[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What is a "confirmed kill"? Is this a real military term or more a Hollywood myth?

[Assistant] It's real. The military keeps records of sniper kills, the range, the weapon used...etc. Traditionally it wasn't publicly discussed and was sort of a "don't talk about fight club" rule among snipers, but Hollywood has popularized the term.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Marvel] How long can Bruce Banner stay in Hulk form? If you could trap or somehow keep the Hulk in an environment that banner couldn't survive could you kill Banner?

[Assistant] During Planet Hulk, he remained in Hulk form for several years with only (IIRC) a couple of very minor interruptions. Basically, if he's still angry, or if he's not in an environment that's safe for Puny Banner, he can and will remain as the Hulk indefinitely. In fact, as in the PH series, he will not only remain as the hulk, but continue to get stronger as he does so. The Worldbreaker/Green Scar incarnation of Hulk was the result of Hulk being both angrier than ever before and in absolute control of his body after spending years on end Hulked out.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: how does gasoline power a car? (pls explain like Im a dumb 5yo)

Edit: holy combustion engines Batman, this certainly blew up. thanks friends!

[Assistant]
Gasoline, when it evaporates in air, forms a mixture that will burn.

When this mixture burns, it gets very hot, and hot gases want to expand.

So we take the mixture, put it in a tube, squish it, and light it off. The expanding hot gas pushes quite hard on the plunger inside of the tube. We use this pushing force to spin a wheel, and this wheel is connected to more wheels/tubes. Together they create enough pushing power to move a car.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] what became of the Alderaanians who were off planet the time of their planet's destruction? Was there ever any attempts to revive the culture or start a sanctuary planet?

[Assistant] Legend(s) has it that those Alderaanians that survived made a tradition of it.  The Return, as it was called, was a pilgrimage made by the planet's former inhabitants.  They came bearing gifts, prayers, and the like, making it not too dissimilar from a religious ceremony in terms of function and intent.  Rumor holds that another planet was designated New Alderaan, under the purview and protection of the New Republic as a safe haven for those displaced by the destruction of their original homeworld.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[The Purge] What happens to the US Presidents if he commits murder during the Purge?

The movie says government officials "levels 10 and above" are immune from the Purge, but does that forbid them from participating?

What if the President tried to kill someone (a civillian or government official below rank 10) and said person retaliated with violence in self-defence?

[Assistant] Putting aside whether any elected official would take such a risk to participate, (it might seriously damage their public support and political power) keep in mind that, at least in the case of the President, just because the Purge is in effect that doesn't mean the Secret Service stops working.  It's unlikely anybody the President went after would get the chance to retaliate.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:Why do some UPS/USPS workers go far enough to leave a missed package slip on a door, but refuse to ring the bell so that someone might actually pick the package up?

[Assistant]
Telematics.

UPS trucks and the like are laden with sensors that record everything from GPS location to whether or not the driver's seat belt is buckled. This includes how long the truck is stopped to make a delivery. It behooves the driver to be as quick as possible with each delivery since they are being measured and graded with all the data that is collected. Quicker deliveries means more deliveries in a shift and therefore improved "efficiency" and cost effectiveness.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How does cylinder configuration in an internal combustion engine affect it's characteristics?

Suppose you had 3 engines with identical bore and stroke, compression ratio, etc., and the only difference is the cylinder configuration.  One is an inline 6, one a V6, and another a flat 6.  Would they deliver different amounts of power at differing ranges, or is the cylinder configuration irrelevant if all other factors are the same?

Edit: just realized the title should say "its" not "it's".  Doh.

[Assistant]
Cylinder arrangement has nothing to do with power output. There are issues with harmonics and "cylinder pulsing" especially in engines with odd number of cylinders on each bank (I3, I5, V6, F6, V10), but are usually compensated for via harmonic balancer on the crankshaft. Some could argue that the layout of a flat engine is not optimal due to gravity having an effect on oil, rings, and such, but that's more of a reliability/wear issue.

edit: the design of the cylinder head has far more to do with the efficiency/power than just about anything else, other than displacement.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] What could the Empire have done to win the Galactic Civil War?

[Assistant]
They were winning until the meeting of raggedy farmboy, one old man and one little green old man. Every single battle nearly went the Empire's way and each one lost was a brutal thing for the Rebellion. Let's go through a couple of them.

The Battle of Hoth: There are eight Star Destroyers (Executor, 6 smaller but still impressive Star Destroyers of two classes and one Victory class) involved. Executor closes with the planet and proceeds to blast the surface with their turbolaser batteries, ignoring the shield generator. Eventually the base with flood (with magma or ice).

The two Imperial-1 class destroyers fly interference for the Executor, keeping fighter wings in the air as well as intercepting anything attempting to escape. The four Imperial-II class destroyers blockade the planet: One at each pole, and one either side of the equator to watch for trickery. The Victory class destroyer is a mobile interception device for capital ships and corvettes launching from Hoth.

Now all they need to do is wait. They'll either pick the base off piecemeal, destroy it with Turbolaser Terraforming or the rebels will attempt to flee: In which case, the remaining destroyers will pick them off. The Ion Cannon doesn't act as a permenent 'disable', the base has a limited power generator and there are too many ships for the Ion Cannon to cover for. The planet will give way long before they starve the rebels out. Hell, the 501st had elements in the fleet sent, they could have just left everyone in orbit and stuffed Vader with them into a drop pod, unleashing on the base instead of the costly assault.

On Bespin: A heavier hand. The figurehead of the rebellion and five of its greater heroes were present.. and all of them got away. As soon as the trap was sprung, simply moving in with heavy interception cover would have been enough to decaptiate the Rebellion. They had, at the bare minimum, twelve fighters: Three ties, 8 tie-interdictors and at least one Tie Defender (Which was probably capable of destroying the Falcon alone). They'd surrender before dying, so Vader gets his apprent-er, 'the emperor's prize', the Rebellion gets executed in a suitable gory fashion on Galactic Holovision and the Rebellion ends.

The Falcon, a known dangerous and rebel-owned craft, was sitting on its landing pad the whole time. You've got EIGHT Tie Interdictors (bombers) prowling Bespin. Maybe one could spare a second to drop some ordinance on the powered down craft? The one on a pad with no supports barring its umbilical, about 50-100m out from its parent building?

The Endor mission: Blow up the shuttle. Blow. Up. The. Shuttle. Don't let Vader know, just tell him whatever he wants to hear, blow up the shuttle that he expressed such interest in (or send a massive force after it) and run screaming to the Emperor about it BEFORE you get murdered by Vader. You're high enough in the chain of command that you'd get let off with a little light torture from the Big E and a pat on the back afterward, while you still screamed.

Not even that: Endor generates a bit of a jamming field for comms when it comes to stormtroopers, put a few comm-relay stations throughout the moon, on patrol paths. That way, they don't need to return to base to report 'suspicious rebel commandos'.

Christ. They could have built the DS-2 around Coruscant: It's in the galactic core, there is plenty of space for a shield generator and it is HEAVILY defended. Or Byss, the Emperor's future throne world. Not only is it heavily defended, it's even further into the Core than Coruscant and Palpatine is even more powerful there. He can very literally puppet a good portion of the population.

Or even extermine the Ewoks: They're a warrior culture. You know it, they know it. Your first expedition to Endor was nearly foiled by the furry little bastards, who were surprised and outnumbered. You know, the one where they were looking for a site to set up the shield generator for the second Death Star? Or don't even bother! First, glass the area with turbolasers. A quick planetary firestorm and you've got a nice wasteland to build your facilities in. Suddenly, no ewoks. You can see the rebels coming a few kilometres away. Hey, presto, no exploding battlestation.

Maybe we could go back a ways? On Tattooine: Instead of orbiting the planet, they could have lurked in a geosynchronous orbit above Mos Eisely, the only major space port. Even one Star Destroyer, while the other prowls the orbit in case of unknown landing pads.

Aboard the first Death Star? Execute Leia. Well, execute her faster. Don't schedule her for execution, choke her to death. Record it as a very visible symbol of the death of the rebellion: She dies with her world. You already interrogated her, you failed. She lied when exposed to extreme duress. It's not going to work.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Eli5: how do people who remix a song isolate the vocals?

[Assistant]
Professional remixers will have access to the original recordings which split the vocals and instruments onto different tracks.

Amateurs will use software to analyse the stereo master track and remove the instruments that are usually only in one channel, which leaves the vocal (which is usually in both the left and right channel).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DC comics] How would things be different if Supergirl landed on earth before superman.

I've always imagined that the fact that Kara is an adolescent and has plenty of memories of Krypton would make adapting all the more harder, especially if she didn't have her cousin to guide her.

[Assistant]
I think you'd be right.

She'd probably be a bit like J'onn was when he arrived to Earth, because their situations were sort of similar.

But at least Kara would still have some semblance of family and Krypton to care for with a young Kal around, so she'd probably be less withdrawn initially.

And if Kara ended up being Superwoman to Earth before Kal became Superman, that would probably change the world's perceptions of the superhero archetype somewhat.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What are SPACs (Special Purpose Acquisition Company) and what do they do?

