[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DC] Is Captain Atom wearing something or is his "costume" his skin?

His costume looks so plastered on him that it's impossible to know if he even has genitals.

Edit: this also applies to Major Force.

[Assistant]
It's Dilustel. An alien material bonded to him in an experiment & which contains his quantum energy. It can be cut (Even though that's incredibly tricky to do) & when that happens he'll leak quantum energy.

He's shown the ability to transform into a regular human form though. Like with his disguise of 'Cameron Scott'.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] The US Gov. dept is 25 trillions. It seems incredibly high, but how does that compare to other countries? How high is the risk that one day the balloon will pop and the US economy will crash? Is the USA at risk of losing its status as a superpower in relation to that debt?

[Assistant]
It's more of a how much of the fiscal govt budget is going towards servicing the debt and the debt/GDP ratio.

The bigger the portion of the fiscal budget goes towards servicing debt, the less money there is to spend on other programs.

In global context, Japan nearly spends half its receipts on servicing the debt and their debt to GDP is around 250%. However, their debt is mostly owned by domestic institutions and the government debt "bubble" hasn't popped for decades now. Even though it has its own problems, there's really no tell-tale sign of disastrous collapse for Japan.

The United States last paid roughly 17% of its tax receipts towards debt servicing, with a debt to GDP ratio of 103-105%. The debt servicing is growing(and it shouldn't continue), but the economy won't crash from those numbers. The balloon won't pop since there's still plenty of room to service the debt, the balloon will only pop if the government defaults on a interest payment.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Starship troopers] why the armor?

I mean its ineffective against bugs, and even bullets, so why have it at all?

[Assistant]
This is clearly about the film and not the novel, since the novel mobile infantry are what directly inspired Space Marines from both Warhammer and Starcraft, but are even more badass than both. Plus, one of the points of the novel is exploring the further dehumanization of war. From armies marching shoulder to shoulder for centuries, to small squads crawling through cities in the 20th century, to finally soldiers completely alone in their combat areas, with only radio communication between themselves. But they are also more machine than human in the end. It's a great image among the essays about service.

The film is the COMPLETE opposite. In the film, it's very ambiguous if the government is actually behind the asteroid and bug aggression or not. But even if they aren't, they're certainly using it for their own political purposes. That's why the film takes place through the eye of internet-ish propaganda videos. The government isn't fighting a war so much as it's telling a story to the general public. It gives its soldiers just enough training and equipment to feel safe and look good while marching, but still isn't enough to save them from the real horrors of war. It gives a compelling narrative of hopeful young soldiers going to war, losing their innocence, then begging the people back home to help. Mostly through increased spending and donations directly to the bank accounts of the people in charge.

This narrative continues at the end of the film, with new technologies being deployed and a hopeful message splattered on the screen. In order for a war to continue to inspire the people, your soldiers can't constantly lose. So improvements are doled out bit by bit so the soldiers feel like they have a chance and the people feel safe at home. As long as the common folk are being ground down by the endless war against the most convenient enemy in the galaxy (no way to humanize and sympathize with the bugs!), they will keep following those in charge.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Black people have a pass in Modern culture to make racist remarks

In 2016, BLM Toronto Co-founder Yusra Khogali was on record stating having white skin makes you subhuman
Nick Cannon recently went on record calling white people Savages saying white people are a little less and saying we are the same people who they want to be
This week, NBA player Montrezl Harrell called Mavericks player Luka Doncic a bitch ass white boy for his remarks telling him to stop flopping
Boxer Devin Haney remarked earlier this year that he will never lose to a white boy in regards to his opponent Vasyl Lomachenko

If any of the aforementioned public figures were of Caucasian descent and the remarks were directed towards those of African descent, the repercussions would be immediate and brutal. they would lose all sponsorship and promoters, get fined, fired from their jobs, make national headlines, change my mind.

[Assistant]
I think you overestimate just how severely a white person is treated when saying something racist.

Take Bidens comment about not being black or Trumps more overt Mexico is sending rapists (these arent the exact quotes, but i believe they were along those lines)

Both have been heavily criticised. However what actually happened? Trump is president of the US. Biden is probably going to be president in November (even if not, hes running for president)

They certainly havent had immediate and brutal repercussions.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] How did Owen Lars not realize that he had previously owned C-3PO?

In a New Hope he buys 3PO from the Jawas, yet we see that 3PO was on the Lars homestead after he was presumably sold along with Shmi, so what gives?

[Assistant] One, protocol droids are pretty common, even on the Outer Rim territories. Two, droids are like appliances, and hardly regarded with much thought. Anakin and Luke are actually pretty unique in how they speak to their droids. Finally, C-3POs casing was completely changed, and 3PO didn't act as if he knew Owen, so why would Owen care?


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why are fish unable to breathe oxygen from air when they are able to absorb it from water which is so much more difficult?

[Assistant]
It is because fish use gills in order to obtain oxygen. Which means that the greater the surface area of the gills of the fish, the more the blood vessels are exposed to oxygen.

While outside of water, the gill arches essentially collapse, reducing that surface area to zero. The projections on the gills float in the water in order to allow for the easy passage of oxygen.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Can a submarine get stuck to the floor of a body of water?

When I was younger I heard a scientist in a submarine during a documentary explain that they needed to be careful and not sink all the way to the floor as the submarine would get stuck and not be able to float back to the top. Is there any truth to this and if so what's the science behind it? If not, where could this thought have originated from?

[Assistant] Yes it is possible but the likelihood depends on the shape of the sub's hull and the type of sediments composing the ocean floor. In regions where the seafloor is especially muddy, mucky, or oozy (yes those are all scientific terms!) it is possible for the sub to settle into the sediments and the suction below the hull can anchor the sub when it tries to lift off.  The specific risk depends on the characteristics of muck and how much positive buoyancy the sub can generate.  Subs with a flat bottom would seem more at risk.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Does the study of formal logic necessarily make a person more logical or being able to construct more reasonable arguments?

As stated in the title, the laymen seem to have the idea that studying of logic makes a person more logical, which I wonder if there are any consensus within philosophy about the actual importance of logic? That is to say, for example, a scientist could make logical arguments and predictions without learning formal logic; would learning formal logic be of any benefits to him/her? Thanks!

[Assistant]
Most poor arguments out in the wild aren't lacking in validity (at least, once their unstated premises are charitably explicated), but rather due to biased justifications of the soundness of the premises.

Someone with a keen sense for logic will likely still be as biased as any other human.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[General Sci Fi] Tanks of the future?

Been brain storming with my brother on tanks and we came to an argument on the various parts of tanks including mode of propulsion, arnament and viablity of tanks in the future.

I'm arguing on the mode of propulsion that Hover Tanks would rule the future but he says that the sheer reliability of threads and the ease of repairing them would make it unlikely to change from it. Wjo do you think is right? Do you one of us is right or are we both wrong? (Spider leg tanks?)

On the arnament, we don't exactly come to an agreement if tanks would be better off with conventional, laser, railguns(both solid and explosive rounds), plasma or rockets.

Finally, I've been thinking of the viability of tanks in the future. This is more for my self really rather than an arguement between me and bro. Would they still be good or the introduction of a more stable and reliable "helicopter" like vehicle which boast heavy arnaments make them obsoleate?

[Assistant]
You should both real the Bolos series.

Hover systems likely to be a secondary system until they are super-reliable and energy efficient.

Proper arms depends almost entirely upon the combat environment.  The relationship between the tanks and what the tanks are there to destroy.

I doubt missiles will ever be the main armament because you can't carry many.  They're for lighter vehicles that need to hit a tank or hitting aircraft.

Any sort of helicopter is still going to have the "glass jaw" or a rotor.  Any hit there and crash.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What makes different types of cheese taste so different?

[Assistant] To make cheese, all you really need are three ingredients: milk, salt and live microbial cultures including rennet. The specific strains of microbes added to the milk play an important role in giving each variety of cheese its distinct flavor.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV:Despite the "big government sucks!" rhetoric, the American right wing is pretty authoritarian, and their policy generally is pro-government.

As with any group, I'll begin this with saying that not all conservatives or republicans fit this description. I'll also say that a lot of these issues exist with the democratic party as well. I'm not here to debate whether a policy is just or favorable or anything. I'm simply talking about whether said policy is objectively authoritarian, libertarian, pro government, anti government, etc.

That being said, I know that ever since the Obama administration, the call of the republican party, the tea party, fox news, and any others on that part of the spectrum has been "stop big government". Back during Obama, there was some truth to those factions being opposed to big government in some regards. There was the trend of filming police to expose injustice, opposition to the NSA, gun rights, tax cuts, etc.

