[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: This shower thoughts post; "Somewhere in the galaxy, your childhood is still currently visible. Your past self still exists, traveling through space at the speed of light."

[Assistant]
Light travels at the speed of light.

If you are 20 years old, the light that reflected off you is 20 light years away from earth now. So in some extremely hypothetical situation, a space traveler 20 light-years away could see that reflection.

Much like how the sunlight you see on earth, took about 8 minutes to reach you from the sun. So you're see the sun as it was 8 minutes ago.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Futurama] Why was Hedonismbot created? What Purpose does he serve?

[Assistant]
Utilitarian ethics preaches "the greatest good for the greatest number". The most efficient way to achieve this goal is to create *one* robot optimised towards having a *really really* good time, and thus offsetting the suffering of millions.

Hedonism Bot has a fantastic time to ensure that you don't have to.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why do computer chargers need those big adapters? Why cant you just connect the devices to the power outlet with a cable?

[Assistant] The power coming out of the outlet is alternating current (AC). The power your computer uses is direct current (DC). Your laptop's power brick is converting AC to DC. It is also stepping down the voltage from 120V is something more suitable for charging your laptop's battery. Typically 12V to 20V.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why is blackmail called blackmail?

[Assistant] In Middle English 'male' meant tribute which itself was derived from the Old English 'mal' which meant a lawsuit or an agreement.    Black of course tends to refer to things which are seen as bad, shady, etc.  So it's a shady form of tribute.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] Why is there being a new captain america a bad thing?

In the Falcon and Winter Soldier show, it is abundantly presented from the view of Falcon and winter soldier that there should not be a new captain america.

But this seems like a perfectly good idea to me. Sure. No one can live up to Steve. Thats perfectly fine and understandable.

But this is a crisis. People are out of jobs. The world is in shambles. Captain America is a name and role and **symbol** that people trust. Its iconic.

We literally see that people LOVE Captain America. Theres a massive football field cheering for him. Posters are everywhere.

And the new Cap LITERALLY admits that hes just trying to do what he can: that hes not trying to be Steve.

Falcon refused the title. Bucky is a wild card. So it makes perfect sense to give the title to an accomplished, reliable new member of the military.

So why is this bad?

[Assistant]
From the very beginning there was the idea that choosing the perfect candidate to be Captain America involved heavy moral screening.  With Erskine long dead and without a magic hammer for this title, the best judge of worthiness was Steve himself, and he had already made his choice in Sam.

Walker seemed like a good and humble candidate at first, but was ultimately more about loyalty to a system which Rogers never really was; the original Cap fought more for the American Dream, not necessarily the American government.  And while Walker was well-meaning, he cracked under the pressure of his new title and expectations, becoming more aggressive and thinking his rank would justify his actions.  And that was *before* getting the serum, which in addition to boosting your physicals will also light up your moral flaws like a Christmas tree.  After that point he proved himself unworthy by decapitating a helpless opponent with the very symbol he was elevated to promote.

If it was the *right* new Cap then it wouldn't have been a bad thing.  But the intention behind promoting Walker was never fully pure, the government just wanted someone they could use as a symbol and propaganda to try and regain faith from the people that wasn't really deserved.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Kids shouldn't be allowed online until their mid-teens at least

The internet is a very new and powerful technology, and like most, it was adopted by the public before any sort of real research into effects and risks. Remember when children could drive cars without a seatbelt?

Images and videos are available like water from a tap, connecting with people easier than ever, it seems extremely naive to believe that these young humans will behave responsibly in such a sandbox. If the stories from my own friends are any indicator, the amount of time wasted, child porn produced, and weird strangers contacted is far too high to allow such uninhibited access.

[Assistant]
>CMV: Kids shouldn't be allowed online until their mid-teens at least

What about supervised? Or if they're using educational apps that involve the internet? The internet is too readily accessible to realistically restrict it. Just like sex, it's going to happen eventually, you're better off to educate the users on how to use it correctly instead of completely cutting it off.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 - Why do solar panels capture so little energy from the sun?

I've been told that the biggest issue with solar panels is that they capture only a fraction of the possible energy released from the sunlight. A quick google search tells me that the average commercial solar panel converts 17-20% of sunlight into electricity. While 17-20% surely is a significant amount, what are the limitations of not converting 100% of sunlight into energy?

[Assistant] Note that 17-20% is actually a really good efficiency.  Photosynthesis is only 3% efficient; 600M years of evolution gave us a mechanism that's only 1/6 as good as the last 40 years of solar cell development.  Solar cells in the early 1980s were also about 3-4% efficient.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Confused about Philosophy.

Is there such thing as a perfect stance? For example there is scientific naturalism, Cartesian dualism, determinism, etc. Which one is logically perfect? Also, when people say they're an Aristotelian or Kantian does that mean they only think that they're philosopher is the only one who got it right? I'm so confused on how big philosophy is....

[Assistant]
Philosophy IS huge! You are not alone in being overwhelmed by the sheer amount of work in the field.

To start, your question about if any philosophical arguments or positions are logically perfect. This is a hugely contested question of course, but there are two measures we use about this. In logic we talk about two concepts in this way: validity and soundness.

An argument is valid if the propositions taken together *would imply* the conclusion they reach *if they were true*.  We can analyze an argument as valid or invalid based on hypothetical truth.

An argument is sound if it is valid and true at the same time. Usually we see Validity to be the realm of logic and Soundness to be what philosophers argue about truth of propositions.

Many arguments are valid. Which means they are logically well made, but the same cant be said about their arguments being sound.

Furthermore, when an individual is a Kantian or Aristotelean what it means is that they are heavily influenced and defending a version of some philosophical argument or paradigm set forth by that philosopher or that has its origin in that philosopher. They are not committed to the idea that Kant or Aristotle was never wrong, or that other philosophers have all been wrong.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What's the rule for using "I'll" in English? Because sometimes it makes sense but sometimes it sounds awkward, for example, "Okay, I'll."

[Assistant]
The contraction is acceptable when the auxiliary verb ("will") is combined with action verb ("do"), not when the action verb is simply implied.

Will you do the thing?
I'll do the thing.

Will you *really* do the thing.
I will.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MCU] Where/how does Star Lord get new batteries for his Walkman?

And where did get that sweet tape player that he installed on the Milano while we are speaking of "far away from Earth" problems?

[Assistant]
Just because Star Lord didn't come back to Earth and hit up a Radio Shack doesn't mean no one else has. There's a black market for Terran merchandise, as seen when Yondu is shopping. No reason Star Lord couldn't find a tape deck for the Milano.
As for the batteries, either an alternate power source was adapted. Which would be easy, relative to building space ships and colonies inside a Celestials head, or he bought "primitive" batteries from a trader.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How exactly is data electronically stored on tiny devices like Micro SD cards?

[Assistant]
Flash memory is stored in little devices called floating gate transistors.

Transistors are the little electrical switches that computers use to process things and amplifiers use to amplify signals. They have three terminals, a source, drain, and gate. The voltage applied to the gate controls whether current can flow from the source to drain, the gate is the switch. A high voltage opens or turns on the transistor, this is what computers use as binary "1". No voltage closes or turns off the transistor, this is a binary "0". All digital data is stored as 1s amd 0s, and computers process it as 1s and 0s using these transistor switches. As you can tell here, the switches work great for running a computer or even sitting data in the computers RAM, but to stay on or open they need a voltage, so the second you remove the power the voltage disappears and any data is lost.

A floating gate transistors works the same way, but the gate is highly insulated. Electrons that get into it get stuck, and hence the voltage can be held when the power is removed. Any transistors trapping electrons are left open holding a 1, while any without trapped electrons are left closed holding a 0. This allows flash memory to store data without power. To get the electrons through the insulation and get trapped in the first place, a really high voltage (computer high, not powerline high) is "flashed" to groups of transistors, hence **flash** memory.

A microSD card has billions of these transistors, and their sizes range in the nanometres (nm). A piece of paper has a  thickness of 0.1mm, that's thin but still 100,000 nm. Transistors have measurements on the order of about 100-10nm. When a microSD card has 64 GB, that means it has somewhere around 500 billion transistors in it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: When people get scammed and money is transferred out of their bank, why isn't there a paper trail? If the money is transferred into some foreign country that won't allow tracing, why not just exclude those countries from the banking system?

