes [د کړ تاړي].
  
  ### Personal suffixes
  
  Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number.
  
  | Number | Person | Gender | Verbal suffix | Dialect variation |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Singular | 1st person | | م əm | |
  | Singular | 1st person | Feminine | مه əma | |
  | Singular | 2nd person | | ې e | |
  | Singular | 3rd person present | | ي i | |
  | Singular | 3rd person past | Masculine | verb stem only [no suffix] or ۀ / ه ə | و o – in Peshawar Dialect See below |
  | Singular | 3rd person past | Feminine | ه a | |
  | Plural | 1st person | | و u | ي i – in Wazirwola and Dzadrani |
  | Plural | 2nd person | | ئ əɪ | است āst – in South Western |
  | Plural | 3rd person present | | ي i | |
  | Plural | 3rd person past | Masculine | ل əl | |
  | Plural | 3rd person past | Feminine | ې e | |
  
  It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.
  
  **Present imperfective tense**
  
  Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl [to dance].
  
  | Number | Person | Verbal suffix | Example | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Singular | 1st person | م əm | زه ګډېږم Zə gaḍéẓ̌əm | I am dancing |
  | Singular | 2nd person | ې e | ته ګډېږې Tə gaḍéẓ̌ē | You are dancing |
  | Singular | 3rd person | ي i | دی/دا ګډېږي Day/Dā gaḍéẓ̌i | He/She is dancing |
  | Plural | 1st person | و ū | موږ ګډېږو Muẓ̌ gaḍéẓ̌u | We are dancing |
  | Plural | 2nd person | ئ ai | تاسو ګډېږئ Tā́so gaḍéẓ̌ai | You are dancing |
  | Plural | 3rd person | ي i | دوی/هغوی ګډېږي Dúi/Hağúi gaḍéẓ̌i | They are dancing |
  
  **Past imperfective tense**
  
  Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl [to dance].
  
  | Number | Person | Gender | Verbal suffix | Example | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Singular | 1st person | | م əm | زه ګډېدم Zə gaḍedә́m | I was dancing |
  | Singular | 2nd person | | ې e | تۀ ګډېدې Tə gaḍedé | You were dancing |
  | Singular | 3rd person | Masculine | ۀ ə | دی ګډېدۀ Day gaḍedә́ | He was dancing |
  | Singular | 3rd person | Feminine | ه a | دا ګډېده Dā gaḍedá | She was dancing |
  | Plural | 1st person | | و u | موږ ګډېدو Muẓ̌ gaḍedú | We were dancing |
  | Plural | 2nd person | | ئ әi | تاسو ګډېدئ Tā́so gaḍedә́i | Your were dancing |
  | Plural | 3rd person | | ل əl | دوی/هغوی ګډېدل Dúi/Hağúi gaḍedә́l | They were dancing |
  | Plural | 3rd person | Feminine | ې e | دوی/هغوی ګډېدې Dúi/Hağúi gaḍedé | They were dancing |
  
  Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender.
  
  Example:
  
  * هغوی ګډېدل [They were dancing] – can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing
  * هغوی ګډېدې [They were dancing] – implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders [ايجړاګان] by itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.
  
  ### 3rd Person Past Singular Masculine
  
  Generally ه [ə] or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ [əi] is found also.
  
  PAST – 3rd Person Singular Masculine :
  
  | Morphology | Verb | Verbal Suffix employed | Imperfective | Perfective |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | وتل- -watəl | الوتل alwatә́l to fly | none | الوت alwát | والوت wā́lwat |
  | وتل- -watəl | پرېوتل prewatә́l to fall | none | پرېووت prewót | پرېووت préwot |
  | وتل- -watəl | پوري وتل pori watә́l to cross | none | پوري ووت pori wót | پوري ووت póri wot |
  | وتل- -watəl | ننوتل nənawatә́l to enter | none | ننوت nənawát | ننوت nә́nawat |
  | وتل- -watəl | وتل watә́l to go out | none | وت wát wót | ووت wә́wat wә́wot |
  | وتل- -watəl | تېروتل terwatә́l to be mistaken | none | تېروت terwát | تېروت térwat |
  | تلل- -tləl | راتلل rā tlә́l to come | ئ əi | راغئ rāğә́i | راغئ rā́ğəi |
  | تلل- -tləl | درتلل dar tlә́l to go [towards 2nd person] | ئ əi | درغئ darğә́i | درغئ dárğәi |
  | تلل- -tləl | ورتلل war tlә́l [towards 3rd person] | ئ əi | ورغئ warğә́i | ورغئ wárğəi |
  | | اروېدل to hear | ۀ ə | اروېده arwedә́ | وروېده wárweda |
  | | ایشېدل to boil | ۀ ə | ایشېده išedә́ | وایشېده wә́ išedә́ |
  | | برېښېدل to shine/appear | ۀ ə | برېښېده brex̌dә́ | وبرېښېده wә́ brex̌də |
  | | درومېدل to march | ۀ ə | درومېده drumedә́ | ودرومېده wә́ drumedə |
  | | زېږېدل to be born | ۀ ə | زېږېده zeẓ̌edә́ | وزېږېده wә́ zeẓ̌edə |
  
  **Plural suffix of وتل watəl**
  
  With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:
  
  | PAST – 3rd Person Singular Masculine | PAST – 3rd Person Singular Masculine | PAST – 3rd Person Singular Masculine | PAST – 3rd Person Singular Masculine | Change | PAST – 3rd Person Plural Masculine | PAST – 3rd Person Plural Masculine |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Verbal Suffix employed | Imperfective | Perfective | Change | Imperfective | Perfective |
  | الوتل alwatә́l to fly | none | الوت alwát | والوت wā́lwat | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | الوته alwātә́ | والواته wā́lwātə |
  | پرېوتل prewatә́l to fall | none | پرېووت prewót | پرېووت préwot | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | پرېواته prewātә́ | پرېواته préwātә́ |
  | پوري وتل pori watә́l to cross | none | پوري ووت pori wót | پوري ووت póri wot | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | پوري واته pori wātә́ | پوري واته póri wātə |
  | ننوتل nənawatә́l to enter | none | ننوت nənawát | ننوت nә́nawat | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | ننواته nənawātә́ | ننواته nә́nawātə |
  | وتل watә́l to go out | none | وت wát wót | ووت wә́wat wә́wot | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | واته wātә́ | وواته wә́wātə |
  | تېروتل terwatә́l to be mistaken | none | تېروت terwát | تېروت térwat | ووت← واتۀ wot → wātə | تېرواته terwātә́ | تېرواته térwātә́ |
  
  ## Verbs: agreement
  
  ### Intransitive verbs
  
  As can be seen from the intransitive verb above [ګډېدل] – the verb agrees with the subject.
  
  ### Agreement – transitive verbs
  
  * Ergative construction is used in the past tense of transitive verbs: the predicate [verb] agrees in person, number and gender with the object. The subject changes to into the oblique case.
  * In the present tense the transitive verb agrees with the subject: in person, number and gender.
  
  Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat
  
  Past :
  
  | Verb | Object | Subject |
  | - | - | - |
  | وخړه / وخړله wә́xwṛa / wә́xwṛәla | دوډۍ ḍoḍә́i | سړي saṛí |
  | eat | food | man |
  | past perfective stem – with 3rd person singular feminine verbal suffix | noun – singular, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, masculine, oblique case |
  | The man ate the food |||
  
  Compare:
  
  Present :
  
  | Verb | Object | Subject |
  | - | - | - |
  | خوري xwrí | دوډۍ ḍoḍә́i | سړی saṛáy |
  | eat | food | man |
  | present imperfective stem – with 3rd person singular masculine verbal suffix | noun – singular, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, masculine, direct case |
  | The man is eating the food |||
  
  Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress
  
  Past :
  
  | Verb | Object | Subject |
  | - | - | - |
  | واغوستې wā́ğoste | جامې jāmé | ما mā |
  | wear | clothes | I |
  | past perfective stem – with 3rd person plural feminine verbal suffix | noun – plural feminine direct case | noun – singular, oblique case |
  | I wore the clothes |||
  
  Compare:
  
  Present :
  
  | Verb | Object | Subject |
  | - | - | - |
  | اغوندم ağundә́m | جامې jāmé | زه zә |
  | put-on | clothes | I |
  | present imperfective stem – with 1st person singular verbal suffix | noun – plural, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, direct case |
  | I am wearing the clothes |||
  
  **Compound transitive verbs – split agreement**
  
  In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول [to do] agrees with the subject.
  
  Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
  
  Present :
  
  | Compound verb | Compound verb | | |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Auxiliary | Adjectival component | Object | Subject |
  | كړي ki | پاکه pā́ka | کوټه koṭá | سړی saṛáy |
  | do | clean | room | man |
  | present perfective stem – with 3rd person singular masculine verbal suffix | adjective – singular, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, masculine, direct case |
  | [When] the man cleans the room ||||
  
  In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.
  
  Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean
  
  Past :
  
  | Compound verb | Compound verb | | |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Auxiliary | Adjectival component | Object | Subject |
  | كولې kawә́le | پاکې pāke | کوټې koṭé | سړي saṛí |
  | do | clean | rooms | man |
  | past imperfective stem – with 3rd person plural feminine verbal suffix | adjective – plural, feminine, direct case | noun – plural, feminine, direct case | noun – singular, masculine, oblique case |
  | The man was cleaning the rooms ||||
  
  ## Verbs: participle
  
  ### Present participle
  
  The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay).
  
  Example ليکل [likəˈl] – writer → ليک [lik] past imperfective stem → ليکونکی [likəwúnkay] – writer
  
  | | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | Direct | ليکونکی likúnkay | ليکونکي likúnki | ليکونکې likúnke | ليکونکې likúnke |
  | Oblique | ليکونکي likúnki | ليکونکو likúnko | ليکونکې likúnke | ليکونکو likúnko |
  | Ablative | ليکونکي likúnki | ليکونکو likúnko | ليکونکې likúnke | ليکونکو likúnko |
  | Vocative | ليکونکیه likúnkya | ليکونکو likúnko | ليکونکې likúnke | ليکونکو likúnko |
  
  ### Past participle
  
  **Past participle suffix**
  
  The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.
  
  | Masculine | Masculine | Feminine | Feminine |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | ی ay | ي i | ې e | ې e |
  
  **Present perfect**
  
  This is formed in the following ways:
  
  Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
  
  Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"
  
  Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل
  
  | | | Singular | Plural | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | Masculine | رسېدلی یم rasedə́lay yəm | رسېدلي یو rasedə́li yu | Singular: I have reached Plural: We have reached |
  | 1st person | Feminine | رسېدلې يمه rasedə́le yəmá | رسېدلې یو rasedə́le yu | Singular: I have reached Plural: We have reached |
  | 2nd person | Masculine | رسېدلی یې rasedə́lay ye | رسېدلي یئ rasedə́li yəy | Singular: You have reached Plural: You have reached |
  | 2nd person | Feminine | رسېدلې یې rasedə́le ye | رسېدلې یئ rasedə́le yəy | Singular: You have reached Plural: You have reached |
  | 3rd person | Masculine | رسېدلی دی rasedə́lay day | رسېدلي دي rasedə́li di | Singular masc: He has reached Singular fem.: She has reached Plural: The has reached |
  | 3rd person | Feminine | رسېدلې ده rasedə́le da | رسېدلې دي rasedə́le di | Singular masc: He has reached Singular fem.: She has reached Plural: The has reached |
  
  **Future perfect**
  
  Formed by به [future marker] +present perfect
  
  | | | Singular | Plural | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | Masculine | به رسېدلی یم bə rasedə́lay yəm | به رسېدلي یو bə rasedə́li yu | Singular: I will have reached Plural: We will have reached |
  | 1st person | Feminine | به رسېدلې يمه bə rasedə́le yəmá | به رسېدلې یو bə rasedə́le yu | Singular: I will have reached Plural: We will have reached |
  | 2nd person | Masculine | به رسېدلی یې bə rasedə́lay ye | به رسېدلي یئ bə rasedə́li yəy | Singular: You will have reached Plural: You will have reached |
  | 2nd person | Feminine | به رسېدلې یې bə rasedə́le ye | به رسېدلې یئ bə rasedə́le yəy | Singular: You will have reached Plural: You will have reached |
  | 3rd person | Masculine | به رسېدلی دی bə rasedə́lay day | به رسېدلي دي bə rasedə́li di | Singular masc: He will have reached Singular fem.: She will have reached Plural: They will have reached |
  | 3rd person | Feminine | به رسېدلې ده bə rasedə́le da | به رسېدلې دي bə rasedə́le di | Singular masc: He will have reached Singular fem.: She will have reached Plural: They will have reached |
  
  **Past perfect**
  
  This is formed in the following ways:
  
  Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
  
  Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"
  
  Example:
  
  | | | Singular | Plural | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | Masculine | رسېدلی وم rasedə́lay wəm | رسېدلي وو rasedə́li wu | Singular: I had reached Plural: We had reached |
  | 1st person | Feminine | رسېدلی ومه rasedə́lay wəmá | رسېدلې وو rasedə́le wu | Singular: I had reached Plural: We had reached |
  | 2nd person | Masculine | رسېدلی وې rasedə́lay we | رسېدلي وئ rasedə́li wəy | Singular: You had reached Plural: You all had reached |
  | 2nd person | Feminine | رسېدلې وې rasedə́le we | رسېدلې وئ rasedə́le wəy | Singular: You had reached Plural: You all had reached |
  | 3rd person | Masculine | رسېدلی وه rasedə́lay wə | رسېدلي وو rasedə́li wu | Singular masc.: He had reached Singular fem.: She had Plural: They had reached |
  | 3rd person | Feminine | رسېدلې وه rasedə́le wa | رسېدلې وې rasedə́le we | Singular masc.: He had reached Singular fem.: She had Plural: They had reached |
  
  **Agreement**
  
  * Transitive verbs uses ergative construction: Past participle + verb "to be" agree with object; subject is in oblique case
  * Intransitive verbs: Past participle+ verb "to be" agree with the subject
  
  Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل [to ripen, mature]
  
  | Subject | Past participle | To be [present] | To be past | Grammar |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | زه [masculine] | پوخ شوی pox šə́way | يم yəm | وم wəm | 1st person, singular, masculine |
  | زه[feminine] | پخه شوې paxa šə́we | يمه yəmá | ومه wəmá | 1st person, singular, feminine |
  | موږ | پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi | يو yu | وو wu | 1st person, plural, masculine |
  | موږ [all women] | پخې شوې paxe šə́we | يو yu | وو wu | 1st person, plural, feminine |
  | ته [masculine] | پوخ شوی pox šə́way | يې ye | وې we | 2nd person, singular, masculine |
  | ته [femine] | پخه شوې paxa šə́we | يې ye | وې we | 2nd person, singular, feminine |
  | تاسو | پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi | يئ yəi | وئ əi | 2nd person, plural, masculine |
  | تاسو [all woment] | پخې شوې paxe šə́we | يئ yəi | وئ əi | 2nd person, plural, feminine |
  | الو | پوخ شوی pox šə́way | دی day | وه wə | 3rd person, singular, masculine |
  | الوګان | پاخه شوي pāxə šə́wi | دي di | وو wu | 3rd person, plural, masculine |
  | مڼه | پخه شوې paxa šə́we | ده da | وه wa | 3rd person, singular, feminine |
  | مڼې | پخې شوې paxe šə́we | دي di | وې we | 3rd person, plural, feminine |
  
  ## Verbs: potential construction
  
  ### Optative
  
  The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
  
  The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]
  
  ### Present potential
  
  Formed by:
  
  Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
  
  Example:
  
  | | Singular | Plural | Translation |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | رسېدلی شم rasedə́lay šəm رسېدی شم rasedáy šəm | رسېدلی شو rasedə́lay šu رسېدی شو rasedáy šu | I/We can reach |
  | 2nd person | رسېدلی شې rasedə́lay še رسېدی شې rasedáy še | رسېدلی شئ rasedə́lay šəy رسېدی شئ rasedáy šəy | You can reach |
  | 3rd person | رسېدلی شي rasedə́lay ši رسېدی شي rasedáy ši | رسېدلی شي rasedə́lay ši رسېدی شي rasedáy ši | He/She/They can reach |
  