However, as time went on, this started to change. I first noticed this shift when the "blue lives matter" campaign started. The idea that working for the government and carrying a gun makes you some kind of hero is directly oppositional to the idea of libertarian small government. Its even more authoritarian to use a narrative that police officers are some kind of marginalized group that faces discrimination because of their job. What I get out of that kind of rhetoric is "don't question authority, don't hold the powerful accountable for their actions. Cooperate with them and thank them for keeping you safe". I don't see any way that this kind of movement could be considered pro liberty, or pro small government. You've all seen taxpayer money going to armorized tanks rolling down the street, and SWAT teams breaking down doors stealing drugs, money and guns. (Yes, theyre taking your guns, google Baltimore raids). Some may argue that this much government control is "a necessary evil" or "the lesser of evils" or even that its morally just for whatever reason. But I dont see any way one could deny that it is authoritarian, or at least that its just as much "big government" as partially subsidized healthcare is.

I also took notice of the policies proposed in response to terrorist attacks. Travel bans, ICE raids, outright Muslim bans, stop and frisk, etc. Once again, some may argue that these are necessary, but how can anyone deny theyre objectively authoritarian?

Then there's abortion policy. The amount of legal restrictions on womens bodies that have been proposed over the years.....I could go on for so long, but I think you get what I mean.

Gay marriage is a big one, too. I know that now as opposed to 10 years ago, the Republican party has become less opposed to gay marriage, and theres a whole lot of LGBT republicans. However, the anti-gay rhetoric still is present in this tangent of the right, and the idea that the government can tell 2 adults they cannot be married doesn't seem to fit the "American freedom" rhetoric.

I am not trying to debate whether these policies are right or wrong (though I'm sure you know where I stand on them). I'm just curious to know in what ways these policies and positions correlate to the libertarian, small government, principles of the American right. I'm well aware that democrats have pushed the exact same policies at times, but the right does this while fearmongering about "big government!! taxes are socialism!!" etc. Because the way it looks to me right now, is that either
-"big government" in the context of these factions means subsidized healthcare or education, gun control, and censorship. Also, that "civil liberties" only covers the freedom to say racial slurs, the right for some people to carry firearms, low taxes, and legal weed.
or that
-This tangent of the right knows that their policy, is in many ways in support of a strong government, and is ok with high taxes, so long as they're not going to welfare or healthcare. Yet some groups continue to use this "stop socialist big government" rhetoric to support the narrative of the right as the rebel underdogs fighting the establishment.

Maybe somebody will have a point that makes me change my view, or maybe I'll just get called a commie cuck or something, lets see.

[Assistant]
Libertarians and the right wing are actually separate entities.

Liberals are both socially and fiscally liberal, conservatives are both socially and fiscally conservative, while libertarians are socially liberal but fiscally conservative.

Youre hearing two separate groups speaking and think that they are one-in-the same, but theyre not. To the extent that true conservatives are against big government, its mostly in terms of taxation, regulation and wealth redistribution (fiscal issues). Theyre all for big government when it comes to outlawing marijuana, abortion and same-sex marriage (social issues).

Libertarians on the other hand are the truly anti-big-government ones, as they oppose both the taxation element *and* the social element. This group is generally pro-marijuana legalization, pro same-sex marriage and pro-choice, while also being against regulation and wealth redistribution.

The reason both groups *appear* to be on the right is because America has an almost-exclusively two-party system. The liberals dont want anything to do with the libertarians these days, so libertarians as a whole tend to be associated with their fiscal conservatism rather than their social liberalism. But because of the two party system, libertarian candidates are rarely elected to government positions. That is why much of the policy that arises doesnt follow the big government sucks mantra that you are hearing from the right.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Mentorship

How do you find deep mentorship in a lab where the PI isnt super accessible? There are several labs Im interested in rotating in, but they are larger and the PIs are somewhat well-known Im the field and as such are busy people! Aside from that, they seem like great people, just not people I could pop in and ask a question without setting up a meeting. The mentorship they give would be great, theres just not enough of them to go around, if that makes sense. I feel like I want more mentorship and guidance, but understand the demands that PIs have.

I dont want to let this deter me from working in a great lab with exciting science being done. Any advice?

[Assistant] Larger labs with busy PIs usually have something like an upper management level. There are usually staff scientists, research scientists, postdocs and similar more senior people that manage research projects and students. Of course, ideally you should also have semi-regular meetings with your PI, but the senior scientists are usually the ones handling the day-to-day affairs.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why are advanced stage colon cancer patients expected to live only 21.4 months after diagnoses? What actually kills them? (What will actually casue my death?)

[Assistant]
At later stages, the cancer spreads to other systems, such as your pancreas, lymph nodes, etc. The most common is the liver.

What is bad is that most of these organs affect the entire body so once the cancer gets into that system, it can travel anywhere, like a freeway. Then it is just a case of how well those organs can function with cancer taking up space, pinching, cutting off blood supply, etc.

Good luck with treatment. Bring a good book to chemo, and be sure to buy Gatorade for at home. Half Gatorade, half water, and drink as much as you can stand.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why is snow almost a solid white, while other frozen forms of water are clear?

[Assistant]
Snow is a whole bunch of individual ice crystals arranged together. When a light photon enters a layer of snow, it goes through an ice crystal on the top, which changes its direction slightly and sends it on to a new ice crystal, which does the same thing. Basically, all the crystals bounce the light all around so that it comes right back out of the snow pile. It does the same thing to all the different light frequencies, so all colors of light are bounced back out. The "color" of all the frequencies in the visible spectrum combined in equal measure is white, so this is the color we see in snow, while it's not the color we see in the individual ice crystals that form snow.

Basically, if you just had a big block of ice, light can pass right through it, where as with snow, light is being reflected and bounced around many many times, through many crystals of snow.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] During the Blip, what happened to the economy, and how is the world able to meet the all the resource needs when everyone comes back?

When half the world disappeared, the money supply wouldnt have changed. Did all that extra money lead to crazy inflation? Was the world able to do some kind of universal basic income while they recovered from the snap?

[Assistant]
I think that we will see more of this elaborated on in the coming eps of Falcon & Winter Soldier: But if the start of Endgame is any indication, the world looked to have come to a standstill. 5 years on, and New York looked dead with cars still on the bridges and the Avengers going around solving small crisis after small crisis to keep the world turning.

Then we had a line from Hayward in WandaVision that went something like, You people that came back have the benefit of Hope; you have no idea how bad it was So, Id think that while there will be headaches while putting everything right after the blip, in the middle of everything was worse overall.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Death Note] With the exception of outright selling it, what would be the best way to make money with a Death Note?

Maybe shorting the stocks of  companies with famous CEOs and killing the CEOs causing the stock to go down? Companies unexpectdly losing their figure heads should take a hit.

[Assistant]
In the anime, a board of directors of a corporation were using it to kill off competition and assist in corporate takeovers.

Holding people for ransom would be a great way to amass wealth though. All you need is a name and a picture and you can kill them whenever. Once it gets out that there is someone who can kill anytime, anywhere, then it's easy to demand money and it's easy to sell your services as a Assassin. You could literally hold a auction to kill a politician with options to buy votes that you could invest towards kill or not kill options. In the US at least, political parties are so polarized that there would be people of the opposite party perfectly willing to donate a few bucks to killing the opposition party's elected officials.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why can't a person with Alzheimer's have a fact sheet in front of them at all times reminding them of every truth about them, including the fact that they have Alzheimer's, and that they are expected to be constantly confused?

[Assistant] Because it will add to their misery. This is not like the forgetting that non-sufferers may experience as a result of an injury or hangover; it goes much deeper and has a shorter cycle. You can tell an Alzheimer's patient a "fact" one minute and it's gone in 30 seconds. The *truth* for advanced patients may bear absolutely no resemblance to fact, because a humane approach most often involves meeting their uncertainties with whatever words bring comfort, not pounding them with proof that they're wrong.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How are financial markets any different than Ponzi schemes other than layers of professionalism?

[Assistant] Because they trade in actual instruments that have value - shares of companies and debt. Owning a share gives you a stake in ownership of a a company, claim on their profits and assets. Debt gives you a financial claim to be repaid at some point in the future with interest. Financial markets trade in these claims, through a variety of instruments but unlike Ponzi schemes the underlying claims produce value - companies sell goods and services and generate profit.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Recess should be a requirement in High schools

In elementary school , Recess was the best part of the day. It was 30 minutes of the day used to go outside and play around or so we thought.  The truth is those 30 minutes were used to clear our mind and to relax. In middle school, recess didn't exist. In high school , it seemed we were too old to play around. But it was more than playing around. The  time was used to rejuvenate the students mind. According to a NYU study on high schoolers and their stress reported that 49% of high school students reported feeling daily stress. Bringing back that relaxation time would help a lot of students get the break they need throughout the day.  This time would be different from physical education or lunch time. It would be a specific time throughout the day were students could read or get a chance to go outside and breathe fresh air. It would help relieve stress and give students a chance to refocus. It offers cognitive, social, emotional and physical benefits.Several studies demonstrate that recess, whether performed indoors or outdoors, made children more attentive and more productive in the classroom  according to *Jarrett, O. J. Education Research, 1998.* This is not al*l,  Sibley B, Etnier J. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children. Pediatrics Exercise Science. *2003 reports that recess allows a student time to rest, play , imagine, think , move and socialize. It's actually better for their education if the students get a time like this to move around and clear their head.