[Assistant]
The paper trail typically ends with a cash withdrawal. Most scammers will use Western Union or other money transfer services that are designed to allow for very quick movement of money, although some have begun switching to crypto.  Most bank fraud departments work 24/7 and start trying to get fraudulent transfers reversed immediately, but even a few hours delay can make the difference.

Typically there are multiple accounts involved in a transfer chain, and almost all of the owners of those accounts will often be victims of fraud themselves, or at worst mules who are just transferring money around for a small cut. Most commonly they're people who have fallen for employment or investment scams, where the funds from the first victim are transferred into their accounts, only for them to be contacted and told there was an error and could they please send the money onwards to the right account?

Professional fraudsters limit their liabilities by making it impossible for banks to completely shut down their methods without making life much harder for everyone else who uses these services legitimately.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Warhammer 40k] The Eldar & their Empire, and the current Eldar & the Tyranid.

Second question first:  How do the Eldar see the Tyranid?  How do they react to them (aside from defending their worlds, ofc :P).  I mean, do they try to manipulate the Hive fleets as they do with Ork WAAGH!s?  Have any Farseers had any Tyranid-relevant visions or anything like that?

As for the other question: Are the Eldar in a state similar to that of Mankind in terms of having lost a lot of knowledge (think of our search for STCs or even fragments/printouts) and the capability to make their best stuff (see: The origins of the Rhino, Terminator Armor, and the formerly lowly status of the Mighty Baneblade)?

On the one hand I'd imagine that would be the case, but on the other hand their stuff is based on their psychic powers and related stuff (see: Wraithbone) so maybe that isn't the case, and all they really lost was numbers + some old archived knowledge... ?

[Assistant]
>How do the Eldar see the Tyranid?

They're referred to by their Farseers, usually, as the 'Great Devourer'. An all-consuming tide. A scourge to be paid close attention, especially after the de-population of Craftworld Iyanden. Something to be manipulated, as seen in Farseer Idranel. She masterminded the distraction of the Orks (to keep Imperial Forces busy) and the luring of the Tyranid Hivefleet during the first Aurelian Crusade to prevent it from striking her craftworld. The Tyranids are attracted to the galaxy, probably, by the Astronomican. The Zoanthropes are almost certainly the result of a Norn-Queen hooking into some tasty, delicious, nutritious Eldar flesh. So they see psychic beacons, they tend to get curious.

>As for the other question: Are the Eldar in a state similar to that of Mankind in terms of having lost a lot of knowledge (think of our search for STCs or even fragments/printouts) and the capability to make their best stuff (see: The origins of the Rhino, Terminator Armor, and the formerly lowly status of the Mighty Baneblade)?

Sort of. They've lost a lot of ability, but for entirely different reasons. The Eldar still understand their science. They know how to build things, why these things work and the like. They just don't have the infrastructure anymore. It helps that a lot of their technology is created through psychic manufacture, meaning that the capacity to build it is inherent to every member of their race, at least on the lower end.

For example, the Webway. Originally built by the Old Ones, added to by the Eldar at the height of their Empire. It's one thing to add new spars and new layers of protection, new nodes when you're sitting atop an Empire that's essentially one comprised of demigods. It's another when you're a hunted race on the verge of extinction, hiding in worldships in the dark of the stars, unable to use your full abilities for the fear of being eaten by Slaanesh. Given sufficient energy, materials and labour they could build new craftworlds, reconstruct the broken spars of the Webway, craft entire new worlds again.

Some things are irreplaceable, though. For different reasons. Some are cultural - the loss of the spirit stone of Irrillyth, for example, put paid to the Shadow Spectres aspect until it was recovered. Others are knowledge based: Spirit-stones themselves can't be manufactured (yet), as they're the crystallized energies of the Eye of Terror, filtered through the lingering Eldar resonance on the Crone Worlds.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Shipping & Handling: In order to ship the product to me don't you have to handle it?

 Why did they distinguish them as 2 different actions? Is there a shipping department and then the send it over to handling where a room full of people "handle" my package to make it official?

I suppose Shipping would suffice.

[Assistant] Shipping is the cost that the company you are buying the product form pays another company (like the USPS) to deliver the package to you. Handling is a cost to cover their employees maintaining the warehouse of produces, managing the sales that come in, packaging the product, and administratively getting it shipped.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Single life is incredibly depressing.

Hoping that this sub can help!

It seems that my life is in a weird period, and will stay this way until my view is fixed.

23 year old male. I've been working in a startup for the last 3 years and it's grown tremendously. I make ~45K a year and have my own place with a few roommates - leasing a car, keeping busy with music... It all seems to be solid from all measures.

But it isn't enough. I don't have a girlfriend (likely due to a desperate vibe that I emit) and really find that to be the only thing I'm concerned with. I was in a relationship for 5 years - that ended 7 months ago, and I'm not yet over it. Before that, I had a 2.5 year relationship. A lot of thinking has led to a lot of learning - for example, I didn't end either of those relationships. Once I'm content... I never leave. That must be coming from a deeper belief/view at play.

So many cliches make sense, but are frustrating and have been functionally unhelpful:

You want what you can't have
If you love something let it go
Time heals all wounds

Logically, they all make sense - but from a deeper level, it doesn't seem to hit (or maybe I'd be changing how I view things).

Even though it isn't a pressing issue at the moment, I haven't finished my degree - that will forever irk me (due to possible financial outcomes). Don't really have the drive to finish it.

I've dealt with depression and it all seems to come down to a belief I hold deep down - that romantic relationships are the most significant thing in life. My last relationship ending was mostly my fault - I've learned what not to do moving forward, but don't have an opportunity to correct it with my last partner.

I'm not looking for female friends - I'm looking for a lover, for a partner. Being able to sleep and wake up next to someone you care about is one of the coolest things I've ever experienced.

My view makes life very frustrating and unenjoyable without a relationship, which I don't currently have. I write to you here with a few things in mind:

1. I'm not happy with how life is when single
2. This is attributed to my worldview
3. I realize that the significance I place on relationships is likely unhealthy
4. I don't know how to change it
5. I've spoken to many people about this (family, friends, therapist, ex's parents)
6. Nothing said has been enough to hit me on a belief/view level.
7. After 7 months I've been unable to solve this on my own

Please CMV.

[Assistant]
You were in a relationship that lasted for 5 years.

And you reaction to that is simply trying to get in a relationship.

It seems like you haven't taken any time to figure out why things went wrong in the first place. That's kind of important.

Time doesn't heal all wounds. Time alone doesn't do shit. Time plus reflection can bring healing. It seems like you haven't really done the second bit.

You said you have learned what not to do wrong. Have you? You had five years with your last partner. Did you make the same mistakes as you have made in other relationships?

Are you going to find a girl who is special and who means something to you or are you just going to wake up next to the first girl who takes you in?


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is a non-hydrogen based star possible?

Is it possible for a star to be primarily composed of heavier elements such as lithium or beryllium? Or even heavier?

[Assistant]
Stars on other phases of their lives are mostly not composed of hydrogen anymore.
Some types of red giant stars has consumed all of it's lighter fuel, and it's burning other elements, mostly helium.

Look up Red clump and Stellar Evolution on wikipedia. Good read.

Heavy elements, up to Iron can be found being used as fuel on late phase stars.
When hydrogen is up, the star stars to burn helium, producing heavier elements, and so on.
During it's life cycle, stars burn heavier and heavier elements, until they reach Iron, then shit hits the fan.

EDIT: Clarification.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
If a laser is shot in space and it doesn't hit it's target, what happens to the laser?

I'm thinking of like Battlestar Galactica and Star Wars, all space movies/tv shows in which they go to battle and shoot lasers at the enemies. Sometimes they miss. Does the laser keep going until it hits something? For how long?

[Assistant]
Lasers have a certain amount of divergence, which will cause the spot size of the targeted laser to increase over distance/time, leading to reduction of the power density at whatever is hit. A rough estimate is that most laser tech humanity currently has / could build, would have a functional maximum range of our own solar system.

Edit: This applies even in a perfect vacuum, with no dust or other particles.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why can I turn on my laptop right away when I plug it in after it dies but I have to wait a while for my phone?

[Assistant] Your laptop computer is designed to run off its power supply. When the power is disconnected, the device switches to its battery. The phone is designed to run off its battery. When the power is connected, the device charges the battery. So when the battery becomes exhausted, it needs to be partially charged before the phone can work.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Do local galaxies act as large capacitors? Do they store charge between them?

