[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What exactly are the moles on your body? Why do we need to go through surgery to actually remove one?

[Assistant]
A mole (or melanocytic nevus) is an often benign local overgrowth of melanocyte cells. Melanocytes are the cells responsible for making melanin, a dark skin pigment. That's why many moles appear brown or dark - the large number of melanocyte cells make lots of melanin, which give the mole its colour.

There are numerous types, some depending on which layer of the skin the cells are from. Usually you're either born with them or you get them within the first 20 years of life, then they tend to stick around.

We go through surgery to remove them for two reasons; either the person with the mole wants it removed for cosmetic reasons, or a doctor suspects the mole may actually be a melanoma - a particularly nasty type of skin cancer.

If there's any indication the mole is a melanoma, it's removed, usually with negative surgical margins, which means you cut out an area of skin around the cancer that contains entirely normal cells (so you can be sure you cut it all out and didnt leave any behind). The removed bit of tissue is then sent off for testing to see if it is anything to worry about or not - that's called a skin biopsy.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: If the universe is always expanding, that means that there are places that the universe hasn't reached yet. What is there before the universe gets there.

I just can't fathom what's on the other side of the universe, and would love if you guys could help!

[Assistant]
The best metaphor for this is to imagine the universe is 2D, not 3D, so it's basically on a plane, like stars are painted on a sheet of paper. Now imagine it's not a sheet of paper but the rubber surface of a ballon. Now imagine the ballon is inflating. More and more space (the surface) is created, it is expanding, but it's not like it is expanding "over" empty space: the space itself is expanding.

(This metaphor creates some misunderstanding as well, but works well for your question. Here is where it fails: it leads you to think you need some "3D" space outside/inside that 2D "universe"; you don't actually need that to explain our universe).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [SW] How can or how are a few Sith able to cause a massive shift in the Force? What exactly are they doing that causes a shift in the Force?

[Assistant]
The exact mechanism by which they amplify the power of the dark side and upset the balance of the Force is unknown, and always has been.

Theories abound, but really? The Sith had been actively corrupting the Republic leadership for decades if not centuries in preparation for war, fostering hatred and anger and suffering everywhere they went. And now we know that in addition to that, the Sith had a shrine buried deep under the Jedi Temple on Coruscant, and Palpatine was using that shrine to basically deafen the Jedi to the Will of the Force, spreading its effects and corrupting the Temple above it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] How is Kodak getting handed $765 million helpful?

[Assistant]
To understand what's going on here, it's necessary to talk a bit about Kodak. Until the early 2000s, Kodak and Fujifilm were happily doing what they do best - manufacturing the top of the line photographic cameras. Yes digital cameras were starting to be produced by competitors like Sony, Canon, and Nikon; but all Kodak needed to do was make better and better cameras of both types in order to stay ahead.

By 2010, digital cameras had become completely commoditised, and the only way to compete there became on cost. Worst still, smartphones were wiping out even the digital camera industry, making film doubly obsolete. In the meantime, Fujifilm had successfully diversified to provide imaging for healthcare and pharmaceutical purposes, and commercial document solutions, that meant it's cameras and film segment was now only 15% of total revenue. By 2012, Kodak had already filed for bankruptcy.

Since then, Kodak has been struggling along bleeding cash year after year. It tried to play catch up with Fujifilm by moving into the commercial segment, but that failed. In 2018, it announced a move into Blockchain technology to create a cryptocurrency for photographers, which also failed. Now it's announced a desire to use it's film production chemical process to create pharmaceutical chemicals instead. To do this it's being extended a $750M loan (not a handout) to overhaul all its factories. These chemicals it intends to produce seem to be all generics, which is a supply chain dominated by India and China.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5:Why is Whiskey so seemingly integral to the Irish identity?

I love Irish folk music and have visited Ireland twice and I don't think it's hyperbole to say that Whiskey really is a part of Ireland.  What about it or the Irish makes the two so synonymous?  Beyond the outside perceived stereotype (if it's not just that).

[Assistant]
Because it was more or less invented there. Distillation was invented in the east but it was used to make perfumes, not alchohol. When the Italians got their hands on the process they discovered they could distil liquor from wine and from there the process spread via the network of monasteries throughout Europe. When it got to Ireland, they made whiskey.

Trivia: Whiskey is the anglicised version of an Irish phrase, **uisce beatha** (Ishka Baha), water of life.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] What causes an ice age, and is it possible for us to have another one/when could the nearest one be?

[Assistant]
We are technically still in an ice age, called the Holocene, which started 2.6Mya. That 3 massive ice sheets (Arctic, Greenland, Antarctic) still exist, and that year round alpine glaciers still exist, is the reason why. Once they are all gone, you could say the ice age was over.

We are in a warm period of that ice age called an interglacial period, which is why it isn't as cold as you think of an ice age.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 What is Californias worse case scenario concerning the drought?

I honestly am not sure thise is the right place for this but it fits for now. i know the articles say California has a year of water left. Obviously during this there will be fines and mandates restricting use. So what happens when we run out regardless of the fines and restrictions? Will the government step in? Will we have to abandon our houses? Does California become a Mad Max style place?

[Assistant]
Since normal people actually only use a small fraction of the water and most of it goes to agriculture. It is to hoped that the government would restrict the use of water for things like growing alfalfa.

Alfalfa makes up 15% of the water used in California and most of it gets shipped to Japan and China. That is right currently while draught is going on the government is paying farmers to export 1/6th of the water used in California overseas.

So the sane worst case scenario would be government stepping in and restricting farmers from using water for luxury or export crops like almonds and hay and possibly paying them for their losses.

The humans could live of the water California has left even though a server drought. It is the farmers who are going to have serious problems and through them the taxpayers who need to keep them from going bankrupt.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is it weird to reach out to old PI after 3 yrs?

Hi all! Im currently a 3rd year phd student and randomly today I realized I havent reached out to my old undergrad PI since my first month of phd. I worked for him for 1.5yr during undergrad and he helped me a lot during my application process. I originally planned to send him a email every year or so and feel super bad I just completely forgot about it (a bit of excuse for myself I didnt handle phd during covid too well). I do wanna reach out just to reconnect and genuinely wonder hows he doing. But at this time after 3yrs of no contact Im also super awkward and dont know what to say. Dont know if Im thinking too much into this.

Would it be weird to reach out? Not great at stuff like this so would appreciate any input!

[Assistant] I don't see why it would be weird; it's always nice to stay in touch with people you had a good relationship with. Ask them how they are, how they handled the pandemic, what they're working on right now; tell them about the cool stuff you're doing in your PhD. Just do it, don't overthink it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Goosebumps] In The Beast From The East, where exactly did the kids end up?

Theyre walking through the normal woods, not that far from their campsite.

Suddenly, the plants are weird and otherworldly, there are strange animals and there are Beasts. Im pretty sure that the sky changes color, too.

Is this really just an isolated part of the woods? If not, where did the kids end up? Is this another planet, another dimension, some sort of fairy realm? Were they deliberately brought here, or was it just a slip through the cracks event?

[Assistant]
It's been ten years since I've read these books, but presumably there was a natural portal to another world.

It probably wasn't intentional by some powerful being, but rather these things naturally occur sometimes; think of in Alice in Wonderland, where the portal to Wonderland just naturally occurs in the woods in the form of a rabbit hole. It's not horribly uncommon for various portals to other worlds (be they planets, realms, or dimensions) to just appear in otherwise innocuous places, and they may be temporary or they may be permanent.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How do you make objections and counter arguments in continental philosophy?

Imagine I'm reading something like Hegel. He makes an argument along the lines of "a philosophy/idea/whathave you never comes before its time" or "truth is constantly becoming". Descartes's system was necessary for Spinoza's system to come about.

Kierkegaard might say something like "in subjective thinking there is a double-reflection, you thank the universal and become even more subjective" or "communication between two people should never be direct and immediate" something along these lines.

Now obviously Hegel and Kierkegaard develop these ideas much further, but how do you object to these ideas without just rejecting the entire idea outright?

In more analytically inclined philosophy like Frege you can clearly argue against exact arguments he makes like Russell's paradox etc.   Even with modern thinkers like Leibniz, they have a system which you can challenge the internal logic, showing some things they say cannot be the case.

Edit: when I'm reading these continental philosophers, I find myself nodding along and kind of agreeing with them because I feel like I'm not smart enough to object to them.  It kind of eats away at my confidence as a student.

[Assistant]
One approach is to try to render the narrative that is being presented implausible in some way. For example you might imagine a counter-example or 'edge case' scenario where applying the narrative as given would lead to repugnant or absurd consequences - consequences that you don't think the author you are engaged with would want to accept or which would problematicize other aspects of their philosophy.

Of course you need to be careful because these authors aren't stupid and have put a lot of thought into what they're saying. And you also want to be charitable, meaning among other things that you should try to understand and adopt the author's definitions of their own terms.