[Assistant]
As a teenager/young adult, you probably don't see 30 minutes of "free time" at school as being very free; after all, they still require you to stay on campus.

It's an extra 30 minutes of the school day that gets added to each student's schedule. That is a half hour that they could instead be spending at home, doing extra-curricular activities, etc.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is the Unit Circle and the Complex Plane related at all?

When learning trigonometry, the idea of the unit circle was the main mechanism to describe the effects of angles and the sine and cosine functions. Now that I'm learning about Q.M. and Euler's formula, etc, it's pretty evident that the imaginary plane and trigonometric functions are intertwined. How did these two sort of distinct ways to look at trigonometric functions (I.e the unit circle vs complex plane) come to be? Did one come from the other, or are they related? Is there a reason euler's formula and complex relations baren't taught in tandem with trigonometry? Thanks in advance!

[Assistant]
I think you have it backwards. The unit circle is not the main mechanism to describe the trigonometric functions, the trigonometric functions are the main tool to describe the unit circle! Circles are what we want to know about, and trigonometric functions are one of the main ways that we do this.

With this in mind, note that circles are one of the most important things in Euclidean planar geometry. They geometrically keep track of distance. The Complex Plane is an ordinary Euclidean plane, and so the circles on it will help us keep track of distances on the complex plane. In fact, complex conjugation gives us a really direct way to access distance through the arithmetic of complex numbers (telling us that geometry and the complex numbers go hand-in-hand). The most basic of these circles is the circle centered at 0 of radius one which is just the Unit Circle as seen as a subset of the Complex Plane. So we have a setup where we've found a unit circle and we want to study it, and our main tool for this it trigonometry and the trigonometric functions.

So, because the Complex Numbers have a very, very close relationship with planar geometry, and trigonometry is how we analytically investigate planar geometry, we find that trigonometry and the Complex Numbers are often seen hand-in-hand.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil?

and my electronics had a coil too?

I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?

[Assistant]
Yes.  Tesla had a similar setup in his lab powering wireless work lights.

However the entire setup would be horribly inefficient, terribly expensive to build (copper isn't cheap), and would interfere with some electronics.

Not to mention pots and pans may stick to your walls.  Oh wait, that would actually be really cool.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: What prevents people in a coma from waking up?

Probably a very stupid question but I cant wrap my head around it. For instance if someone had head trauma, why can they not wake up after a few days or so? What is it that keeps them unconscious for such a duration of time with nothing to wake them?

Edit: im confused why this got so many upvotes but thanks

[Assistant]
A coma is a state of minimal brain function, it's not like being awake or asleep. Neurons that should be firing and signals that should be transmitted aren't, during a coma. This is usually due to some sort of damage.

We use the Glasgow Coma Scale to judge whether someone is in a coma. It measures things like responses to pain and whether someone can open their eyes. A score of 8 or lower indicates someone is officially "in a coma", though the typical "laying in bed totally non responsive" imagery of a coma is usually indicative of a very low score on the Glasgow Coma Scale.

To sum up, a coma is when the brain can't function properly due to damage. This damage can have effects that cause them to not respond to their senses, and unconsciousness.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
In your institution, what are the odds of a PhD candidate getting a pay raise?

Hi all,

Some background to this question. My PhD candidacy is as an internal employee of the university, so in that position we get full salary, benefits and so on. Now, with that as a starting point. Within this position things have been going quite well and I have luckily been involved in things above and beyond the regular 'workload' of a PhD candidate, e.g. My supervisor and I do a project involving big names in our field from Stanford and Harvard and I've personally had numerous (national) media report on my work, always with of course our faculty's name attached.

While I enjoy my job a lot, obviously none of us work just for fun. So I'm contemplating discussing with my direct supervisor or HR to ask for an increase in salary that fits with the work I am doing that benefits both the law faculty and me.

My main worry is that they will say: 'Yes you've been doing many things but that is part of any PhD candidacy and does not warrant extra salary.'. However, in that case, no PhD could ever get a salary increase, and that seems ridiculous. So how do you look at this matter?

[Assistant]
I know that given inflation etc some universities are giving raises at the moment. However, sometimes PhD salaries are set centrally or PIs are strongly discouraged from changing them (or led to believe that we can't but maybe we can).

Honestly it sounds like you're doing well. If you are really keen on a pay raise your best bet may be focussing on writing up and getting a new job.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
What is actually taking place in the brain/mind of someone suffering from body dysmorphia? How is it they can "see" others as the are but not themselves ?

That's basically it, just wondering how the mind is able to distort an image so drastically. It's as though you are showing them a circle and they swear it is a triangle. How does that happen ?

[Assistant]
The distortion isnt the mind interpreting different images objectively differently. There is cognitive distortion due to emotional hyper vigilance.

High anxiety with body image leads to hyperfocus on parts of owns own body in a way that a person is scanning  parts of their image that feel threatening. Another persons body isnt threatening, so that highly critical hyperfocus distortion isnt going to be there for others.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do dogs prefer to pee on vertical objects?

[Assistant]
Animals navigate in much the same way that we do and use significant landmarks as waypoints and aids; like like boulders and tall trees. And in a modern context, lampposts and fire hydrants.

Urination is used as a navigational aid, a literal breadcrumb trail when exploring new places, as well as for marking out territory or signalling presence, or just urinating.

If you watch a dog on familiar territory after a heavy snowfall, their reaction can range from excitement to anger. Even though they know the territory well, all of the landmarks are "gone" as well as the scents, which results in a lot of confusion.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Would a Kevlar vest protect as well against crossbow bolts as it does small-arms fire?

[Assistant]
It depends on whether the body armor is "soft" - woven, or "hard" - resin coated ballistic plates.

No way in hell does a crossbow go through a hard plate - those things can stop a 5.56 round and don't have the holes to slip through like the soft vests do.

The soft vest probably wouldn't stop it. Those things can't stop knife attacks a lot of times, and can be cut with scissors. Their ability to stop bullets doesn't translate into stopping slower-moving sharp objects. Spreading force from a fired round is different than stopping a crossbow bolt; the bolt would be able to spread the fibers and penetrate.

There is also special body armor specifically designed to stop sharp object attacks, usually used in prisons and the like. Those types can't stop bullets at all, but may be able to stop a crossbow bolt. Not sure, though, a fired bolt is different than a knife attack.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [DC] What ridiculous science fiction gym equipment would Superman have in his Fortress of Solitude?

[Assistant] It's been shown; ordinary equipment in a room that mimics Krypton.  Superman makes himself 'normal' and trains like an average Kryptonian. iirc when he is injured under these conditions he heals super fast once he gets back to yellow sunlight.  That means he can combat train on a daily basis.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Final Destination Series] What happens to Deaths design if one of the survivors commit suicide?

[Assistant]
It won't work, circumstance (Death) will work against them.

In the second film, Eugene (the biker) tries to shoot himself with Thomas Burkes gun, and it didn't fire, all six bullets loaded were duds, which is extremely unlikely to impossible to actually happen.

You won't die unless you subvert the rules or Death allows it, even then, subverting the rules seems to lead to a much more painful Death, cheat it once, it might let you off with an instant death, cheat it twice, it's going to make sure it hurts.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why do we take off our hats during the national anthem?

[Assistant] It supposedly stems from medieval times when knights would remove their helmets to show trust.  But really, it's just tradition.  Each generation is taught that taking their hat off is respectful.  There's no  good reason.  We could just as easily say taking your wristwatch off is a sign of respect.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Journalism should be a licensed profession.

We require licensure for plumbers, electricians, doctors, engineers, etc., why not journalists? We are living in an an age when a single individual can address millions of viewers and readers simultaneously and near instantly. Surely the consequences of poor, unethical, or intentionally misrepresentative journalism could be just as destructive as an electrician without a license? Taking it a step further, there are several states where you can't even have the word "Engineering" in you company name unless you have a Professional Engineer on staff with a valid license. Why not do the same with the word "News?"

[Assistant]
No it shouldn't.

Who gives the licenses?   If there was corruption in the licensing process, who would expose it?

Freedom of the press is a very fundamental aspect of a free society.   Anyone should be able to report news on what they see.  Journalists should absolutely strive for integrity and honesty and bipartisanship, and consumers should support the journalists who live up to these standards.  But there has to be freedom.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Do we assume the axioms of logic because they coincide with reality?

[Assistant]
It's more complicated than that, but yes.

The axioms of a given logical system are chosen by those who create and/or use the logic. There are a number of reasons that might motivate accepting an axiom, but usually the story goes like this:

We have in mind some set of arguments that we think are good arguments, and we want a formal system to capture them. So, we build (or utilize existing) formalisms to represent those natural language arguments symbolically. Then, we agree on some basic axioms that seem plausible on their own such that when we string them together, we can prove the target arguments are good ones. Then, we test our resulting system for other good-making features of a logic: soundness and completeness, usually.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: What prevents a molecule from instantly returning to its base elements?