  ### Past potential
  
  **Past potential 1**
  
  To indicate:
  
  * Event did not take place: مونږ تېر کال جوار کرلی شوه [We might have been able to plant corn last year]
  * Event carried out over extended period of time: مونږ ډرامې ليدلی شوې [We were able to watch TV-shows]
  
  Formed by:
  
  Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل
  
  Example:
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | رسېدلی شو(ل)م rasedə́lay šw(əl)əm رسېدی شو(ل)م rasedáy šw(əl)əm | رسېدلی شو(ل)و rasedə́lay šw(əl)u رسېدی شو(ل)و rasedáy šw(əl)u |
  | 2nd person | رسېدلی شو(ل)ې rasedə́lay šw(əl)e رسېدی شو(ل)ې rasedáy šw(əl)e | رسېدلی شو(ل)ئ rasedə́lay šw(əl)əy رسېدی شو(ل)ئ rasedáy šw(əl)əy |
  | 3rd person | رسېدلی شو(ل)ه rasedə́lay šw(əl)e رسېدی شو(ل)ه rasedáy šw(əl)e | رسېدلی شو(ل)ه rasedə́lay šw(əl)e رسېدی شو(ل)ه rasedáy šw(əl)e |
  
  **Past potential 2**
  
  To indicate:
  
  * Where the event was actually carried out e.g. تۀ هلته په وخت ورسېدلی شوې؟ [You were able to get there on time]
  
  Formed by:
  
  Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل
  
  | | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | 1st person | ورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)م wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)əm | ورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)و wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)u |
  | 2nd person | ورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)ې wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)e | رسېدلورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)ئ wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)əy |
  | 3rd person | ورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)ه wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)ə | ورسېد(ل)ی شو(ل)ه wə́rased(əl)ay šw(əl)ə |
  
  ## Auxiliary: "to be"
  
  The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.
  
  ### Present imperfective
  
  Present imperfective tense of "to be":
  
  | Person | Person | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st | 1st | زه يم zə yəm زه يمه zə yəma | موږ يو muẓ̌ yū |
  | 2nd | 2nd | ته يې tə ye | تاسو يئ \ ياست tā́so yəy (in Southern dialect – yāst) |
  | 3rd | Masculine | دی دی day day | دوی دي duy di |
  | 3rd | Feminine | دا ده dā da | دوی دي duy di |
  
  ### Present perfective form
  
  Present perfective tense of "to be":
  
  | Person | Person | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st | 1st | زه شم zə shəm | موږ شو muẓ̌ shu |
  | 2nd | 2nd | ته شې tə she | تاسو شئ tā́so šəy |
  | 3rd | Masc. | دی وي day wi | دوی وي dui wi |
  | 3rd | Fem. | دا وي dā wi | دوی وي dui wi |
  
  ### Past form
  
  Past tense of "to be":
  
  | Person | Person | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st | 1st | زه وم zə wəm زه ومه zə wəma | موږ وو muẓ̌ wu |
  | 2nd | 2nd | ته وې tə we | تاسو وئ\واست tā́so wəy (in Southern dialect – wāst) |
  | 3rd | Masc. | دی ؤ day wə | دوی وو\ول dui wu (in Southern dialect – wəl) |
  | 3rd | Fem | دا وه dā wa | دوی وې dui we |
  
  ### Future tense
  
  In Pashto the future tense [ راتلونکی مهال] is the same as the present tense [اوسنی مهال] with the exception that in the future tense the marker به [bə] is added.
  
  In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used.
  
  Future tense of "to be":
  
  | Person | Person | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1st | 1st | به يم bə yəm | به يو bə yu |
  | 2nd | 2nd | به يې bə ye | به يئ bə yəy |
  | 3rd Person | Masculine | به وي bə wi | به وي bə wi |
  | 3rd Person | Feminine | به وي bə wi | به وي bə wi |
  
  ### Imperative Form
  
  Also known as Command Form
  
  | Person | Singular | Plural |
  | - | - | - |
  | 2nd | ته شه tə sha-can | تاسو شئ tā́so yəi |
  
  ### "Wi" – usage
  
  وي [wi] is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.
  
  | | Sentence | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | وي | سړي دلته ناست وي | Men sit here [fact; speaker assumes this as true] |
  | دي | سړي دلته ناست دي | Men are sitting here [an observation; speaker sees them] |
  
  ## Verbs: causative construction
  
  This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" [where do X is the original verb].
  
  Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/.
  
  The causative can either use the present stem or past stem [and sometimes both] – depending on the original verb.
  
  | Original verb | Stem used in bold | Stem used in bold | Causative verb |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | Original verb | Present | Past | Causative verb |
  | لوستل lwastә́l to read | -لول lwal- | ‑ لوست lwast- | لولول lwalawә́l to cause to read |
  | زنګل zangә́l to swing | -زانګ zāng- | -زنګ zang- | زنګول zangawә́l to rock [e.g. in a cradle] |
  | الوتل alwatә́l to fly | -الوز alwuz- | -الوت alwat- | الوزول alwuzawә́l to make fly; to explode something |
  | اغوستل aghustә́l to wear | -اغوند aghund- | -اغوست aghust- | اغوندول/ اغوستول aghundawә́l/aghustawә́l to dress someone |
  
  Example:
  
  | خندل – original verb | خندول – causative verb |
  | - | - |
  | مه خانده má xānda | مه (يې) خندوه má (ye) xandawa |
  | Don't laugh ! | Don't make him/her laugh ! |
  
  ## Verbs: imperative form
  
  This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:
  
  | Verb | Stem used in bold | Stem used in bold |
  | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Present | Past |
  | لوستل lwastә́l to read | -لول lwal- | ‑ لوست lwast- |
  
  ### Number
  
  The two verbal suffixes are employed:
  
  | Number | Suffix |
  | - | - |
  | Singular | ه a |
  | Plural | ئ əi |
  
  Example:
  
  | Verb | Number | Number |
  | - | - | - |
  | Verb | Singular | Plural |
  | راتلل rātlә́l to come | راځه rādzá | راځئ rādzә́i |
  | راتلل rātlә́l to come | come | come |
  
  The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.
  
  ### Positive command
  
  Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress)
  
  وهل – to beat
  
  wahә́l :
  
  | Imperfective | Perfective |
  | - | - |
  | وهه wahá | و وهه wә́ waha |
  | beat it [focus on continuance] | beat it [focus on completion] |
  
  In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.
  
  **Intensive**
  
  The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:
  
  —Finish eating, so we go.
  
  **Compound verbs**
  
  **Transitive**
  
  For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.
  
  پاکول – to clean
  
  pākawә́l :
  
  | Masculine object | Feminine object |
  | - | - |
  | کور | کوټه |
  | ته کور پاک کړه tә kor pā́k ka | ته کوټه پاکه کړه tә koṭá pā́ka ka |
  | Clean the house | Clean the room |
  
  Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
  
  پاکول – to clean
  
  pākawә́l :
  
  | No object of the verb ||
  | - | - |
  | Masculine subject | Feminine subject |
  | Said to a male | Said to a female |
  | ته پاک کړه tә pā́k ka | ته پاکه کړه tә pā́ka ka |
  | You clean it | You clean it |
  
  **Compound verbs**
  
  **Intransitive**
  
  For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
  
  پاکېدل – to get clean
  
  pākedә́l :
  
  | Masculine subject | Feminine subject |
  | - | - |
  | ته پاک شه tә pā́k ša | ته پاکه شه tә pā́ka ša |
  | Get clean | Get clean |
  
  ### Negative command
  
  Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/.
  
  Compare:
  
  وهل – to beat
  
  wahә́l :
  
  | Imperfective -positive | Negative command |
  | - | - |
  | وهه wahá | مه وهه má waha |
  | beat it | don't beat it |
  
  **Prefixed verbs**
  
  North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.
  