Also, don't be afraid to be wrong, because you are going to be. It's the exercise of engagement that is useful in its own right, and which deepens your understanding through experience.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Planetside 2] Why are we fighting planet-side, and why doesn't anyone use nukes to defeat the enemy factions?

Like, we're all infantry units and not a bunch of marines but wouldn't it be more sensible to just blow the enemy battleships out of orbit (from orbit)? Why do they have to send everyone down to the planet to slaughter each other down here, while all the ships that took us here are heaving teaparties with the enemy above?

And then another thing, back in ancient earth history they used nukes to subdue their enemies into surrender, so why can't we?! They'd be far more effective than these Gauss rifles we have have to work with; just plop a nuke on some enemy bioplant and they're a goner. What's keeping those teasippers from supplying us with actually useful weapons?

[Assistant]
The New Conglomerate dogs and the Vanu Sovereignty's tech heads have stolen critical facilities from the control of the glorious Terran Republic.
With the advent of rebirthing technology all sides believe (us correctly) that they can capture and defend these facilities in tact.

When our troops are cheaper to replace than the bases they assault, why would we risk destroying buildings when we could capture them intact?


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How much of height is determined by genetics?

My brothers and I are all ~6'4", my mom is 5'8" and my dad 6'2", and I was wondering if it was purely genetics or if some outside factors could have had a say in the matter. For instance, when we were growing up we'd go through about 8L of milk a week and we spent the majority of our childhoods swimming. Could this have had a say in our height?

[Assistant] Your maximum potential is based solely on your genes. However, in order to reach that height you need adequate nutrition. Anyone eating enough calories to grow and not suffering from malnutrition will grow to their maximum height as dictated by their genes.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Which is the better Sith Ruling? Rule of Two or Sith Empire?

I was wondering what made the Rule of Two more successful than say the Sith Empire? From what I've read in the Jedi Temple, the Sith Empire had powerful Sith Lords about as powerful as our own Jedi Masters.

Also, wouldn't the Empire be better since it allowed the Sith to grow and also give way to lesser Sith to rise the ranks, give them a drive to become a Sith Lord? Rather than this Rule of Two that only promotes two Sith and if both were killed then the Sith would no longer exists.

[Assistant]
The Rule of Two allowed the sith to become more powerful in the long run by eliminating much of the infighting, keeping the sith out of conflict with Jedi, and letting the masters pass on a larger portion of their knowledge to their apprentice.

In theory, the master can't be attacked by more than one aspiring sith lord at a time. This means the apprentice has to surpass his teacher to kill him, making every generation more powerful than the last.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Black on black homicide is a HUGE issue.

The fact that it is commonly used by racist to downplay systematic racism does not change its severity in any way. The causes are several obviously, but you cant say it doesnt exist.

EVEN IF white people kill white people a lot as well. Americas very segregated still, so thats pretty much gonna happen. The point is black people disproportionately kill each other way more. So many kids are killing each other everyday over stupid shit and it seems only very small non profits are the only things trying to curtail the problem. I dont see a nationwide effort to reduce the problem that is clearly present. Even the most intellectual of black people, or just people in general will tell you it doesnt exist, and I dont know why. So please let me know. Dont remember the stats off my head but black people are around 13% of the population and are around 50% of people murdered. This is very obviously not proportionate. The cause? I can only assume. But does it exist? 1000%.

[Assistant]
2018 US homicide rate: 4.96 per 100,000 people

1991 US homicide rate: 9.71 per 100,000 people

Weve already cut the homicide rate in half in one generation. Where does this false idea that weve made no progress and arent making progress come from? Not from the data.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Yoda successfully kills Emperor Palpatine and Obi-Wan defeats (but does not kill) Darth Vader, as usual. What changes?

Title. Answers can be based on canon or Legends. Darth Vader can die on Mustafar if not rescued.

In both the canon timeline and the Legends timeline, the Jedi High Council is almost entirely wiped out, the Temple under the control of the Empire, and the Jedi Order itself is an enemy of the state. Who would take control of the Empire? At this point, was it too late to do anything?

[Assistant] The Jedi would be persona non-grata, and the galaxy would be in chaos, but the factors leading to it state of darkness and oppression would be gone, so it would be able to eventually recover. Perhaps, after a bit a new Jedi order could emerge and rebuild.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[GoT] Are Danni's dragons able to mate?

Serious question. This lady has three of these things and I have to be honest, I am surprised she is able to control then. What if they start having their own brood?

[Assistant]
There's no reason they can't mate, apparently dragons are gender fluid to some degree.

The problem is that because dragons have been gone for so long a lot of knowledge and research on them has been lost to the ages or is subject to debate, so even if Daenerys wanted them to mate she probably wouldn't know how.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: When I have a cold, how does my body produce so much mucus that I have to blow my nose every 10 minutes?

I have a cold, and I've had to blow my nose every 5-10 minutes. Where does all this mucus/snot grossness come from??

[Assistant]
Under normal conditions, nasal mucus is part of the system by which your body inspires air. It is actually a prevention or defense mechanism.
When the air goes by, the dust and whatnot sticks to the muscus-lined sides. And then the cilia (little hair) and the mucus move it to the rear of the mouth so that can hawk it up : it's called postnasal drip.

When you get a cold, your mucus goes crazy and into somekind of overdrive mode to try to shed the virus or else you got.
The mucus-producing cells extracts the "stuff" mostly from your blood (which you have a vast supply) hence the feeling of "TOO MUCH SNOT".

You actually produce less mucus than you may think. One experiment showed that on the peak day of a cold the average person produces about 14 grams of drippings, or roughly half an ounce.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] (Eli5) what's the difference between all wheel drive, symmetrical all wheel drive (remember this from a commercial, Subaru I think) and 4 wheel drive?

[Assistant]
First 4WD vs AWD.

4WD is generally used in Trucks and SUVs and is generally not an "all the time" thing, it is just engaged when it is necessary. What takes place is a mechanical locking of the differentials to ensure that all 4 wheels rotate "as one". what this means is all 4 wheels are rotating the same amount which aids significantly in loss of traction scenarios, but you definitely DON'T WANT during daily driving. Wheels need to be able to rotate at individual speeds especially when making turns otherwise tires will get destroyed at best, or at worst you'll end up in an accident or end up destroying the vehicle's drivetrain.

AWD utilizes limited slip differentials to enable the engine to drive all 4 wheels at once, which is a happy medium for cars that often find themselves in icy situations. LSDs allow the wheels to rotate at different speeds.

now what Subaru offers that others don't: symmetry.

The vast majority of a manufacturers lineup is front wheel drive vehicles and then for a premium, you can add AWD functionality. What does this mean? They take their front wheel drive car and slap on a drive shaft and an extra differential and tada, AWD.

Subaru only makes AWD vehicles (except for the BRZ which is RWD only) and therefore they make the vehicle with the purpose of being AWD from the beginning.

Now in the average vehicle, you have a transversely mounted engine which means the power from the engine comes out towards the driver's side front wheel, That power then needs to turn 90 degrees back towards the rear of the car, 90 degrees again towards the passenger's side, then once in the center, 90 degrees again towards the rear of the car. Every time you have to change the direction of the power, you lose power and create lag. Subaru's use of a boxer engine allows them to not need to change power direction at all before heading towards the rear of the car... therefore the entire drive train and by consequence power output is completely symmetrical.

What does this actually buy you? Well Subaru claims a better AWD system; at any rate it certainly buys you more of your engine's power making it to the wheels and slightly quicker.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] Why did Anakin cut Mace Windu's arm off, why not just block his sabre when he was trying to kill the senate?

[Assistant]
The ideal in any swordfight is for your first blow to be the fight's last. Blocking your opponent's sword means he can try to hit you back. Cutting your opponent's sword hand off settles things fairly conclusively.

Drastic? Maybe. But Master Windu had a reputation of being the deadliest warrior in the Jedi order; if there's any risk of being stuck in a fight with him, you should look for a way out. And Anakin is fully aware that prosthetic hands are available if you need one.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[GoT] I'm a rich shop owner in Kings Landing. Stannis Baratheon is said to be marching towards the capital, and everything is going crazy in the city, do I have a chance to move out of the capital?

Since Robert Baratheon died things have started to go downhill in Kings Landing. Some days ago the mob attacked King Joffrey and his guards. The mob started a fire and burned down this goldsmith's house because he had a full larder, thank god they didn't burn my house down because I'm considerably well off, I have enough food to last me for weeks and enough gold too. I could hire a ship to take me and my family somewhere else, move all my belongings and gtfo of here. The question is whether it's worth the risk? Which cities could I even go to that are considered safe?  Is it even safe to travel these days?

[Assistant]
Probably go to Braavos using a smuggler if needed. The Iron Bank has its home in Braavos and banks tend to rely on stability so it's a good indicator that its stable, also the Iron Bank has a lot of sway across the world due to debts its owed.

As a successful business man it's safe to assume you have savings in Braavos because of the Iron Bank and the city itself is known for its religious tolerence and openness to diversity so making your home there will be fairly easy.