Why does any molecule, like water for example, stay water rather than going back to hydrogen and oxygen? And what prevents the reverse, say water cannibalizing all the hydrogen and oxygen it comes in contact with to make more water?

[Assistant]
Because it's more stable to be in molecule form than to react in the first case. It's like a ball rolling up a small hill, and then rolling down a bigger hill. It won't spontaneously teleport back up to the top of the hill. You have to push it back up, in a process called electrolysis for your water example.

And in your second case, that's not how chemical reactions work. You have to have a minimum energy in order to react things. That's the rolling up the small hill. It's not always spontaneous, even if the molecular form is more stable.

And the product of the reaction being present does nothing to the rest of the reaction.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why does adderall calm down ADHD people and make non ADHD people hyperactive?

[Assistant] Imagine your brain is like a television set. When you are doing a task, your brain is set to a specific channel. It's receiving information, processing that information, and being active. The channel doesn't change often, unless you want it to. People who have a set of neurological issues we call ADHD have a television whose channel flips randomly, especially if the channel it's on doesn't have enough information to receive and process. ADHD medications add a level of background noise to the televisions reception, so that even if the program that is currently on doesn't have enough information, the channel won't change because the television is getting additional information. A person with a neurotypical brain, will instead have their television channels change more quickly with the medication because they are getting too much information for the television to handle.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Played guitar for the first time in a while which resulted in a blister on my fingertip. Almost immediately, there was fluid in it. Where does that fluid come from?

[Assistant]
It's basically blood plasma--the liquid part of blood without any red blood cells, which is water with sugars, proteins, and some other things dissolved in it. Pretty much all of the cells in your body are floating in a bath of this stuff all the time, which leaks out from the capillaries in your body. This is how cells get and exchange gas and nutrients.

Essentially the deeper layers of your skin got damaged from the pressure from the strings. When you get tissue damage, the small blood vessels around the area start opening up their walls a bit to let more of the fluid out along with a few white blood cells to clean up anything that got into the wound. Since the top layer of your skin didn't get damaged, the fluid just kinda collects underneath it as it leaks out. The reason it's not filled with blood is because there wasn't enough damage to the tissue to break any blood vessels, which would lead to red blood cells getting out.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
If the Moon is slowly moving away from us, what will happen to the Earth when this actually happens?

It seems the moon is moving farther and farther away from the Earth every year. When the moon is no longer in orbit, what will happen to the Earth and the moon?

[Assistant] The Moon will never leave orbit. Its track widens at a rate of only a few centimeters per year, and given current rates of change, the Earth will become tidally locked with the Moon (keeping the same face constantly toward each other) long before it can to leave orbit. At that point its orbit will stop expanding, so we'll still have the Moon when the Sun expands into a red giant and engulfs us in its last days.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does a graveyard stay in business after it's full?

[Assistant]
Even after a cemetery is full there are still maintenance costs for things like landscaping and security. Cemeteries have a few ways to keep paying those fees.

In many states in the United States, cemeteries have to set aside a portion of each purchase for a perpetual trust. The interest earned on that trust is supposed to be enough to continue operating the cemetery once it fills up.

In some places like Germany graves are leased for about 20 years or so. After 20 years if no one renews the lease the headstone is removed and the grave becomes open to a new occupant. Under this system cemeteries are always making sales because graves either open up or get re-leased.

In some places like England they go for double decker graveyards. Some cemeteries will dig a grave deeper so that another coffin can be fit above while still buried.

Not every cemetery is financially successful. What happens when a cemetery goes bankrupt is pretty highly dependent on the specific situation and applicable laws.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Roger Rabbit/ general cartoon question] we see Roger kiss Eddy because he thinks its funny. Weve seen lots of looney tunes do that too. Thing is, that Eddy takes offense from that. We know that toons dont condone murder but where do the toons draw the line on sexual harassment/ assault?

[Assistant]
The same as everything else- they support it when it's funny. Or more accurately, they support it when *they think it's funny*. Note that Judge Doom *can* use his powers to commit murder because he finds murdering people hilarious, while other toons can't because they're not sadistic monsters. So it depends on the toon and the prevailing toon culture.

In Roger Rabbit, it's your standard 1940s approach- rape isn't funny, but unwanted kissing is. Consent is something easily overlooked in pursuit of a punchline. The toons are, after all, very literally a product of their times, and have the same opinions of the humans of the 1940s.

More modern toons likely have more enlightened views as to the funniness of these actions- see the quiet dropping of Pepe Le Pew. Like any species, their views have developed, and what was once wacky hi-jinks are no longer funny. Although of course you've still got your Cartmen and Peter Griffins arguing that this is all PC Correctness Gone Mad.

In short, where they draw the line is very similar to where we draw the line- it depends on who you ask.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[A New Hope] When Obi Wan drives off the Tusken Raiders, he says, "We'd better get indoors, the Sand People are easily startled..." Is there any reason to believe that the Tusken Raiders would not attack you, just because you're inside?

*Howls in distance*

[Assistant]
It's not so much that you're inside, as if a Tusken Raider is going to be stymied by a thin wall.  Rather it's that Obi-Wan, as most folks would, had his home in a place that's unlikely to come under attack from Raiders.
Though the biggest factor is the second part of what Obi-wan said there:  "They'll soon be back, and in greater numbers."  Raiders were coming back to that spot.  They weren't going to Obi-wan's house.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Avatar: TLA] Would a full scale invasion as originally planned have even worked with only 8 minutes on the eclipse?

So let's say that Zuko joins the Gaang during the Book 2 finale, Azula and the Dai Li are captured, and the Fire Nation never learns about the invasion ahead of time. Basically the absolute best case scenario. Even with all this I'm doubtful if a full scale invasion would have worked.

The actual invasion force in the show proper only got as far as it did because they were small enough to sneak right up to the captial city's shore. A massive army would have to deal with the blockade and the Gates of Azulon. In "The Avatar State", General Fong claims that the Earth Kingdom wouldn't even be able to make it to the Fire Nation's shore under normal circumstances, which means that they'd need the eclipse just to reach the mainland. But by then the eclipse will be over, and they'll need to deal with the most powerful Firebenders, including the Fire Lord, without any assistance.

Overall, I just don't see the invasion ever succeeding even with all the advantages on their side.

[Assistant]
There's a reason it's a small army and not an invasion force.

The idea isn't to take down the entire fire nation. As you say, 8 minutes isn't enough time. The idea is to kill the *Fire Lord* while he's defenseless, hopefully damaging the fire nation (which seems to be a total autocracy and cult of personality) enough for an *actual* invasion to be plausible. There's a reason Azula's defence was to waste their time to prevent them going after the Fire Lord.

It's not a battle-winning thing itself. It's a surgical strike on the leadership, hopefully throwing the nation into enough disarray for a more conventional invasion to be on the table.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: How did they come up with the theory that a Mars sized planet, Theia, collided with early Earth creating the moon?

Watching The Universe on H2 and they told about a Mars sized planet, Theia, colliding with Earth and creating the moon. Is there any proof of this? If not what lead to that theory?

[Assistant]
It's impossible for a satellite the size of the Moon to be caught in a planet the size of Earth's gravity.  Plus the material make up of the moon is similar to that of our crust/mantle.

Couple that with lots of simulations showing that another planet had to swipe by the Earth a couple times to put up enough material without destroying them both, and it's the best theory we've found thus far.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Jobs for economics majors?

Im currently attending community college for another 3 quarters until I transfer to a 4 year, and I only have class twice a week. I was curious as to what part-time jobs would be most beneficial to any future endeavors in economics? (Im not sure exactly what I want to do after I graduate, Im interested in financial advising if that helps.) Ive applied to a few banks for teller positions but other than that Im out of ideas. I appreciate any input, thanks!

[Assistant] Sounds nerdy, but data entry. Hopefully youll be able to work on some data analyst level projects that you can apply a lot of the economic models you learn throughout your degree. I.e. regression models youll learn from econometrics.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[DCU] How do I join the justice leauge?

Guess who's got two thumbs and lightning powers? This gal!

I have a codename, I have a costume, I've stopped a few major schemes and even got my own (somewhat small) rouges gallery! But I think it's time to step up to the big team to go futther into superheroing. So I'd like to join the Justice League. Like, i recognize I can't get in with the big seven but I assume there's a b-team or support staff something?

So...how do I go about this? Do they have an email I can submit an application to? A secretary? Or is it just a case of I stop crimes until I'm invited? If I bump into the Flash, can i ask him to put in a good word for me, or is that too gauche? Do I need a proper archnemesis? Do i have to save the world first?

I need to jump my superhero career into its next step. How do I get in to the Big Boy's club of superheroing?

[Assistant] Fastest way is impress Batman. His opinion carries the most weight, because he's Batman! Impressing anyone else, even Superman, would be good, but they'd  probably just put in a good word and say you are someone to watch and perhaps use for a few trial runs. But if Batman says your good enough to be League and then anyone questions him, he'll just use that Bat-Stare and they'll change their mind immediately... Because he's Batman!!!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] what was the significance/advantage behind Dooku's curved saber hilt?

