title: Kainantu–Goroka languages
text: # Kainantu–Goroka languages
  
  The Kainantu–Goroka languages are a family of Papuan languages established by Arthur Capell in 1948 under the name East Highlands. They formed the core of Stephen Wurm's 1960 East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor of Trans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification of Malcolm Ross.
  
  ## Languages
  
  The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and both William A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:
  
  * Goroka family
     * Daulo
        * Siane, Yaweyuha
        * Gahuku: Alekano (Gahuku), Asaro River: Dano (Upper Asaro), Tokano (Lower Asaro)
     * Benabena
     * South Goroka: Fore, Gimi
     * Isabi, Gende
     * Henganofi
        * Abaga
        * Kamono (Kamano)
        * Fayatina River
           * Kanite, Inoke-Yate
           * Yagaria
        * (?Ke’yagana) [subsumed under another language by Usher]
  * Kainantu family
     * Kenati
     * Tairoric (East Kainantu): Binumarien (Afaqina), Tairoa (North Tairora, Omwunra, Vinaata), Waffa
     * Gauwa (West Kainantu)
        * Gadsup (Oyana, Akuna, Ontenu), Agarabi, Kambaira
        * Awa, Oweina
        * Auyana: Awiyaana (incl. Kosena), Usarufa
  
  ## Pronouns
  
  The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:
  
      proto-Kainantu–Goroka sgpl 1 *ná*tá[za] 2 *ká[za]*tá-na- 3 *[y]á, *wá*yá[na] proto-Kainantu sgdupl 1 *né*té[ze]-*té[ze] 2 *é[ze]*[te]né- 3 *wé proto-Goroka sgpl 1 *ná*tá[za] 2 *ká*tá-na-gaza, *tí-na-gaza 3 *[y]á*[y]á-na-gaza, *í-na-gaza
  
  The possessive forms are:
  
      proto-Kainantu–Goroka sgpl 1 *na-i*ta-i 2 *ka*tana-i 3 *[y]a, *wa*ya-i, *yana-i
  
  ## Evolution
  
  Kainantu–Goroka reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:
  
  Awa language:
  
  * are 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
  * nu 'louse' < *niman
  
  Tairora language:
  
  * ato 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V]
  * ir 'tree' < *inda
  * (n)am 'breast' < *amu
  * nume 'louse' < *niman
  * kubu 'short' < *k(a,u)tu(p,mb)aC
  * mi- 'give' < *mV-
  
  Fore language:
  
  * na- 'eat' < *na-
  * numaa 'louse' < *niman
  * mi- 'give' < *mV-
  * amune 'egg' < *mun(a,i,u)ka
  * kasa 'new' < *kVndak
  * mone 'nose' < *mundu
  
  Gende language:
  
  * ami 'breast' < *amu
  * mut 'belly' < *mundun 'internal organs'
  * mina- 'stay' < *mVna-
  * nogoi 'water < *[n]ok
  * (tu)nima 'louse' < *niman
  * me- 'give' < *mV-
  
  Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacing proto-Trans-New Guinea forms:
  
  * *tá[za] '1pl' replaces pTNG *ni, *nu
  * *tá-na '2pl' replaces pTNG *ŋgi, *ja
  * genitive forms ending in *-i
  
  ## Vocabulary
  
  Gorokan basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
  
      glossProto-GorokanGendeSianeBenabenaKamono–YagariaFore 'two'*toteogondrarileleloeloletara 'man'*weveiwevovewa 'water'*no(k)nogoinonagamini(na)wani 'fire'tuvayologohaliyakuʔ 'tree'*yaizoyayafayavayaː 'leaf'kurumaailahaya(ʔa)haeyaaʔyeʔ 'root'*supatovayalufawalufusa(ʔa)havuaubu 'house'*nomnomunumu(na)no(hi)yo(na)naːmaʔ 'breast'*amiami-ami(na)amiha(ʔa)ami(maʔa)nono 'tooth'*wava(iza)aumayogo(ʔa)(ä)vep(a)wa 'bone'*yampuyami-aumafelisa(ʔa)(a)pu(va)(a)yaːmpu 'ear'*ke/aka-ka(la)(e)kesa(ʔa)(ä)geta(a)ge 'hair'*yokayogoyowa(la)oka(ʔa)(a)yokaʔ(a)yaːʔ 'leg'*kiakia-kiya(na)gigusa(ʔa)(a)gia(a)gisaː 'blood'*kotamamia-wanugolaha(ʔa)gola(na)koraːʔ 'hand'*yayaa(na)yaha(ʔa)(ä)yaya 'egg'*mutmuramulamu(ʔa)mu(na)amuʔ 'sun'*popofoyafiyafoyaːbu 'axe'*tutulunalulutuʔ 'netbag'*kokoowogu(ʔi)gu(na)koʔ 'eat'*na-na-n-na-no-na- 'die'*puti-pri-fol-fili-fili-puri- 'say'*si-ti-l-li-hi-i- 'give'*mi-imi-om-m-mi-mi- 'big'*(n)ampanambanambanapalegepatabe
  
  Kainantu basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
  
      glossAwaAuyanaGadsupTairora 'two'tɔtarekaiʔakaantanitaaraʔanta 'man'wɛwaiyabantabainti 'water'nonombanominamari 'fire'irairamaikaiiha 'tree'tataimayaanikatari 'leaf'ɔnɔanamaanaimare 'root'anuʔanuʔaanuʔituʔa 'house'nɔnaambamaʔinaabu 'breast'nɔnaambanaaminaama 'tooth'awɛawaiyambaabakuniaabai 'bone'ayɔntaayaantambaayampaibuhaarima 'ear'ɔreaʔaaakamiaato 'hair'(a)yɔraaayara-nyoikauhi 'leg'aiaisamimaakaniaiʔu 'blood'nɛenaemanaareinaare 'hand'ayɔnobehayambaaayaamikauʔu 'egg'auaumaamuʔiauru 'sun'popoʔnahaabaumaikonakauri 'axe'konarokorarobakuntaʔikaarima 'netbag'unɔunaambaunaamiuta 'eat'nɔnonarenaanonaana 'die'pukirepukaipukonoʔutubiro 'say'iraruwosiyoseʔutiena 'give'awiʔamiamenoamina 'big'aanotɔanombainoʔnanora
  
  ## Proto-languages
  
  Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:
  
      glossProto-East KainantuProto-North Kainantu head*piᵄtɐ*noːN hair/feather*jɐᵘsi*jɐᵘ ear*ɑːtoː*ɑːʔ eye*wu*u nose*ipi*siʔ tooth*wɐⁱ*wɐj tongue*m₂ɑːpiɾi*[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ leg*ipu*tɐɾ blood*wi[ʔt]ipɐ*nɑːɾeː bone*muʔjɑːni*(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ breast*nɑːNmɐ*nɑːN louse*numɐ*nuN dog*w₂ɐⁱni*ijɐN pig*p₂uᵄɾɐ*poːɾ bird*inɑːmɐ; *uwini*nuN egg*uɾu*uɾ tree*jɐtɐɾi*jɑːj sun*j₂uᵄni*ɑːʔ moon*[u]toːnɐ*wi[ɾ]oːN water*noːni*noːN fire*iʔjɐ*itɐ stone*oːni*oː[ɾ/j] path*ɑːni*ɑːj man*wɐⁱ-iNti*wɑːⁱNsɐ woman*ɐnɑːjeː*ɐnɑːsi name*utu*wiʔ eat*nɐ- one*moːʔjɑː*mɐnɑː two*tɑːɾɐ*tɑːN
  