Also, could they oscillate like circuits and would this cause changes in their shape/structure?

[Assistant] There is no mechanism that would separate charges, but even if there would be such a separated charge it would quickly equalize because it would accelerate electrons and/or ions in the galaxies towards other galaxies.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Marvel] I'm a mob boss who revels in debauchery and human suffering. But I'm scared to death of one thing: Ghost Rider. I have plenty of financial and scientific resources at my disposal, are there any contingencies I should invest in, in case old flame head decides to make a social call?

[Assistant] Biggest hurdle would be that while the source of his power is infernal, his mission is arguably divine. It's hard to say exactly how you would counter that. Powerful magic is your best bet, but most truly powerful magic users wouldn't have any interest in being on your pay roll. You don't really have anything to offer the average powerful arcanist anything they couldn't get for themselves. The kinds of sorcerers, warlocks, and wizards that would be willing to work with you wouldn't have the magical know how, let alone the juice, to even stall Ghost Rider's motorcycle, and even if they did, they likely have a host of their own sins that make them particularly vulnerable to his advances. Still, to start out with, a cabal of semi-potent spell slingers capable of working together might be a good way to go.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: The effects of going to sleep at different times

What's the difference between going to sleep at various times?

If I go to sleep at 4AM and wake up at 12AM, am I getting the same quality of sleep as if I slept from 12PM to 8AM?

[Assistant] If you train your body that way sure, and you're in a dark,environment. There are ways to train your body so you only sleep a few hours at a time but more times. You can train your body to sleep 20 minutes an hour and be ok.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why are some countries referred to as 'fatherlands', and others as 'motherlands'?

[Assistant] It is primarily the local tradition. The English term tends to follow what is used in the local language; in English (and other Germanic languages) we normally use "Fatherland," but we faithfully translate "Motherland" from e.g. the Russian *rodina*, which is a feminine word in that language.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] My eyes change color. Why is this and what determines which color they change to?

[Assistant]
Your eyes are probably blue, or grey. It has to do with angle, intensity and colour of light that passes through your iris. What happens is that colour of iris is created by its internal structure scattering light.

Darker eyes have a "paint" which works like a paint - absorbing colours and reflecting only certain shades. Light eyes need to rely on their structure in order to be colourful, so they change depending on light.

Fun fact - the same rule that make your eyes blue, also make sky blue. It's called "Rayleigh scattering".


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Wars] is the Hutt population tiny and composed almost entirely of very rich Hutts, or are there billions of Hutts waiting tables, farming, and working boring jobs?

[Assistant]
Their physical fortitude combined with their species mentality meant most Hutts ended up in crime.

Physically and mentally they were well suited to the task. Hutts aren't just big and exceedingly tough, they can actually regenerate body parts.

Mentally they aren't simply intelligent. Their nature means that what other species regard as crime and brutality, Hutts simply see as esteemed professions.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
My partner is in academia without job prospects. What can I do?

My male partner (USA, communication studies) is completing their PhD in 2023 in a niche research field and has a post-doc lined up. We never talked much about jobs because it's difficult to know what's on the other side of academia and I trust the process, but I'm starting to be a bit concerned.

They mentioned that they are not interested in professorship or anything too strenuous and the jobs that would be possible are only though networking and aren't on job posting sites. When we talk about positions, none can be named directly though they would like "research and teaching". They even mention doing more school after the upcoming postdoc.

Recent talks have been strained and I'm not sure how to proceed. I have been understanding and recognize that opportunities arise in a postdoc, but I'm nervous about where they could get a job and what type of job it will be. It might sound selfish but in a way, it's our collective finances/location/job security. We have never been able to plan for even the near-future and it's weighing on me.

How would you proceed? How could I best address this concern with them and still be supportive?

[Assistant]
It honestly sounds like your partner has no real idea what they're talking about or what they want to do. Jobs don't magically appear without being on job boards. At least not commonly, and not that actually pay the bills.

Do they not have an alt-academic backup plan or 20? Are they truly blind to the state of academia and the job market? Are they really so delusional that they think they're set up for something not "too strenuous" - whatever they think that means?

You need to sit down with them and have some real talks. It's not selfish - it's part of being in a relationship.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do radiologists always keep it dark in the room where they take x-rays? Does visible light affect the x-ray exposure?

[Assistant]
The region of the patient's body that will be exposed and visualized through x-ray based imaging is commonly shown in the room by a light beam projected from where the x-rays originate.  By keeping the room dark, a radiologist or x-ray tech can see whether the patient is properly positioned with respect to the beam.

The light beam also allows the radiologist to adjust the beam so that it focuses on as small a region as possible without missing the anatomic structures of interest, a process known as "collimation."  Collimating the beam reduces x-ray photon scatter, which in turn improves image sharpness. It also reduces patient exposure.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why didn't Darth Vader upgrade his suit?

Palpatine intentionally limited him with the suit he was given. Annakin fought Grievous and knew that there were better options. So, why didn't he ever seek to upgrade or even have cloned limbs made and attached?

[Assistant]
Why? He wanted to die. His life was just a Dark Side autopilot until he realized his son was alive, and then he was on a mad dash to find him and convert him (to take back all that was left of his life with Padme) before the Emperor could kill him.

Then, he was dead.

When he had the time to upgrade, he didn't care enough about anything. When he cared enough about something to upgrade, he was too busy.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why is hot water more effective than cold when washing your hands, if the water isnt hot enough to kill bacteria?

[Assistant]
For the purposes of hygenic cleaning (killing germs, removing dead skin, cleaning a wound), temperature doesn't matter and (in some scenarios eg washing off bodily fluids or with certain soaps.) cold water is actually preferable.

For the purposes of cosmetic cleaning (washing off stains, cleaning oily fingers, greasy marks), hot water can help soften long chain hydrocarbons like waxes, grease or oils and can help solubilise inks or other chemicals into the soap or water.

---
Tl;dr (Better ELI5) is:

If you want to kill germs, temperature doesn't matter. If you want to clean dirty hands, warm water can help.

In both cases, washing thoroughly (at least 15 seconds) with soap is the most important thing.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Godzilla KOTM] Why weren't the human spectators of the Godzilla-Ghidorah fight killed immediately by the Nuclear Pulse?

Some things to consider:
* According to Godzilla lore, he uses a radiation attack
* The charging radiation melted buildings and steel cranes, while the blast itself disintegrated Ghidorah's wings - which have elements of gold in them
* Cement has a melting point of around 1550C and steel melts at around 1510C, while gold starts melting at 1066C. Concrete doesn't have a definite melting point, but quartz sand has a melting range of 1650C
* Concrete starts experiencing structural damage at a dosage of 10 in the root of 19 rad per square centimeter

TL;DR: To do the damage shown in the film, Godzilla's charging temperature exceeded 1650C and the radiation he generated was more than 10 decillion rad. His actual pulse greatly exceeded these stats.

So why didn't this immediately kill the humans watching the fight or at least crash their Osprey? Even if lead lined, nothing could even withstand Godzilla's charging!

[Assistant]
Titans don't really seem to play by our understanding of the laws of physics... It's possible that Big G had a lot more control over the actual energy than one would expect. It looked like a wild and uncontrolled discharge, but like you said, if that had been the case there would have been a lot more collateral damage. Maybe the visual pulse wasn't 1-to-1 with the actual energy he was putting out?

Alternatively it's a slow burn, and everyone within a hundred miles is going to be going Wade Wilson in a couple weeks.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: ARM (RISC Architecture) vs. x86-64 (CISC Architecture)

Is this the reason why operating systems have to be created specifically for ARM processors?

I got my first Raspberry Pi the other day and was just curious. It has an ARM processor so the Linux distro's have to be designed to run on the ARM architecture, correct? This is why I couldn't download Ubuntu and run it off of my ARM RPi, since Ubuntu does not make an ARM compatible OS?

How does the CISC and RISC architecture come into play? They process data differently?

I tried reading even wiki pages but was quickly overran by information I couldn't understand.

[Assistant]
Computer processors work on instruction sets, which are basically commands that tell the processor what to do. An example might be a command to move a value in to memory, or a command that multiples a value in one memory address with the value in another memory address.

When operating systems are created they are usually created in a higher level, more complex programming language (usually C). For the processor to understand these instructions, a piece of software known as a Compiler needs to take that code and translate it in to machine code that the processor will understand.