  پرېکول – to cut
  
  prekawә́l :
  
  | Prefix: پرې Stem: کول ||
  | - | - |
  | North Eastern | Other |
  | مه پرېکوه má pre kawa | پرې مه کوه pre má kawa |
  | don't cut | don't cut |
  
  ## Verbs: phrasal verbs
  
  These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.
  
  | Examples | Word | Root verb | Final verb |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | توره کول túra kawə́l | sword | to do | to perform a brave act |
  | تڼۍ شلول taṇә́i šlawə́l | button(s) | to tear | to toil/endeavour |
  | ټېل وهل ṭel wahə́l | push | to beat | to shove |
  | سا اخستل sā axәstә́l | breath | to take | to breathe |
  
  ## Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l
  
  These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و /wə́/.
  
  ### Kawə́l
  
  Here are the forms of Kawə́l as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
  
  | | Present | Present | Present | Present | | | Past | Past | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective | | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | 1st Person | کوم kawə́m | کوو kawú | کړم kəm kṛəm | کړو ku kṛu | 1st Person | 1st Person | کولم kawə́ləm | کولو kawə́lu | کړم kṛəm کړلم kṛə́ləm | کړو kṛu کړلو kṛə́lu |
  | 2nd Person | کوې kawé | کوئ kawə́y | کړې ke kṛe | کړئ kəy kṛəy | 2nd Person | 2nd Person | کولې kawə́le | کولئ kawə́ləy | کړې kṛe کړلې kṛə́le | کړئ kṛəy کړلئ kṛə́ləy |
  | 3rd Person | کوي kawí | کوي kawí | کړي ki kṛi | کړي ki kṛi | 3rd Person | Masculine | کوه kawə́ کاوه kāwə́ | (کول(ه kawə́l(ə) | کړ kəṛ که kə | کړل kṛəl کړله kṛə́lə |
  | 3rd Person | کوي kawí | کوي kawí | کړي ki kṛi | کړي ki kṛi | 3rd Person | Feminine | کوله kawə́la کوه kawá | کولې kawə́le کوې kawé | کړه kṛa که ka کړله kṛə́la | کړلې kṛə́le کړې kṛe |
  
  As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect. She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the
  
  personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.
  
  ### Kedə́l
  
  Here are the forms of Kedə́l as a verbaliser [not a main verb]:
  
  | | Present | Present | Present | Present | | | Past | Past | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective | | | Imperfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Perfective |
  | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | | | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
  | 1st Person | کېږم kéẓ̌əm | کېږو kéẓ̌u | شم šəm | شو šu | 1st Person | 1st Person | کېد(ل)م ked(ə́l)ə́m | کېد(ل)و ked(ə́l)ú | شو(ل)م šw(ə́l)əm | شو(ل)و šw(ə́l)u |
  | 2nd Person | کېږې kéẓ̌e | کېږئ kéẓ̌əy | شې še | شئ šəy | 2nd Person | 2nd Person | کېد(ل)ې ked(ə́l)é | کېد(ل)ئ ked(ə́l)ə́y | شو(ل)ې šw(ə́l)e | شو(ل)ئ šw(ə́l)əy |
  | 3rd Person | کېږی kéẓ̌i | کېږی kéẓ̌i | شي ši | شي ši | 3rd Person | Masculine | کېده kedə́ | کېدل(ه) kedə́l(ə́) | شه šə | شول(ه) šwə́l(ə́) |
  | 3rd Person | کېږی kéẓ̌i | کېږی kéẓ̌i | شي ši | شي ši | 3rd Person | Feminine | کېد(ل)ه ked(ə́l)á | کېد(ل)ې ked(ə́l)é | شو(ل)ه šw(ə́l)á | شو(ل)ې šw(ə́l)é |
  
  As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".
  
  ## Future Tense
  
  The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker" and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.
  
  ### Future Expression
  
  The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.
  
  | Verb | Verb | Present Perfective | Future |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | | -ووه wә́ wah- | -به ووه bə wә́wah- |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | زه ووهم (zə) wә́ wahәm | زه به ووهم (zə) bə wә́wahəm |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | I beat [completed in present] | I will beat |
  
  plār
  
  father:M:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  me
  
  I:1:SG:WK
  
  paisé
  
  money:F:DIR:PL
  
  wә́leẓ̌i
  
  send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  plār bә me paisé wә́leẓ̌i
  
  father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  My father will send money
  
  ### With Present Imperfective Tense
  
  The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below.
  
  | Verb | Verb | Present Imperfective | Future |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | | -ووه wә́ wah- | -به ووه bə wә́wah- |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | زه وهم (zə) wahә́m | زه به وهم (zə) bə wahә́m |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | I am beating | I will keep on beating |
  
  * To describe a future reference that is repeated or ongoing:
  
  plār
  
  father:M:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  me
  
  I:1:SG:WK
  
  paisé
  
  money:F:DIR:PL
  
  léẓ̌i
  
  send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  aw
  
  and
  
  zә
  
  I:1:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  xwrә́ma
  
  eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  plār bә me paisé léẓ̌i aw zә bә xwrә́ma
  
  father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M and I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  My father will send money and I will (continue to) eat
  
  * Present Imperfective verb base is also used where future marker like "tomorrow", "next week" etc. is used:
  
  plār
  
  father:M:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  me
  
  I:1:SG:WK
  
  paisé
  
  money:F:DIR:PL
  
  gā́nda
  
  tomorrow:F:DIR
  
  léẓ̌i
  
  send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  plār bә me paisé gā́nda léẓ̌i
  
  father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL tomorrow:F:DIR send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  My father will send money tomorrow
  
  * To contrast a future action with another future action:
  
  tә
  
  you:2:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  dzé
  
  go:CONT:PRS:2:SG
  
  zә
  
  I:1:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  pāte
  
  behind:F
  
  kéẓ̌әm
  
  become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  tә bә dzé zә bә pāte kéẓ̌әm
  
  you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT go:CONT:PRS:2:SG I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT behind:F become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  You'll be going, I'll be staying.
  
  ## Negative Future Expressions
  
  With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.
  
  ### First Conjugattion Class
  
  **Simple Verbs**
  
  If there is a grammatical subject or object:
  
  Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  mewá
  
  fruit:F:SG:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  wә́
  
  eat...:AOR:PRS:3
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  xwri
  
  ...eat:AOR:PRS:3
  
  mewá bә wә́ nə xwri
  
  fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT eat...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...eat:AOR:PRS:3
  
  He/She/They will not eat the fruit
  
  If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
  
  Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  zә
  
  I:1:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  lik
  
  letter:SG:M:DIR
  
  wә́
  
  send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  léẓ̌әm
  
  ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  zә bә lik wә́ nə léẓ̌әm
  
  I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  I will not send the letter
  
  If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
  
  و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  wә́
  
  walk...:AOR:PRS:3
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  gardzi
  
  ...walk:AOR:PRS:3
  
  wә́ bә nə gardzi
  
  walk...:AOR:PRS:3 will:FUT not:NEG ...walk:AOR:PRS:3
  
  He/She/They will not walk
  
  **a-initial verbs**
  
  The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/. Thereby:
  
  If there is a grammatical subject or object:
  
  Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  Verb: اخستل [axstә́l]
  
  mewá
  
  fruit:F:SG:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  wā́
  
  buy...:AOR:PRS:3
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  xli
  
  ...buy:AOR:PRS:3
  
  mewá bә wā́ nə xli
  
  fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT buy...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...buy:AOR:PRS:3
  
  He/She/They will not buy the fruit
  
  If there is both a grammatical subject and object:
  
  Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  Verb: استول [astawә́l]
  
  munẓ̌
  
  we:1:PL:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  lik
  
  letter:SG:M:DIR
  
  wā́
  
  send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  stawu
  
  ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  munẓ̌ bә lik wā́ nə stawu
  
  we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG
  
  We will not send the letter
  
  If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:
  
  وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix
  
  Verb: اچول [ačawә́l]
  
  wā́
  
  put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  čawe
  
  ...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  wā́ bә nə čawe
  
  put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG will:FUT not:NEG ...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  You will not put it
  
