title: Miluk language
text: # Miluk language
  
  T:transitive marker EST:established
  
  Miluk, also known as Lower Coquille from its location, is one of two Coosan languages. It shares more than half of its vocabulary with Coos proper (Hanis), though these are not always obvious, and grammatical differences cause the two languages to look quite different. Miluk started being displaced by Athabascan in the late 18th century, and many Miluk shifted to Athabascan and Hanis.
  
  Miluk was spoken around the lower Coquille River and the South Slough of Coos Bay. The name míluk is the endonym, derived from a village name. The last fully fluent speaker of Miluk was Annie Miner Peterson, who died in 1939. She knew both Miluk and Hanis, and made a number of recordings. Laura Hodgkiss Metcalf, who died in 1961, was the last functional speaker (her mother was Miluk), and was an informant to Morris Swadesh for his Penutian Vocabulary Survey.
  
  ## Phonology
  
  The consonant inventory of Miluk can be tabulated as follows, based on Doty (2012):
  
  | | | Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolar | Alveolar | Alveo- palatal | Velar | Velar | Uvular | Uvular | Glottal | Glottal |
  | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
  | | | Bilabial | plain | sibilant | lateral | Alveo- palatal | plain | labialized | plain | labialized | plain | labialized |
  | Plosive/ Affricate | plain | p | t | t͜s | t͜ɬ | t͜ʃ | k | kʷ | q | qʷ | ʔ | |
  | Plosive/ Affricate | ejective | pʼ | tʼ | t͜sʼ | t͜ɬʼ | t͜ʃʼ | kʼ | kʼʷ | qʼ | qʷʼ | | |
  | Fricative | voiceless | | | s | ɬ | ʃ | x | xʷ | χ | χʷ | h | hʷ |
  | Fricative | voiced | | | | | | | | ʁ | | | |
  | Sonorant | plain | m | n | | l | j | | w | | | | |
  | Sonorant | glottalized | mˀ | nˀ | | lˀ | jˀ | | wˀ | | | | |
  
  * 1 2 It is not clear if [h] and [hʷ] are phonemic; they may be allophones of /x/ and /xʷ/.
  
  Stops are tenuis in syllable onsets before a vowel, and aspirated in syllable codas and before another consonant.
  
  The vowels in Miluk are /i, u, ə, ɛ, ɑ/.
  
  Vowel harmony occurs in Miluk, although sporadic. The most common occurrence of vowel harmony in Miluk is the harmonization of /ɛ/ in roots with /ɑ/ in suffixes.
  
  ### Morphology
  
  In Miluk, the possessive noun phrase precedes what is possessed. The possessed noun takes no article but instead is marked with the oblique [tə]. Miluk has an inclusive and exclusive distinction when it comes to the dual possessive. In the first person dual inclusive, the words receive the circumfix s=nə-, while the first person dual exclusive receives the prefix nə-.
  
  There are two articles in Miluk, kʷə and ʎə. ʎə is used with nouns that are closer to the speaker, while kʷə is used for nouns which are more distant. These articles do not reflect a gender of a noun and both articles have been found in use for the same noun in discourse. Verbs have intransitive, imperfect, and perfect marker. Verbs which are intransitive take the -u suffix, while the imperfect tense takes the -ʔi suffix and the perfect tense takes the -t suffix.
  
  ### Gender, Number, Person
  
  Miluk does not have a masculine/feminine gender distinction, but it does have reflexives of an old gender system. The language reflects this old system in two instances: with a suffix that follows articles (-č) and in lexical items for male and female people throughout life. The suffix -č has been seen to be optional but occurs in three instances:
  
  * following a feminine noun,
  * referring to a young person, and (the most common)
  * referring to elders.
  
  The second place where Miluk holds on to an older gender system is when referring to males or females. Words for males often begin with /t/, while the female words often begin with /hu/ and /w/.
  
  Miluk has no third person arguments. Presentational fronting occurs whenever a new argument is introduced.
  