[Assistant]
When a growing company wants to go public as an IPO, the traditional process requires a lot of disclosures, accounting, paperwork, filings, legal fees etc. as the company readies itself for public stock sale.  This can take a long time and be costly.

n alternative method is a SPAC.  This kind of company raises money from (usually very well heeled) investors with the goal of short circuiting that process.  The investor money is pooled and a SPAC is formed that does nothing, but announce plans to acquire other companies.  The SPAC then goes public with a very simple IPO (simple because the company does nothing, yet).  Then the SPAC acquires a real company that wants to go public. Now the stock in the SPAC is really just the valuation of the acquired company and the acquired company is for all intents and purposes public,  skipping all of the usual process.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] How does a fit Hutt differ from an obese Hutt like Jabba in terms of physical ability and handsomeness?

[Assistant] A young, fit Hutt is still a pretty large, rotund slug. But they're much more mobile in appearance, and have way less wrinkles. Sleeker and stronger looking, with less flabs of tissue. They are still giant slugs covered in a leathery, thick hide so resistant it provides armor against blasters and a mouth large enough to swallow most species whole, but they're not this blistery, wrinkly, disgusting pile that Jabba had turned into. Which, by the way, is a sort of attraction to Hutts as well, as they only allow that physical decay with great personal wealth.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[The Matrix]What is the daily life of a machine like?

Now that there is relative peace, what do the machines actually do with their "lives" during the day?

[Assistant] They do what they have always done; the maintenance and upkeep in the Matrix. Each of the programs have a purpose, like in any system, and as long as the Matrix is running then they have to keep doing them. That's why Smith went crazy, he didn't WANT to be an Agent anymore and be responsible for the humans he'd come to despise, but didn't have a choice.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Inglorious Bastards] What is Perrier LaPadite chopping in the opening scene? He's using an axe and hitting a stump. There's nothing on the stump. He's just hitting it with an axe. He sits beside the empty stump for a short time and we can see there is nothing there.

We see the empty stump from several angles and he even asks for water so that he might wash up.

He washes up and we once again see that he was not fulfilling anything by hitting the stump with an axe.

For no particular reason.

[Assistant]
Its an old school way of removing a stump.

He had no vehicle to remove it (Like we would use a tractor today), digging it out would take a long time, fuel is hard to come by to burn it to ash, and again since its a war he probably had no explosives.

So what you do is daily or every few days you take a few chops at the stump to expose it to the elements. Over a month or two you can remove a shit ton of wood simply by chopping letting the wood get soft, chop again, let it get soft, chop again... etc etc.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Marvel comics] Why don't supervillains help out more when some existential threat to Earth threatens to blow up/erradicate/enslave the planet?

I mean, when shit really hits the fan, why don't the supervillains come out and help during alien invasions and the like?  Some guy like Rhino just wants to rob banks - that's not gonna keep happening if the Earth explodes.  Certainly most supervillains would rather be alive.

This question has been inspired by the last episode of Justice League Unlimited when all the supervillains help against Darkseid's invasion around the planet.  I'm curious about the Marvel comics universe though.

[Assistant]
They usually aren't organized enough.

Recall that in the finale of *Justice League,* the supervillians helping wasn't the result of some call to arms. Pretty much all of the surviving supervillians on the planet had just finished up a bloody civil war to unite under the banner of Luthor, and had just remanded themselves into League custody, where their efforts could be directed in tandem with that of the heroes. It's a rare fucking day when that many villains are that coordinated. Most days they run around in twos or threes with no idea of the bigger picture unless they were lucky enough to be standing right next to one of the heroes when shit went down.

The most similar showing of villians during a crisis at Marvel happened during *Secret Invasion,* when almost the entirety of New Yorks supervillian population showed up to help fight off the skrulls. The deciding factor was that at the time, they were consolidated under the banner of The Hood, one of the few supervillians on the planet scary enough to browbeat the rest into line, get them up to speed, and get them pointed at the proper target. The aftermath of that fight was a yearlong guerrilla war fought by the heroes to dissemble his organization, ensuring that he'd never be able to pull something like that again. Villians are *scary* when they get organized.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Can you substantially heat a liquid by shaking it to produce friction?

[Assistant] Yes, example being high end blenders. A vitamix blender left on maximum for several minutes can heat soup (to the point where you need to let it sit before drinking) through friction. The motor in the base of the blender is connected to the blade via a plastic gear so there is little chance of any heat transfer occurring that way.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
At what age do babies usually begin to understand humour/jokes?

I have a 1yo, at about 7 months he began a behaviour which I think can be described as a very basic practical joke. First he thought it was funny seeing his soother in my mouth, I figure he understood it was his. He would take it from my mouth and put it in his own. This developed into him offering his soother to me, but pulling away at the last second, putting it in his own mouth and then laughing hysterically.

Obviously there is more going on cognitively than peek-a-boo or tickling. Has there been studies on how young children understand the concept of jokes, and what developmental impact this has if any?

[Assistant]
At around 14 to15 months, theyre able to understand that funny faces and illogical acts are meant to be laughed at. When you do something obviously silly, like pretend to eat off the plate as a dog would, it's particularly pleasing for your pipsqueak because hes sure thats not whats supposed to happen, and being sure is a great feeling for a toddler whos still unsure about so much of what he experiences.

And once their language skills have blossomed, they'll find rhymes and nonsense words funny too. Your toddler may also try makingyoulaugh, perhaps by using your hairbrush as a cell phone, for instance. At around24 months, he may point to his elbow when you say, "Show me your nose," or pick up a doll and call it a truck, simply to get a giggle out of you. And hell redo his stand-up routine again and again and again.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why do we perceive ourselves do differently when looking in the mirror or when being on camera & which is the more accurate with regards to how we really look?

[Assistant]
Neither are correct. Camera lenses have different focal lengths that can heavily distort the picture. 135mm should be "most" accurate but it depends on a lot of things. Mirrors then seem like they should be more accurate, but mirrors have their own distortions. If a mirror is not perfectly flat it's going to distort some. Most older mirrors (like the ones you probably have at home) bend slightly from top to bottom making you look a little fatter.

There's probably some kind of setup you could create with perfectly flat mirrors to give you a perfectly accurate view of yourself but that'd be more effort than most people are willing to consider.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What draws sociopaths to positions of power? Also, generally speaking, how does their motivation work?

[Assistant]
Imagine you have 100 sociopaths.  They are willing to advance these interests without regard for others.

99 of them are going to get caught breaking promises, taking credit for other people work, sabotaging others, and become ostracized.  One talented sociopath is going to get lucky at just the right times, and get propelled into positions of power.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Where is the centre of the universe?

I am assuming, since we currently think the universe is expanding, that the centre of the universe is where it all began. Does anyone know where it is and can we get there?

[Assistant] The singularity that preceded the big bang was the entirety of our universe. It was not a point in the universe, but rather it WAS the universe. Furthermore, the clusters of galaxies that make up the universe are currently all expanding away from each other, rather than simply expanding away from a single point "at the center" of the universe.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Mass Effect] Why does Shepard only ever take 2 people with her on missions?

At least in 1, it's not a limitation of the Mako, since on Feros we have an extra person along for the ride. Some missions of course require some more subtlety, but some really would benefit from more firepower. Hell, in 2 they have to get all your companions off the ship on a mission so the collectors can attack.

[Assistant] Mission parameters dictate a small strike team would be most effective give the proximity to superior hostile forces. 3 soldiers draws less attention than a full squad would. And bringing 3 capable fighters can handle most threats long enough for reinforcements to arrive from the Normandy. Stealth and precision is the goal of Spectres not overwhelming force.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: The fear of illegal immigrants taking all of the jobs in America is illogical.

Since the beginning of this fine country immigrants have come to make a better life for themselves, and this has made America better as well.  After a period of time, however, the people who have lived here for a time have begun to feel as if we are letting too many people in, and these people have always complained that the jobs would run dry, and the people who are here already will suffer.

We survived the surge of Irish immigrants, we survived Reagan's amnesty, and we will survive (in my opinion) the new onslaught of immigrants.

The next complaint is that they already have committed a crime by crossing the border.  Well, if my kids were starving, and I knew of a place I could better feed them I would jump the fence or swim the river in a heartbeat.  Additionally, they may not have to come illegally if it was easier to become a citizen.

I am a conservative in most other ways, but Change My View...

[Assistant] Part of the problem is that as more immigrants enter the country, they drive down the cost of labor; when before, a company may have had to pay it's employees 10$ an hour, now they can hire illegals to do it for 5$. The nationals who used to be making 10$ now have to work for five as well if they want to compete with the illegals, so all labor takes a pay cut.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [MCU] What is the relationship between Hydra and The Red Room? Are their agendas at odds with each other? If so, what particular events or trends are attributable to one side or the other having greater success?

[Assistant]
They are almost certainly at odds with each other.