There are two main types of processor architecture as you identified - CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) used by x86 processors and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) used by ARM processors. CISC is designed to make complex operations easy for a programmer to achieve, giving greater flexibility and more features, but requiring more transistors on the chip (and therefore physically larger processors) and more power. RISC is designed with a simple instruction set that doesn't offer the same flexibility or number of features as CISC processors, but requires less transistors, less power and physically smaller processor packages.

Due to the entirely different capabilities of the two architectures, its not just a case of re-compiling an operating system for a different architecture. The difference in features usually means that an operating systems kernel will need to be re-written. For example some of the security features available in the CISC architecture are not available at all in the RISC architecture, meaning that if the Ubuntu kernel took advantage of those security features, they would need to be re-written and emulated in software on the RISC architecture.

RISC based (ARM) chips tend to be used in small, low power devices such as smart phones due to their low power usage, low footprint and relatively low cost - hence their use in the Raspberry Pi.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
What do you think about being on-call?

Hi programmers of reddit. I was wondering how common on-call duty is across companies. I have been speaking to a number of engineers across different companies and sizes. It seems like a reasonable setup but not everyone does it. The people who have to be on-call also hate it. Why?

What is your on-call process if you have one? How do you feel about it?Very curious to hear about your on-call experiences!

Also curious if you use any software to help with on-call? Seems standard practices exist but it's still such a pain for engineers.

[Assistant]
I think it's common in some areas (like developers of a web API or online service).

> The people who have to be on-call also hate it. Why?

Completely kills your ability to relax, limits plans you can make, etc.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Conservation of Momentum/Energy and the Force

Are these physics limitations still applicable or are Force powers exempt? If they are applicable, against what object does equal and opposite force get applied to during a Force push and where is the energy being drawn from?

[Assistant]
The Force runs through literally everything. When you are manipulating objects with the force, the energy used to move them doesn't come from nowhere. Rather, it is pulled from the everywhere else and put into the force-manipulated object. Basically more like a transfer of energy, since energy cannot be destroyed or created.

"Everything" is pretty big, so the amount of force needed to lift, say, an X-wing, is pretty minimal and barely even noticed by the universe.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Why do they say to avoid the sun between 10 and 3 (or 11 and 4 daylight savings time)? Shouldn't the hours be symmetric about noon, when the sun is at its peak?

[Assistant]
Noon isn't the midpoint for the day though. Take for example at the height of DST the sun rises around 0500 and sets at 2100. Rise to noon is 7 hours noon to set is 9 hours. Same for non DST. Rise happens at approx 0700 and sets 1900. Rise to noon is 5 hours, noon to set is 7 hours.

TL;DR 10 to 3 (11/4) **is** the apex (albeit a bigger sampling), not noon.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] CMV: I think we should replace marriage with life partnership, and make marriage nothing but an inofficial tradition/ritual without any power.

[Assistant]
Marriage is already the secular institution. Religions have their own words for the religious rite one example would be holy matrimony.

Religious people can keep anyone one they want from taking part in their rites.

>Why should we allow any religion to continue dictating who is allowed to live together and who isn't?

They already cant.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[MassEffect] Questions about ftl.

So, i've heard some theories that you can go ftl if you can get negative mass. So, does (or can) eezo give something negative mass? Or, does it just lower the ships mass so much they you dont need infinite energy to push it to ftl? (but, if we lower it to 0.0001% of mass, still 0.0001 x infinity = infinity, so most likely negative mass)

How about the rest of relativity, they dont seem to experience time dilation? (i know they cant use sensor when in ftl atleast, iirc?)

How do the mass relays work? They say that it creates a corridor of mass free space between relays, and that travel is instant.

1: How does a corridor of mass free space give you instant travel time. Does exactly 0 mass = basicly infinite velocity?

2: What happens with the things that is between the relays when they fire? Does it push stuff aside, just smash them, or pick them up along the way and dump them at the end, at the exit relay.

3: There are many relays, and you travel between major ones for long distances, and then smaller/secundary relays for local, smaller distances. How does that work? Do you drop out at a major one, go 200km to one of the connecting ones, wait for it to aim right to you last stop, and then shoot away with that? Or, are you automaticly connected, so you never exit superspeed? And, is every major relay only connected to one, or can they also aim?

I dont know man, you just have a lot of time to think when in transit like this.

[Assistant]
That's exactly what Eezo does: it allows you to raise or lower an objects mass to amounts approaching nil or infinite on demand. Time dilation is only in effect regarding theoretical ftl travel on objects with mass. Since the mass effect removes mass from the equation, time dilation is not an issue.

The relays are "aimed" but the ship can do some minor course correction to land at several different relays. There are only a few relays that are only connected to one point in space. Objects in space are dangerous for FTL ships, fortunately most major relay lanes are clear due to design. This is why it's important to scout a newly found relay before going through it: if you don't know where it goes, or what's in between here and there, it could be extremely dangerous.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
eli5: What is the difference between an MLM and a pyramid scheme?

EDIT: Thank you for all the responses!

[Assistant]
An MLM disguises itself with some shitty product you buy from someone above you for you to sell, whereas a pyramid scheme has you directly send the person above you cash.

There is no functional difference.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why don't any larger animals have compound/multiple eyes like bugs do?

[Assistant] Depth perception, visual acuity, and distance. Compound eyes don't fair very well on any of those factors, all of which are far more favorable than having a large cone of view, especially in light of possessing other senses (namely hearing and scent) and ocular muscles.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Castlevania] Why does Death work for Dracula? Shouldn't it be the other way around?

[Assistant] Death is bound to the Crimson Stone, and whomever Controls the Crimson Stone controls Death. currently the crimson stone is in the possession of one Mathias Cronqvist(Also known as Dracula) who used it to absorb the soul of the first known vampire, Walter Bernhard. thus becoming a Vampire himself and the Dark Lord, Avatar of Chaos on earth. Death is not a natural force or the personification of natural death. he is a Chaos deity named Death because that's what happens whenever he is around.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Do fat people have lower average body temperatures than thin people?

We know that there's a great deal of individual variation in resting metabolic rate. One figure I've heard (sorry, no source handy) is 8 calories per day per pound at the low end of the range and 14 calories per day per pound at the high end. On average, people with low resting metabolism are likely much fatter than people at the high end of the range.

As far as I know, those at the high end of the resting metabolic rate range would be generating more body heat.

It could be a complicated topic, though. Fat people might have more insulation. That could raise core body temperature. It's also possible that people with high resting metabolic rate circulate blood closer to the skin surface, to radiate more heat. I suppose that could be detected with infrared body heat measurement. Like I said, it's a complicated topic, much more complicated than most people realize.

If possible, please help me understand this difficult topic better. If the basic research has not yet been done, please say so up front.

[Assistant]
Comrades! This is a great question which many of you might have personal experience with, however our rules are strict. Please keep to scientific answers, preferably from people with some expert knowledge.

Cheers!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does electrcity actually power things? like is just the flow of electrons or is there more to it?

[Assistant]
Well yes, the flow of electrons bumping into each other is the "power" part.  Somethings have actual flow while others just shake them back and forth.  But essentially it's the same thing as a lightning bolt.

Turning that flow into something useful happens in a variety of ways.  Heater are just big resistors. The friction to the flow makes heat.   Some filaments when electrified give of photons, otherwise know as lightbulbs.  If you coil a wire, the flow makes a magnetic field, which will push a metal slug. Radio emitters literally force the energy to jump out into the air. Flowing electrons through transistors can do all sorts of stuff.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:What happens when a game "dies"/closes like an mmo, is all the progamming effort and data lost forever?

[Assistant]
When a game "dies", it means the company is no longer willing to pay to maintain the game servers. The games still exist on hard drives, but they are no longer actively being played through the internet.

There have been cases where a game "died" only to have fans create and maintain their own servers to play on.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] What if Padme came forward to the Jedi Council and the Senate with Anakin's confession of mass slaughter of the sand people?

What if she didn't keep silent about him talking about what was literally mass murder?