Dooku had a lot going for him, 1. He was played by Christopher Lee and 2. He had that awesome curved saber hilt. As someone who's interested but never experienced much of the EU, why exactly did he have such a hilt? And how was his fighting style changed by it?

[Assistant]
From a fencing perspective, it brings the blade forward when he grips it (instead of pointing up).  It's not a huge difference in angle, but it can have a pretty distinct difference in style.

First, think of how you block with a lightsaber.  You hold it next to you, creating a sort of wall that the enemy blade lands on.  When you're gripping a straight hilt and keeping your blade up, you can block like that to the left and right very quickly.  With Dooku's grip, you have to move the blade much farther, and it won't be as strong.  Instead, you have to catch the blade while it's still moving forward and guide its momentum from the outside, deflecting the attack.

When attacking, the blade stays mostly pointed at the enemy.  This allows it to make quick, small circles around the grip.  For someone accustomed to the kinds of blocks described above, these can be very tricky to stop.  To stop an attack near the hilt, you really have to move the hilt out of the way and *then* block.  This movement is different enough from your standard block that it's going to throw a lot of people off.

The curved grip lends itself to a specific style, one that is based heavily on finesse and small movements.  The lightsaber, generally, is a weapon based on very large motions aided by the lightweight nature of the weapon.  Most Jedi fight by making large circles - the weightless blade allows the Jedi to cover their whole body in an instant. There's a reason for that - it's just better.  Dooku's style is just not as good.

*But*

In fighting like that, there are more important considerations than what is "best."  His style is different, and likely one that is rarely encountered by most Jedi.  His own speed and skill (and natural finesse) allow him to compensate for many of the style's weaknesses, and most of his opponents are unprepared for it's unorthodox nature.

Tl;dr: He essentially uses the saber as less of a slashing weapon and more of a stabbing weapon.  A master swordsman can adapt to that style, but most simply won't know how to defend against it.

Final note: This is basically based on the idea of an epeeist fencing saber, or a saber with a pistol grip.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What about honey makes it not expire?

[Assistant]
The main reason is because honey is almost completely sugar. That high sugar concentration dehydrates any cells that try to take up residence through osmosis. (Osmosis being like a gravitational pull toward balance.) If there's water inside of a cell that falls into the honey, the honey will pull water out of the cell until the proportion of water to sugar inside the cell is equal to the proportion outside the cell.

Since the honey had such a high sugar content, a single cell just doesn't have enough water in it to make a dent in that so the honey ends up pulling nearly all the water out of the cell, killing it in the process.

There are some things that can survive without any water; botulism spores have already been brought up and are a great example of why we pasteurise honey, despite how well it kills bacteria on its own.

There are other properties that play lesser roles like a chemical secreted by the bees called defensin-1 which works as an antibiotic but these other properties pale in comparison to the mighty osmotic pressure.

What this means, though, is that, yes, honey has antimicrobial properties but the main one (osmosis) goes away the moment you dilute it because the balance mentioned earlier is much easier to reach if the overall solution has a lower percentage of sugar.

In turn, that means that honey does not pass it's abilities on to you by drinking it since you dilute it with your saliva and stomach acid. In other words, if someone tells you it will help fight off a cold because of its antimicrobial properties, they don't know what they're talking about.

It will, however, make your throat feel better temporarily but that's another ELI5.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why can the sound volume of commercials on internet TV be double the actual show's volume?

[Assistant] The commercials are allowed to be as loud as the shows.  That means if the show has a gunshot, or an explosion, or a big dramatic music swell, then the commercial is allowed to be as loud as that.  Thing is, the loudest sound in the show lasts for a few seconds at most, whereas the volume in the commercial is as high as that for the whole 30 seconds.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Anakin's Force Ghost

Why is it that Yoda and Obi-Wan's force ghosts show them near the end of their life while Anakin's is when he was young? Anakin repented and denounced the dark side of himself fell back on being a Jedi before his death. Why doesn't he look like that?

[Assistant]
You may not know this, but in the original version of Return of the Jedi, they did in fact show Anakin's force ghost as an old man. They changed it when they cast Hayden Christensen as young Anakin. The original old Anakin force ghost was played by Sebastian Shaw (who played Vader without his mask on.)

I always thought of the force ghost as a representation of the best parts of that person's personality. Yoda and Obi-Wan were wise, and so they are represented as old. In the original, old Anakin's force ghost was shown, which represents him as a man who finally chooses family over evil. The new version, which shows young Anakin, shows the good Anakin before he went evil.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why 3G Is Worthless On My LTE Phone, But 3G Was Fine On My 3G Phone

I have an LTE/4G phone which while receiving an LTE signal is fast and fine. However, sometimes it drops to 3G coverage and data is almost unusable.   Up until about 2 months ago I was using a 3G phone with no LTE capabilities. While it wasn't as fast as LTE, I also had no complaints, it worked.
So why does my LTE phone become near useless in the same 3G only coverage areas?

Edit: Verizon, iPhone 4s to 5s, in case it matters.

[Assistant] In the default mode, the phone will prefer a 4G network over a 3G network, and any time it drops to 3G, it will begin searching for a 4G network to connect to instead.  Depending on how well that particular search logic is implemented, it may end up expending a lot of resources in a fruitless search for a signal that just isn't there, or is just barely there, resulting in very high signal failure rates (where the signal is just good enough to detect its existence, but not good enough to function, which then requires multiple attempts to send the same data).  If your phone has the option to select the radio mode, try turning it to 3G instead of 4G/3G.  Disabling 4G entirely will give you a much better point of comparison, and probably a better result as well.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Jurassic Cinematic Universe] Regarding the Tyrannosaurus Rex and combat

[Spoilers for *Jurassic Park*, *Jurassic Park III*, and *Jurassic World*]

Now that we've gotten another wave of leaked reports about another incident involving the engineered/recreated dinosaurs causing trouble and killing, something odd stuck out to me.

The Kirby interviews back in 2002 talked about how they witnessed a fight between a tyrannosaurus rex and the spinosaurus, which lasted less than a minute and in which the tyrannosaurus was seemingly dispatched quite easily.

Now, however, the leaked Owen Grady report talks about how the 'indomitous rex' had real trouble fighting a tyrannosaurus, despite being genetically engineered to be physically superior (stronger, much smarter, more dexterous, larger jaw, camouflaging, etc.).

What accounts for the disparity? Is the spinosaurus really that capable in combat with other super predators? Can we determine that the spinosaurus could have killed the indomitous rex easily? Or were there other factors at play, like the inexperience of the indomitous rex or the significant experience of the now-older tyrannosaurus from the first Jurassic Park incident? Or are two fights simply too small a small size from which we can draw conclusions?

[Assistant]
The Tyrannosaurus dispatched by the Spinosaurus was, effectively, a teenager. Smaller, less experienced, cocky.

The Adult Tyrannosaurus is more wily and experienced, it's fought Raptors, it's mated (and Tyrannosaurus mating believe you me involves a fight, the male has to force the female to submit the first time). It's fought Carnotasaurus', which also have the camouflage ability, etc.. Basically, the adult T-Rex is king for good reason.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: A circle is 360. Is that arbitrary? Could we divide a circle by 100?

Thanks guys, that's a shitton more info than I was hoping for!

[Assistant]
Yes, and there have been other divisions.

Some engineers use grads, which divide a right angle into 100,  and maths often uses radians, of which there are 2Pi in a circle.

EDIT: Many people have rightly pointed out that suggesting radians are arbitrary is wrong. Yes - you're right - it's part of fundamentals of the universe.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] Someone made a post about why would Palpatine want Luke to kill him (to goad him to the Dark Side). But what if Luke had actually succeeded in just randomly striking the Emperor down right then and there in the throne room?

[Assistant]
Vader probably would have made the pitch for he & Luke to rule the galaxy together as father & son, and this time without the Emperor it might have held more weight; they could end the battle within a couple of minutes, and then start sorting out a general truce between the Empire and the Rebellion as a preliminary to trying to re-establish the Republic...the unreformed Vader and Luke will probably clash more than once as they deal with unexpected political and social pressures, emotions running high, difficulty controlling the two sides of the galactic civil war, and some incident may be triggered where one or both of the pre-eminent Force users is forced to order some brutal reprisal or massacre...

...and that's probably about the time the Emperor will make his startling comeback, since he was a serious body-hopper in the old Expanded Universe.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [lotr] what is the fertility rate of elves?

[Assistant] Relatively low. Elves rarely had more than four children even in the Elder Days, and this number only grew lower as the centuries passed. The record high number of children is believed to be the seven born to Feanor and Nerdanel.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[The Hobbit] - What exactly is the Arkenstone?

Is it magical, radioactive, or merely a gemstone of exceptional clarity and quality? Do we know what type of gem it is? or really anything else/more specific about it?

[Assistant]
It's just a honkin big gemstone. It's exceptional cut and quality are not all natural, it's just as much a product of dwarven craftsmanship as it is natural beauty. That's one of the reasons its so important as an heirloom, it really represents what the dwarves of Erebor were capable of. That they could find one of the most beautiful gemstones in the world and make it even better.