It would be wise for you to also leave a trusted employee or relative in KL while your away to continue your business, if it does get destroyed in a seige or battle so be it, but if it doesn't then, depending on your shop, you might be ready to rake in the money in the aftermath.

Even if the war with stannis is decided without the annihilation of KL there is such instability in Westeros it might just be time to leave for good anyway.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: If Climate change is happening, where does the water go?

Okay, so we know Climate Change is happening, I believe that, i know that. The polar ice caps are melting. This should mean *rising* sea levels. But we know that Climate change is also causing drought. While I'm not sure how we have both drought and rising sea levels, if we're in a "closed" atmosphere, does that mean the water is just in the wrong place? Or is it leaving our atmosphere?

I'm afraid I'm going to sound like a denier, I'm not, I just really don't know.

[Assistant]
Yes, water in the wrong place, basically.

Sea level rise is partly from ice on land melting, and partly from the water expanding a little as it heats. But sea ice is floating so melting it doesn't directly raise sea level, although it can unleash glaciers it was previously holding back.

Droughts and floods are mainly down to shifts in weather patterns. Even if the same amount of rain falls worldwide, if it stops falling where it used to and starts falling where it didn't there are problems because all the farmers are where the rain used to be.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Could someone live off a diet of pills containing the nutrients we need to live? Or does food have something "more" that we need to survive?

[Assistant] If we were sure we had all the nutrients (and enough calories to use for energy) then we could live off that. It would be too much to be compressed into pills probably, but some companies do sell powders and shakes that you're supposed to be able to live off of (for example soylent.com). The real question is whether food is providing some nutrients that we haven't discovered yet, that might be missing from this artificial diet.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What is actually happening when a computer/smartphone is booting? Why isn't it usuable immediately upon turning it on?

[Assistant]
When you interact with a computer, you're interacting with software that lives in "memory". However, for the vast majority of computing devices, memory can only retain the software while it receives power.

There are other storage areas on computing devices that can retain software and data even while powered off. On most computers, that's a combination of BIOS (a special computer chip that contains the basic simple operating instructions) and the hard drive. On a smartphone, it's a special kind of memory that's considered "non-volatile" because it doesn't get erased when the power goes away. These storage places are much slower than normal memory.

When a computer boots up, it copies or "loads" the software that it will use from whatever slower storage it uses into its fast storage, memory, so it can operate at the speed you expect.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] A team from the WHO is currently in China looking for the origins of SARS-CoV-2. How do you look for the source of a virus?

[Assistant] Take a close look at all the slight variations in way the RNA mutates over time (note: usually they make artificial DNA from the RNA because it's more stable). If two different cases share almost all the same mutations then they're probably closely related. when you look at the small differences between four or five you can begin track backwards which was the oldest in the banching tree of similarities and differences - and which are "cousins" and which have closer "parent/child" relationships.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Is it possible for a deaf person to have tinnitus? If so, how does it work?

[Assistant]
Yes.  The ringing is actually coming from your brain and not your ear.

When hair cells in the inner ear get damaged, the brain creates an annoying "eeee" sound becausd it's missing that proper connection.

There have been people who had severe tinnitus and got their auditory nerve, from their hearing organ to their brain, cut hoping itll make the ringing go away.  And they still had tinnitus, if not worse.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Why did Yoda and Obi Wan have to split up to defeat Palpatine and Vader?

Wouldn't it have made more sense for both Yoda *and* Kenobi to gang up on both Sith lords?  Obi Wan had to cross the galaxy to take on Vader.  There was no rush to kill Vader.  He was off starting his dark path, but nothing he did was time sensitive.

If Yoda had had a bit of help he could have taken down the emperor and stopped the whole mess from going any further.

[Assistant] Yoda knew that Obi-Wan had no chance against Sidious.  Even if both of them attacked Sidious together, Obi-Wan would likely die.  Among the Jedi still alive, Yoda was the only one who had any hope of standing against Sidious in battle and living to tell the tale, and Yoda knew it.  However, while Obi-Wan would not be much help against Sidious, he would be uniquely suited to tracking down and taking out Anakin.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Internet IS representative of the real world and it has done more than people usually give credit for

I don't know how many times I have heard this both offline and online "Internet is not real life. Meet people in real life". My teachers, parents, friends, politicians, people from Quora, people from Reddit, etc have often said that internet is different from real life, that politicians use internet for propaganda and that offline life is different.. They always pretend that internet is something 'different'...a 'thing'.

It ISN'T.

Internet is just connected computers. It is a network. And guess who is behind these computers? Yes, YOU. You, a guy from this world, a real person, not a bot, not a person from Mars. And the internet mainly consist of these very people. I come from a small city in India and I have witnessed both people offline and online, Indian and foreigners. I spend most of my time not interacting people, but watching them interact. And what did I learn from it? They aren't any different.

The same people who used to sit on street shops, cracking sexist and racist jokes are now on the internet, doing the same thing. The same guys who used to bully and insult others all day long are now in CSGO and other game servers. The same guys who used to engage in debates, used to see the world in terms of 'left and right' and used to write articles bitching the right/left wingers are now on the internet doing the same thing. The same pedophiles who used to hunt for little kids on the streets and kidnap them is now just using a different platform for doing the same. The same men and women who used to trap young women and men and marry them for their money or have a flick with them is now using the internet for doing so. People talk about how many people are addicted to games and social media and that it is harming studies. These people are the same people who had been addicted to gossiping and playing outdoor games and bunking school/college when there was no internet. These are the same people who fell to peer pressure and became addicted to alcohol or smoking before the internet.

If the internet has done anything, it has made people see the world more broadly. Before the internet, people were naive, living in their own cultural bubbles, thinking that their city/state/nation is the entire world. Now, with the internet, people are connecting, meeting many people, finding similar people from all over the world. My old relatives think Americans are a bunch of sexually immoral and hedonistic lunatics who have nothing to do except eat and sex. I, exposed to the internet, know that this is not necessarily the case...that there are parts of America, like Alabama, which is nothing but just like third-world countries. I bet many Americans think India consists mainly of people shitting on streets and living poor lives. But the internet has made us interact and we have come to learn so much about others. Imagine a gay guy in India or Pakistan or some other such countries. If he open his mouth, he will be socially shunned (in India its legal but still socially unacceptable). But internet is a hope for him. With that he can explore his sexuality, meet gay guys from all over the world and feel accepted in this 'virtual world' of the internet.

TL;DR - Internet is not a 'bad' thing anymore than meeting friends is. Rather without the internet, people were extremely biased and naive.

[Assistant]
# Internet IS NOT YET representative of the real world

As weird as it sounds, internet is still in its infancy, and had not penetrated society fully. MOST people on the planet never use the internet, or rarely so. Either because they are too old, or too young, or too poor, or live in a country where internet is hard to connect to.

Most importantly however, the vast majority of moves and shakers of this world (politicians, leaders, generals, CEO's bank directors etc) rarely ever use the internet and do not participate in its culture. Hence why there is a dissonance between what people write on the internet, what they argue passionately about, and what their politicians end up doing anyway. Internet is the tool of the powerless, and will remain so until the curent 30 year olds grow up to become 50 year olds, and join the cohort of people who actually matter in shaping politics, culture, economy and society.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] How was a 14 year old Amidala elected Queen of Naboo? What did her political campaign look like? What campaign promises did she make, and why did the people of Naboo think that she was capable of accomplishing them?

[Assistant]
The people of Naboo have the cultural notion that children are "pure" and unbiased, and therefore can make good decisions if presented all the information. That is why their Kings and Queens (which are just the terms for their head of state and is an elected position with strict term limits) are chosen from their young.

Now that does not mean they are not without guidence. The children who are able to run for election have almost all universally have been trained from a young age in diplomatic schooling programs that teach them what is required of a politician, the minutiae of political dealings, diplomatic practices, and other vital information and training for a political life.

They also have a council of seasoned and experienced councilors and cabinet members who have spent years in the civil service, some who have may even have served as King or Queen in their youth. They are able to provide the needed experience and advice to the head of state an can guide them in the decision making policies.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Eli5: Why is it easier to darken white paint than it is to lighten dark paint?

I remember in elementary school that I was mixing paints and to make grey, and I found that a small quantity of black darkens white super easily whereas even a 50-50 split of black and white leaves an almost black color. Is black paint more potent? Is there some kind of complicated color theory?

[Assistant] Paint color works by removing light, adding just a small amount of black pigment can darken white pigment a lot because it goes from absorbing \~0 light to more . But to lighten dark pigment you can only dilute the pigment.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
What data should I be looking at to know if my state's minimum wage increase is working?

My home state of Illinois is increasing their minimum wage to $15 an hour over the next several years. This is something I generally support, based on studies that I've seen, but all the media coverage I've seen thus far has just been interviewing random restaurant owners who say "It's so bad, we're so broke, etc." without any actual data.
I'm genuinely curious to see how this has effected the state's economy, so could anyone tell me what data I should be looking at to judge this and how I can desegregate things from just the general economic effects of the pandemic?