[Assistant] Pretty much nothing from the republic and a slap on the wrist from the Jedi and expulsion if palpatine didn't intervene.  Though i imagine ashared husset whose name i butchered but he became darth krayt would mete up some justice for his people.  Gotta remember that tattoine is outside republic space and the sand people are almost universally hostile to non members of their tribes. And his mother had just been tortured to death by the sand people and died in his arms.  Far as the republic is concerned it was a crime of passion in international waters against a criminal organization. Jedi would just try and bounce him out for going darkside even temporarily as they had already lost numerous members who got too close to the line.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why is Jimi Hendrix considered one of the greatest guitar players?

[Assistant] Jimi Hendrix is considered a great guitar player because he reinvented how the guitar was played. He invented a style that influenced just about every rock, blues and jazz guitarist that came after him. His technical skill wasn't the greatest, but his creativity and style has proven to be extremely influential--even nearly 50 years after he got his start! For example, he was known to use hammer-ons and pull-offs: a style that made Eddie Van Halen famous. He played loud and distorted, which was influential to the hard rock and heavy metal bands that came in the 70's. His wah-wah sound went on to influence guys like Steve Vai. He even had a session with Miles Davis, making him popular with fusion guitarists such as Al DiMeola. In short, he was highly original and influential.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Far Cry 5] Why does the rookie not go get help at any of the hundreds of opportunities he has to do so?

I get that the first attempt to escape didn't work out great, but within a very short time of that you're in a position to steal all the cars, trucks, powerboats, helicopters, and small planes you want. Those planes especially will easily get you to the nearest large town where you can place a call to the US Marshals' office and the FBI, who will send a small army to take down John Seed. But you don't. In fact, after the opening setpiece, it's not even really presented as an option. WTF?

[Assistant]
Look, the Rookie is a proud member of the Hope County Sheriff's Department.

Like any self-respecting member of a tiny-ass police department in the middle of nowhere, he won't let the FBI or any other out of town law enforcement agency take the credit unless the situation is *really* desperate.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
I think time zones should be eliminated and that the whole earth should use one central time. CMV.

In the past all cities used their own time. So even cities that were quite near to each other could keep time that differed by 10 minutes for example. Starting from the 19th century, we began to use time zones. (Mainly to make it less confusing to travel with trains. The world got smaller.) The next logical step, I think, is using the same centralised time for the whole world.

The internet has made the world very small. We can travel to the other side of the world in a day. Having time zones in the modern times is just confusing. Having a centralised time for the whole earth wasn't logistically possible in the past, but it is now.

Yes, it's perhaps a bit weird at first to wake up for work in the "morning" at 17:00, but after a few months I'm sure this feeling will fade. The advantages are greater than the disadvantages. Or are they not?

Change my view.

[Assistant]
A large number of mental models and systems are based on a common experience with time. Everyone wakes up at the same time and goes to bed at the same time. Jobs are 9-5. Prime-time TV is 5-9. Hours of operations for most buildings are the same. If you get rid of time zones, then this order is shattered. Every single city across every nation would have different workplaces deciding when work would start and end. Schools would have different start and end times. This would cause a lot of confusion for locals. If you are traveling then you will be completely and utterly lost. Let's say you travel from NYC to LA. Now you will be unable to figure out when shops close, work starts, rush hour is expected, etc. without looking up each one individually.

This also skims over the massive costs in switching over to a new system.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Skyrim] Assuming the Dragonborn completes all faction quests, do they have all of the political capital necessary to rule Skyrim?

By completing the quests they become:

* Harbinger of the Companions

* Archmage of the College of Winterhold

* Guildmaster of the Thieves Guild

* Listener of the Dark Brotherhood

Between all of the roles, do they have enough political capital to make a move to become the High King/Queen of Skyrim?

[Assistant]
In short, no. None of the guilds have any real political clout in Skyrim. The College of Winterhold is tolerated at best, and doesn't have any serious political connections. The Companions is a relatively minor mercenary company/clubhouse and doesn't have any serious political connections. The Thieves Guild is a shadow organization and has a very one-way relationship with precisely one powerful family. The Dark Brotherhood is effectively destroyed by the end of their story, and is only starting to rebuild, and doesn't have any serious political connections.

Realistically, the Dragonborn has more political power by simply being the Dragonborn than they would have for taking charge of all four major guilds.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why are we so eager to go to and colonize Mars when we haven't been to the moon in over 40 years?

I just seems like we're jumping the gun. Why are we going to colonize Mars when we haven't even mastered the moon?

[Assistant] Sending a manned mission to the moon again would involve a huge investment of resources and time, without much gain in terms of scientific knowledge. Not to mention, we have been to the moon in the past 40 years (the Chinese did it just last year), just not with manned missions, and even then, that's been done six times already. If we're going to put in the effort, it might as well push things into a realm that hasn't been accomplished before.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How come every week there seems to be ground breaking development on defeating cancer but it falls off the face of the earth the following week?

[Assistant]
Several reasons

1 - Cancer isn't one disease, it is thousands.  They may have made progress fighting one variant... but there are thousands of others.

2 - Headlines are usually wrong.  Technically speaking we already know how to cure cancer... just not without killing the patient too.  So when scientists make progress it is touted as the huge success when the reality is probably more like they made some progress in one area.

3 - These things take time.  It can take years (if not decades) for something to go from one success in the lab to an actual medical procedure.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Is 1 minute in a 500Watt microwave the same as 30 seconds in a 1000Watt microwave?

[Assistant] Same amount of energy applied, but if it's a food that can't be uniformly heated, you won't get the same result. Sort of like putting a chicken in a 700 degree oven instead of 350 and expecting to cook it twice as fast. Microwaves penetrate more and heat water and fats, so not a perfect analogy.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Trek] How do phaser rifles work?

Okay, I admit that I may not have paid all that much attention in school when we were learning about directed energy weapons, so don't judge me. Handheld and ship phasers are conventional directed energy weapons that fire a concentrated beam of energy, so there's a continuous beam of energy from the phaser to the target, right? So why do phaser rifles (Type 3? I think?) fire little bursts of energy that seem to do more damage?

[Assistant] They have another common name which sheds more light on their mechanism of action, and that name is "phaser compression rifles" or simply "compression rifles". These rifles work by wrapping phaser energy in an electromagnetic field, and packing that energy in. Instead of a smooth beam of phaser energy, you have a chaotic sphere of dense energy which virtually explodes once it makes contact with an object solid enough to distrupt the field.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] If an ant was the size of a human, would it still be able to lift 10x its body weight?

[Assistant]
No.

This is commonly referred to as the "square-cube law". Basically, the strength of something relates to its cross-sectional area - how thick it is. If you scale up something by a factor of 2, then the cross-sectional area of the arms/legs/etc increases by a factor of 4, i.e. the square of the scale factor.

However, the *weight* of something increases with its *volume*. This increases as the *cube* of the scale factor. So if you double the scale, your object now weights 8 times as much.

In practice, what this means is that small things can support themselves with very thin spindly legs, while large things need very solid legs directly underneath them. If you want to scale up an ant to human size, you can't keep its legs in proportion, or else it will just collapse. You need to make its legs much bigger, and more directly under its body, or else it won't even support its own weight.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5:what specifically makes a lawyer worth 100 vs 1000 per hour?

Other than experience in front of judges is there anything specific that makes an attorney cost 10x other attorneys? Is it a case of "he'd expensive so he must be better?"

[Assistant] Ultimately its supply and demand - a person can only bill so many hours in a day, if they can sell every hour they keep raising the price. The demand is driven by the perceived (and perhaps real) benefit of one lawyer over another, specifically when it comes with successful experience in niche areas (types or law and/or industries)


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why doesn't the US like nuclear energy (even with safe reactants like Thorium)?

[Assistant] Popular opinion, after a series of high profile accidents, is that nuclear energy is unsafe. Even with significant advances in safety people are still very wary of having a plant placed near their community.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] Eli5: Why do some objects melt and others catch fire and burn?

[Assistant]
It depends solely on whether the "combustion" reaction for that material needs more energy than the phase change (solid>liquid), or not. If it needs more energy than the object would need to melt, it will melt *first*. If it needs less than object would need to melt, it will burn.

Please note, however, that everything can burn, if heated ~~wrong~~ fast enough. Iron normally would melt, for instance, but can be set on fire nonetheless.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
LI5, most of the answers I am reading are coming across as explanations for an average intelligence adult. I thought we were supposed to "Explain it like I'm 5"

Many answers are still using large words and somewhat complex explanations.

I'm just wondering how literal we are supposed to take the subreddits title.