First, HYDRA did not clue the Red Room into the fact that they had infiltrated SHIELD. The Red Room had to steal HYDRAs brain research to mimic the Winter Soldier process in their Widow program. SHIELD also didnt have information on the Red Rooms location and also considered Natashas participation in the assassination of Dreykov as enough to confirm shed flipped sides - since HYDRA was entwined with SHIELD at the time we know theyre ok with it.

HYDRA ultimately wanted to conquer the Earth and rule a global fascist empire. The Red Room wanted to place sleeper cells and Widows around the world to subtly guide it from the shadows. Both organizations want control which puts them at odds.

Lastly, HYDRA was founded by Nazis and the Red Room was founded by Soviets. These regimes were absolutely enemies.

HYDRA was more successful than the Red Room though, up until its fall. It took over THE foremost intelligence organization. The Winter Soldier was an incredible asset, HYDRA also pulled off more high profile assassinations. Natasha implies in her confrontation in the Red Room that its really not very successful at all and that Dreykov didnt accomplish much. Taskmaster is their best asset, but doesnt seem to have done much. Yelena believed that one of the big ones from the Avengers could have crushed the Red Room quickly.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] What exactly is meant by "quantum information cannot be destroyed"?

[Assistant] It means that given the current state of the universe, if you knew every piece of quantum information there is to know, you should be able to perfectly reconstruct the entire history of the universe from this information and the laws of physics alone. If it was possible to destroy quantum information, this would not be possible, because there would be information that has existed in the past but doesn't exist anymore, so there would be no way to recover the lost information from the current state of the information.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How did enormous dinosaurs have sex?

[Assistant]
There just isn't much available evidence to suggest a concrete answer. Paleontologists have spent a lot of time thinking about it, but there just isn't evidence.

Educated guesswork here; with their enormous penises, just like enormous elephants do. Most likely in the same position, "doggy style", too. It's a pretty popular position for animals.

It's either that or a "cloacal kiss". Since birds are the most closely related living ancestor, some dinosaurs might have had a cloaca instead of the more familiar mammalian penis/vagina/anus combo. Some bi rds today do what's called a "cloacal kiss", where the male of the species squirts semen out of their cloaca and just splatters the female's cloaca with it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What is a central clearing bank and how does it work? And please explain like I am literally 5 years old. I understand nothing about finance.

[Assistant]
A transfer of funds from an account at bank A to an account at bank B requires a coordinated transfer between different accounts.

When Alice sends $100 to Bob, bank A must somehow transfer the money to bank B, adjust Alice's balance and tell bank B that there is money which needs to go to Bob's account.

One way of doing that is for Bank B to have an account at bank A. Bank A just transfers the money from Alice's account to Bank B's account and then messages bank B to tell them there is money incoming for Bob.

This works fine if there are 2 banks. If there are 100 banks, then each bank needs 99 accounts with the other banks. Things start getting complicated. Worse, what if bank C gets into financial trouble and runs out of money - every bank with an account at bank C might lose money.

The other way is to use a central clearing bank. There is one central bank which acts as middleman. Every other bank has an account with the central bank.

When Alice sends $100 to Bob, bankA messages the central bank. The central bank transfers $100 from Bank A's account into bank B's account, and forwards the message to bank B telling them that the money is for Bob.

This makes it much simpler, each bank only needs one account with the central bank. Also the central bank guarantees each transaction. It doesn't do anything which can get it into financial trouble so it won't lose the banks' money. This makes risk management easier for the other banks.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What's the difference between caramel, butterscotch, & molasses?

[Assistant]
Caramel: Cook the WHITE sugar until it thickens and browns (caramelizes).

Butterscotch: Cook the BROWN sugar until it thickens and browns even more.

Molasses: The stuff that you remove from raw sugar to make white sugar. Brown sugar is essentially either raw sugar or white sugar that has had some molasses put back in.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does Dramamine work?

[Assistant] There are drugs called "antiemetics" which directly suppress the nausea reflex. It happens that these are the same drugs as antihistamines aka allergy medicine, which has the additional effects of reducing allergies and making your really tired. A secondary effect is that motion sickness is (partly) caused by a disparity between what you see and what you feel-- for example feeling like you're sitting still in a car but seeing the world go by at 60mph. This effect is diminished if you're asleep (and you also care less), so the drowsiness can be positive.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Eli5: How do different Radio Frequencies not alter the way music sounds?

How can there be different fequencies (it's a difference in wave-lengths right?) but the tone of the music doesn't seem altered by it.

[Assistant]
You don't really hear the radio waves (which are a type of light!), you hear the sound they encode. The encoding systems don't pay attention to the base frequency involved.

Imagine sitting in a room and watching a roll of paper scroll by with a wavy line on it. Your job is to sing along - when the waves get bigger, you sing higher. When it flattens, you sing lower.

This is basically how 'AM', or 'Amplitude Modulation' radio works. The frequency of the line doesn't matter, just how tall the waves are.

FM radio is based on frequency, but it's \*relative\* frequency that matters. So you'd sing higher when the waves get closer together, and lower when they're farther apart. Again the exact base rate doesn't matter.

Some interesting problems arise with both of these methods - for example, AM radio tends to crap out a bit when there's stuff in the way that muffles it (like going under a big bridge or a tunnel or something). This is basically because your radio can't tell if the line is flattening because it's supposed to play lower music, or because there's a big chunk of cement in the way!

FM is more robust as you just need to get enough signal to tell how far apart the waves are coming. However, you need more bandwidth for this kind of signal - the highest pitches you want to send on a radio channel can't interfere with the lowest pitches from the next channel up. So there's less airspace for FM radio.

Modern radio uses more complex encoding systems than what I've written here, but the basic principles are still the same.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: why in bull riding is 8 seconds the goal? Why hasn't the time gotten longer as more and more people are able to get to 8 seconds?

[Assistant] The goal is not 8 seconds. You have to make 8 seconds to qualify to be scored. It is a minimum requirement. Bull riders get scored on their form and the difficulty of the ride *if* they can stay on for 8 seconds.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Harry Potter] How do the ghost mechanics of the Potterverse work? For example; how does Professor Binns check homework?

Ghosts of the Potterverse confuse me a little and I was hoping there may be some logical reasoning to how some of the mechanics work.

1.) So students are assigned essays in Professor Binns class.  When they turn in the homework, how does he check it? Meaning; while a poltergeist is able to have an effect on the physical world, a ghost can not. Who unrolls these parchments for Binns to read? Is there maybe an aide that we dont know about?

2.) Nearly Headless is telling the trio about receiving a rejection letter from Sir Patrick. The letter is a ghost letter...  how was this letter written, delivered and received?

3.) Are ghosts bound to one specific place? We see the headless riders visit, but could Nick leave the castle at some point and travel to America, if he wanted?

[Assistant]
1) Ghosts can interact with the physical world, just not to the same degree as poltergeists, remember Moaning Myrtle repeatedly floods the toilets in her bathroom. Or it's possible that binns as an assistant or some sort of spell active that allows him to grade their work.

2) Again ghosts can interact with the world, so it maybe an actual letter, or it's special ghost paper.

3) Seemingly no, the gray lady and the bloody baron both died in *Albania, NHN was beheaded in a muggle kingdom. Clearly the are able to move around if they could return to hogwarts, to what degree is unknown; generally Ghosts end up being restricted to place that they had been while alive.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: How did the US tax code become this complicated?

Thinking about April 15 coming up, and the entire multi-billion dollar industry that's sprung up around tax preparation, tax evasion, paying as little as possible, etc. I think back to 100 years ago, and I can't imagine life in 1915 re: taxes being this complicated. Even less so 100 years before that, when we probably just dropped some coins off at the post office or something (who knows). Is there an ELI5 answer to the evolution of the tax code, and how/why it became necessary for the IRS to be so complex?

**edit** April 15 is tax day, April 4 is my parents' anniversary.

[Assistant] What started as a simple system had extra rules grafted onto it over the years to help out various special interest groups, government program and to influence people's behavior without passing overbearing laws.  Add 50 new rules a year for 100 years and pretty soon you got yourself a whole mess of rules.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[40k] What civic reforms is Roboute Guilliman making?

I hear Guilliman is back and making lots of changes. I know it takes a to change the empire on wide scale but I'm talking about the worlds and systems he's personally visited.

How are rules and systems changing with Guilliman in charge?

From what I hear he personal went down to planets to cure some kind of blinding sickness with just his presence. It's hard to imagine him as a "hands off" kind of ruler.

[Assistant]
Nothing I've read has really gone into the specifics of the changes he IS making, but there is a heap of stuff about what he WANTS to change.

As for the stuff he did change, he restructured the imperial senate on Terra, restructured ultramar, specifically making ultramar an autocracy again and doing away with the ruling families. Iirc he also introduced a new codex astartes and restructured how codex compliant chapters deploy and structure themselves.

As for the the things he wants to change. Well he hated the ecclesiarchy and the inquisition. If it were up to him he would have disbanded both organisations. However he is a pragmatist and realises that at this point in time it would cripple the imperium and start another civil war if he straight up gets rid of them. In his personal life he wishes people would stop treating him like a god but he got tired of telling people they were wrong about him and gave up trying to change their opinions.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Are there any laws to ensure equal accessibility to all people such as making doors large enough for Hutts to go through and making ceilings tall enough that Mas Amedda's horns can fit?