[Assistant]
Getting data is a small step in seeing if it's working (assuming you have a clear definition of working).

This is an important question that very smart people have tried to answer for decades. There has been a fair amount of research done on minimum wages' effects and presumably meta-studies as well. I'd start with a lit review.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Treasure Island] Why didnt Billy Bones want to get the treasure?

Its my favourite book and Ive read it probably 30 times, but I cant understand why he wouldnt want to get the treasure with Flints old crew. Did he plan to get it himself? That wouldnt make sense.

[Assistant]
I think he and Silver had some kind of personal beef going on, and the old crew were loyal to Silver. For whatever reason, keeping Silver and his friends from having the treasure was more important to Billy than getting it for himself. He'd rather die poor than enrich his enemy.

So why not scrape together a new crew and go in secret? Well, Silver ran a pub on the docks, which means he had his ear to the ground. Going by Pew's part in the story, he was actively looking for Billy. If Billy started putting together a crew, especially on a limited budget, there was a risk that word would make its way back to Silver, and then Billy would be doomed.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: why are Americans so apathetic in demanding/enforcing the "free market" they supposedly value so highly? See - Anti-Tesla legislation, AT&T, Comcast, etc communication monopolies, lack of transparency in healthcare pricing, ad infinitum.

[Assistant]
Invoking the free market is a rhetorical bludgeon, much like the terms 'socialism' or 'terrorist', designed to draw an emotional response and not an actual thing that people understand or even truly desire in most cases.

I would be willing to wager that only maybe one in fifty Americans who bring up Adam Smith have actually read anything by the man.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Lord of the Rings] What's life like in the Undying Lands?

Is it pretty much normal life or is there anything particularly special about it?

[Assistant]
Well, you can meet gods and stuff. That's neat.

No wars, either. Or any strife, really. Not for a long time.

If  you're mortal, you won't last there very long, but you'll be at peace while you are.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Harry Potter] How effective would a gun be against wizards?

Is the protego spell strong enough to block bullets or not?

[Assistant]
We never see it but considering what other shit protego has stopped it could certainly stop bullets.

But that doesn't matter because a gun would take out a wizard much faster then almost any wizard could cast a spell to either defend or attack.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How is it possible that satellites last far longer than planned?

For example, the Meteosat-7 satellite was launched around 20 years ago and is still working fine without the need for maintenance. The satellite was supposed to stay in geostationary orbit for only 6 years.

[Assistant]
Usually when engineers say something will last for X years, it means that the thing has 95% (for example) chance of still working after X years. It doesn't mean that as soon as the X years have passed the satellite will stop working. This is something people often don't understand when they are talking about planned obsolescence.

For satellites there are a couple of limitations on the lifespan on top of stuff just breaking up. First is the propulsion. In geostationary orbit you need a bit of propellant to correct for perturbations caused by the moon and the sun gravitational pull as well light pressure. When the propellant runs out the satellites are placed into a graveyard orbit so that they are out of the way of other satellites. Sometime thrusters perform better than expected, or the rocket is extra precise in its launch so you end up having spare propellant and you can extend the mission.

Another thing that happens as satellites age is the degradation of solar panels and batteries. The solar panels lose efficiency when they are struck by radiation and cosmic rays.

Lastly sometime the mission duration is tied to the money needed to operate a satellite. To extend a mission you need money to pay the people in charge of the mission. The ground equipment can be very expensive too.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Some Video Games Should be Revered as Much as Classical Art Displayed at Museums.

We're talkin' about a painting of a lady who can't decide whether she is smiling or not holding a place at a distinguished museum that people travel to witness its tiny fragile frame and yet there are entire worlds with storylines hashed out for several characters, physics engines, incredible details in some cases, and all of it can be interacted with by the audience on varying levels of immersion. Not to mention that pretty soon VR has the potential to upend some of the limitations that current levels of immersion present.

[Assistant]
Museums exist to protect _singular_ artifacts and allow people to experience them.  A video game (or anything digital, really) doesn't require protection because it can be perfectly duplicated an infinite number of times.  You can't do that with a Picasso.

Moreover, what would the benefit be?  You can't experience a video game in a museum setting - you have to play it to get the impact.  Its the same reason that we don't have the original film reels of _Citizen Kane_ on display in a museum - you have to watch the movie to appreciate its importance.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Are we the only species to get headaches if so why?

[Assistant]
No, many species are physiologically similar to people. The same imbalances that cause headaches in humans cause them in other species.

Brain tumors give bears headaches.

Rats can get hangover headaches.

Cats have been disfigured by selective breeding and have sinus headaches.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[The Purge] How does the Purge affect other countries?

Assuming it only happens in the US, how does the rest of the world prepare?

I assume both Mexico and Canada would have already walled key border crossings.

The only safe way would be for full army and police mobilization, a curfew and a general state of readiness.

What happens with border towns? Do they get evacuated or filled to the brim with soldiers and tanks?

Regarding the rest of the world, do they hunker down for whatever crazy comes out of the US or do they take the chance to do some serious spionage?

I mean, Putin would probably be angling to profit from the chaos any way he could.

Edit 1: Canadians, how do you think your country would weather the Purge? I think it would be nothing short of a full wartime mobilization for at least 48 hours.

Everyone, including children, are issued chip bracelets to identify them as citizens. Anyone not carrying one on Purge day is liable to be shot on sight.

Schools and all businesses are closed, all civilian traffic is forbidden to keep the roads free for the Army and emergency services. All planes are grounded as well.

[Assistant] I would assume that most countries deal with a ton of visa requests in the weeks and months leading up to the purge.  Right after the purge they probably have a ton of request for information about emigration requirements.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why does some thunder crack through the sky doing a csshhhkrr sound and other ones produce a deep bass-boosted BOOOM?

Yes, we've had a thunderstorm recently and I love them, but can't get my head round this.

[Assistant] It largely depends on how close you are to it. The closer you are, the better the sound. It should resemble a loud crackle. But as you move away from the thunder, the sound wave starts to disperse and the sound gets less clear. So you ear a *boom* type of sound. Picture the sound wave as a bunch of people pushing each other in evry direction. After a while there's less of a reason to push people so the *fuzz* in that crowed gets less obvious, less clear.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Spider-Man + MCU] Spider-Man can stick to surfaces with his feet and hands. Does he ever use this while fighting hand to hand? Make bad guys' fists stick to his palm?

also in Homecoming, why would he stick his backpack near street level?  wouldn't he put it in a "spidery" spot just like momma spiders leave eggs?  up high somewhere, outta sight in a nook?

and why wouldn't aunt may know he snuck in the window the night Ned discovered him?  its not a huge apartment.  u cant really come or go without someone knowing.

[Assistant] AFAIK, Spider-Man himself hasn't used the sticking power in an offensive way as you are describing. But his dark and edgy clone, Kaine regularly did. He'd intentionally use the adhesive power of his hand to brand enemies by ripping a layer of skin off their face. The handprint scar left behind was referred to as the 'Mark of Kaine'.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Percy Jackson] Do demigods from Greece not have dyslexia?

So in the PJO universe, demigods tend to be dyslexic because their brains are hardwired for ancient Greek. I've looked up differences in the scripts of ancient and modern Greek, and apparently while there are differences in accents and stuff, the letters are mostly the same. So, does it mean that if you grew up in Greece, and have Greek as your first language, you would not be considered dyslexic?

[Assistant] Yes. Im fact, those for whom Greek is their first language would probably be even more proficient in it than they should be if they were normal kids. They would probably have increased language skills compared to their peers.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
3 completely identical human beings stop eating fats, carbohydrates and proteins respectively. In what order to they die, if at all, and what happens?

Let's just say hypothetically that the human beings are cloned so that conditions are exactly the same.

They are a a completely average 30 year old male.

So, just to elaborate, subject A stops eating fats, subject B stops eating carbohydrates and subject C stops eating proteins. What would happen in each case?

Edit: sorry about the title typo - should read *In what order do they die*

[Assistant]
they die in this order, from first to last:

C -> A -> B.

you need proteins because there are amino-acids that you can only get from proteins from food. you need fats because there are 2 fatty acids that you must have but can not synthesize.

your body can exclusively use fats and proteins for energy, and there aren't any carbohydrates that you critically need that you can't make yourself. those are the reasons for the order. in fact, i don't think subject B would die at all from a nutritional deficiency.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 - How can the concepts of mean reversion and independent events coexist?

I flip a coin 4 times and they all landed on heads. I'm about to flip a coin for the 5th time.

Independent event theory would suggest that my probability of getting heads or tails is still 50 50 for this flip.

However, according to mean reversion, the average number of heads should tend towards 0.5 and hence isn't the probability of tails higher?

[Assistant]
Mean reversion doesn't require the probability of tails on any individual flip to become higher. Instead, it's the number of flips that causes the average to tend towards 0.5.