[Assistant]
It seems to me many of you don't have kids or younger siblings

You can't explain how the stock market works to a 5 year old without using complex thoughts.

The title is not some joke..its just a way to say "dumb down shit" before explaining it...not literally dumb it down to a 5 year old level.

something cannot be dumbed down that low.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why is mp3's still ripped in 128kbp/s and not simply in either 320kbp/s or straight flac?

I have never understood this. Maybe it doesn't matter if  you listen on some shit speakers like beats by dr dre or such but theres really no excuse anymore. Theres so much hd space available for cheap that the filesize really can't be an excuse anymore either.

[Assistant] While hard drive space is irrelevant for desktops and laptops, it is still an issue for smaller devices like smartphones. The quality of MP3s is what people are used to, so it is still advantagous to stick to it.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] We are able to freeze embryos and bring them back to life. Why are we unable to do the same with fully grown humans?

[Assistant] The main problem with cryogenics is that when we freeze things, crystals form. These crystals are what kills the organism upon unfreezing by lysing cells. In smaller subjects, we can introduce whats called a cryoprotectant, which slows the **rate** of cooling reducing the size and number of crystals formed. It is easy to bathe a few cells (embryo) in cryoprotectant, but getting it everywhere in a human body short of switching out the person's blood is impossible (and even then, switching out someone's blood with cryoprotectant would kill them).


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5:How did the PDF format become so popular?

[Assistant]
First, there was a need for a way to represent paper online. A PDF is a decent approximation of a paper document as it will print to actual paper without any issues. The PDF is an early example of "What You See Is What You Get", or WYSIWYG. This became handy when people would need to send print documents over electronically, as it could be reasonably assumed that the receiver could print it if they could open it.

Second, Adobe made its reader free. This meant that anyone could read a PDF across different operating systems. So, if you had to create an electronic document that was to be printed, you could safely assume that people would be able to open it via PDF.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: If you spin around in outer space, do you still get dizzy?

[Assistant]
Most likely. The reason you get dizzy is because there are organs in your ear that sense balance. They sense balance by sensing the direction that the fluid they're submerged in flows. The fluid's flow is controlled by which way your body is moving. When you spin around, that fluid also spins around. When you suddenly stop, the fluid takes a while to stop because of inertia. Those balance sensors detect that you're still spinning when you actually aren't and so your brain gets confused and you feel dizzy.

TL;DR: Dizziness is caused by inertia, not gravity.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Lots of species developed eyes to "see" but how did they know there were something to see in the first place ?

My 9 yo surprised me with this question this morning. He sometimes got some showerthough but this one is over my level. Hope you can help us :).

[Assistant]
They didn't "know" anything.

The first "eyes" in nature weren't eyes so much as they were simply pigment spots that detected light. The little floaty microbes that could detect light had a major advantage over the ones that couldn't because they could find bright spots to photosynthesize in.

From there on it became an evolutionary arms race. Eyes were a big advantage and better eyes allowed a creature to hunt more effectively or avoid hunters more effectively. That went on for millions of years until today when there are animals like us kicking around with comparatively huge eyes and big parts of our brains devoted entirely to processing and interpreting the information those eyes gather.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why are power companies in the US allowed to hold monopolies on the areas they service?

[Assistant] Because each electric company would need to install their own wires, which makes it costly to enter the market and also if multiple companies did, would mean there would be electrical wires and cables everywhere. The government decided the best thing to do would be allow monopolies but closely regulate them so they don't exploit the customers.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: Why do the Nordic countries seem to do so well in like, everything?

They have low corruption, low inequality, very democratic, high standard of living, low obesity, etc.

And of course, if they aren't so great, why are they the go-to example of an ideal country?

[Assistant]
Northern European "Calvinist" work ethic and ability to defer pleasure, coupled with culturally homogeneous populations and large amounts of natural resources (in Norway's case, oil).

I expect this to change as their culture dehomogenizes due to immigration.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 How are business people who bankrupt multiple businesses still able to open businesses?

How do they keep getting loans for new businesses to run into the ground? Does it lower their personal credit score?

[Assistant]
Many people don't understand that the US Bankruptcy Code is actually intended to serve as a positive and encouraging tool to save a struggling business. In the world of business, taking advantage of its provisions is not an embarrassment. Many Americans seem to think it is, but it is not.

A person may never file personal bankruptcy, yet be associated with  corporate bankruptcy multiple times. A corporation is a separate legal entity from a person, so a corporation going bankrupt does not automatically impact the personal assets, other than the value of their investment in the company's stock, or credit score of its owners or shareholders.

The most important point:  A chapter 11 bankruptcy is not the end of a business. Its a strategy for eliminating or reducing debt, using the courts you work with lenders to show that your company, while in trouble now, still has profit potential in the future.

Chapter 7 bankruptcy is different. In a chapter 7 bankruptcy the company's assets are sold to pay of creditors, and the business is closed. If there are not enough assets to pay the creditors, well... tough. However after closing a business, there is no law preventing a person from incorporating and starting a new business. And as long as more of your businesses make money than fail then you can keep going.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Starship Troopers Cinematic Universe] How did the Federation become a galaxy spanning presence with such a limited force projection ability?

They have seemingly endless fleets of starships, but their only ground presence lies in lightly armored infantry with no vehicular armor and limited close air support. Is this simply a case of becoming so dominant that they no longer needed tank divisions?

[Assistant]
Well, until the Bugs were found there was simply no NEED for anything else.  The Federation hadn't run across any other intelligent species in the galaxy and the AQZ was set up to keep law abiding citizens away from what, at the time, was only a possible threat.

Before Buenos Aires was hit all that was needed was essentially a police force.  There was simply no need for vehicular armor or air support.  When the strike came the Federation Council had to act quickly to attempt to prevent another strike.  What forces were available were what was sent.  Along with the decision to proceed directly to Klendathu the lack of any armour or air support reserves were a direct contributor to the previous Sky Marshall stepping down.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Is it possible for the matter in the universe to be infinite?

I'm not asking about the spacial dimensions of the universe. I'm wondering if there could actually be infinite matter. A while back, astronomers took a picture called the Hubble Deep Field, and saw that there were far more galaxies than they had thought. Then they took another picture even deeper into space called the ultra deep field. And again were surprised by the number of galaxies they saw. And finally, they took another picture even deeper into space called the extreme deep field, and again saw more galaxies further into space and farther back in time than they thought possible. So what happens next when they take another picture and call it the super-mega-awesome deep field, and potentially find still more galaxies? Is there any reason to think that it may never end? That there are an infinite number of galaxies?

[Assistant]
In the visible universe, matter/energy is going to be finite because the size of it is finite. We can't continue finding new galaxies forever. In fact, we have a pretty good estimate on the density of matter/energy from the curvature of space time.

If we include the parts we can't see? Well,if the universe is infinite in size, then it's not a big leap to suggest there's infinite matter/energy in it as well.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [General] Any races or settings out there that has tech that would make the WH40k setting look like the Flintstones?

[Assistant] Yes? For as strong as 40k factions are, they aren't even the upper level of science fiction settings. Groups like The Culture, the Timelords/Daleks/Cybermen, the Spirals, the Q, the Xeelee, various Old/Elder/Outer Gods, etc. wage war and generally operate on scales that leaves the Imperium in the dust.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [MCU] Does Wakanda have the technology and forces to conquer the world should T'Challa desired it? Or would he and his forces stand no chance if the Avengers intervened?

[Assistant]
Technology yes, forces no. Wakanda is much too small. Wakanda's defense doctrine is mostly just making the rest of the world unaware of their existence and they mostly carry out clandestine operations to keep it that way.

Even if the rest of the world can't break through their shield, they can very well turn everything around it into an irradiated wasteland.

That's why Killmonger's plan wasn't a declaration of war against the world. It was to secretly arm and supply Black nationalists, rebels and insurrectionist groups around the world and conducting clandestine operations/guerrilla warfare to destabilize governments.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5: How come we don't wake up from hunger in the middle of the night?

I'm hungry in the morning when I wake up. I'm hungry if I stay awake instead of sleeping. As this is an intense, uncomfortable feeling, what exactly is the mechanism that lets me get through the night? And do we burn less calories, when the feeling of hunger is not present?

[Assistant]
You don't wake up due to hunger because it is not a sense of immediate threat.

When you think of things that will wake you up, sound, light, touch, these all imply something is happening.