Otherwise it would seem that Humans and similarly built species have an unfair advantage in society.

[Assistant]
First of all, advantage for humans is how the Empire would like to have it, you *inhuman filth*.

Furthermore, in addition to humans constituting the notable majority of the galactic population, most of the other aliens do not have special requirements. Those that do are also the ones that largely stick to themselves, such as the Hutts, hence making an effort to accommodate them unjustified. Furthermore, it's quite the slippery slope: do we have to accommodate aliens requiring alternative atmospheres?

As to Amedda, he's going to have to deal with it like unusually tall humans do - duck.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] If viruses aren't alive, what do scientists mean when they say the coronavirus can live on surfaces for hours?

[Assistant]
Scientific papers will typically say viable rather than alive. What they mean is that the virus is still capable of infecting cells.

Think of a virus as a key, but a key made out of ice that is melting, at some point it will not be able to open the lock, then it is no longer viable.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] If I could travel at the exact speed of a bullet, what would happen if I reached out and grabbed it?

[Assistant] Aside from the temperature increase the bullet would experience from the air resistance, it would be identical to sitting on a chair and picking up a bullet that is just sitting there on the table. If you are traveling with the bullet, relative to you it is at rest.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Superman] Can supermans physiology allow him to get drunk? How much would he need to drink to get black out wasted?

[Assistant]
OOU but in Superman: American Alien, Deathstroke poisons Clark, who is posing as Bruce Wayne. The effect of the poison is similar to alcohol on a human.

Yes he can be intoxicated. It just requires greater and more harmful substances than for humans.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:Why does beer smell good in a glass, but bad when it's spilled?

[Assistant] Beer smells and tastes good as long as it is fresh. It is horrible as soon as it gets stale. It gets style vers fast in contact with air and if it's warm. If you spill it, it will quickly become warm and have contact with air much more. In a glass, only the surface is in contact sich air. In a puddle, everything is.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why is fire the color it is?

I know that if you burn certain elements it can make fire a number of colors, but why is it normally the orangeish-yellow color we know it as?

[Assistant]
So, as you expect, the variety of fuel-specific colours such as the blue from butane or green from copper and the standard flame orange are formed by different processes.

In one hand you have excitation of bound electrons in ions and atoms and molecules that produce spectral lines.

The other process that produces the orange/yellow colours is black body radiation. What happens is little particles of soot in the flame get heated to 1000+C and emit the black body colour appropriate for their temperature.

There are some easy tests that provide evidence in support of this. A standard bunsen burner will have a blue flame with the oxygen valve open. However, if you shut the valve, the combustion is no longer complete meaning that more soot is left unburned and you get the standard yellow.

If you hold something (non-flammable) in the yellow flame from a bunsen burner you will find yourself collecting a layer of soot. If you repeat this with the blue flame you won't find the same soot.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: If universities expect students to show how unique they are, they too should try and show students what makes them stand out.

I'm a senior, and I've been basically just been applying to universities past school year. Nearly every university that I've applied to expects me to show them how unique I am and how I am a good match for the school. Some schools don't ask those on their essays but do in interviews. On top of that, you can't really talk about your hard work or your collaborative nature, since basically every student says that.

Despite requiring applicants to differentiate themselves from the rest, many universities make no attempt to do the same. Let's take University X as an example. I went to their website on a page which said "Why X" (this was sent to me in an email from them, btw). One of their reasons was dedicated professors who love to teach. Another was great facilities that many other first-year students don't have access to. In my opinion, these are just really generic. Many other schools say the same thing.

Maybe this is just my frustration speaking, but I feel like these schools should hold themselves to the same standards as they hold applicants when it comes to this sort of thing.

[Assistant] If you were grading applications for university, you'd see many of the things that make students stand out are actually kind of common. Hardworking students who join various clubs and activities, or volunteer, or had personal hardships.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] On the opening of Infinity war.

Couldn't Thanos have intercepted Banner traveling through the bifrost by using the space stone?

He seemed pissed enough at Heimdal for sending Banner away so couldn't he have just used the space stone to teleport Banner or redirect the bifrosts trajectory?

[Assistant]
Asgardian tech seems to trump even the Infinity Stones in some cases.  For example, at the end, Thor throws Stormbreaker into Thanos' chest, Thanos attempts to intercept the axe with infinity gem beams, and *fails*.

It could be that the Bifrost is the same way, it just beats the Space Stone.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] Did Steve practice hammer fighting?

In Endgame Steve picks up Mjolnir and is very capable with it right off the hop.  Did he know all along he was worthy and practiced hammer fighting just in case or is Steve just naturally that good and mimicked what he saw Thor doing?

[Assistant] Cap is a weapons expert, and would probably be versed in using blunt objects like the hammer as a weapon, and on top of that, I'd imagine spending so much time fighting alongside Thor has given him some unique insight on the hammer usage.  But the inscription on the hammer reads that whoever is worthy shall have the power of Thor, so another possibility is that the magic in Mjolnir imbued Steve with the ability to wield it effectively.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [DC] is there any reason Gotham seems to have an incredibly high number of mentally ill people?

[Assistant]
In the Arkhamverse, Gotham is revealed to have had a Lazarus Pit directly beneath the Monarch Theater.  It was also piped throughout "Wonder City" (or as it is also called, "Old Gotham", due to the fact that it was ultimately shut down due to an outbreak of Lazarus-induced madness in the citizens, and modern Gotham built over its ruins) as a clean power source.  Wonder City and its supply of Lazarus were accessible through Gotham's sewers until Batman destroyed the Pit during his fight against Clayface during the endgame of *Arkham City*.

It's never outright said in any of the *Arkham* games, but constant, long-term, low-level Lazarus exposure via the drinking water *could* explain both the *superhuman* durability of ordinary Gotham thugs (such that they **survive** everything Batman does to them) and the high propensity for dangerous mental illnesses among its citizens.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
does flying through clouds have any effect on the speed of an aircraft?

Title pretty much says it all.

Is there any effect on the speed of an aircraft? Clouds do have mass correct?

[Assistant]
Not really. Clouds have mass, but their density isn't significantly greater than the surrounding air - otherwise they'd fall to the ground.

That said, planes often avoid flying through clouds for prolonged periods of time. Three are two reasons for this; clouds make it difficult to see, so the pilot has to rely entirely on instruments. Also, clouds increase the risk of icing, which can be very dangerous on a plane.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Does downloading a podcast make my phone heavier?

[Assistant]
No.  The data of the podcast is represented on your phone by a bunch of switches.  Turning the switches from off to on doesn't make the switch weigh any more or less.

On a side note, when your battery is dead it will weigh a tiny bit less than when the battery is full.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Batman] We can talk about the philosophical reasons why Batman doesnt kill the Joker, but why has the Joker never been legally executed?

With all the crimes hes committed, theres no way a mental illness defense would still exonerate him. Besides, its not like a trial is really necessary, the man himself glories in his crimes. Certainly Batman would be at least indifferent to this option, as hes discharged his duty by bringing Joker in. Now its up to the law to decide what to do with him. So why hasnt the law decided to execute him? Why do they keep trying to send him to Arkham, where they know hell just escape again?

[Assistant]
Because Gotham isn't located in Texas. :)  More seriously, there are several different reasons.

First, in real life the US experienced a huge rise in violent crime from the late 1970s through the mid-1990s.  During this crime spike, there was a stereotype of the court system just letting violent offenders go free.  So the stereotype goes, judges would fall for anything a slick defense attorney said, and some quack psychiatrist could get vicious murderers sent to cushy hospitals instead of prison.  Jails were said to have a revolving door, and courts were seen as ineffective (whether this was true or not, the *perception* certainly existed).  This resulted in a "tough on crime" attitude from many politicians, new laws with harsher sentences were imposed, and the US prison population exploded.  Eventually, crime rates dropped off again (right now, violent crime rates are about where they were in the late 50s and early 60s) and in the last 5-10 years, we've seen a general trend where some of those laws are being repealed.

Gotham sort of perpetually exists in this specific time period, where crime is skyrocketing and courts just fumble around.  Police are incompetent, judges let violent criminals go with just a slap on the wrist, and psychiatrists think that every person in a weird costume is a soul in need of treatment.  This is explicitly stated in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns story (where a psychiatrist says that *society* is to blame for the Joker's crimes).

There's also probably a bit of a "rolling timeline" thing going on.  In real life the Joker has likely appeared in thousands of issues over the 80+ years the character has been around.  But in-universe, let's say he's only been around for the last 7 or 8 years and has probably only had a dozen or so criminal escapades.  Some of those resulted in dead people, but some of them involve Joker robbing a casino armed with a lemon meringue pie cannon (or some other dumb thing).