Suppose you've flipped your 4 heads. Rather than thinking about the next flip, think about the next 100 flips. You'd expect to get something very close to 50 heads and 50 tails, which makes your initial 4 extra heads much less significant. The overall average will be something close to 54/104, or about 52%.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Trying to understand yourself through your ancestry is meaningless

Some people take a DNA test, find that they have some high percentage of an ethnicity that they know nothing about or maybe didn't even know existed, then suddenly they identify with its culture. I think that it's meaningless and just another type of horoscopes.

My main point is that culture is lived and experienced, not inherited. If you find a high percentage of Italian ancestry in your DNA but have never been to Italy then you have absolutely nothing to do with the Italian culture. Your DNA test revealed absolutely nothing about who you are as a person.

In this sense, giving someone the citizenship of a country just because some of his ancestors belonged to it is meaningless and arbitrary. Italy does this. I think that if your grandparent's father was Italian then that doesn't make you entitled to the Italian citizenship in any way.

I'm assuming that the citizenship means more than just a document. But it seems like most countries think the same, since many will require you to know their language and maybe do a history test before being eligible for it.

I'm also not saying that understanding yourself is the only reason people take DNA tests or research their genealogy, but I think that it's the main reason (especially when it comes to DNA tests).

[Assistant]
For some people, it helps give them a sense of belonging, especially for people who dont know their ancestral roots, it can help give them a direction for a culture to explore and adopt.

Sure, its not the end all be all, but can give people some direction.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What is it about electricity that kills you?

[Assistant]
It can kill you in two ways.

The first way is burning you. In general, current generates heat. If there is enough current going through your body, your body will literally heat up and you will burn to death.

The second way - if there isn't enough current to burn you - is the electricity just interfering with your body signals. You brain uses electricity to tell your muscles what to do. Your nerves are basically just biological wires in your body; if you apply a current to muscle it will contract.

Specifically, the electricity can interfere with your heartbeat and trigger erratic spasms of your heart. This is called fibrillation, and can often be corrected with a defibrillator. If there isn't a defibrillator nearby, well, you're probably gonna die.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How do oil paints dry?

Acrylic based paints dry by water evaporating, and oil paints dry by "oxidation." What is being oxidized, why does it cause the paint to become less wet, and why does it take so long?

[Assistant]
Oil paint is a colloid; the pigment is suspended in a liquid-in this case, a hydrocarbon oil dissolved in a solvent that makes the paint more fluid and easier to move around and manipulate.

After application, the solvent evaporates, leaving the pigment and oil. The oil gradually oxidises and hardens. As this involves absorbing oxygen (oxidising) rather than evaporating water, it can only happen at a certain rate, independent of environmental factors like temperature. (Other factors can be manipulated to increase the speed of oxidation, usually by mixing other chemicals like Liquin, a commercial product) Oxygen is also absorbed only through the top layer of the paint, meaning that it has to oxidise before lower layers can do so. This increases the time taken as well.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why are the 'Made In China' stickers and imprints necessary?

They can't be for crediting someone, because you can't give credit to a whole country. So why are they there?

[Assistant]
U.S. law requires the country of origin of a product to be clearly displayed on the product, or on the product's container if it is enclosed.

a lot of people also like to have this information available, especially in the US, because due to this law, countries build up a certain reputation for certain products.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Are we smarter than the first humans, or is it just collective knowledge?

When I asked this is class, it started a debate that led nowhere.

Would like to see what fellow redditors have to say on this subject.

[Assistant] If you could raise a baby that was born 200,000 years ago with modern technology and methods, would they less capable that a modern baby?  Would a 50,000 year old baby have the abilities of a modern human?


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [DC] Who and how good are Lex Luthor's PR people? He seems to shift from known Supervillain, to Super Hero to President with ease. So what kind of Godlike PR does he have?

[Assistant] History has shown that politicians who pander to certain segments of society can largely ignore their own criminality and moral shortcomings so long as they utter the right platitudes to pacify their base.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [General Superheroes] What are some good examples of seemingly low-level superpowers that can be extremely useful if taken to their full potential?

[Assistant]
Useful?  Many of them have physics bending powers that could be amazingly useful powers for legitimate noncriminal uses.

Take a fairly unsuccessful villain like Pyro, who can control flames.  Imagine his use to a major metropolitan fire department.  Can he control anything else? The rate of chemical reactions, or nuclear ones? Imagine his use to industry!

Its just a matter of thinking of all the use these amazing skills can have!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5, and then ELI20, both sides of the Amanda Knox trial.

Edit: Thank you all for the explanations so far, they are very helpful! Can someone now please explain why it seems like the majority of Americans are happy she's released because the majority think she's innocent while the majority of Italians are upset and chanting 'shame' because the majority believes she's guilty? Is it just how our court system differs, is it the media, what causes this?

[Assistant]
To make it short: Knox was living with Meredith. Both are from upper middle class families from US and UK respectively. Knox is naive and generally only book smart and not street smart. She has her 1st bf while in Italy on a study abroad program. One night she comes back home and finds blood in the house and toilet which isn't flushed. Seems weird enough. Runs back to her bf's house and they call the other Italian roommates. A bunch of low level cops (who are used to investigate petty crimes) show up and are generally incompetent as fuck. Crime scene is already contaminated. After breaking into the room, they find Meredith stabbed. The killer was extremely inexperienced (didn't even bother to cover up, left feet marks, tried to wipe blood with towels and just decided to leave it halfway through). The other roommates fly away to UK or lawyer up pretty quickly. Knox being fucking stupid decides to stay around until Meredith's parents come. Her family sort of agrees because at this point she's just so innocent that no one would think of her as a killer. Bring in a crazy prosecutor who fanatic over satanic rituals, an easy foreign target will easily be blamed. She ends up signing a confession because again, she's just so fucking stupid and doesn't really think of herself as a suspect. She also barely understands Italian so the whole case isn't exactly on her side. The prosecutor makes a weird story about how she killed her flatmate because of a weird satanic ritual and also accuses her bf of covering up. At this point the Italian media doesn't help either because, a foreigner killing for sexy satanic ritual would make any editor orgasm.

All this time, DNA evidence points to a common burglar who's conviction would be much easier (he was actually in jail after a separate trial on the same fucking case). The dude must have broken in. Got extra comfortable and takes a shit in the process. Meredith walk in mid-shit and the dude doesn't flush as a result. Tries to leave but realises Meredith has already seen him and will straight up identify him. Kills her.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[XMEN] How exactly does "good luck" work as a super power?

What exactly is considered good luck in the context of the situation? If someone has a gun to your head does the gun jam or do you survive the shot?

[Assistant] Luck like domino's power is very difficult to explain. It's similar to spidey sense and temporal manipulations. On a subconscious level the mutation constantly views various alternate timelines and possibilities every moment of every day. Whenever it finds a variation of reality that is beneficial to the mutant in question it merges the mutant into that timeline or brings part of it into the current one. This can also change things seemingly at random as the mutant is unaware of the changes taking place and is unable to control them or how far out the possible changes take place. A gust of wind could be pulled in to shift a plastic bag causing a chain of events that takes a week to manifest itself or simply a defect in a guns loading mechanism can be brought in creating a more immediate effect.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] If the Clone Wars series is considered real primary cannon, then where is Asoka (Anakin's padawon) during AOTC and ROTS?

[Assistant] She left the order after losing trust in it after she was falsely accused during a terrorist attack. She went off the grid and didn't resurface until well after Order 66 and began to organize rebel groups.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: How do they shoot space movies to look like zero gravity?

I'm talking older movies, too, like 2001 a Space Odyssey when superior editing technology was still a ways off.

[Assistant]
In the case of 2001 it was actually really clever: They suspended the actors on wires just like a lot of movies used to do, but they built the set sideways and put the camera on the ground pointing upwards.

This accomplished two things: First, the actor's body hid the wires so you didn't have to try to remove them in post. Second, the actor's movements drifting horizontally (which, from the camera's perspective, appeared to be vertical) looked WAY more natural than having a stagehand jerk the wires up and down.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] Why was Jango Fett chosen to clone? Wouldn't there be much better soldiers fighting for the Galactic republic army?

[Assistant]
The physical attributes and descent, his achievements and the fact that the Republic Army has always been a bit of a joke. Plus they didn't have to kill him afterward, allowing them to use him for other things. The candidate selection was not handled by Sifo Dyas, in fact.

After the project was commissioned, Sifo-Dyas was secretly killed and Darth Tyranus took charge of the project. He was commissioned by his master to do two things in this time period: One, find someone who was an effective genetic template for an army that would eventually be gutting Jedi and playing in their intestines and two: Kill a particular rogue Jedi (who was not fallen).

Tyranus decided to do both at once and put an enormous credit reward on the head of the rogue Jedi. A public bounty, but a number of mercenaries and hunters got special invitations - among them, Fett. He tracked and defeated the Jedi (Not even killing him, just bringing him in alive). One million credits richer, Tyranus offered him the job of being Clone Daddy to the Grand Army of the Republic.