  ### Second Conjugation Class
  
  First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed
  
  | Verb | Example | Future |
  | - | - | - |
  | بوولbowә́lto takebowә́l{to take} | بوزوbózuwe takebózu{we take} | بو نه زوbo nә́ zu(we) not take{bo nә́ zu}{(we) not take} |
  
  Second: به /bә/ can then be placed
  
  Before verb:
  
  kor
  
  house:M:SG:DIR
  
  ta
  
  to:POST
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  lāṛ
  
  go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  nә́
  
  not:NEG
  
  šu
  
  go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  kor ta bә lāṛ nә́ šu
  
  house:M:SG:DIR to:POST will:FUT go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  We wont got to the house
  
  Or before the object (likely where there is a subject)
  
  muẓ̌
  
  we:1:PL:STR:DIR
  
  bə
  
  will:FUT
  
  kor
  
  house:M:SG:DIR
  
  ta
  
  to:POST
  
  lāṛ
  
  go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  nә́
  
  not:NEG
  
  šu
  
  go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  muẓ̌ bə kor ta lāṛ nә́ šu
  
  we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT house:M:SG:DIR to:POST go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL
  
  We wont got to the house
  
  ### Third Conjugation Class
  
  With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element.
  
  Example: روغېدل [roğedә́l]
  
  tə
  
  you:2:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  will:FUT
  
  róğa
  
  recover...:F:ADJ:SG
  
  nə
  
  not:NEG
  
  še
  
  ...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  tə bә róğa nə še
  
  you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT recover...:F:ADJ:SG not:NEG ...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  You won't recover
  
  ## "Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense
  
  The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.
  
  | Verb | Verb | Past Imperfective | With به |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | | -وهل wahә́l- | -به وهل bə wahәl- |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | وهلم wahә́lәm | به وهلم bə wahә́lәm |
  | وهل wahә́l to beat | Example: 1st Person Singular | I was being beaten | I would be beat |
  
  kála
  
  when
  
  če
  
  that:COMP
  
  bә
  
  would
  
  hağә́
  
  he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL
  
  ḍol
  
  drum:SG:M:DIR
  
  ğaẓ̌awә́
  
  sound:PST:3:SG:M
  
  zә
  
  I:1:SG:STR:DIR
  
  bә
  
  would
  
  gaḍedә́m
  
  dance:PST:1:SG
  
  kála če bә hağә́ ḍol ğaẓ̌awә́ zә bә gaḍedә́m
  
  when that:COMP would he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL drum:SG:M:DIR sound:PST:3:SG:M I:1:SG:STR:DIR would dance:PST:1:SG
  
  When he would play the drum, I would dance
  
  ## Adverbs
  
  Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree.
  
  These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase.
  
  Acting alone:
  
  mə́xkx̌e
  
  before:ADV
  
  rā́ğla
  
  come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
  
  mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla
  
  before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
  
  She came earlier
  
  Acting as adipositional phrase:
  
  də
  
  of
  
  māmā́
  
  maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG
  
  na
  
  from
  
  mə́xkx̌e
  
  before:ADV
  
  rā́ğla
  
  come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
  
  də māmā́ na mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla
  
  of maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG from before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F
  
  She came before (my) uncle
  
  ### Adverbs of time
  
  These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items.
  
  Common adverbs of time:
  
  | Adverb | Tranliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | تل | təl | always |
  | هر کله | har kә́la | whenever |
  | هیڅ کله (نه) | hits kә́la (na) | never |
  | اوس | os [some dialects: وس "was"] | now |
  | نن | nən | today |
  | پرون | parún | yesterday |
  | ګانده | gā́nda | tomorrow |
  | سبا | sabā́ | tomorrow |
  | وختي | waxtí | early |
  | وروسته | wrústa | later |
  | پس | pas | later |
  | مخکښې | mə́xkx̌e | before |
  | لا | lā | yet |
  
  təl
  
  always:ADV
  
  de
  
  NEC
  
  xwdā́y
  
  god:DIR
  
  lará
  
  have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG
  
  təl de xwdā́y lará
  
  always:ADV NEC god:DIR have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG
  
  May God keep you (well/alive) forever!
  
  ### Adverbs of place
  
  This informs us where something takes place.
  
  Common adverbs of time:
  
  | Adverb | Tranliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | پورته | pórta | above |
  | پاسه | рā́sa | above |
  | دننه | danə́na | inside |
  | ننه | nə́na | inside |
  | دباندي | dəbā́ndi | outside |
  | بهر | bahár | outside |
  | باندې | bā́nde | on top |
  | لاندې | lā́nde | below |
  | نژدې | nəždé | near |
  | پوري | póre | around |
  | لرې | lә́re | far |
  | کښته | kx̌ə́ta | underneath |
  | هيچرې | hičárta | nowhere |
  | هيچرته | hičáre | nowhere |
  
  kx̌ə́ta
  
  underneath:ADV
  
  kx̌éna
  
  sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG
  
  kx̌ə́ta kx̌éna
  
  underneath:ADV sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG
  
  Sit down.
  
  **Demonstrative pronouns**
  
  These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns
  
  | Adverb | Tranliteration | Tranliteration | Tranliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | دلته | də́lta | də́lta | də́lta | here |
  | دلته | Waziri | دېلې déle | دولته dɔláta | here |
  | دلته | Other Dialects | دلې dále | دلې dále | | here |
  | هلته | hálta | hálta | hálta | there |
  | هلته | Other Dialects | هلې hále | هلې hále | | there |
  
  Example sentence in Waziri:
  
  déle
  
  hereADV
  
  dzə̃
  
  go:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  déle dzə̃
  
  hereADV go:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  I am going here
  
  ## Adpositions
  
  Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.
  
  ### Prepositions
  
  List of prepositions
  
  | Preposition | Dialect variation | Meaning | Uses |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | د də | /de/, /ye/, /e/ [Middle dialects] | of | Mark possession e.g. د سړي لاس [A man's hand] To mark the objects of transitive nominalizations or gerunds To mark the subjects of intransitive nominalizations or gerunds Marks the item denoting the possessor or the holonym of which another adpositional phrase may denote the possessed item or be the meronym |
  | له lə | د də [North Eastern] | from | It is only considered part of a circumposition/ambiposition. However, له /lə/ can function as a preposition of ablative function or of origin, when its object appears with ablative case marking. e.g. له پلاره راغلئ یم [I have come from father; North Western and South Western Dialects] |
  | بې be | | without | Considered as prefix. But can also be considered a preposition since the noun followed by بې shows ablative case-marking e.g. بې پلاره – with پلار being in the ablative case |
  | په pə | پر /pər/ | on; at | Used as preposition to express location e.g. په مېز مې کېښود [I kept it on the table] Used as part circumposition containing it may be used to express location e.g. په ... باندې Can govern a noun that refers to a time of day e.g. په يوې بجې راشه [Come at 1 O'Clock] |
  | تر tər | | till; than | Usually used as an ambiposition/circumpositions to express "up to, until" e.g. تر پېښور پورې لاړم [I went till Peshawar] As a preposition; is used in comparative and superlative constructions e.g. زه تر ماما دنګ يم [I am taller than my maternal-uncle] |
  | لکه laká | | like | As a preposition used as "like"e.g. لکه د زمري زورور يم [I am strong like a lion] |
  
  ### Postpositions
  
  | Preposition | Dialect variaition | Meaning | Uses |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | ته tə | | to | Denotes destination. The object appears in the oblique case form. Example کور ته ځم [I am going to the house] |
  | ته tə | له lə [North Eastern] | for | Denotes recipients e.g. ځان ته څپلۍ هم اخلم [I am buying shoes also for myself] |
  
  ### Ambipositions
  
  Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (circumpositions). These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements.
  