So instead of a body count of thousands, let's say Joker has killed maybe 50 people total, and half of them you can't really prove he's responsible for (and several of the dead are mobsters and criminals).  His schemes range from deadly to zany, but really only his most recent one had a significant number of dead people.  He had a few bank robberies, he had a couple of poisonings, and then there was that time he seized a toy company and forced them to manufacture "talking Joker" dolls because he wanted to deliver them to the children of Gotham for Christmas.  He got stuck in a chimney and Batman had to call the fire department to pull him out.  But in the last year or so, Joker seemed to get a lot darker.  He set off a gas canister in a store, and 15 people died with a Joker-grin on their faces.  Batman beat the dog shit out of him for that one, and Gotham's DA talked about seeking the death penalty for it.  But Joker already has a very public record of being committed to the insane asylum, and people suspect that's what will happen again.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
What is the current state of Marxist academia? What topics are being discussed?

The Frankfurt School was the last huge advancement in academic Marxism, but that was decades ago. Among other topics, much of it was concerned with analyzing capitalist culture and understanding the consciousness of the individual under contemporary capitalism. What topics are being discussed in Marxism today? I've heard of Political Marxism.

[Assistant]
Well, for the most part Marxism and philosophy has recovered in recent years, especially after the 1990s. The most known contemporary Marxist is Zizek of course, but there are others who are popular like Richard D. Wolff.

However, the most discussed topics other than the economic issues seems to be the future of capitalism. Many Marxists are also looking towards the application of socialism in response to existential threats to humanity that will appear in the 21st century. In essence, what can we learn from the fall of the USSR and what is the path we will take now.

There is also issues such as the use of the third world as a pool of cheap labor, the rise of the right-wing in politics, and the issues surrounding different identity groups in politics.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: why hasn't there been a revolt in North Korea?

It's a well known fact that the government keeps it's own citizens on prison camps, that there is large wealth disparity and most citizens are also aware of the corruption and indoctrination from their superiors.

So why is it that soldiers, who I assume are not that well fed/paid either, and civilians don't revolt?

[Assistant] You're looking at North Korea from the perspective of someone who has an internet connection, knowledge of what living in a free society looks like, and no fear that the Dear Leader is reading your mind and has divine powers. For many people who escape North Korea, deprogramming them to stop fearing retribution can be a matter of months or years. A population so intensely monitored and controlled can't feasibly revolt, let alone communicate their ideas about doing so.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Dirk Gently] How Do I Survive A Holistic Assassin?

One is coming after me to kill me and I need help, desperately.

[Assistant] You don't. That's basically the point. The assassin will literally luck into killing you. The only person we see survive an attempted assassination by one is Dirk, and that's because she wasn't actually supposed to kill him.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [DC] Assuming the Lazarus Pits don't fix this issue ffor Ra's Al Ghul's brain, will he eventually live long enough that his brain runs out of space to contain more memories and knowledge?

[Assistant]
That's not really how the brain works. Memories and knowledge are made up of neural connections, and those are effectively limitless due to how frequently the brain rearranges and reorganizes itself. Plus people just...tend to forget shit, a lot. People just forget specific details and less important stuff over time.

Now you could ask what happens to people who have photographic memory (since those do exist in DC, unlike real life) over long, long periods of time, but that's beyond me.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: open border agreement between the United States and Canada would benefit both nation's citizens

Have something similar to what the EU enjoys - no artificial limitations or arbitrary requirements from crossing between the United States and Canada. You show up at a check point, show some official documentation to prove your ID (such as passport), they run a background check for criminal history, if nothing serious comes up, you're free to pass. Open borders does NOT have to mean no borders and zero checks. The definition I'm using is similar to the EU's, which could include checks and expelling anyone who poses a threat to natives.

The economy for both countries would improve, if people have the freedom to take their skills and expertise to Canada or the US. The US pays more, but Canada provides better quality of life, both countries offer something different depending on priorities. Government welfare in both countries increase with greater productivity. You shouldn't worry too much about brain drain, people do return, and they bring back experiences and contacts to improve the industries in their native country. Both countries largely speaks English, get along fine culturally, compatible and comparable policing and crime rates, so there shouldn't be too much tension.

I like to think Mexico would eventually join too, but baby steps first, Canada & USA sounds like an obvious win-win.

[Assistant]
The issue is that the U.S. citizens entering Canada would leech the health care system and not nessecerily plant roots within the country.

This would then turn Canada into some kind of proxy health care state and would instead just encourage people to live in U.S. border cities instead of in Canada proper.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do "mineral sunscreens" (titanium oxide, zinc oxide) become transparent when they are "rubbed in" to the skin?

[Assistant] They were always transparent. Accumulations of transparent things (salt, sugar, snow, clouds, mayonnaise, milk, foam) look white because of light scattering off their surfaces. You end up seeing an indiscriminate group of wavelengths, which looks white. The effect goes away if you spread or smear them into a thin layer.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] Is it possible to forget a Kilgrave command before fulfilling it?

We know Kilgrave can embed very complicated, if-this-then-that style commands in his victims. So let's say Kilgrave gives a complex set of orders that takes hours to execute, with many moving parts and variables. Maybe the subject even has occasion to fall asleep before completing the sequence (but awakening before Kilgrave's control wears off). Is it possible for the victim to forget one of Kilgrave's orders? And suppose the victim forgets a command, but \*knows\* he forgot it, the way we might normally know we have something important to do that we just can't put our finger on? Would the stress of it drive him crazy? Would he be compelled to contact Kilgrave and ask him to repeat his orders?

[Assistant] Yes, its possible. Kilgrave cant override peoples biology. He cant make them do things that are impossible (e.g. develop a photographic memory on command). All he makes them do is *want* to obey him, beyond all rational desire. So the victim would try their hardest to obey him, but they might still fail.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Civilization] Are the Civ leaders immortal god-emperors?

In the Civ series, the leaders exist at the dawn of man, guiding their civilization through the ages and they are still their civilization's leader through the space age and beyond. The only thing that can kill a Civ leader is another civilization. And their life-force appears to be tied to their civilization's existence. For example, if their only city switched loyalties to another civilization due to cultural forces, the leader ceases to exist. But if that city was liberated and returned to the original leader, the leader exists again. Otherwise, they appear to be immortal.

There are mythologies and religions within the world that point to a higher power beyond the physical world, but the leaders do not appear to be fully human either. Are they perhaps lesser gods or other supernatural entity?

[Assistant]
Leaders dont die, they still exist after being defeated, they just lose power and are taken captive.  Catherine the Great acknowledges this directly in Civ 5, for example.  They're resourceful bastards though, and are able to escape and return to leadership if one of their cities is liberated.

That being the case, yes they do appear to be completely immortal god-emperors.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is it worth trying to buy ethically?

I've heard the term "there's no such thing as ethical consumption under capitalism" and I believe it. However some choices can be more ethical than others. Buying from a farmers market is more ethical than shopping at Walmart. However being or trying to be more ethical in spending usually means spending more money and time than you would otherwise. My question is because the system perpetuates unethical practices is it worth trying to buy things in a way that is, relatively speaking, more ethical?

[Assistant]
**Neoliberalism** is one economic philosophy that would argue that, yes, you can use market forces in order to steer broader societal change. Moreover, stronger articulations of this idea argue not only that market forces can steer societal change, but that they are the preferable way to do so (compared to, say, big government).

So a neoliberal view of 'ethical' consumption is that consumers can 'vote with their wallet'. When consumers choose ethical products (and there are a few ways to define this), this makes ethical products more profitable and therefore prompts businesses to shift towards more ethical practices in order to appeal to what people are buying. Through this process, the entire supply chain theoretically becomes more ethical (again, with the acknowledgement that this isn't a straightforward idea).

However, as you rightly note, because this process uses capitalist mechanisms in order to bring about change, it's incapable of actually changing the system altogether. It seems plausible that there is a limit to how ethical a capitalist system can ever be.

Others have argued that the history of capitalism is punctuated by moments of 'moral clarity', citing the abolition of slavery as one ethical revolution that wasn't brought into effect by market forces, but instead relied on ethical intervention to make it happen. The same argument can apply to climate change; it's possible that market forces are not sufficient to truly slow the damage we're doing to our environment, and a moment of 'moral clarity' and intervention will be required that cuts across capitalism rather than works within it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why does using cellular data have such a big hit on battery life?

[Assistant] To get more data the radio needs to work harder, which takes more power. The radio is the second largest power consumer in your phone behind the screen, so if you're say streaming netflix you're killing your battery because you're asking the radio to do a ton of work and then using it to watch a movie.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
If a substance of any kind gives off an odor then does that mean it's losing mass even if it's on a very small scale?

Example -- If I have a container of poop and open the lid I start to smell poop. So my thinking is that if it smells like poop then it must have been a part of the substance in the container but is no more and free to roam about the air I breathe. So the original substance it came from must be lighter in weight because some of it is free and allowing me to smell it.

[Assistant]
Yes, this is exactly how smell works.  Part of the substance volatilizes into the air and those molecules hit receptors in your nose and give smell signals.  That means the substance itself is losing mass.