  Pronominal prefixes :
  
  | | Singular | Dual | Plural |
  | - | - | - | - |
  | 1 | w(ə)- | s- (inc) | ɬ- |
  | 1 | w(ə)- | nə- (excl) | ɬ- |
  | 2 | nə- | is- | čil- |
  | 3 | Ø | ič- | iɬ- |
  
  **Space, Time, Modality**
  
  There are two morphemes which can be added to a verb to mark tense. The morpheme han indicates the prospective tense, which describes that an event is going to occur. The other morpheme that can be added to a verb is hanƛ, which marks the future tense. The future tense is distinguished from the prospective tense and has appeared irrealis marker a ̆x. The order in which the morphemes appear are the pronominal clitics, followed by mood, tense and then aspect.
  
  In the following examples, "han" indicates that an event is going to occur.
  
  Tsú
  
  Cu
  
  NR
  
  han
  
  han
  
  PRSP
  
  t’ámi
  
  t’aami
  
  carry
  
  tɬə
  
  ʎə
  
  ART
  
  də-
  
  tə-
  
  3SG.POS
  
  t’ím
  
  t’im
  
  Pack
  
  Tsú han t’ámi tɬə də- t’ím
  
  Cu han t’aami ʎə tə- t’im
  
  NR PRSP carry ART 3SG.POS Pack
  
  "Now she was going to pack her load"
  
  Tsú
  
  Cu
  
  NR
  
  han
  
  han
  
  PRSP
  
  áyu
  
  aayu
  
  indeed
  
  ġɛlts
  
  qelc
  
  cross
  
  Tsú han áyu ġɛlts
  
  Cu han aayu qelc
  
  NR PRSP indeed cross
  
  "And then she was going to cross on it indeed"
  
  **Case**
  
  Miluk has an ergative–absolutive distinction.
  
  The suffix -x denotes the ergative case in Miluk.
  
  In the following examples, the ergative argument comes before the absolutive argument.
  
  áyu
  
  indeed
  
  ás-d-a
  
  decorate-T-3.OBJ
  
  tłə-x
  
  ART-ERG
  
  hú'mik'
  
  old.woman
  
  tłə
  
  art
  
  də-dím
  
  3SG-POSS
  
  sin
  
  grandson
  
  áyu ás-d-a tłə-x hú'mik' tłə də-dím sin
  
  indeed decorate-T-3.OBJ ART-ERG old.woman art 3SG-POSS grandson
  
  "Indeed the old woman decorated her grandson."
  
  Miluk allows for the opposite to occur, as we see the absolutive argument precede the ergative argument.
  
  gasíya
  
  almost
  
  du
  
  HAB
  
  galam
  
  grab
  
  tłə
  
  ART
  
  máqt'ł
  
  crow
  
  tłə-x
  
  ART-ERG
  
  gwɛis
  
  girl
  
  gasíya du galam tłə máqt'ł tłə-x gwɛis
  
  almost HAB grab ART crow ART-ERG girl
  
  "The girl almost caught the crow."
  
  **Predicates & Arguments**
  
  Similar to Salish languages, Miluk predicates have a tendency to be clause initial. Arguments are expressed with noun phrases and often the arguments follow the verb. Absolutive and ergative arguments can be interchangeable.
  
  The following example shows the ergative argument before the absolutive argument.
  
  áyu
  
  indeed
  
  ás-d-a
  
  decorate-T-3.OBJ
  
  tłə-x
  
  ART-ERG
  
  hú'mik'
  
  old.woman
  
  tłə
  
  ART
  
  də-dím
  
  3SG-POSS
  
  sin
  
  grandson
  
  áyu ás-d-a tłə-x hú'mik' tłə də-dím sin
  
  indeed decorate-T-3.OBJ ART-ERG old.woman ART 3SG-POSS grandson
  
  "Indeed the old woman decorated her grandson."
  
  However, in the next example, the absolutive argument precedes the ergative argument.
  