As for Why everyone seems to go nuts for it, it's not magic. It's just greed.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why do livestreams take 15-30 seconds from being sent to being seen, but videogames can send complex movements of many players near instantaneously?

[Assistant]
Because video games are being rendered on your local machine. The World of Warcraft servers aren't sending frames to your computer, they're sending "player "loldude" x=2563 y=4403 NPC "person mcPersonson" x=2582 y=4430 ...", and your computer uses that information to inform how it builds the screen that gets shown to you.

When you're streaming, then you are actually sending frames over the internet. You need to send the color data for every single pixel on the screen, as well as the audio that goes with it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[General Sci-Fi] What are some effective and realistic ways to defend the solar system from an alien invasion?

Assume the governments of Earth are willing to share their resources. The invasion is not imminent, so Earth has lots of prep time, but for some reason we've been convinced that we have to start preparing for an attack now. The defenses can be set up as early as the present day, but any reasonable technological advances that could be expected to come about in the next century can be implemented as they arrive.

How should we arrange our defenses to protect our star system (and most importantly, our planet) from outsiders if we have no specific details about them?

Edit: Autocorrect thinks everything is possessive, I swear I know how to use apostrophes.

[Assistant]
Well just the act of the worlds governments coming together to agree on something will go a long way, in and of itself.  If we don't have to worry about defending nation from nation then we can instead direct all those resources into developing space based weapons platforms and soldiers.

Given our current understanding of physics, conventional weapons will still be our best hope.  And hope that whoever is invading doesn't have some shielding against that.  We'd basically be the Minmatar in the Eve online universe.

Once Earth is fortified with orbiting bases, we can concentrate on expanding to the outer and inner planets as we can; although its best to not get spread too thin  most of the other planets are relatively useless to us anyway except for possible mining operations or weapons platforms.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Terminator] What is the best or viable way for a pregunpowder civilization to best deal with a T-800 Terminator bent on disrupting history?

Assuming the Terminator is sent back and has to use the technology of that time.

For example if a T800 was sent back to the times of King Leonidas and the famed 300 battle, the Terminator will be using the equipments and weapons of the Persian army, or maybe the hoplite gear, depending on its programming of disrupting human history.

[Assistant] Repeatedly burn it enough to destroy the meat bits (makes it easier to identify and track) then try to lure it someplace where you can drop boulders on it. Do that enough and eventually it will be broken in a way that cannot be repaired using available technology. Then stick what's left on a boat and drop it into the ocean.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How could the world eventually run out of water?

There's always talk about the world running out of water.  It's an intriguing situation to me, but do we ever really think what would happen if it did?  I know that Earth may not be *running* out of water, but rather, the distribution of it has become rather complicated.  But please, humor me:

What are some scientific/natural reasons why the planet could run out of water, or how the chemistry of the world's water can be changed to something undrinkable?

I'd like to know if there are any scientific bases for such a scenario, and the timeline on which one could occur.

[Assistant]
As others have pointed out, the issue is potable water, and we are not "running out" but overtaxing the supply.

Water, even when consumed or used for irrigation, does not magically disappear. Some of it gets stored in the tissues of living organisms, some trickles down into the water table, some evaporates and becomes atmospheric water vapor, some runs off into streams and from there eventually to the ocean.

The "water cycle" we learned about in grade school is essentially a "factory" with a finite capacity. As demand grows, it outpaces the capacity of the factory. The factory still produces the same amount of potable water, but there is not enough to meet growing demand.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[General Sci-Fi] Do universal translators improve interpersonal relationships by smoothing out flukes of language/mistakes?

Do universal translators (babelfish, ST and so on) translate the meaning of the spoken words, or the intent behind the words as they are constructed in the speakers mind before they are spoken ?
Its been made evident in some stories that the grammar and languages of alien civilisations are so different that straight up, live translation of words as they come by would either be impractical, or impossible. I have read about theories according to which the translator devices/systems were actually relying on brain waves/nervous system and other clues to determine the message without having to rely on the words themselves. Assuming this is true, what would that mean for any random interactions where words can get jumbled and the normal spoken message be muddied ?

Im thinking of any interaction leading a human experiencing a lapse of reason to say sorry, this came out wrong / I used the wrong word / cant remember the name for this thing here/I mixed two sentences together)

Would a translator literally translate the mistakes? Or would they, by being closer to the original intent, short circuit the mechanism by which people get their words messed up? And if this was true, would it not greatly improve relationships overall, diminishing the hurtful phrases, misunderstandings and frustrations of daily life?

[Assistant] Probably depends on how advanced the translator is. For example the TARDIS in Doctor Who is capable of translating almost all languages fluently and into whatever contemporary version of the language the listener understands and there's never been any cultural clashes as a result of this translation.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Halo] Walk me through the financial, resource, and human logistics of constructing a UNSC heavy cruiser.

[Assistant] It costs more than a frigate (making them a bit less popular with politics) but it's not as difficult as you think. Since the UNSC has been mining asteroids and taking resources off other worlds, it's easy enough to get enough material. To build one is also easy. Just support it on something and let worker drones take care of it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] How expensive would Dexter's Diner's estate be? This diner is located on a planet that is entirely covered in buildings with a population of 1 trillion, going deep down into a lightless sub-city. It has only one story and has direct sunlight shining on it?

Also Dexter has four arms and that's cool.

[Assistant] Being on the surface is an advantage that most don't get on Coruscant, but at the same time the district Dex's is located in is a kind of run down industrial district, and the diner is meant to cater to the working class folks who are staffing the factories there, so it's still your basic low-end greasy spoon kind of place.  The food is very affordable.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Arkham Knight/Injustice] Why does batman fake his death in Arkham Knight but doesnt in Iniustistice, also How does Batman keep his intimiation factor if every one knows hes bruce wayne ?

[Assistant]
Faking his death in Injustice wasn't going to do any good. The rest of the League knows him well enough to realize that if Batman seems to die in a very public and dramatic way... he must be staging it.

>How does Batman keep his intimidation factor if everyone knows he's Bruce Wayne?

Yeah. Ever since the world learned he's a highly trained expert in basically every form of martial arts, can move faster than the human eye can track, with near unlimited resources (including multiple high-tech tanks, drones, tracking equipment, monitoring equipment, voice concealing technology, and implausible hand-to-hand combat weaponry) devoted entirely to violently combating crime, has *beat up an entire hostile invading army,* and now apparently **came back from the dead as a vengeful ghost,** he just doesn't seem as scary.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Is there a particular reason Protocol Droids are so stiff and inflexible?

C-3PO always looks like hes having a very difficult time moving around. Is there any practical reason for this?

[Assistant]
Someone's going to respond "because he was built in a tatooine slave hovel with a box of scraps" but we see the same thing with other protocol droids of the same model as well.

I think the most realistic answer is because he's designed to be a diplomatic aide, not a bodyguard. He's supposed to set the other party at ease by obviously being not a threat.

It's obviously not a universal design scheme - there are plenty of menacing and threatening diplomatic droids across the galaxy - but it's the one that explains his behavior the best to me.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
A vaccine is 94% effective. What, exactly does that mean?

Does that mean a vaccinated person, exposed 100 times, will be fine 94 times? Or does that mean the severity of the resulting disease is reduced by 94%? or does that mean that 94% of subjects are 100% immune for this disease for a period of time?

[Assistant]
It means that during the trial period, there were 94% fewer cases in the vaccine group than in the placebo group.

So if you would two equally sized groups with either the vaccine or a placebo and in the placebo group 100 would fall ill, in the vaccine group only 6 would fall ill.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] As wine, whiskey, scotch ages, is there anything chemically changing to make it taste better/smoother?

[Assistant]
During the fermentation process, there are chemical changes that happen as sugars are converted to alcohol (then whisk(e)ys and other liquors are distilled to concentrate the alcohol). During aging however, the liquid mostly leeches flavors like tannins out of the wooden casks they are stored in. Temperature and pressure changes throughout the years aid in the flow of chemicals into and out of the wood. This is why aged whisk(e)ys and tequila are golden, while vodkas, gins, and un-aged tequilas are clear.

Manipulating the wood used is often very important to developing flavors. For instance, scotch is aged in charred oak bourbon or sherry barrels (meaning they had previously been used to age bourbon or sherry).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 - Why do skeletons teeth not fall out?

Our gums help keep our teeth in place and they can fall out so how so skeletons keep theirs?

[Assistant]
Teeth fall out when bacteria have so thoroughly destroyed the root that they break off.  Gums keep them out, but the gum tissue doesn't provide any structural strength.

Those bacteria are slow workers and rely on your body heat and food intake to do their nasty business.  When you die, they usually die too long before they can do much damage to the teeth and bone.

Other bacteria can eventually work through the bone over time though, depending on where your body ends up.  Not all skeletons survive indefinitely, and those that do can be badly damaged.  Teeth do sometimes fall out.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How do speedometers work on boats?