Jango Fett was vetted anyway, but let's stack up his physical attributes: He's a member of the Mandalorians, an ancient warrior culture/race with a reputation for balls-out insanity. He's human, fit, with no major genetic problems. He's just (edit: Embarassed a Jedi), even taking him in alive. Perfect for a thousand thousand thousand clones. Not only that, he's familiar with the training methods of his people, so he can 'consult for the Kaminoans when it comes to training methods.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] If Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan managed to capture Maul, how much information would the Jedi be able to learn?

[Assistant]
Not much. At least, not much more than they would have already known from history and could have guessed from Maul's presence alone. Even though the Jedi were already aware of the Rule of Two, they were also of the belief that the Sith had gone extinct long ago. So Maul's presence as an actual Sith apprentice would be very troubling, but perhaps not the worst thing they've ever encountered. Because while Maul is imprisoned, they'd assume that the Sith's strength had been cut in half.

On the other hand, while Maul was indeed a full-fledged Sith, he still only knew what Palpatine wanted him to know. Maul was more of a blunt object, a weapon to be used at critical times when Darth Sidious needed something taken care of. So he didn't need to know any intricate plans or long-term goals other than destroying the Jedi. Which is something the Jedi have known about the Sith for a longer time period than the Republic has even existed. It was Dooku who got many of the juicy details, and would have been a far more valuable catch a few years later. Hence all the efforts expended to try and capture him, though none succeeded.

There's also the fact that Maul would have resisted interrogation, and used his own skill with the force to block attempts to forcibly read his mind. So trying to extract information out of him would have been a long, frustrating, and complicated endeavor. Not impossible, because we know Maul has his limits, but it wouldn't have been worth the effort in the long run.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Harry Potter] what is the process of creating a spell?

[Assistant]
At least for wand users:

It pairs a release of magic shaped by the magic users will with a specific focus word. This word then allows the user to use the shaped magic more easily in the future as the shaping of the magic becomes more of an unconscious action. It also seems to imprint this word upon the collective magical fabric of the universe and allows easier use for others (this is high conjecture but seems backed up by evidence).

For example: Snape invented Sectumsempra. He shaped his magic into a sword-like instrument and gave it an appropriate Latin-sounding name. This allows his brain to handle the shaping of the spell in the future without as much chance of backfiring as it. It also speeds up the spell-casting.

Harry then reads about this spell and knows it is used for enemies. His brain, already schooled in quasi-Latin due to his use of spells and studying magical history, then connects the dots and shapes Harry's magic into a cutting edge to hurt Malfoy. However, it was perhaps not as effective as it could have been as Harry truly did not understand what the spell was and only grasped the edges of the spells use. This is echoed with the Unforgivable Curses. They are very simple to learn. Most wizards and witches know the spell incantations. But it requires a real intent behind the spell to use it to it's full effectiveness. Avada Kedavra without real murderous intent would just inflict general harm based upon the magical power of the wielder. Crucio would inflict temporary and moderate pain instead of excruciating and unending pain. And so on.

TL;DR: It's kind of like writing a program, giving that program an executable shortcut, then freely sharing that executable shortcut with others, who, being schooled in the same style of programming, recognize the shortcut and the general shape of the program and execute it well enough for government work.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why do I feel like Deleuze's "rhizome" is stating a very obvious observation?

Maybe I'm just not understanding everything, but I can't help but feel that Deleuze's ideas are pretty simple, but dressed up in a forest of dense, arcane language. He objects to the dominant conception across the history of Western philosophy ("arborescence"), symbolized as a central tree trunk, sprouting leaves and twigs. This conception of knowledge is hierarchical, dualistic, ordered in a predictable pattern. In contrast to this, Deleuze talks of the idea of the "rhizome"-- a conception of multiplicity, decentralization, interconnection.

Basically, in everyday language, Deleuze is saying the world is more complex than traditional, Western binary or hierarchical modes of representation. But what is so profound about this idea?  Stripped of all the jargon, he's just saying "shit is complex.   Meaning is diverse, interlinked, overlapping, fluid." It just feels like Deleuze is using some very dense language to describe something that actually isn't that insightful.

[Assistant] The "rhizome" seems obvious to you because you don't seem to get what exactly Deleuze is talking about. The rhizome isn't a "conception of knowledge," it's a way in which things can be organized. Note how the first examples given of rhizomes in the introduction to *A Thousand Plateaus* are all material things: books, tubers, rat burrows, etc. Deleuze isn't just saying that shit is complex, he's arguing that traditional ways of thinking see arborescence as the only way of organizing things when in reality, there're also entirely different, decentralized, and multiplicitous ways of organizing things which can already be seen in the world around us. This may seem a little more obvious to us now since things like the internet are (arguably) rhizomatic, but imagining a completely interconnected organization of things without any beginning or central foundation was far more radical in the 70-80s when Deleuze was writing. Even so, the applications of the rhizome to war, biology, history, economics, etc. that D & G undertake in *A Thousand Plateaus* are still anything but common sense. Hope this helps!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why does the sun make me sneeze?

[Assistant]
Its called a photic sneeze reflex, or Autosomal dominant Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst - ACHOO syndrome for short. It is estimated that 17-35% of the population have it.

But no one knows why it happens. The best guess at the moment is that its because the nerve cells that carry information from the eye and those that carry information from the nose run so close together. As the nerves from the eye are stimulated by bright light, usually to constrict the pupil, electrical signals spillover and activate the nerves coming from the nose. This causes the brain to confuse a bright light with a nose irritation, and ACHOO! In fact, the area of the brain responsible for processing visual information is overstimulated in photic sneezers compared with non-sneezers, which may underlie the spillover effect.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
If we were to build a radio transmitter capable of transmitting at the frequency of visible light, what, if anything, would we see coming off the antenna?

And if it would emit light, would it be of any use as a light source? And if it is possible to build, how long do you think until we'll be able to?

Edit: I think my use of the word radio is leading to some confusion. By radio transmitter, I mean the type of transmitter, not what part of the electromagnetic spectrum it operates in. For example, if I were to walk into a radio station and retune the transmitter up the frequencies of visible light, what would we see coming off said radio station's main antenna? From what little wondering around on the internet I've done on this subject, the highest frequency transmitters we've built reach up into the single digit THz range.

[Assistant] We already have lots of radio transmitters that emit visible light. Your computer screen is one, a light bulb is another...They're emitting electromagnetic waves in the frequency of visible light (along with some others). We simply do not use this light for communication in most cases, because other wavelengths are more useful over long distances, etc.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DC/Marvel] If an old person were to suddenly gain the power of Regeneration, would their body become young again?

Would it also heal any mental illness?

[Assistant] There's different kinds of regeneration in fiction. In some cases, the body simply has a base state that it tries to return itself to, which might allow someone to remain a certain age, but there's also regeneration that's simply extremely accelerated healing. So, maybe, depending on the canon/source of regeneration.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Geology (and some astronomy) question: Why do we find elements and compounds in veins and generally clumped together in the earth?

Most heavier elements are formed in supernova explosions and float through space as dust until they are coalesced into planets. Does dust of the same element just generally form together and stays close together and so eventually it ends up either clumped up in a single deposit? Or do elements of the same variety have a method of attracting each other in space? Or does the earth have a method of refining these materials where plate tectonics and such make materials of similar masses clump up?

Essentially I am asking how do heavy elements go from dust in space surrounded by tons of different types of dust to a lump of platinum or uranium in the ground?

[Assistant]
There are mechanisms that essentially sort them.  You see this process on a normal time scale with something like Italian dressing.  :)

The primary mechanisms are density, and melting points.

You have a big pool of mixed elements and compounds just swirling around.  In general the denser liquids will settle to the bottom unless disturbed and stirred up. So if you get a pool somewhere that isn't disturbed much, you'll get layers of different liquids.

As time goes on it cools.  The elements with lowest melting point "freeze" and turn solid, and drift to the bottom as well (solid they are even denser than when liquid).  This forms a layer on the bottom of the deposit, a sheet or "vein" if seen from the side.

As the pool cools further, the next element freezes out, forming it's layer and so on.

The slower the pool of compounds cools, the more time for the different materials to settle out, and more distinct the seperation and layering.  If the area cools quickly you'll get grains rather than layers.  The faster it cools, the smaller the grains.

This is why veins tend to be underground, as the layers of rock help insulate and slow the cooling process, allowing the density sorting to occur.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Portal] How much (if anything) did Black Mesa steal from Aperture?

From what I know Black Mesa is highly sophisticated, while Aperture seems to be slightly more **un**predictable mad science. Now that doesn't mean that Mesa is better than Aperture. Odds are that Aperture does have better results, at higher costs. But Black Mesa *is* more organized.

In short: did Black Mesa ever steal from Aperture?

[Assistant]
They simultaneously raced to develop the same technology, quantum tunneling, and developed it in two different ways. That's pretty much the extent of it that we know of.

EDIT: Aperture's actually the one who canonically stole things, including the Gravity Gun, wall-based medkit things, and HEV Suit chargers from Black Mesa, as seen in "Lab Rat."


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:Why do Large Planes Require Horizontal and Vertical Separation to Avoid Vortices, But Military Planes Fly Closely Together With No Issue?