  The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements:
  
  | | Transliteration |
  | - | - |
  | په | pə |
  | له | lə |
  | د | də |
  | تر | tər |
  
  The final element is likely to be one of these words:
  
  | | Transliteration | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | لاندې | lā́nde | below |
  | پسې | pəsé | after |
  | نه | na | |
  | پورې | póre | |
  | سره | sará | with |
  | کې/کښې | ke/kx̌e | on |
  | باندې | bā́nde | on |
  | څخه | tsә́xa | |
  | غوندې | ğwә́nde | like |
  
  Here is a list of the simple formations:
  
  | Second Component → | کښې... ... ke | نه.... ... na | لاندې... ...lā́nde | باندې... ... bā́nde | پسې... ... pəsé | پورې... ... póre | سره... ... sará | څخه... ...tsә́xa | وروستو... wrústo. |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | First Component ↓ | کښې... ... ke | نه.... ... na | لاندې... ...lā́nde | باندې... ... bā́nde | پسې... ... pəsé | پورې... ... póre | سره... ... sará | څخه... ...tsә́xa | وروستو... wrústo. |
  | ...د də ... | | د...نه də...na 'from' | د ...لاندې də...lā́nde 'under' | | د ... پسې də...pəsé 'after' | د ... پورې də...póre 'up to, across' | د...سره də...sará 'with' | | د...څخه də...tsә́xa 'from' |
  | ...له lə ... | | له...نه lə...na 'from' | له...لاندې lə...lā́nde 'under' | | | | له...سره lə...sará 'with' | | له...څخه lə...tsә́xa 'from' |
  | ...پر pər ... | په... کښې pə...ke 'in, at, on' | | | په...باندې pə...bā́nde 'on top of, by means of' | په...پسې pə...pəsé 'after, behind' | پر ... پورې pər...póre 'with' | په...سره pə...sará 'with' | | |
  | ...په pə ... | په... کښې pə...ke 'in, at, on' | | | په...باندې pə...bā́nde 'on top of, by means of' | په...پسې pə...pəsé 'after, behind' | | په...سره pə...sará 'with' | | |
  | ...تر tər ... | | | تر...لاندې tər...lā́nde 'under' | | | تر...پورې tər...póre 'until, up to' | | | تر ... وروستو tər...wrústo 'after' |
  
  Examples
  
  | | Example | Example's meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | په ... کښې | په سيند کښې | in the river |
  | په ... پسې | په ما پسې | after me |
  | پر ... باندې | په مېز باندې | on the table |
  | له ... سره | له سړي سره | with a man |
  | تر ... لاندې | تر مېز لاندې | under the table |
  | له ... څخه | له سړي څخه | from a man |
  | له ... نه | له سړي نه | from a man |
  | د ... نه | د سړي نه | from a man |
  | تر ... پورې | تر پېښور پورې | till Peshawar |
  | تر ... وروستو | تر خوراک وروستو | after food |
  
  The first element must be dropped when the object of the pre-position is a weak pronoun. Examples:
  
  | Example sentence | Meaning |
  | - | - |
  | سړی ور سره ځي | A man is going with him/her |
  | سړي ور سره ځي | Men are going with him/her |
  | چاړه مې در نه واخس | I took the knife from you |
  | ليک ور باندې ايښی دی | The letter is on it |
  
  Sometimes in colloquial Pashto, the word له is dropped from نه and سره.
  
  | | Colloquial Pashto |
  | - | - |
  | له سړي نه | سړي نه |
  | له سړي سره | سړي سره |
  
  ### Phrases
  
  Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.
  
  **With له.... نه**
  
  These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word
  
  In some dialects له is replaced by د
  
  | | Component | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | له.... نه پخوا له ... نه مخکې | From + before | before |
  | له...نه پس له...نه پسته له...نه ورستو له ... نه وروستۀ | From + after | after |
  | له...نه+ بهرر | From + outside | outside |
  
  Examples
  
  | Phrase | Sentence | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | له .. نه پخوا | له تا نه پخوا راغله | She came before you |
  | د ...نه مخکې | ستا نه مخکې راغله [د+تا = ستا] | She came before you |
  | له ... نه وروستو | له تا نه وروستو راغله | She came after you |
  | د ... نه بهر | د ور نه بهر ولاړ و | He was standing outside the door |
  
  **With د ... په**
  
  Examples:
  
  | | Meaning |
  | - | - |
  | د ... په اړه də ... pə aṛá | about |
  | د ... په شان də ... pə šān | like |
  | د ... په وړاندې də ... pə wṛā́nde | against/opposite |
  | د ... په پرتله də ... pə partalá | in comparison to |
  | د ... له مخې də ... lə mә́xe | according to |
  | د ... په ځای də ...pə dzāy | instead of |
  
  Examples:
  
  Note: the possessive phrase [də/د] can be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.
  
  | | Sentence where د not dropped | Meaning | Sentence with possessive pronouns | Meaning |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | د ... په اړه | د سړي په اړه يې څه ووې də saṛí pə aṛá ye tsə wә́ we | What did he/she say about the man | زما په اړه يې څه ووې zmā pə aṛá ye tsə wә́ we | What did he/she say about me |
  | د ... په شان | د سپوږمۍ په شان ښځه غواړم də spoẓ̌mә́i pa šān x̌ә́dza ğwāṛә́m | I want a wife like the moon | ستا په شان ښځه غواړم stā pa šān x̌ә́dza ğwāṛә́m | I want a wife like you |
  | د ... په وړاندې | د بلې ډلې په وړاندې يې وينه وکړه də bә́le ḍále pə wṛā́nde ye wә́ina wә́ kṛa | [They/He/She] talked against the other party | ستا په وړاندې يې وينه وکړه stā pə wṛā́nde ye wә́ina wә́ kṛa | [They/He/She] talked against you. |
  | د ... په پرتله | د پيشوګانو په پرتله سپي زيات مينه ناک وي də pišogā́no pə partalá spí zyāt minanā́k wi | In comparison to cats, dogs are more affection | زموږ په پرتله هغوی لټ دي zmuẓ̌ pə partalá hağúi laṭ di | In comparison to us, they are lazy |
  | د ... له مخې | د دې څېړنې له مخې دا ډېر ګټور دی də de tseṛә́ne lə mә́xe dā ḍer gaṭawár day | According to this research this is very beneficial | ستا له مخې څنګه شانتې سړی دی stā lə mә́xe tsə́nga šā́nte saṛáy day | According to you, what kind of a guy is he. |
  | د ... په ځای | د کابل په ځای کندهار ته لاړ شه də kābə́l pə dzāy kandahā́r tə lā́ṛ sha | Instead of Kabul go to Kandahar | زما په ځای بل کس ټاکل شوی دی zmā pə dzāy bəl kas ṭākə́l šə́way day | He has been elected instead of me |
  
  ## Adpositions and noun cases
  
  ### Oblique case
  
  Most common case. The object [noun] of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case.
  
  Used with:
  
  * ته /tə/ 'to'
  * سره /səra/ '[comitative] with'
  * the prepositions د /də/ 'of' and په /pə/ 'at', plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two prepositions;
  * the circumposition له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/.
  
  Example: سړی [using preposition د] and ښځه [using preposition په] are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case
  
  də
  
  of:PREP
  
  saṛí
  
  man:M:OBL
  
  malgə́ray
  
  friend:M:DIR
  
  pə
  
  on:PREP
  
  x̌ə́dze
  
  woman:F:OBL
  
  oséẓ̌i
  
  live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  də saṛí malgə́ray pə x̌ə́dze oséẓ̌i
  
  of:PREP man:M:OBL friend:M:DIR on:PREP woman:F:OBL live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  The man's friend lives on [his] wife
  
  Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښې
  
  pə
  
  on:PREP
  
  mā
  
  me:1:SG:STR:OBL
  
  ke
  
  in:POST
  
  da
  
  be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  pə mā ke da
  
  on:PREP me:1:SG:STR:OBL in:POST be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  She/it is in me
  
  ### Ablative case
  
  Used with:
  
  * له /lə/ 'from'; and also د /də/ having the same meaning 'from'
  * تر /tər/ 'from, originating from'
  * Circumposition containing تر /tər/, له /lə/; except له ... نه /lə ... na/ 'from/
  * په /pə/ the instrumental usage only found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object
  