[Assistant]
Besides GPS, a ship uses a speed log to determine speed.  There are multiple types of speed logs:

- Impeller log: A small device with a propeller is towed or attached to the ship.  When the ship moves along the water, the force turns the propeller.  The rotational speed of the propeller is proportional to the speed of the ship

- Pitometer: A tube faces the direction of the ship and another tube faces 90 degrees.  When the ship moves, the water pressure builds up in the forward facing tube while the 90 degree tube remains at static water pressure.  The meter calculates the difference in pressure between the two tubes, which is proportional to the speed of the vessel.

- Doppler log: The Doppler log emits a sonar wave (TX).  The wave travels out, bounces back, and returns to the receiver of the log (RX).  If the ship is still, the TX and RX have the same and frequency.  However, due to the Doppler effect, the forward motion of a ship compresses the waves closer together, changing the frequency.  The change in frequency is proportional to the change in speed.

Finally, on larger ships, you can determine the speed by doing calculations using the engine RPM, the pitch, and the load.  This will give you the mathematical speed, but won't account for friction and other variables.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] What was the plan for the clones after the Clone Wars?

Obviously Palpatines plan was to incorporate them into his new Empire, but what did the rest of the Grand Republic or even the Jedi plan? Did they plan to keep them as soldiers for another war? Station them on various planets basically as police? Would they have been allowed to leave and just lead normal civilian lives?

Which reminds me of another question. What do they do with clones that cant fight anymore? Would they just be given less demanding clone jobs, like medics? Or would they be let go?

[Assistant]
The Separatist threat proved the need for not just a standing army, but an incredibly powerful, overwhelming one.  And considering how little resistance there was to a clone army in the first place, discharge for any clone seems remarkably unlikely.  The optimist in me wants to say that the voices of dissent would eventually win out, but Darth Sidious was right about one thing; the Republic was a bloated, corrupt beast that simply needed to die.

In all likelihood, the Republic fully intended to keep the army.  Perhaps a more humane one; a decent wage, leave opportunities, and with enough time possibly even a way to phase out into civilian life if they so chose.  But there was no way in hell they would simply disband them.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Superman] Can Superman dry my couch with his heat vision without destroying it in the process?

My kid just spilled water in the sofa. My wife and I started discussing the idea.

[Assistant] It depends. Probably yes, but the success rate and effectiveness could vary based on his age, experience, mood, the universe in which it is occurring, etc. But I've seen both him and Supergirl use it to do mundane things like dry out an article of clothing or heat up a coffee in multiple different iterations of the character.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How do anti-virus scanners "quarantine" viruses to prevent them from working?

[Assistant]
Details depend on the individual anti-virus software. Quarantine sounds very fancy/advanced but most AV use very simple techniques to "quarantine" viruses.

I'd say following steps will be sufficient to "quarantine" malware

* Tell operating system to stop the malicious process
* Move the infected file, e.g. an `.exe` to a "safe" location

The safe location is just a directory where users don't normally go. AV might take additional steps to make the file unrunnable. A simple way would be to rename the file from `.exe` to `.exe.virus`. Windows uses filename extensions like `.exe` to determine what to do with a file. Changing that file extensions means, that Windows does not recognize the file as program anymore and will not attempt to run the virus.

The important part here is, that all these measures are easily reversable. In case the AV has falsely flagged a legit file, the "quarantined" file can be quickly restored.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
How can adding a neutron to atomic nuclei make them unstable?

The traditional model for atomic nuclei is that they're a balance of the strong force between nucleons and the electrical repulsion of the protons. This model cannot explain why adding in an additional neutron would make it fall apart since this only increases the effect of the strong force while letting the protons move further away from eachother to decrease electrical repulsion. In fact, the prediction is that the more neutrons, the more stable the nucleus. What is going on? Why is this not the case?

EDIT: Conclusion (that I think is correct):

Neutrons cannot be in the same state because of Pauli exclusion princible. Neutrons differ from one another via spin and energy. You can only have two neutrons of the same energy (spin up and spin down), after that an added neutron must be at a higher energy state than the last two. So therefore, every other neutron added goes into a higher energy level than the ones before. At some point this energy is so high, that a neutron decaying into a proton releases energy (neutron's energy is higher than the energy of the resulting proton (electrical repulsion) and other decay products). Please someone who actually knows refute or confirm.

[Assistant]
You can't consider a nucleus in isolation, you have to think about what other nuclei it can break apart into. If its possible that there is an arrangement of the same neutrons and protons into two nuclei that are more stable, then the original nucleus will eventually decay to that.

For small numbers of protons and neutrons a model call the shell-model works pretty well for thinking about nuclei. In the shell model, protons and neutrons fill up energy levels just like electrons in an atom. However, protons and neutrons have separate "towers" of levels; so, no matter how empty the proton tower is, if you want to add more neutrons they have to go in the neutron tower. The neutrons higher in the neutron tower have higher energy, and thus the nuclei as a whole is less tightly bound. If it's possible for the system to break apart into two nuclei where the protons and neutrons are more tightly bound, that system will be more stable and so the original nucleus will eventually decay.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is the ionic radius of Cu2+ bigger than Cu as an atom? If so then why?

I could not find any help on the internet. Any help would be very much appreciated :)

[Assistant] No, Cu2+ has fewer electrons than Cu. Whenever electrons are removed from an atom its radius gets smaller. This happens because electrons push against each other so as electrons are removed the outer ones can move closer. If you want to think about orbitals, Cu has an electron in the 4s1 orbital and Cu2+ does not.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Aladdin] When the Genie made Aladdin a prince, were hundreds of people mind-controlled into servitude, or fabricated whole?

And what happened to them after Jafar took away Aladdin's prince-ness? Did they all go poof? Lose their memories? What if he'd stayed a prince as wished-for, would they live out the rest of their lives in service to Aladdin?

[Assistant] I believe in the deleted/unproduced scene where Jafar makes Genie to take it all away (with a song!) Genie confesses that the parade and servants are in fact polymorphed mice and similar small critters.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why do sellers on Amazon sell books for a penny?

So I've been buying a lot of books for college recently, and I noticed that  there is a lot of booksellers who sell books for 1 cent (plus $3.99 shipping). I'm really baffled by this, I can't see how they will turn a profit. Can anyone explain it?

[Assistant]
Mostly to get rid of excess inventory and old editions.  You are basically paying $4 to throw the book away for them, and they are still making a little money on the S&H.

Otherwise, they would have to ship the books back to the publisher (hardcover) or rip off the covers and ship those (paperback).  You are just saving them the hassle, and paying for the privilege.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Winnie the Pooh]Where did the tigger come from?

If it is to be believed, it is "the only one". Also it has a body composed of both rubber and metal (springs).

Are tiggers an almost-extinct species (or bio-mechanical life form)? Has there always only been one Tigger? Or is the tigger merely prone to self-aggrandizement and inaccurate population estimates? Where did the tigger come from and from where does it derive its power?

[Assistant] Tigger, like all members of the Hundred Acre Wood, is a psychic manifestation of Christopher Robin's childhood, more specifically his innocence and creativity. It is uncertain whether this is some sort of magic or just in Christopher's head (think Calvin and Hobbes rules). So, Tigger is a psychic being. He is 'the only one', probably because Christopher has only ever seen one of the toy he was based upon. The same goes for his... unorthodox composition.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: What is Spacetime and Curvature of Spacetime ?

I googled, but they were too hard to understand. So please explain like I'm five ...

[Assistant]
Space has 3 dimensions. Objects can move up/down, left/right, forward/back through space and we can describe their motion. Similarly objects can move in time, and we can think of time as a dimension as well that objects can move through. Spacetime is simply the combination of these two concepts. It is a 4 dimensional 'space' with 3 regular spatial dimensions, and 1 time dimension.

Imagine now that you're a bug on a flat metal disk. The temperature of the disk changes but the disk itself is flat. You also have a metal ruler with you so that you can make sure that you're travelling in a straight line. As you walk across the hot disk your ruler will heat up and expand which means the lengths on it will change. If you're relying on your ruler to help you walk in a straight line you'll end up walking in a curve because your ruler has heated up slightly and you're now no longer able to measure distances with respect to a standard unchanging ruler. This is analogous to spacetime curvature.
When you move through a gravitational field your 'ruler is heating up' so to speak. Your path through the gravitational field will look straight to you but it will 'actually' be curved according to observers.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] I live on a backwater hole on Tatooine and have recently seen some odd looking troopers due to a couple of rebel droids burning down a nearby house. Can someone explain these weird variants and their purpose?

I've also seen pictures of other oddly dressed troopers at the Empire recruiting station, anyone know anything about those?