It should also be noted that generally this is small enough to be incredibly hard to notice.  We can detect very low concentrations of many substances in the air and gas is pretty diffuse compared to a solid or liquid to begin with, which means that only very little of that substance needs to come off.

Also, for complex things like organics it isn't necessarily all of the stuff that is coming off, just certain compounds.  This means that over time those compounds may deplete and you will be left with something that doesn't smell anymore.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Marvel] Is Invisible Woman invisible in all wavelengths of the EM spectrum?

[Assistant]
Yes, when she chooses to be.

Note that it's still technically possible to spot her presence with a thermal camera as you can spot the hot air that surrounds her, heated by her body, but no form of EM radiation can interact with her directly if she doesn't want it to.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Dishonored] Does following and reciting the seven Strictures of the Abbey actually keep the Outsider away?

According to Overseers and the flavor text for the Strictures, you can keep the Outsider from influencing you in any way as long you stay faithful to the Abbey of the Everyman, and don't break any of the Strictures excessively. However, given how little information the Overseers actually have on the Outsider, is there any evidence in the game to suggest that the Strictures and the Overseers that enforce them are actually effective at doing this?

[Assistant]
Actually following the Seven Strictures would make you an incredibly boring person, and the Outsider's gaze is most often drawn to those he finds interesting.

So in at least that sense, yes. It does.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] If there's a bulb that only shoots 1 photon a second, would you see it blip every second?

[Assistant]
You likely wouldn't see anything at all - the single photon would have to enter your eye and get absorbed in your retina to register anything visually.

But assuming that DID happen every second, the stimulation from the single photon would likely be smoothed over by the brain as visual noise on a black background.

Interestingly, sensory deprivation chambers have been known to cause hallucinations during extended use. Total lack of sensory simulation causes the brain to go haywire, and your bulb would likely do little to alleviate even this.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5:Why do they refrigerate donated blood? Why not keep it at body temperature?

I just donated blood and it reminded me of something I've often wondered about. Why do they refrigerate donated blood? It seems like it'd make more sense to keep it at body temperature, if that's what keeps it "good" while it's still in your body. What becomes different once it's no longer in your body?

[Assistant]
Blood in your body is active.  It is used, moved around, and its components are continuously replenished when needed.  Donated blood just stays there.

It's quite similar to why we keep vegetables in the refrigerator once they're picked up.  Out of their environment, they are not keeping themselves fresh anymore and start decaying.  They don't decay as fast when we keep them in the cold.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: In the next couple of years Amazon will buy Valve, buy Steam from Valve, or make their own software to become the primary PC game distributor.

Amazon is rich as fuck and it won't be long until they're the largest retailer in the world. (They're currently 3rd behind Walmart and CVS.) Their purchase of whole foods shows they're interested in expanding into new markets.

They're also not ignorant to the world of gaming, having purchased Twitch in 2014. You can find lots of complaints online about operations/administration at Twitch but they have undoubtedly expanded its audience in the last 4 years, and I think the Amazon higher ups view it as a financial success.

I think they see that there's more money to be made in the industry, and being a game distributor fits right in with their existing business model. I think the game distributor business matches their style more than trying to make their own games. It certainly seems like a more...reliable way to make money. Making games is financially risky. (But it could also be super rewarding: see PUBG and Fortnite).

Nobody really knows, but googling shows that Valve is maybe worth about $5bil. That's not an unreasonable purchase price for Amazon, having previously spent ~$1bil for twitch, and ~$14bil for Whole Foods.

If they wanted to make their own software, they could easily sell every game at 50% discount for a year, just eating the cost while they corner the market. But at that point why not just buy Steam?

You can also find a few reports online from various ex-employees that describe Valve as kind of...stagnant. They say it's lost the innovation and motivation it used to have. Some even point to Gabe Newell specifically and say he's no longer motivated, and spends most of his days just playing dota. This implies that he could be receptive to buyout offers.

[Assistant]
It's not Amazon that will buy Steam, it's Microsoft.

Microsoft, in pushing for cross platform play on their consoles and already controlling a ridiculous share of the PC operating system market, is working hard on improving their Windows store.

Everyone already has Windows and uses it to install and run Steam.  MS is looking to get total control of the gaming market, and by letting anyone who buys a game on their PC play it on their console as well, they're taking big strides towards that.

Their only real issue is that Steam is already so popular that people will refuse to switch to Windows store.  So they'll just buy Steam.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Freedom of religion should be removed from law.

Since we where I live we have freedom of speech I would like to propose to remove the freedom of religion from the law.

1. There is no hard line between any belief (pink unicorns) and say Islam.
(saying one believes in pink unicorns does not grant some sort of super status, calling it Christ is different for some reason)
2. Good argument for cutting all state funding related to religion
(since no special treatment is required, no special reason to give away tax money is directly justified, we dont randomly give taxes to anyone saying anything.)
3. The state should never acknowledge the justifications or existence of religions or its implications, its something they should be either completely neutral towards or only accept things that belong to the realm of truth and therefor not religion or 7 legged sheep.
4. Freedom of religion can be put under freedom of speech, since you can say whatever you see fit , just dont run to the state to support your claims or once again give you a special hat.
5. Its an old fashioned basis for law , if you want to truly divorce state from law then simply don't mention it or treat them differently.

*EDIT*
Thanks everyone for the high quality responses and thought provoking arguments.
Ill try to respond to all the arguments made.

_____

[Assistant] An important part of the freedom of religion, half of the US First Amendment's portion regarding religion, is the freedom from imposition of religion. The government at all levels (in the US due to the combination of the 1st and 14th amendments and judicial incorporation doctrine) from federal to a local school district is prohibited from imposing religion on people. The freedom from imposition of religion and the freedom to believe and practice as you wish are inseparable.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: how does an album leak?

How does that happen?

[Assistant] When you're a big, famous band, you record your albums in big, fancy studios. Big, fancy studios often have a lot of people working at them. So one of those people who's working at the big, fancy recording studio decides to take the recording of the album, even if it's not finished, and copying it when no one is looking. This is really easy when an entire album can fit on a small flash thumbdrive. Then they take it home, post it to the Internet, and the album is leaked.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why don't CPU manufacturing companies increase the size of their processors; to accommodate more transistors, rather than making transistors smaller? Since they arguably can't go smaller than 14 nm.

[Assistant] Size is the enemy of high frequencies, as your signal can only go so far per clock cycle, as well as your parts starting to act as antennas if they are long enough (half the wavelength, which at 4ghz is 7cm, so if you have 3.5cm of straight wire anywhere that thing is gonna broadcast like mad)


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Marvel] The Infinity Stones have caused a lot of issues for the heroes of the universe. We know they can't be destroyed to prevent future disasters, but why hasn't someone like Reed Richards gathered them up and tossed them into a random alternate universe?

We know Reed Richards has that kind of technology. Just set his multiversal bridge to shuffle and toss the stones in like he's playing craps. Wherever they land, they'll be no more useful than a set of colorful rocks and not even Reed will know where they ended up.

[Assistant]
They would eventually respawn.

In fact, they can and were destroyed in mainstream Marvel universe in prelude to Secret Wars, and it didn't stop them from showing up with slightly altered rules in time for Infinity War to hit theaters.

In fact, now it's one of the rules that Reality Gem is hidden in alternate reality by default somehow. That didn't help either.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 Why the US doesnt want Palestine to become a state?

Wouldnt that be a two state solution?  Whats wrong with that?  Why does the US say it would veto it?

[Assistant]
The real reason? Because US politicians get huge amounts of money from Israeli lobbyists. Lobbyists are groups of people who are basically professional bribers to get politicians to do what they want. The biggest lobby in the US is AIPAC, and it's the Israeli lobby in the US Government.

Anyway, Israel doesn't want Palestine to become a soveriegn nation because the politicians in Israel wield a great deal of power by getting their 'base' all riled up about crazy terrorists (sound familiar?). So they need Palestine to be in a position where they lash out violently, and then the Israel people run to their politicians to keep them safe (wow, this is familiar!).

Anyway, since most politicians in the US have a huge hand in the AIPAC lobby and get a lot of money through them, they can't say anything against Israel at all. Have you heard of any politicians in the US condemn what Israel does? Of course not, because they aren't politicians any more. There are some politicians like Joe Lieberman, who would gladly lay down American lives to ensure the safety of Israel, and put the safety and importance of Israel above even the US.

So TLDR: The US is Israel's bitch, and Israel doesn't want a Palestinian state, so therefore, neither does the US.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [X-Men] If I (an ordinary human) somehow managed to insert a perfect copy of a particular mutant's X-gene into my genome, would I be able to develop the same powers as that mutant? Or at least similar powers?

[Assistant]
You would probably develop a mutation, but it would probably not be the same one.

There is *an* X-Gene, which is responsible for all of the various mutant powers. This means something - probably something environmental - is responsible for which powers, if any, develop.

The fact that mutant parents can have children with wildly different powers also indicates that the X-Gene doesn't work exactly like traditional genetic inheritance.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Harry Potter] So, why did wormtail hide with the weasleys?

Ok, so it's established that Wormtail has no particular loyalty to anyone, he just latches on to the biggest bully on the playground, first James Potter then Voldemort.