You won't wake up from thirst often either, you will wake up due to something else, and realize you are thirsty. This is unless it is very hot and/or dry and you are dehydrating rapidly while you sleep.

But that's neither here nor there, you don't wake up because it's not a sense of immediate threat, and because your body is fasting. It's in a state where it has stopped most unnecessary function and is ready to stay like this for as long as it takes. Just like when you are awake you will get hungry after a while, it's not truly apparent until you are really hungry. It stays consistent until your body goes "hey, eat or we're gonna have a problem" and rarely do people sleep that long.

Of course, if you are starving, truly starving and haven't eaten in days, hunger will keep you awake, it will cause pain that will stop sleep because your body will go "Hey, don't sleep, find food".


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why are morphogens not capable of growing back lost parts of our bodies, without the risk of developing cancer?

My question is why did our bodies develop in this way? Why didn't our body find a way to use morphogens to it's advantage in order to restructure or repair/grow back completely missing limbs?

Why wouldn't morphogens be able to start or stop working only when needed, in order to not work continually - leading to cancer?

So I guess my question would also be why did our body develop this way. Or rather, why did it NOT develop a way to grow back missing limbs instead of just being able to repair wounds or broken bones?

PS: If anything I said in here is wrong, please do correct me as I'm not too knowledgeable on the subject.

[Assistant]
Evolution doesnt routinely do luxuries. Can your current form and life-processes keep you alive in your current environment long enough to breed the next generation? Yes? Then you are successful enough. Rinse, repeat, refine through those generations.
If the need to regrow limbs and organs was the only thing keeping a species successful enough to continue surviving better, then it would either happen or the species would go extinct. You gotta keep throwing mutations at the wall and see what sticks.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
CMV: Modern day protests are pointless.

Dont get me wrong, I understand their importance in a democracy, however I feel like I havent seen a protest in my lifetime that has actually generated positive change. Most I see simply solidly peoples own opinions and split the community in to two halves on a topic.

The media coverage of all protests only ever show the bad apples which of course is going to undermine any message you want to get out there. It just feels like there are people who simple love to protest, and gather in the streets and yell stuff.

This comment refers to all topics, BLM, anti-lockdown, climate change. I agree with so much of the messaging, (with some of these topics) but find the act of protesting just so counter productive to meaningful change.

CLARIFICATION: ok, I dont want to reply to everyone because you all have valid points. I knew going into this that I was wrong, I just needed to hear some hope in humanity.

I guess my frustration stemmed from a conversation I was having with someone after the lockdown riots. They are a hardline conservative in their view and simply see BLM and Extinction rebellion protests as anarchists stirring up trouble, while the lockdown protests were good people who just want to buy their kids some shoes. It just annoyed me that he couldnt see the difference, and made a thought go off on my head that protest simply locks people into whatever suits their narrative and who they see as the bad guys is totally dependent on pre-conceived political views.

I guess my point is a protest will give someone who is against a topic, a firm enemy to hate and suddenly the conversations Im having simply turn into - look at XX protesters and the horrible things those people did (vandalism, violence etc), you want to support them?

[Assistant] Not only have the BLM protests sparked a national discussion on police brutality and racial injustice in the legal system, but they also led to police reforms in dozens of cities across the nation. So, I'd think twice before calling them pointless.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars] Can I gain Force powers by injecting myself with some midichlorian-rich Jedi blood?

I'm sick of just scraping by tending a bar on the ground level of Coruscant. I hear the only difference between me and those cushy snobby jedi are some bugs that live in their blood!

If I.....*procured* some blood from a jedi, could I just get their powers by doping and be set for life?

[Assistant] Midichlorians don't cause force-sensitivity. They are a by-product of it.  It just happens to be a useful metric to determine force sensitivity. But doping on Jedi blood would not be useful to that end.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How do explosives (grenades, artillery, dynamite, etc.) actually kill you?

[Assistant]
Theres generally three ways.

The easiest one, which requires the least explosive, is via shrapnel. Basically, you encase the explosive with a material thats designed to shatter into sharp, deadly shards. When the explosive goes off, these shards are ejected away from it at high speeds, and when they hit a body it causes massive damage by cutting, crushing, and disconnecting various body parts. Shrapnel has a few limitations - structures tend to block it and the lethality of shrapnel decreases with distance. So its best used as a precise anti-personnel weapon - hand grenades being a great example. Youre not going to knock down a building with shrapnel alone. But you can kill and maim the people inside and establish yourself in it with shrapnel.

The second way is through heat and fire. This one is where an explosive is used to disperse an incendiary material across an area. Here, the explosive is really the delivery system, and the payload is a slow but hot burning material which then damages and kills through obvious means.

The last way is through air pressure. For this, youre looking at bigger explosives which have an explosive yield big enough to turn air itself into a lethal weapon. At high yields, explosions create a shockwave. This shockwave can impart a massive force on a person, which can damage or even crush bones and organs depending on the size of the shockwave. A shockwave of about 75-80 Gs will kill some 50% of adults it contacts. This is a more complex calculation, depending on the explosive yield of the bomb and the distance from explosion a person is.

Bombs also destroy structures - even if the shrapnel, heat, and air pressure dont kill you, a bomb can collapse the structure you are in, crushing you or suffocating you.

Theres also some less conventional bombs which spread toxic or deadly materials throughout an area. For instance, a dirty bomb is one which explodes to spread radioactive material in an area. Its not a nuclear weapon, but it spreads radioactive substances which can kill.

Nuclear explosives are a different story, especially within a certain distance. Within a few hundred feet, a human body will be vaporized by the intense electromagnetic energy released by the bomb. The heat and light from these weapons can be more intense than that of the surface of the sun.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: How does a turbo work on a car? And what's the difference with a supercharger?

[Assistant]
A cars engine is effectively an air pump. It sucks air in and blows air out. Fuel, compression, and spark are added to make explosions and power, but the most important limiting factor is air. You dont really need more spark for more power, nor do you really need more compression from the combustion chamber.. and adding fuel is easy, but it has to be a certain ratio. Every 1 molecule of fuel requires 14 molecules of air. You need a lot of air to make more power.

The traditional way to get more air is by making the engine bigger. If you have a bigger engine with more room in the cylinders, then more air is moved through it.

Turbo and superchargers are a different way to solve for the problem. Instead of making the engine bigger, you make the air *denser*. By compressing the air, you force more into the same amount of space, so a smaller engine can move the same volume of air that a larger engine can because the air is more tightly packed as it moves through it.

Turbocharger compressors are spun by exhaust gasses, which is more efficient, but also typically more peaky and power is less linear. Supercharger compressors are driven directly from the crankshaft via a belt (similar to your alternator). They are less efficient because the belt-drive takes some power away from the engine, but they produce more linear power.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
eli5: What is the significance of debt to GDP ratios and how does it really affect economic growth or stability

I saw the US governments debt to GDP ratio is over 100%. Whats the significance of this, since apparently Japans ratio is over like 300% does this even matter or is it being used by politicians as a scare tactic. Whats the limit of this ratio to where the country might be in danger of collapse? 500%? 1000%?

I saw some article talking about Indias "catastrophically" high ratio of 64% meanwhile Japan is cruising with 5 times that and is still an economic superpower.

[Assistant]
An important factor is who the country owes money to. If the country owes money to entities outside of the country, a high debt to GDP ratio is ratio is potentially dangerous as their creditors will be unlikely to make concessions should the country hit hard times. However, if most of the debt is owed to domestic institutions, the debt is much more manageable since an economic downturn in the country would hurt the lenders as well, so they have an incentive to keep the country solvent and make concessions. This is how Japan is able to maintain such a high debt to GDP, it's creditors are almost all Japanese entities and so they won't act in a way that undermines the Japanese economy.

India on the other hand borrows mostly from entities outside of India and they are far less likely to be forgiving should India have trouble making debt payments. This means India would have a much rougher time should they need to do restructuring of their debt.

In general external debt like what India carries is much more risky than the internal debt that Japan has, and that's what allows Japan to carry a higher debt load.

Another factor is the interest that the creditors charge, a stronger economy can borrow at a better rate and that allows them to also have a higher debt load since the interest payments are lower.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why have viruses not evolved to the point of being beneficial to their hosts, rather than usually being harmful?