[Assistant] Military pilots are securely attached to the plane and willing to tolerate much more extreme maneuvers than commercial passengers.  To reduce the "fear of flying" and avoid spilling drinks, commercial aircraft desire a much more stable ride.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Do trees create less oxygen in the winter after their leaves fall off?

[Assistant]
Generally, yes. Photosynthesis, of which oxygen is a byproduct, happens in the chloroplasts.

The vast majority of the chloroplasts are in the leaves, so a deciduous trees ability to produce oxygen is drastically reduced after shedding its leaves.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Trek] Why is Klingon opera so often maligned by non-Klingons even though it is very similar to human opera?

Do people who dislike Klingon opera generally dislike human opera? Did human and Klingon opera styles develop independently or did they influence each other?

[Assistant]
Klingon Opera revolves around a very small number of similar plot-lines and tropes, and is heavily focused on combat. Klingon singing is.... disharmonious to most non-klingon listeners, and the harsh tongue doesn't lead itself to some of the more intricate or delicate movements possible in the "opera" equivalents from other cultures.

The fact that a Klingon Opera performance may feature staged battles between actors, unstaged battles between the actors, and out-and-out brawls with the audience.... well... this fact leaves many more "civilized" races unwilling to give the art form the time it would take to develop appreciation.

Unnoficially, Canadian Humans are known to LOVE Klingon opera. One Ensign Bukowski, of the USS Ottawa, commented that Klingon opera is "Like a musical got in a fight with a hockey game."


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 what is happening when you get random muscle twitches?

For example, the muscle running up the outside of my left hand has been twitching causing my left finger to move. What's going on in my body (chemically, etc) that causes this to happen?

[Assistant]
The motor neurons that mediate movement aren't perfect, nor are any neurons. In order for a muscle to contract, the motor neuron that is attached to it must fire numerous action potentials (an electrochemical signal). If a motor neuron "misfires" only once or twice, the result is a twitch instead of a full contraction. It's totally normal.

Edit: this is usually normal. It's not inconceivable for an illness of some sort to manifest as muscle twitches, but it is vastly more common to be a simple errant firing of a motor neuron.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Marvel][XMen] What really is Apocalypse's thing?

I'm not a real Marvel Fan, I haven't read the comics. So what I can see from the X-Men: Apocalypse Movie, he can amplify a mutant's existing powers and he can steal powers via the Pyramid device (which he acquired regeneration). Things he has that other has is telekinesis, matter manipulation, Professor X like powers and super strength.

Aside from the last items, the two first ones seem to be the only things that are unique to him. Am I correct?

[Assistant]
In the comics, Apocalypse's main power is high-level shapeshifting/control over his own body, which grants him near-immortality, superhuman strength, invulnerability, etc. He enhances these powers with vast amounts of Celestial technology (the ancient space-gods glimpsed briefly in the Guardians of the Galaxy movies), which gives him basically any other power he might need, and the ability to enhance other mutants.

It also upgrades his natural near-immortality into effective actual immortality, although he does need to spend prolonged periods in hibernation in order to get the full effects - although unlike in the movie, he's been awake at numerous points in history between ancient Egypt and the modern age, recruiting servants during the Roman era and the US Civil War, and having a vicious feud with Dracula in the late 19th century.

He likes to claim to be the First Mutant, but this is hyperbole; there's at least one mutant (Selene) who is older than him, and given the odds of the first two mutants being effectively immortal, the chances are there were numerous others who lived and died long before Egypt was a thing.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Math people, explain Monte Carlo integration like I'm 5.

If you could also explain importance sampling that would be awesome.

[Assistant] You have a rectangular back yard that is 10 by 15 feet. There is a pond in the middle of irregular shape. You want to know the area of the pond. You start throwing small stones toward the yard randomly, and record the frequency of stone landing on water versus dry land. The portion of stones landing on water multiplied by the entire area of the backyard is the answer to the original question. For example, if you threw 100 stones and 43 lands on water then your estimation would be 10 times 15 times 0.43. This is essentially the essence of Monte Carlo: evaluating and averaging randomly drawn samples.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] If you wrapped a human in a theoretical blanket that was able to insulate 100% of heat produced by the person, would that persons body temperature eventually reach equilibrium, or would their metabolism cause them to keep getting hotter and hotter until they perish?

[Assistant]
Metabolic activity continuously produces heat as a byproduct. Without a method of dissipating that heat, a person would quickly overheat and die.

Normal responses to hyperthermia include vasodilation and sweating as methods to facilitate heat transfer out of the body, but if the surrounding environment is already too hot to allow dissipation the heat is trapped in the body and core temperature rises.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Halo] Why can't the Halos target the Flood directly?

If the Forerunners from the Halo series could create the Halo array to destroy all sentient life in the galaxy to starve the flood, why couldn't they use the halos to target the flood directly and not any other life forms?

[Assistant]
Killing pretty much all life in a Galaxy in and of itself was a major undertaking.  Tuning the process to effect just the flood may not have been possible while under direct invasion from the Flood.   Further more the flood infect their "food" to make more flood.   Even if they could kill the parasites, they may not have been able to kill the infected  "food."

The flood are an Extra-Galactic threat.   The Forerunner decisions to wipe out all life, including the bulk of their civilization, was one not just one last FU to the gravemind, but as of saving other Galaxies from the fate of our own.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: When someone is choked until unconscious, what separates them from waking up (like in UFC fights) and dying?

[Assistant] A choke cuts off the blood supply to the brain causing unconsciousness.  You would have to maintain the choke for a much longer period to starve the brain of oxygen to kill a person.  Just think of how long strangulation takes to kill a person.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5:Five dimensional hard drive

How does it work? We live in only a 3D space.

[Assistant]
"5d" is a misnomer. The storage medium is still 3D, of course, but instead of just using one method of encoding, the "5d" medium uses multiple encoding methods for a single storage location, meaning that a single location can contain more than one bit.

In a CD or DVD, for example, it's strictly bump or no-bump, 0 or 1. But what if those bumps could also be red or blue? And what if they could also be oriented like | or like -? We're already up to 3 possible bits per location, or eight possible values.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: At certain speeds, why do wheels (on cars, bikes, etc.) look like they're going backwards?

EDIT: Thanks for all the replies!

[Assistant]
Say you have a film camera running at 30 frames per second.  Point it at a wheel with a big bright pink line on it.  Then start turning the wheel slowly (let's say 1 rotation per second).  Every time the wheel turns slightly, that bright pink line will move slightly more forwards around the wheel.  In each successive frame you can see that pink line moving slightly more and more forward.

Now, increase the speed of the wheel (to say 5 rotations per second).  You will see that pink line moving even more and more quickly around the wheel.  Everything up this point makes sense, right?

Now let's say you make that wheel rotate so fast it's rotating at 30 rotations per second.  If you film this with that camera and play it back, the wheel looks like it's not moving!  Why?  Because every time the wheel completes a rotation, the camera captures that pink line in exactly the same place as it was before!  The wheel will look like it's standing still!

Decrease the speed of the wheel to 29 rotations per second.  If you film this with that camera and play it back, the wheel looks like it's going backwards!  This is because just before the wheel completes a full rotation the camera will take a picture.  Then just before it can complete the next rotation, the camera will take another picture.  Every time the camera takes a picture the wheel completes most of a rotation, but not an entire one.  The wheel then looks like it's turning backwards!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELi5: Is it possible to suffer a heart attack from a nightmare?

[Assistant]
Heart attacks happen when the heart muscle doesn't get enough oxygen and the muscle cells die.

So healthy heart muscle cells are dependent on getting

(1) enough oxygen (oxygen supply)

(2) for their needs (oxygen demand)-

(1) Which means getting enough oxygen (normal breathing, normal gas exchange from the lungs into the blood) through wide enough blood vessels to the cell.

(2) Which also means that the demand for oxygen of the cells can't exceed oxygen supply.

Nightmares could in theory induce a kind of fight-or-flight response: heart beats faster and more forcefully. This increases oxygen demand of heart muscle cells, which could exceed the supply.

In practice this would probably not happen in nightmares, except in pre-existing conditions of badly damaged coronary arteries (blood vessels supplying the heart), or other conditions which decrease supply (breathing problems such as smoker's lung, sleep apnea, pre-existing heart failure, heart rhythm disturbances, heart valve disease, anemia...) or increase demand (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, intense exercise, sex, drug use such as cocaine or methamphetamines, hyperactive thyroid, ...).

So a nightmare possible could increase the work your heart has to do, but would realistically only lead to heart attack with significant pre-existing risk factors.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DC] Can Shazams feats also be used for the characters hes named after?

Its pretty common knowledge that Shazam is named after characters that he has the powers of. Wisdom of Solomon, Strength of Hercules, Stamina of Atlas, etc. Does this mean any feat Shazam does with those powers can also be attributed to their owners? For example, if Shazam is able to move at 5 million miles per hour, does that mean Mercury (who Shazam gets his speed from) can also be said to be able to move that fast?