So, he fakes his own death then masquerades as a friendly pet rat for a poor wizard family. Why? This is majorly risking exposure, especially when he allows himself to be taken to Hogwarts, where there are magical educators who might just recognise an animagus.

Seems like it would make more sense to just skip the country and start a new life somewhere they've never heard the name Peter Pettigrew.

[Assistant]
The Weasleys are pure blood and one of them is employed by the ministry, specifically in a department that dealt with the aftermath of many Death Eater activities. This means Pettigrew can keep an ear out for any news of Voldemort, or worse, Sirius (as stated in book 3). The Weasleys were numerous enough and lived chaotically enough for him to keep under the radar, especially if he just napped and ate all day (I mean Fred and George alone provide enough anarchy for both Weasley parents not to notice one strangely long lived rat)

As for not starting a new life; it's as you mentioned, Pettigrew is a follower. He made it through school under the other Marauders collective smarts, charm and skill. Then he swore allegiance the Death Eaters and Voldemort as they held the most power. Hell, even at his most independent and cunning he was still just a goddamn pet relying on regular rat pellets and a spare pillow. He's incapable of living off his own wits or even putting that much effort into starting over, and he knows it.
And let's not forget, he was treated fairly well at the Weasleys, he probably got complacent after a while (self absorbed dim-bulb that he was).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why does talking on the phone become difficult if you hear the feedback of your own voice due to connection issues?

I work in IT, and I spend a lot of time on the phone.  Every once in a while, people will have phone issues and as I talk to them, even though they can hear me and I can hear them, I will hear the almost immediate feedback of my voice saying everything I just said.  At least for me, it makes it very confusing and difficult for me to keep the conversation going coherently because I have to really think about what I'm saying and there tends to be a lot of pauses as I speak.  Is this a common phenomenon, and why does it happen?

[Assistant] Speech utilizes a feedback loop. You don't just think of a sentence and your mouth automatically says it from vocal memory. Your brain is constantly monitoring the sound of your voice in real time to keep it sounding like you want it to. Sort of like walking across a tightrope. You don't have a memorized sequence of movements needed to cross. Your mind is constantly analyzing your balance and correcting itself. This is why deaf people have difficulty speaking clearly. When you have your voice played back with a delay, your brain confuses what you're actually saying and what is being played back so that it "corrects" itself based off the delayed sound which then causes the strange sounding speech. So it's kind of like if you are walking the tightrope but your sense of balance is one second behind. You're gonna fall off because you need real time feedback.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Autism

I can't find a clear source on what autism is or how it 'works'. Everything I find pretty much says "Autistic people are shy and quiet, unless they're not, in which case they are loud and bombastic, unless they're not, in which case they're socially the same, but good at something, unless they're not in which case...."

What is Autism, what are its types, how are they different from one another, and why are the different types not just considered different conditions?

[Assistant]
Real oversimplification for eli5:

Autistic people process information on people with the 'objects' part of the brain, instead of the 'social' part. Thus, social norms and effects of ones behaviour on others are not considered, relevant or even understood.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Harry Potter] How does the Hogwarts express work?

If I'm from Inverness Scotland am I expected to travel all the way to London just to get a train back up the Highlands?

[Assistant] Yes, but you are also a wizard capable of casual teleportation. For you there is no difference between taking the Floo down to the Pub around the corner, and taking the Floo down to England. Both trips only cost you a second of your time, so you don't really mind having to catch the train in London.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Clone Wars] Where did Asohka get her yellow lightsaber and why does no one else have that color?

[Assistant]
Ahsoka built her saber sometime during the war. The exact timeline isn't known, but sometime in the early part of the second year of the war.

Her saber isn't yellow, by the way, it's more of a green-yellow mix. As for why she's the only one with that specific color, well, that's just because it's the color that the saber came to be. Most get green or blue, some get some other colors. Regular yellow is pretty rare. The Temple Guards are the ones who use yellow sabers as their primary while they serve in that role.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Predator] Would a Yautja hesitate or have any interest if a random human uttered the word "Yautja" upon seeing it?

So I'm just curious, if a Yautja is out hunting, and encounters a human (who is not its primary target), human sees said Predator and yells, "Yautja!", is a typical Predator going to be interested? Will it hesitate? Will it be intrigued enough to interrogate the human, ask where it encountered a Predator before? Or will it not even hesitate for a beat and simply go for the kill?

What do you think it's immediate reaction is going to be? Indifferent? Intrigued? Would it see you as a bigger threat and just kill you straightaway?

Edit: If you'd rather not "Yautja" just whatever was the name of the Predator species, in their language.

Your thoughts, appreciated.

[Assistant]
Depends on the context of it being said. Yautja language is pretty far removed from human language so it'd be like the other commenter mentioned of the word having no meaning beyond us imitating their language and failing. Assuming the pred does understand it or at least recognize the word in context it falls on the context of the situation to determine how they react.

Their honor code is incredibly strict on keeping their hunting grounds pure. Losing even a single piece of their technology is grounds for exile or worse by their clan. This includes letting information about themselves become known to their prey. Seeing as earth is already pretty heavily tainted from previous hunts likely the predator will ignore the human if they aren't worthy prey. If they are worthy prey the use of the yautja language will be a curiosity that may get the hunter to "mock" the human by using our language like we've seen them do several times before killing them.

If by some strange way the Yautja believes it or one of it's clan mates slipped up and gave the word to the human it'll immediately slaughter the human to keep the information secret and avoid dishonoring itself or it's clan even if the human that said it is unworthy game. If the human is marked or somehow aware of yautja customs beyond the single name a trial by combat will be initiated between the human and the hunter. This doesn't have to be fight to the death but can be. If the human wins they can then parley with the hunter or its clan but at any point they disrespect the predators or break the strict customs they'll be cut down.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Do "not for individual sale" warnings on products have any legal binding?

[Assistant] The point of the label is that required legal statements (like nutrition and ingredients) aren't on the individually wrapped servings but rather on the box they came in. These warnings protect the manufacturer from charges that they made items without the required labeling.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:Why is it that medical doctors can deal with a single species(humans),veterinary doctors are(assumed?)able to deal with every other species?

[Assistant]
Most veterinary doctors don't deal with all species, you most often go to a different doctor for your snake than your horse.

Also vets tend to not go nearly as in depth as human doctors. People will do a lot for their pets but there is a lot less options for animal medicine than human medicine. Like animal organ transplants are very very rare (sometimes kidneys, basically never hearts or lungs), cancer treatment is simplified, diabetes treatment is very loose compared to human treatment, etc. You just do a lot less for each animal than you do for each human. It's still a complicated science but it's a little less down in any direction so you can handle more directions at once.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does a food processor work differently than a blender?

[Assistant]
A food processor tends to have a much wider, flatter work bowl, which means that it is much better at getting larger amounts of food - particularly solid food - to a smaller-but-not-puree consistency.  A blender, with its tall, narrow shape, would struggle to get an even consistency with non-liquid foods unless you take it all the way to slush.

Could you get by with juse one?  Sure, but having the right tool makes the job easier and the results better.  Blenders are the right choice for some applications - particularly liquid ones - and food processors are the right choice for solid foods.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Marvel Comics] If people want the Super Soldier Serum so badly, why don't they time travel back to when it was used or made to get it?

A decent amount of people can either time travel or have access to a working time machine.

[Assistant] Time travel usually doesn't work that way in Marvel (except when it does). In essence, you have the possibility of causing more and more problems to the timeline the more you attempt to do. What if you go back and attempt to steal the SSS, and when you return to your present your world is completely different?


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: If polydactyl is a dominant gene, how is it possible for offspring to have it but not the parents?

[Assistant]
A new mutation arose in the person's mother's eggs or in the person's father's sperm. That mutation changed the gene responsible for polydactyly, but only in that one egg or sperm cell, and not in the mother or father's whole body. When the person was conceived, that gene became part of their genetic code, and that code was used as a guide for how to build their body - in this case, with extra fingers.

(I am taking your premise as given. Not all polydactyly *is* caused by a single dominant gene.)


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do tightrope walkers carry a long beam?

[Assistant] In addition to what has been said before, the beam significantly increases the walkers rotational inertia around the rope axis. So the same small imbalance in center of mass causes much less acceleration with the beam in hand. The walker has to react much less quickly to correct his position.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Asians have also been slaves in the U.S. and this isnt mainstream education in this country.

Asian indentured servants, or coolies as a derogatory term, have been used as a source of cheap labor in the United States as early as the 1800s.

While indentured servants are different from slaves because they have paid contracts, in the case of Asian coolies (and also many indentured African servants in the Antebellum South) they were oftentimes duped into free labor or sold to another employer in the States where their original contracts were voided.

In practice, however, as many opponents of coolie labor argued, abuse and violence was rampant. **Some of these laborers signed contracts based on misleading promises, some were kidnapped and sold into the trade, some were victims of clan violence whose captors sold them to coolie brokers,** while others sold themselves to pay off gambling debts.

