title: Ndu languages
text: # Ndu languages
  
  The Ndu languages are the best known family of the Sepik languages of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
  
  Along with the Arapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in the Sepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.
  
  A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.
  
  ## Languages
  
  Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, though Iatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:
  
  * Ngala
  * Ndu proper
  
      Iatmul, Manambu, Yelogu (Yalaku), Abelam (Ambulas), Boiken–Koiwat, Gaikundi, Sos Kundi (Sawos Kundi)
  
  Also sometimes distinguished are Keak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi), Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas), Burui (close to Gai Kundi), and Sengo.
  
  ## Phonology
  
  Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of three vowels, /ɨ ə a/, that are distinct only in height. Phonetic [i e u o] are a result of palatal and labial assimilation of /ɨ ə/ to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages, /ɨ/ is used as an epenthetic vowel to break up consonant clusters in compound words. Within words, /ɨ/ only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are /ə/ and /a/. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being the Arrernte and Northwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.
  
  For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel /a̭/ is often written as /aʔa/. This does not signify /a/ followed by a glottal stop and another /a/.
  
  ## Morphology
  
  Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.
  
  ### Ambulas
  
      wunɨ-nə mbalɨ
      1SG-POSS pig
      ‘my pig’
      ndɨ-ku mbalɨ
      3SG-POSS pig
      ‘his pig’
  
  ### Manambu
  
      wun-(n)a maːm
      1SG-POSS older.sibling
      ‘my elder sister’
      ndɨ-kɨ-ndɨ yaːmb
      3SG-POSS-M.SG road
      ‘his road’
  
  Ndu languages make use of the general locative case suffix -mb (-m in Manambu):
  
  ### Ambulas
  
      kwalɨ kambɨlɨ-mbə
      neck river LOC
      ‘at the source of the river’
  
  ### Manambu
  
      ŋgu-aːm
      water-LINK.LOC
      ‘in water’
  
  Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:
  
  * -t (-r in Manambu): allative meaning (‘to’ or ‘toward’)
  * -k: benefactive (beneficiary or recipient) meaning
  
  Examples of dative case markers in Ambulas and Manambu:
  
  ### Ambulas
  
      ndu mbɨrɨ takwə mbɨr-ət
      man PL woman PL-ALL
      ‘toward the men and women’
      ɲjɨmba yə-kwə ndu-kɨ
      work do-PRS man-BEN
      ‘for the men who work’
  
  ### Manambu
  
      ar-aːr yi-tɨk
      lake-LINK.ALL go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
      ‘Let’s both go to the lake.’
      a-ndɨ ɲɨnɨk
      that-M.SG child.LINK.BEN
      ‘for that child’
  
  Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is a Sepik-Ramu areal feature. An example of the Ambulas allative case marker -t:
  
      wunɨ ɲan-ɨt kenək-kwə
      1SG child-ALL scold-PRS
      ‘I’m scolding the child.’
  
  ## Proto-language
  
  ### Pronouns
  
  Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
  
      sgdupl 1 *wɨn*an*nan 2m *mɨn *mpɨr *ŋkɨwr 2f *ɲɨn 3m *ntɨ *ntəy 3f *lɨ
  
  Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.
  
  ### Lexicon
  
  A phonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below. The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream of Ambunti.
  
  **Proto-Ndu reconstructions by Foley (2005)**
  
  
      glossproto-NduManambuIatmulAbelamSawosBoikenNgala one*nəknəkkɨtanekkɨtaknapənək threemɨwŋkwɨrkɨwpɨwkkɨwpɨwkkɨwpɨwkmɨwŋkɨwlɨykŋmɨwŋkɨwl man*ntɨwntiwntɨwntɨwtɨwriw water*ŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwkɨwŋkɨw rain*maytwarmaykmacwirɨmacɲmac fire*yayayayahwɨypaya sun*ɲaɲəɲaɲaɲaɲa moon*mpapmɨwmpapɨwmpwapmpapmɨwpwapwəkamwɨ house*ŋkəywɨyŋkəyŋkəyŋkaykəyŋkəy villagetəpŋkəpmaŋkaywɨyəwɨyə breast*mɨwɲmɨwɲmɨpəmɨwɲəmwɨyɲmɨwɲ tooth*nɨmpɨyɨwknɨmpɨynɨmpɨynɨmpɨynɨmpɨy bone*apəapavəapəyapəampɨ tongue*tɨkŋatɨkalɨrtɨkattɨkŋalɨntɨkŋalɨtɨkan eye*mɨyRmɨyrmɨynɨymɨynɨymɨynɨymɨyl nose*tam(w)ətamtamətamətamətamwə leg*manmanmanmanmanmanrawɨ ear*wanwanwanwanwan eggmpantmpantɨŋkɨkmpwantɨŋkwɨy tree*mɨymɨymɨymɨymɨymɨy name*cɨcɨcɨɨycɨcɨ pig*mp(w)almparmpakmpalɨpwalɨmpwal dog*wac, *waracwarəwacəwarəpyəp snake*kampwəykampaykampwəykampwəyhampwəymapwɨcɨ mosquito*kɨvɨykɨvɨykɨvyəkwɨyəmɨkɨycɨcɨvyə lousetəkɨynmpakwənɨmwkəmalɨɲən see*vɨvɨvɨvɨvɨtəyf eat*kɨkɨkɨkəhəkɨ go*yɨyɨyɨyɨyɨyɨyɨ come*yayayayayaya sit*rərɨrɨrərəyəlkɨy stand*rap(m)rapraprapmrapm
  