  Tsú
  
  Cu
  
  NR
  
  wɛn
  
  wen
  
  thus
  
  ilduwa
  
  illtwa
  
  say
  
  tɬə
  
  ʎə
  
  ART
  
  dí
  
  tə-
  
  3SG.POS
  
  hímɛ
  
  hiime
  
  children
  
  tɬɛ
  
  ʎə
  
  ART
  
  -x
  
  -x
  
  ERG
  
  t’smíxwən
  
  c’miixwən
  
  trickster
  
  Tsú wɛn ilduwa tɬə dí hímɛ tɬɛ -x t’smíxwən
  
  Cu wen illtwa ʎə tə- hiime ʎə -x c’miixwən
  
  NR thus say ART 3SG.POS children ART ERG trickster
  
  "Then this is what the trickster told his children"
  
  **Obliques**
  
  The morpheme tə marks an oblique or possessive, which occurs throughout the Salish language family. The following two example reveals -tə acting as the oblique marker.
  
  Tsú
  
  cu
  
  now
  
  k’wɛn
  
  k’ween
  
  news
  
  wus-
  
  wus-
  
  REDUP
  
  ú’s
  
  wus
  
  go.home
  
  -u
  
  -u
  
  NTR.PERF
  
  tɬə
  
  ʎə
  
  ART
  
  də-
  
  te-
  
  3SG.POS
  
  ‘úmnatt’ɬ
  
  umnaaʎ
  
  grandmother
  
  -ədja
  
  -əča
  
  LOC
  
  Tsú k’wɛn wus- ú’s -u tɬə də- ‘úmnatt’ɬ -ədja
  
  cu k’ween wus- wus -u ʎə te- umnaaʎ -əča
  
  now news REDUP go.home NTR.PERF ART 3SG.POS grandmother LOC
  
  "He returned with news to his grandmother"
  
  tsú
  
  cu
  
  now
  
  má
  
  ma
  
  CONT
  
  gɛ’
  
  qee
  
  there
  
  yáhwi
  
  yahwi
  
  rub
  
  tɬə
  
  ʎə
  
  ART
  
  də
  
  te
  
  3SG.POS
  
  yɛis
  
  yeis
  
  mouth
  
  -ədja
  
  -əča
  
  LOC
  
  tsú má gɛ’ yáhwi tɬə də yɛis -ədja
  
  cu ma qee yahwi ʎə te yeis -əča
  
  now CONT there rub ART 3SG.POS mouth LOC
  
  "And he kept rubbing it on her mouth"
  
  **Complements**
  
  Arguments are often fronted in Miluk and uses presentational construction. This is used while telling stories, to bring attention to the subject of the story. The following examples are of the presentational construction, with the presented construction bolded.
  
  gwɛis
  
  kweis
  
  girl
  
  gus
  
  kuus
  
  all
  
  mín
  
  min
  
  time
  
  du
  
  tu
  
  HAB
  
  kwí
  
  kwi
  
  EST
  
  alam
  
  alam
  
  myrtle.nut
  
  yúgwa
  
  yugwa
  
  gather
  
  gwɛis gus mín du kwí alam yúgwa
  
  kweis kuus min tu kwi alam yugwa
  
  girl all time HAB EST myrtle.nut gather
  
  "There was a girl who was always picking myrtle nuts"
  
  Tit’sɛwəs
  
  Tic’eewəs
  
  Young.girl
  
  tsú
  
  cu
  
  now
  
  ha
  
  ha
  
  REC.PERF
  
  dlúqws
  
  ʎuqws
  
  get.up
  
  -əm
  
  -əm
  
  NTR
  
  Tit’sɛwəs tsú ha dlúqws -əm
  
  Tic’eewəs cu ha ʎuqws -əm
  
  Young.girl now REC.PERF get.up NTR
  
  "A girl who had just passed her first menses had just now arisen."
  
  **Endangerment**
  
  The Miluk dialect of the Coosan language is now extinct. The last speakers were two sisters, Lolly Hotchkiss and Daisy Wasson Codding. The two worked with a linguist in 1953 to record words from the language but the two were not fluent in adulthood, and had trouble remembering words. The last fluent speaker was Annie Miner Peterson, who knew both the Miluk and Hanis dialect. Annie Peterson's first language was Miluk, and in 1930, Annie Miner Peterson began working with Melville Jacobs and the two produced two volumes of texts in both dialects of Coos. Coos Narrative and Ethnographic Texts and Coos Myth Texts were the two publications were published, but the two publications did not have any linguistic analysis. The books only provided English translations to the texts.
  
  