On the Pacific Passage:

As many as 500 were crammed into a single ship hold, leaving no room to move. **Some of these were Chinese women kidnapped to be sex slaves under the demand of American and Caribbean plantation owners.**

(Both cited from Wiki)

**More compelling to me when asking if coolie labor was a form of slavery, is how the California state government eventually came to define it in its 1879 Constitution:**

**"Asiatic coolieism is a form of human slavery, and is forever prohibited in this State, and all contracts for coolie labour shall be void.**

Interestingly enough, Abraham Lincoln also signed An Act to Prohibit the Coolie Trade months before his Emancipation Proclamation.

**Edit:** Its been fascinating to see the debates about this oscillate back and forth from no they werent slaves to yes they were and everybody learned about this in school. Which is it?

**Edit 2:** Bolded the important parts, since people dont seem to be reading my OP and think Im talking about indentured servitude.

[Assistant]
There were plenty of European indentured servants too... Do you also consider them slaves?

There is definitely an argument regarding working conditions and pay rates...but it is hard to make the argument it was slavery if:

* It was voluntary
* It was paid
* It was for only an agreed upon length of time

Now, if people were taken against their will, or not properly paid, one could make the argument that that person suffered a form of slavery... That is very different from equating the entire practice with slavery though.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
What's going on with belly buttons?

What are they connected to? Why do I get the weirdest shock of pain when I press on my belly button so hard that seems to exist simultaneously in my genitals and my belly?

THANKS!

[Assistant]
Your belly button isn't really connected to anything.  It has some remnant structures hanging off of it internally, but beyond that, not much.  The falciform ligament (round ligament, if you want to be specific) is a remnant of the umbilical vein and goes from your umbilicus to your liver.  You also have the med**ial** umbilical ligaments, which is the remnant of your umbilical arteries and the med**ian** umbilical ligament, which is the remains of your urachus (used to filter urine through the mother) connected to your umbilicus, though none of it does anything.  However, they *can* remain patent (open) and you can have, say, urine dripping out of your belly button with a patent urachus (foals have this a lot, though it closes eventually).

As far as why you get pain, I'd imagine that's because you're poking your internal organs.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] How/Why was project insight keeping track of Stephen Strange before he acquired his powers?

Finally watched Doctor Strange.  Right before his accident he was on the phone vetting potential surgical candidates, one of which was, presumably, Col. James Rhodes after his accident during "Civil War".

So why, during "The Winter Soldier", which takes place before "Civil War" does Jasper Sitwell say that Project Insight was keeping an eye on Stephen Strange?  Does Dr. Strange travel back in time a year or two after getting his powers in order to be on Shield/Hydra's radar?

[Assistant]
He is a wealthy narcissistic genius with a lifestyle that is less stable than he thinks it is. You know who else can be described that way? Anthony Stark, circa 2008.

Strange hasn't *done* anything in particular to put him on INSIGHT's radar. It's profiling him, because that's how you catch a "crime" before it's committed if you can't prognosticate.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How do master keys work?

[Assistant]
Inside a lock there is a barrel, the barrel is filled with rods of different lengths.

The bumps on your key raise the rods so that their ends are perfectly lined up with the edge of the barrel, so it can turn.

Each lock has a different combination of rod lengths so that the lock matches up only to its key.

In a lock that can be opened by a master key, the rods are in two pieces. The owners key will raise the entire rod to be clear of the barrel, but the master key can raise the rods so that the lower piece is still in the barrel, but the edge of the barrel lines up with the division that splits the rod in two. So now the lock can be opened by two different keys.

So just make all the keys in a building like that, so that the divisions in their rods all get lined up by one key, but the full rods still have unique combinations of lengths.

Done.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DC/Batman] Considering most of his sidekicks are minors, could Bruce go to prison for endangering the welfare of a child?

Probably not the most original question I know, but I am genuinely wondering, does the GCPD or the residents of Gotham simply not gaf that Batman has literal children help take on dangerous bloodthirsty super criminals? Does Gordon ever call Batman out on this?

[Assistant]
Probably, but there's lots of other things he'll go to prison for first. Running around beating people so hard their bones break is significantly more illegal then child endangement.

There's a reason batman tries so hard to keep his identity secret.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5:How does the ISS not run out of food, water or oxygen?

EDIT: you can stop upvoting this now. It was answered at like 4 upvotes. Pls stop. Pls.

[Assistant] Food is brought dehydrated (so they can bring a lot) water is brought in canisters and oxygen is recycled from water in the astronaut's urine. Oxygen is also brought attached to other elements (for ease of transport) and then separated onboard and released into the station's atmosphere. Everything is brought mostly on the unmanned russian cargo spacecraft "progress" and sometimes on ESA's ATV. Other spacecraft has brought material to the station like JAXA's H-II and some other private spaceflights like dragon and cygnus.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Sherlock Holmes] Does Watson have a day job?

It might be mentioned in the text, but I was just curious about how John Watson makes his bread and butter and covers his share of the rent. Does he still practice medicine in-between cases? I'd assume he'd have to have a stable source of income before getting married, otherwise his prospects would look questionable, and "helps his roommate's detective business" doesn't exactly scream "stable."

[Assistant]
He's a military doctor recovering from injuries he sustained in the war, and still gets pay from the government. Also the publishing of his adventures with Holmes gave him a very comfortable income the longer they went on.

He eventually starts a private medical practice later in life.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Dirt. What is it?

What is it composed of, at an elemental level? What in it is organic vs inorganic? How much does it vary by location? How does it come into existence?

[Assistant] Dirt can be a lot of varied things. It does depend a lot on location. The most basic element of dirt is usually sand and silt from eroded local stones. And as you may suspect these minerals vary a lot between different locations. But there also tends to be organic matter in the dirt as local plants and animals decompose and mix with the dirt as they do so. Some dirt is almost pure organic matter and some dirt is almost pure mineral matter. However most is a mix between these.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How do multi-core CPU's handle the kernel?

Sorry if this is the wrong place for this, seems like the right place. So I could be wrong, I'm open to correction, but my understanding is that a processor basicly runs the kernel, the kernel does some kernel stuff, then switches the processor over to some process for a bit, then the processor saves the state of that process and runs the kernel again, the kernel does some more stuff then starts the processor on another process, and so on like that. So how is this done with multi-core CPU's? Does each core independently go back  and forth from the kernel to other processes? If so, is there a seperate 'instance' of the kernel for each core or does the kernel keep track of information for all cores and know which core it's running on at all times?

[Assistant]
In a single core machine, the kernel:

 * Boots up running on one core.
 * Figures out what hardware it's on.
 * Then it goes into a loop:
    * Is there a user program to run?
    * If so, run it for a bit (until it stops or it's someone else's turn).
    * If not, wait for something to happen.

On a multi-core machine, the kernel:

 * Boots up running on one core.
 * Figures out what hardware it's on.
 * Notices there's multiple cores and spawns a process on each core.
 * The processes each go into a loop:
    * Is there a user program to run?
    * If so, run it for a bit (until it stops or it's someone else's turn).
    * If not, wait for something to happen.

Really, on a modern system only the second thing happens. Single core is just N = 1.

The kernel "scheduling loops" have some idea of what core they're on. They track some data per core, but a lot of stuff is in kernel data structures shared across all cores - those structures are guarded by locks to prevent them getting corrupted by data races.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why do mirrors and other highly reflective materials look grey?

Mirrors and polished metals seem to have a grey-ish (I guess many people would say silver) colour to them. But it seems somewhat counterintuitive that something which is supposed to reflect the light from its surroundings would itself be perceived to have a colour. Why is it that these materials seem to have a distinct colour themselves? I guess a related, and possibly better, question is: what is this 'silver' colour that we perceive reflective things to have? And why are we able to see that something is a reflected image rather than "reality"?

[Assistant]
A perfect mirror is not grey.  A mirror with a non-smooth surface scatters some of the light, this results in blur.  Typically blur appears to be grey because grey is average value of most scenes.  almost all mirrors have 95% or better reflection, you can't really notice this absorption if it isn't wavelength dependent.  the grey you notice on chromed surfaces is due to the scattering, not the absorption.

Silver is not a color, silver is how we describe specular (non-diffuse reflections).  We notice this affect more with non-flat surfaces (such as a car bumper) because we can't make sense of the reflected image due to high amounts of distortion.

and for your last question:  im not sure what you mean, but with high quality mirrors it is very hard to differentiate between a real image and a reflected image.  This is how kaleidoscopes work.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [His Dark Materials] Why was defeating the authority essential to being able to stop the Dust from disappearing?

[Assistant]
The forces of Heaven (or, rather, the angelic forces that overthrew the Creator and were in control of Heaven at the time of the massive interplanar war) were in favor of making the Dust disappear. They believed that letting mortals have free will was a big mistake, and sought to rectify that by, you guessed it, choking the flow of Dust within worlds. This is why the kids get attacked by an archangel at one point.

They had to die to end the war. Killing their armies wouldn't matter, they could just go to another world and raise another army and come back in a few centuries or millennia, so killing their leadership was critical.