[Assistant]
If Im taking it as a literal translation. If Shazam has the speed of Mercury, it means he can go as fast as Mercury can.  If Shazam can move at 5,000,000 per hour, so can Mercury.

If Shazam has the strength to move a billion tons, Hercules has the same strength level


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does clearing browser cache fix a lot of website issues?

[Assistant]
In the case of a web browser, sometimes temp files and cookies are not current, or even become corrupted.  Either way, if changes were made in the browser when trying to load, if the browser is attempting to use what is cached and it is conflicting with what the website currently has, then it can load screwy or not load at all.  So clearing it forces the the browser to load it as if it were visiting the page for the first time.

Also to note, sites that use a page count, such as newspapers who allow a limited number of articles to be read without a subscription, use cookies and temp files to show that this browser/pc has read x-number of articles, which would cause it to load that annoying screen prompting you to log in or subscribe.  Clearing the cookies removes that reference point.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: How do people who speak Asian languages such as Chinese or Japanese explain how to spell words?

In Western languages we have letters that build into words, however in most Asian dialects there doesn't seem to be letters. So if someone from China didn't know how to spell a word, how would his friend explain how to spell that word or symbol?

[Assistant] Aside from kanji, the the japanese written language (hiragana & katakana) is phonetic just like the western alphabet.  In fact, it's even more phonetic then English, considering that many English words aren't pronounced via their letters, but historical roots of the word.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Mass Effect] What to Omni-tools actually look like?

Standard Omni-tools project a holographic interface on the user's arm which can be used for hundreds of different things. What I don't understand is where the actual tool is kept. I assumed it was part of the armor characters wear but Shepherd can be seen using his with bare arms. Is the omni tool some kind of chip implanted into someone's arms?

[Assistant] Not sure, but in the Citadel DLC for Mass Effect 3, a character can be seen activating their omni tool via a disc embedded in the palm of their glove. I'd imagine that simpler omni tools could be implanted.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Rick and Morty] How does detective Rick have intel on evil Morty, and why does he choose to specifically give it to campaign manager Morty?

It seems kind of confusing, out of all the people detective Rick could have given the intel to, he chooses to give it to Campaign Manager Morty? Why not assassin Morty? Or an assassin like Krombompulus Michael?

[Assistant] Because he's more interested in playing out his bit than taking the most efficient route. This is a common recurring flaw of the Ricks and Mortys of the Citadel, who find themselves rewarded for finding a niche and filling it, which is one of the few ways you can stand out in a society made out of your doppelgangers and avoid being stuck as some poor interchangeable bastard on an assembly line. By the time Detective Rick has met Manager Morty, he's in too deep to back down from his gimmick as a noir private dick, take a sober look at things, and do what's right for the Citadel (like giving that shit to the press) instead of what's right for his bit.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5 Why is Earth's core hotter than the surface? What's causing the heat?

[Assistant]
A couple of reasons.

One is that the Earth is rather, well, big and the core has heat left over from the formation of the Earth.  It takes a long time to get rid of all that heat.  This brings us to the second reason which is that when the Earth was molten the denser material sank into the core.  This included most of the Earth's radioactive materials.  The decay of these materials keeps the core hotter than it otherwise would be.

As to why the core is hot and not the surface.  This is because the core transfers heat away from the core to the surface where the energy can then radiate into space.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why do we need a quadrupole "oscillation" to get gravitational waves, but a dipole for electromagnetic waves?

I was told that this is the case and I don't know where to start to untangle why.

[Assistant] Gravity is a rank-2 tensor field while E&M is rank-1. This is why the photon has spin-1 and the hypothetical graviton has spin-2. So EM radiation can carry no less than one unit of angular momentum, while gravitational radiation can carry no less than two.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How come theres just 1 line of continuous bubbles coming from the bottom of the glass if youre drinking something like champagne?

[Assistant]
When you see a line of bubbles coming from a single point, that point is called a 'nucleation site'.

What is happening is that there is probably a small imperfection in the glass there where a tiny bubble of air can be trapped.

It is much easier for an existing bubble to get bigger than it is for a new bubble to form out of nothing.  So, what happens its that this tiny trapped bubble grows until it gets too large for the imperfection and it then breaks off and rises to the top of the glass.  When the bubble breaks off it leaves behind another tiny bubble trapped in that imperfection in the glass.  The cycle then repeats.

You can reproduce the experiment by putting a large grain of sand in the bottom of the glass.  This grain of sand is likely a lot rougher than the glass and will contain small trapped bubbles.  After filling the glass with a carbonated drink, the rough grain of sand will likely be one of the locations from which lines of bubbles rise.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why did Nietzsche live a life opposite of what he preached?

From what I gather, Nietzsche philosophy is all about life\-affirmation, and, generally speaking, he seems pretty opposed to Plato and successors  with their ideas on conventional morality, emphasis on some other ideal world instead of our imperfect material world, emphasis on the rational faculties and suppression of the carnal, the idea of nobility in asceticism; condemning these concepts to be life\-denying.

However, he seemed to live a rather ascetic and quiet, and dare I say it, textbook Apollonian life himself. Why is that, why didn't Nietzsche live a Dionysian life, or at least a good mix of Apollonian and Dionysian? Did he not believe in what he preached? Are there more obscure and wild aspects of Nietzsche's life that don't get touched in most summarized biographies, perhaps?

[Assistant]
Life affirmation to Nietzsche doesnt mean going out there and living life through all sorts of wild experiences. It means saying yes to life in its entirety. Even if its filled with pain and suffering. And Nietzsche lived this. He suffered a lot: he went through intense and debilitating pain and headaches. His health was so crap he had to retire young. He failed to woo the woman he loved. But he found it in himself to be joyful, and to say yes to life.

Nietzsche is the chap who took the concept of eternal recurrence from the stoics and turned it into a test: if you were told you had to relive every moment of your life, in its entirety, over and over into eternity, would you feel yourself to be blessed or damned by it? Despite all his suffering, he wanted to be a yes-sayer. To say yes to life, even if it was utter shit. And he lived up to what he preached.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: EV's (for personal use) are one of the worst things to happen to climate policy because they offer a faux solution to the car problem and eat up a ton of resources.

EV's at the moment are objectively unsustainable and impossible to implement at a large scale. There's not enough lithium and our grid isn't developped enough.

They're a gadget upper middle class people buy for themselves to virtue signal and political parties that build policy aruond them are being disingenuous. They take away from real policies that could combat car use like investing in public transport and bike lanes.

I do think they can have a use in the transport sector but i don't think we should be wasting lithium on toys for rich people that are only barely less destructive to the climate then normal cars are.

A lot of European countries are banning the sale of non-electronic vehicles in 2030. This seems to me a "poor people can't have a car" rule. I have a feeling a lot of the batteries that could have been used for electronic bicycles are gonna be used for electric cars which will make the price of those skyrocket.

[Assistant]
>A lot of European countries are banning the sale of non-electronic vehicles in 2030. This seems to me a "poor people can't have a car" rule.

Is that not what you want? Your alternative proposals are all about eliminating car useage, so if requiring electric cars eliminates them, it will force the implementation of those policies.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
As an applicant, what would be some good questions to ask during a PhD interview?

I have a PhD interview coming up and I can't seem to think of an impactful question that I may ask at the end of the interview. As an applicant, I think that I would need to ask something that may showcase my readiness and motivation for the PhD position. The questions I have in mind feel a little too basic. I would really appreciate some suggestions.

Thank you :)

[Assistant] I would ask how things were going for people who got their PhD's at their department. It's a potential huge investment by both parties, and if they are worth their salt they should be able to present actual employability numbers.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] How come our eyes don't feel cold when it's frigid temperatures outside?

[Assistant] The only portion of the eye that has thermoreceptors is the cornea, which is a terribly small surface area. That being said, I've spent a good deal of time outside in -15 to -45 windchill. At a certain temperature, your eyes start to feel gummy upon blinking-which isn't temp but texture sensations- and they start to sting and water quite a bit. I'd say you haven't been cold enough.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Will the antibodies from a blood donor attach to the antigens of the donation recipient?

I know that O- is the universal donor and that AB+ is the universal recipient because O- lacks major antigen groups while AB+ has the 3 major antigen groups.

However, what still confuses me is why the antibodies received from the donor don't attach to the recipient's own blood cells. For example, if an O- person donates blood to an AB+ person, won't the antibodies from the O- donor attach to the RBCs of the AB+ recipient?

Is this just a volume issue? Are there just not a large amount of antibodies present to attach to the recipient's cells?

Thanks for any and all responses!

[Assistant]
Blood group O is an universal blood donor, because as you point out, neither A,B or AB have antibodies towards O (because O is the base glycoprotein).

But as you've pointed out, those who have blood group O have antibodies against A,B and AB.

What you've missed is the fact that when you receive blood from a donor it's "only" the erytrocytes that you receive, the erytrocytes have been separated from the plasma and thus separated from antibodies.
This also means that AB is the universal plasma donor!