  Example: circumposition تر ... پورې
  
  tər
  
  till:PREP
  
  kóra
  
  house:M:ABL
  
  póre
  
  till:POST
  
  tlә́m
  
  go:CONT:PST:1:SG
  
  tər kóra póre tlә́m
  
  till:PREP house:M:ABL till:POST go:CONT:PST:1:SG
  
  I was going till the house
  
  With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of '(motion) away from':
  
  də
  
  from:COMIT
  
  kóra
  
  house:M:ABL
  
  rā́ğləm
  
  come:AOR:PST:1:SG
  
  də kóra rā́ğləm
  
  from:COMIT house:M:ABL come:AOR:PST:1:SG
  
  I came from the house
  
  په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective:
  
  kor
  
  house:M:DIR
  
  me
  
  I:1:SG:WK
  
  pә
  
  with:INSTR
  
  grā́na
  
  difficult:ADJ:M:DIR
  
  joṛ
  
  make:M:DIR
  
  kә́ṛay
  
  do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR
  
  day
  
  be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  kor me pә grā́na joṛ kә́ṛay day
  
  house:M:DIR I:1:SG:WK with:INSTR difficult:ADJ:M:DIR make:M:DIR do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  I have made the house with difficulty
  
  ### Mixed ablative case and oblique cases
  
  Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning.
  
  Example: with سړی in oblique case
  
  be
  
  without:PREP
  
  saṛí
  
  man:M:OBL
  
  kor
  
  house:M:DIR
  
  tә́š
  
  empty:ADJ:M
  
  wi
  
  be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  be saṛí kor tә́š wi
  
  without:PREP man:M:OBL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  Without a man, a house is empty
  
  Example: with سړی in ablative case
  
  be
  
  without:PREP
  
  saṛiya
  
  man:M:ABL
  
  kor
  
  house:M:DIR
  
  tә́š
  
  empty:ADJ:M
  
  wi
  
  be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  be saṛiya kor tә́š wi
  
  without:PREP man:M:ABL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  Without a man, a house is empty
  
  ## Passive voice
  
  Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs. The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l ('to become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present).
  
  pә
  
  in:PREP
  
  x̌ār
  
  city:M
  
  ke
  
  in:POST
  
  dә
  
  of:PREP
  
  dwo
  
  two:F:PL:OBL
  
  wədānə́yo
  
  building:F:PL:OBL
  
  bənsáṭ
  
  foundation:M:DIR
  
  kex̌awdə́l
  
  place:INF
  
  šo
  
  become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M
  
  pә x̌ār ke dә dwo wədānə́yo bənsáṭ kex̌awdə́l šo
  
  in:PREP city:M in:POST of:PREP two:F:PL:OBL building:F:PL:OBL foundation:M:DIR place:INF become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M
  
  The foundations of two buildings were laid in the city
  
  The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل:
  
  | Active | "Passive" | Example: | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | Active | "Passive" | Example: | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective |
  | وهل wahә́l | وهل کېدل wahә́l kedә́l | Example: | زه وهل کېږم | که زه ووهل شم | زه وهل کېدلم | زه ووهل شوم |
  | وهل wahә́l | وهل کېدل wahә́l kedә́l | Example: | zә wahә́l kéẓ̌әm | kә zә wә́ wahәl šәm | zә wahә́l kedә́lәm | zә wә́ wahәl šwәm |
  | to beat | to beaten | Example: | I am being beaten | Should I be beaten | I was being beaten | I was beaten |
  
  If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د ...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/.
  
  | | Present | Present | Past | Past |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective |
  | وهل | زه د خځې له خوا وهل کېږم | که زه د خځې له خوا ووهل شم | زه د خځې له خوا وهل کېدلم | زه د خځې له خوا ووهل شوم |
  | وهل | zә dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wahә́l kéẓ̌әm | kә zә dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wә́ wahәl šәm | zә dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wahә́l kedә́lәm | zә dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wә́ wahәl šwәm |
  | Meaning | I am being beaten by the woman | Should I be beaten by the woman | I was being beaten by the woman | I was beaten by the woman |
  
  As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone
  
  dә
  
  of:PREP
  
  x̌ә́źe
  
  woman:F:OBL
  
  lә
  
  from:PREP
  
  xwā
  
  side:F:OBL
  
  wahә́l
  
  beat:INF
  
  kéẓ̌әm
  
  become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wahә́l kéẓ̌әm
  
  of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL beat:INF become:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  I am being beaten by the woman
  
  This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head.
  
  dә
  
  of:PREP
  
  x̌ә́źe
  
  woman:F:OBL
  
  lә
  
  from:PREP
  
  lúre
  
  side:F:OBL
  
  likә́l
  
  write:INF
  
  sә́wi
  
  become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR
  
  śeṛáne
  
  research:F:PL:DIR
  
  laṭawә́m
  
  find:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  dә x̌ә́źe lә lúre likә́l sә́wi śeṛáne laṭawә́m
  
  of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL write:INF become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR research:F:PL:DIR find:CONT:PRS:1:SG
  
  I am finding the studies that were written by the woman
  
  ## Adverbial Clauses
  
  Pashto utilises conjunction phrases as adverbs. Examples:
  
  | Conjunction | Transliteration | Literal meaning | English approximate |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | هيڅ کله نه | hits kә́la na | nothing when no | never, at no time |
  | که هر څنګه | kə hər tsә́nga | if ever how | howsoever, in whatever way |
  | راځه چې | rādzá che | come that | (come) let's |
  | تر اوسه پورې | tər ósa póre | till now up to/till | so far, as yet, up till now |
  | تر دغه پورې | tər dáğa póre | till this till | as far as this |
  | تر کله پورې | tər kә́la póre | till when till | till when?, how long? |
  | تر کومه پورې | tər kóma póre | till where till | how far?, to where? |
  
  ## Particles
  
  Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".
  
  ### Existential
  
  The word شته [shta] and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.
  
  | Sentence | Literal meaning | Meaning |
  | - | - | - |
  | پړنګ شته ؟ pṛāng šta ? | Tiger there-is/are (exists)? | Is there a tiger? |
  | نشته ná šta | not-there-is/are | There isn't |
  
  ## Modal Particles
  
  Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause". چې /t͡ʃe/ can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.
  
  ### Affirmative
  
  **که نه**
  
  Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/ (literally: "if/or no").
  
  Affirmative Question Example:
  
  lā́ṛe
  
  go:AOR:PST:2:SG
  
  kə
  
  or:PARTICLE
  
  ná
  
  no:NEG
  
  lā́ṛe kə ná
  
  go:AOR:PST:2:SG or:PARTICLE no:NEG
  
  You went, didn't you?
  
  Affirmative Statement Example:
  
  ná
  
  no:NEG
  
  kə
  
  or:PARTICLE
  
  ná
  
  no:NEG
  
  ná kə ná
  
  no:NEG or:PARTICLE no:NEG
  
  No, of-course not; No, I didn't you know
  
  ### Deontic
  
  **دې**
  
  The modal دې [de; Southern dialects: di] expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.
  
  hağá
  
  he:3SG:STR:DIR
  
  de
  
  NEC
  
  wә́gaḍegi
  
  dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
  
  hağá de wә́gaḍegi
  
  he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
  
  He should/must dance
  
  **باید**
  
  The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity.
  
  hağá
  
  he:3SG:STR:DIR
  
  bāyád
  
  NEC
  
  wә́gaḍegi
  
  dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
  
  hağá bāyád wә́gaḍegi
  
  he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG
  
  He should dance
  
  **پکار دى**
  
  "Pəkā́r day" [it is needed] is also used as deontic clause
  
  pəkā́r
  
  necessary
  
  day
  
  be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M
  
  če
  
  COMP
  
  tә
  
  you:2:SG:STR:DIR
  
  də́lta
  
  here:DEM
  
  rā́še
  
  come:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  pəkā́r day če tә də́lta rā́še
  
  necessary be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M COMP you:2:SG:STR:DIR here:DEM come:AOR:PRS:2:SG
  
  You should come here
  
  ### Emphatic
  
  **خو**
  
  The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis.
  
  dā
  
  this:DIR
  
  xo
  
  xo:EMPH
  
  manó
  
  shark:F:DIR
  
  da
  
  be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  dā xo manó da
  
  this:DIR xo:EMPH shark:F:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F
  
  This is a shark!
  
  Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.
  
  ### Possibility
  
  **ښایي / ښائي**
  
  The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې [če]
  
  x̌ā́yi
  
  maybe:PARTICLE
  
  če
  
  that:COMP
  
  sabā́
  
  tomorrow:ADV
  
  ta
  
  to
  
  rā́ši
  
  come:AOR:PRS:3
  
  x̌ā́yi če sabā́ ta rā́ši
  
  maybe:PARTICLE that:COMP tomorrow:ADV to come:AOR:PRS:3
  
  Maybe he/she will come tomorrow
  
  The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"
  
  **کېدی شي**
  
  Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe used
  
  kedáy
  
  become:CONT:PST:OPT
  
  ši
  
  become:AOR:PRS:3
  
  [če]
  
  [that:COMP]
  
  sabā́
  
  tomorrow:ADV
  
  rā́ši
  
  come:AOR:PRS:3
  
  kedáy ši [če] sabā́ rā́ši
  
  become:CONT:PST:OPT become:AOR:PRS:3 [that:COMP] tomorrow:ADV come:AOR:PRS:3
  
  Maybe/perhaps he/she will come tomorrow
  
  ### Vocative
  
  The following vocatives have been noted:
  
  | Vocactive | Transliteration | Meaning | Example |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | اي | ai | hey ! | اي نجلۍ ai njlə́i hey girl |
  | اې | e | hey ! | اې سړیه e saṛáya hey man |
  | آ | ā | hey ! | آ ښځې ā x̌ə́dze hey woman |
  | الۍ | alə́i | oh ! | الۍ دا دې څه وکړه alə́i dā de tsə wə́ kṛə oh what did you do |
  | وئ | wə́i | darn it, ouch | وئ خوږ شوم wə́i xúẓ̌ šwəm |
  
  ### Wish
  
  **کاشکې**
  
  The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened.
  
  It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish.
  
  kā́ške
  
  if-only:PARTICLE
  
  waxtí
  
  early:ADV
  
  tlә́lay
  
  gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR
  
  wāy
  
  be:CONT:PST:OPT
  
  kā́ške waxtí tlә́lay wāy
  
  if-only:PARTICLE early:ADV gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PST:OPT
  
  I wish you had gone earlier
  
  It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request.
  
  Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry:
  
  hağé
  
  she:3:F:STR:OBL
  
  we
  
  say:CONT:PST:3
  
  xoẓ̌á
  
  sweet:ADJ:M:VOC
  
  dilbára
  
  beloved:N:M:VOC
  
  kā́ske
  
  if-only:PARTICLE
  
  stā
  
  your:2:SG:STR:POSS
  
  akә́l
  
  intelligence:N:M:DIR
  
  zmā
  
  my:1:SG:STR:POSS
  
  ši
  
  become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3
  
  hağé we xoẓ̌á dilbára kā́ske stā akә́l zmā ši
  
  she:3:F:STR:OBL say:CONT:PST:3 sweet:ADJ:M:VOC beloved:N:M:VOC if-only:PARTICLE your:2:SG:STR:POSS intelligence:N:M:DIR my:1:SG:STR:POSS become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3
  
  She was saying oh sweet beloved, if only your intelligence be mine
  
  ## Nuance
  
  In this section the nuances or the semantics in relation to specific words will be explained.
  
  ### راوړل and راوستل
  
  Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".
  
  **Tangible Objects**
  
  Example راوړل:
  
  obә́
  
  water:N:F:DIR
  
  me
  
  I:SG:WK
  
  rā́wṛe
  
  bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
  
  obә́ me rā́wṛe
  
  water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
  
  I brought the water
  
  Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass
  
  Example راوستل:
  
  obә́
  
  water:N:F:DIR
  
  me
  
  I:SG:WK
  
  rā́waste
  
  bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
  
  obә́ me rā́waste
  
  water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL
  
  I brought the water
  
  Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water
  
  **Intangible Objects**
  
  For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion.
  
  parmәxtág
  
  development:N:M:DIR
  
  ye
  
  3:WK
  
  rā́wast
  
  bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
  
  parmәxtág ye rā́wast
  
  development:N:M:DIR 3:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
  
  He/she/they brought development
  
  But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.
  
  x̌ə
  
  good:ADJ
  
  xabár
  
  news:N:M:DIR
  
  de
  
  2:WK
  
  rā́waṛ
  
  bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
  
  x̌ə xabár de rā́waṛ
  
  good:ADJ news:N:M:DIR 2:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG
  
  You brought good news
  
  ### Adjectives
  
  As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning.
  
  Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect [noun.masc.sing and plural]
  
  | Adjective | Trannsliteration | Meaning | Nuance | Example Sentence |
  | - | - | - | - | - |
  | اغېزمن | ağezmán | affected | to describe the subject or object being influenced | زه له تا څخه اغېزمن شوم |
  | اغېزمن | ağezmán | affected | to describe the subject or object being influenced | zə stā na ağezmán šwəm I am affected by you |
  | اغېزناک | ağeznā́k | effective | to describe the subject or object having the effective influence | ته اغېزناکه وينه کوې |
  | اغېزناک | ağeznā́k | effective | to describe the subject or object having the effective influence | tə ağeznā́ka waina kawé You talk effectively |
  
  ## Slang
  
  Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:
  
  | Slang | Literary | Meaning | Notes |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | بمبه راخوشې که bambá rā́ xwǝše ka | بمبه ولګوه bambá wə́ lagawa | Turn on the faucet/tap | خوشې (xwǝ́še) means "set free/loose"; so a literal translation would be "Let loose the tap!" |
  | غوړي مې په کټوۍ کې ور وويشتل ğwaṛí me pə kaṭwə́i ke war wə́ wištəl | غوړي مې په کټوۍ کښې ور واچول ğwaṛí me pə kaṭwə́i kx̌e war wə́ wištəl | I have put the oil in the cooking pot | ويشتل (wištǝ́l) means "to shoot [e.g a gun"; so a literal translation would be "I flung the oil in the cooking pot" |
  
  ## Syntax
  
  Pashto has subject-object-verb (SOV) word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb (SV) word order.
  
  In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.
  
  ### Phrasal syntax
  
  Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.
  
  **Noun phrases**
  
  Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.
  
  **Adpositional phrases**
  
  The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.
  
  **Verb phrases**
  
  Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.
  
  **Verb phrases**
  
  **Light verb constructions**
  
  Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb (N-V).
  
  As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot.
  
  The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs.
  
  Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.
  
  **Verb phrases**
  
  **Elements in the verbal group**
  
  **The verbal group in general Pashto**
  
  Certain particles can be inserted between:
  
  * The perfective prefix و /wə/́and its verb.
  * A prefix or pseudo-prefix and its verb. (This includes both the a-initial complex verbs and second conjugation, or prefixed, verbs.)
  * The complement of a denominal verb and its verbalizer.
  
  The particles that interact with verbs in this way are:
  
  * The modal clitics به /bə/ and دې /de/
  * The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics مې /me/, دې /de/, یې /ye/, and مو /mo/
  * The adverbial clitics خو /xo/ and نو /no/
  * The negatives نه /ná/ and مه /má/
  
  Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> { مو /mo/| مې /me/| دې /de/| یې /ye/} > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.
  
  **Verb phrases**
  
  **Elements in the verbal group**
  
  **Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase**
  
  The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.
  
  ## Numbers
  
  ### Cardinal numbers
  
  Direct case, masculine
  
  ### Ordinal numbers
  
  Direct case, masc., sing.
  
  * 1st لومړی lumṛai [also ړومبی]
  * 2nd دويم dwaim [also دوهم]
  * 3rd درېيم drəyam
  * 4th څلورم tsaloram
  * 5th پنځم pindzam
  * 6th شپږم špaẓ̌am
  * 7th اووم uwam
  * 8th اتم atam
  * 9th نهم nəham
  * 10th لسم lasam
  