[Assistant] Nothing to be concerned about, fellow citizen. Just a readiness exercise being conducted by our brave men and women of the Imperial Corps. The burning of the house by the 2 droids was staged and no one was hurt. All part of the theatrics to make the exercise feel more realistic for everyone involved. You had never seen these particular type of troopers before because this is the first time their divisions are training here in Tattoine. It is a good reason for us to rejoice, as it indicates that the Imperial Command has taken an interest in our world! That is usually followed by great prosperity and safety. Support your troops and give them a good word of encouragement next time you come across some of them boys!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why do large companies such as banks have a password character limit for you account? Wouldn't imposing a character limit on a password make my account less secure?

[Assistant] They are storing all the passwords in a database. Many databases require the programmer to specify a limit for the size of each item, and they allocate only that amount of space in their files, so they are then unable to store an item larger than that.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Batman] If the Joker focused on white collar/corporate crimes only, would Batman still pursue him?

Lot of sadistic things you can do to people with white collar/corporate crimes. I read that 1/5 Ceos are psychopaths. If Joker started ruining lives through corporate entities by pulling Ponzi schemes or buying up freshwater, or doing non-violent but still evil things to people, would Batman still take him down? Or does Batman mostly focus on violent criminals?

[Assistant]
Yes. Because he is The Joker. If some random accountant fell into a vat of acid , started dressing like a clown and then proceeded to embezzle money, Batman probably wouldn't drop through a skylight and punch him in the face. Bruce Wayne might try to handle it.

 Then there's Warren White aka "The Great White Shark" who was a business man that embezzled billions and during his court case he plead insanity... **in Gotham** and Warren was such a scumbag that the judge sent him to Arkham. The Joker was actually disgusted by his crimes because while The Joker may be a homicidal psychopath, he never stole any kids college fund or anyone's pension!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why is the corporate tax at a flat rate?

Why can't the tax rate be higher for firms that make more profit and less for firms that make less, making the tax rate progressive for businesses?

[Assistant]
Consider what would happen if we did this: firms would structure themselves to get to the size to obtain a lower tax rate and there would be a massive industry in keeping firms to specific sizes. Basically, it would result in arbitrary economic structures, probably inefficient structures, designed to stay under certain tax levels.

Then there is the problem of what are we taxing? GAAP net income? What about firms like Amazon which avoid GAAP Net income to avoid taxation?

Picture it like this - economic efficiency is always determined on an after tax basis necessarily, so if we change the way arrive at after tax profits by changing the tax rate, it may be the case that an structure which is technically less economically efficient is *more* efficient because of the way the tax structure is created. Thus, we'd see irrational structures to achieve more after tax profits.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5 why someone shakes their hand around when it gets hurt?

[Assistant] Pain sends a certain signal to the brain. Other sensations also send a signal. When you have pain signals going to to brain, you can dilute these signals with other signals. Now, instead of there just being pain signals, there are other signals as well, as your brain isn't interpreting the pain signals alone, but a variety of signals including pain, so the pain signals aren't the only thing being focused on by the receptors, and the pain isn't as bad.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do we lose the desire to eat while we are sick? (Ex. when having a cold, I lose the desire to eat)

[Assistant] Something no one's really mentioned yet is that when you get sick your immune system releases cytokines. One of these, TNF-a, makes you lose your appetite. It's the main cytokine that causes cancer patients to get skinny and have very little appetite.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Do we know whether Covid is actually seasonal?

It seems we are told by some to brace for an epically bad fall. However, this thing slammed the Northeast in spring and ravaged the hot states in the middle of summer. It just seems that politics and vested interests are so intertwined here now that it is hard to work out what is going on. I thought I would ask some actual experts if they can spare a few minutes. Thank you.

[Assistant] Emergency Physician here: Its not because we expect *COVID* to be worse, its because of all the other Acute Febrile Respiratory Illnesses (AFRI) that ARE seasonal will also occur. Flu pushes US hospitals to brink of capacity most years without any additional new pandemic.  And because the symptoms of most are overlapping (and NOT mutually exclusive - people get flu and COVID), disguising between them is expected to be awful. This is why rapid testing (like 1 hour) is so important, but also why we are basically going to be locked down until there is a widely available vaccine.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
If I were able to tune an RF transmitter at 555THz whould the antena glow green ?

This might sound stupid, but green is in the visible part of the electromagnetic spetrum it should make sense (555THz, ie 540nm, is greenish).
Would it work like that, and, if not, why ? thanks in advance !

[Assistant] Well, yes, if electromagnetic radiation is produced at that frequency, it would look green. In fact, emissive species that radiate green light can to a decent approximation be treated as a classical damped dipole oscillating at that frequency, very similar to a dipole antenna.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why is it so much easier to read something in a different language and understand it than to speak it?

Im learning Italian right now and Ive noticed that its much easier to read a sentence and comprehend it than for me to translate the same sentence from English into Italian myself. Does anyone else agree with this and does anyone know why?

[Assistant] It's a lot easier to recognize words and puzzle piece the sentence together than to generate all of the translation accurately from your mind.  Other things in the sentence are provided for you - syntax, grammar, etc where you would have to add them in on your own when translating on your own.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Close to getting PhD but no motivation to finish.

Throw away account because it's very easy to figure out my identity from my regular account.

I am a fifth year graduate student in molecular biology.  My committee told me last week that I am done with experiments and I can start writing my thesis.  All last week I was supposed to start writing my thesis but I just couldn't do anything because I felt depressed and anxious.  I am somewhat disappointed by my graduate school experience and I have many regrets but now it's time for everything to come to an end and I'm not prepared.  I don't feel like I belong here, despite the fact that I have worked hard to get where I am.  I don't even know if I have the desire to work in science anymore but I have no choice because it's the only thing I know how to do.  Sometimes I wish that I had picked a different career.

I chased my dream of being a scientist and I feel so dissatisfied.  I feel like I have nothing to look forward to.  I'm supposed to feel excited about writing and defending my thesis but I just feel burned out and dead inside.  I can't be the only person to feel demotivated about finishing there PhD.  How can I overcome this and feel motivated to finish?

Before anyone suggests therapy, I have been in therapy for the last three years.  I had a therapist I really like but I had to stop seeing here because...she was diagnosed with terminal brain cancer and only given a short time to live.  I eventually started seeing another therapist but things didn't work out with her.

Edit:  Thanks everyone for all the advice and motivation so far.  I didn't consider that explaining why I dropped out of a PhD program after 5 years could be detrimental to my job search.  I finally had the courage to start reading some papers again after doing nothing for a week.

[Assistant]
Finish it.

Take a short break if you can. Climb a mountain, visit a monastery, smoke a bunch of pot - whatever it is that can let you decompress.

Then come back to campus and finish your degree. You can decide on switching careers later on, but get that degree.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Is human intelligence limited?

[Assistant]
It depends on what kind of threshold you mean. It's very unlikely that any human being will be able to keep the whole of science and mathematics in his or her mind at once, for example.

But if you're talking about the kind of intelligence where we can comprehend concepts if we put our minds to a particular concept, then no, there is no limit to intelligence in that regard because complex things get broken down into manageable levels. The motion of particles, for example, is *immensely* complex, so we break it down and name each and every one of the different things going on.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Are there more planets or more stars?

Is there a way to find out? Is it even close?

[Assistant]
Based on what the Kepler space telescope has found, there are almost certainly more planets out there than stars.

Before Kepler it was hypothesized that few enough star systems had planets that there might be more stars than planets, but it turns out there are a lot more planets out there than expected.  A few planets have even been found around Neutron stars which to this day has astronomers scratching their heads.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Astronomy] Science in fantasy, Game of Thrones to be precise

So some of you may or may not have read the fantastic series *A Song of Ice and Fire* by George R. R. Martin. If you enjoy fantasy I definitely recommend it.

One of the important characteristics of this fantasy world is that seasons last years (e.g a character asks another character who is a grown man "How many winters have you seen?" and the response is 4) and they're not always the same length. At the point in time which the books cover, the world is experiencing one of the longest summers it has ever known ( 9 years if I remember correctly ) and the "wise men" constantly say "a long summer means a long winter".

Now, I recently learned that seasons are not based on the distance of the earth from the sun but the way the earth tilts. Our tilt seems to be in sync with our revolution around the sun.

So my question is, are there planets whose axial tilt is not in sync with their rotation? Is Earth the exception in this case?

Second, are there planets that have irregular "periods" of tilt? Is it actually possible to have seasons of vastly different lengths?

[Assistant]
I assumed that the presence of "winter" had nothing to do with normal seasons or the planet tilt, but was more like ice ages. I'd figured the climate of the planet was natural unstable, and frequently oscillated between two extremes called "summer" and "winter".

I guess we'll have to keep reading and see what happens when winter comes (I haven't finished the most recent book yet).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Ebola seems to be getting deadlier and more terrifying. Should I, a US citizen, be worried? Is it likely they are going to stop this?

It's pretty freaking terrifying. I am a germophobe. Make me feel better (or worse.)

[Assistant]
The mortality rate of the newer species is lower then the original species, its dropped from 90% to 34%. Its also worth noting that this rate would also be much lower in the west, western medical facilities have much more resources to provide care to hemorrhagic fever patients.

In terms of how much you should worry about it no more so then HIV, it requires fluid transmission or contact with infected animals.