Most viruses when they infect their hosts are going to be attacked and defeated by our immune systems.  If a viruses goal is to ultimately replicate, wouldn't they be more successful if they helped strengthen their hosts in some way?  Imagine an std that resulted in better vision,  Etc.

[Assistant]
Even in theory it seems difficult to envisage how a virus could benefit a host. While bacteria can form mutualistic relationships with other species, they are able to do this because they can offer unique metabolic reactions to their host. Viruses however do not perform any function other than replication, and any other genes they have are designed to facilitate their access to the replicative machinery of other cells. So unless you could envision a function which would be improved through a replication process it is difficult to see how a virus could offer a simple and direct benefit to the host.

The other problem here is an evolutionary one. There are two evolutionary barriers to your proposition. The first is in the virus; in order to take on extra functions the virus would almost certainly have to expand its genome. However, this would almost certainly make it less fit relative to other viruses of it's type. Larger genomes take longer to replicate, are more difficult to insert and pack, and require more resources from the host cell. Viruses are heavily optimised to reproduce in large numbers, fast; so any change which reduces their ability to replicate fast, without compensating in some way (better immune evasion perhaps) will result in a fitness loss, and would be gradually selected out of the population of viral types.

The second evolutionary barrier is in the host. In order for the host immune system not to systematically kill the 'beneficial' virus, there would have to be a complementary set of chance mutations which altered the immune system in some way such that it ignored these particular viruses; while attacking every other type with perfect fidelity. Then these hosts would have to breed, and would have to have greater reproductive success as a result of their symbiosis with the virus such that the virus-friendly host type spreads. In reality this is unlikely, and would take a significant period of time. The main reason it is unlikely is that in the short term there is no benefit to someone in having a selective immune system of this type; especially since if someone had one, they would be vulnerable to any pathogenic virus which could mimic the 'beneficial' type.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
When a tree (or other land plant) is immersed in water, what does it die of?

Let's pretend the water only just covers the tree/plant, so light is still available. Does it suffocate due to lack of oxygen? Does the water leach essential chemicals out of leaves? Both? Does the water just block enough light it starves?

[Assistant] Plants need oxygen to metabolize the sugars they have produced all day. They do proportionately more of this at night to put the stores energy to growth, and maintenance. Unless they are adapted to aquatic life, they cant access the oxygen their mitochondria need.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: What does "political asylum" mean, and how does it work?

[Assistant]
Wikipedia puts it in terms that most people should be able to understand:

Someone may ask for a political asylum when they are frightened to live in their own country. They will then go to another country. If they are allowed to live in the new country this is called political asylum.

People who qualify for asylum are those who can show that they might be badly treated in their own country because of their: Race, Nationality, Religion, Political opinions or Membership of a particular social group or social activities.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[The Matrix] How big is the world inside the Matrix?

The bulk of the films seem to take place in a single city (some say it is supposed to be the matrix version of Chicago) with all the important players all being based there.

But in the beginning of the first film, some of the newspaper reports Neo is looking at before he fell asleep are in Arabic and one newspaper mentions Morpheus was spotted at Heathrow Airport, which is in England.

So is the Martix an entire digital reconstruction of Earth or is it one city with the machines "fabricating" outside the city (like if someone goes on holiday, what actually happens is they get sent only a few "minutes" outside the city in a digital reconstruction of their "Destination")

[Assistant] It's a full recreation of the world as we know it, with each city (and maybe districts) effectively being different "Servers" that humans exist in. In case of a massive disaster such as a crash in one town, it allows for the isolation of the incident and the purging of any humans if need be.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Marvel] If Mjolnir is simultaneously summoned by two equally worthy people (neither of whom are Thor), does it have a decision-making process?

[Assistant]
Who wielded it last? Who's closest? Who's putting more oomph into the summoning? And, given Mjolnir's recently revealed sentience, who has more need?

Don't ask "What if they're all equal" because then there's no real solution.

Mjolnir will generally go with whoever was its 'master' last. Thor always ranks highest as the hammer's master unless he's unworthy for some reason, but otherwise it will go to whoever wielded it last out of equally worthy summoners. Distance, too. Whoever's closest will allow Mjolnir to respond more swiftly. Trying harder to summon it will have a stronger 'signal'. And, assuming Mjolnir's still sentient, it will measure who needs it most immediately if all other criteria are met.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
When did human intelligence reach the level it is currently at?

If we would snatch a new born child from our ancestor, go forward in time, and provide it with 21th century education, how far would we have to go where we first started noticing that the kids were less/differently intelligent compared to modern day man.

[Assistant] This continues to be one of the most elusive answers in the history of man. We still don't know for sure. We know that intelligent societies existed at least 12k years ago, and judging by their structures, tools, and what little culture and recorded history we have from them, you could likely raise a child with a modern education who would be similar to the average person today. There are some inferential clues (not accepted as a theory in science due to lack of evidence) that intelligent cultures could have existed much farther back, but natural disasters & normal weathering/decomposition have so far made the search nearly fruitless. Anatomically modern Homo brain size has been consistent for the past 180-200k years. tl:dr--we don't know exactly, but somewhere likely between 12-20k years, and perhaps even prior!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Physics question, if stars moving away/towards Earth appear blue/red shifted, how do we know their colours are red/blue because they are moving, and not just that they are a red/blue coloured star thats relatively stationary?

(I hope this makes sense, I wrote this whilst very sleepy, and also I cant quite remember how it works) thank you!

[Assistant]
Specific elements shine brightest at different specific colors of light. Sunlight/starlight doesnt have even amounts of each color, some colors are brighter than others due to specific elements glowing brightly at that color.

So when measuring red/blue shift, they look for those peaks in the color spectrum and see how far off they are from the normal peaks of the color distribution.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 the realistic impacts on the economy if we elected Sanders.

Socialist is not something most Americans want to elect. However will it be as dramatic or will America remain capitalist?

[Assistant]
Congress passes laws, not the President. And even if a majority of both houses of Congress somehow decided to adopt a centrally-controlled planned economy and the distribution of resources according to need, then the Supreme Court would likely strike down their bills as being unconstitutional.

The President has power, but not nearly that kind of power. And most American socialists are aware of the impossibility of a truly socialist government taking place in their lifetimes. What they want, instead, is for the government to take on services that can made more efficient without private competition, like a single-payer healthcare system in place of health insurance, which has been one of Bernie Sanders's most vocal positions as a senator.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Star Wars/The Mandalorian] Why does no one know about the force?

In the Mandalorian, it seems that no one is aware about the force/ jedis. How is this possible if Jedi were so prominent in the republic?

[Assistant]
Honestly this is one element of the galactic Empire era of the lore that bothers me. For thousands of years the Jedi were peacekeepers and one "I am all the sith"...sith! Purges all cultural reference to the Jedi over 30 years and no one rememebrs... Well how did Jabba know that the hutts are immune to Jedi mind "tricks"...
It's highly unlikely that a huge space religion that seeks out children who are attuned to the force could just be swept under the rug...
It'd be alot more believable if Vader and E.P. had ruled for a couple centuries.
Vader could have taken mistresses theoughout that time in order to satisfy continuity for Luke and leia.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[Incredibles 1] How did the police and authorities deal with the supervillains after the superheroes went into retirement?

Like Bomb Voyage? They wouldn't respect the law.

[Assistant]
Lethal force.

With the heroes, a villain could expect to be apprehended with a minimum of casualties.  When the heroes were gone, police could no longer afford the risk of playing nice with such ruthless and deadly foes.  SWAT teams were deployed immediately.  Safeties came off and they dealt with any super threats with maximum force.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] ELI5: Why does being alone feel bad? What chemical in our brain stops flowing when we don't socialize sufficiently?

[Assistant]
Oxytocin is part of it.

Oxytocin (not to be confused with oxycodone the narcotic) is a hormone responsible for social bonding that is released when you touch other people. Cuddling and hand holding or other types of touch (yes, definitely sex) cause your body to release oxytocin which makes you feel good.

Oxytocin has been shown to help with anxiety, depression etc as well as encouraging monogamy in people who are in relationships.

Edit: in addition to human and human contact, oxycotin can also being produced when you interact with your pets. Go therapy dogs!


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Stephen King's It] How long has IT existed?

[Assistant]
It arrived on earth in pre-history, crashing into the site that would become Derry, Maine in an event that looked a lot like a meteor impact.

The creature is, however, likely much older than that, and may have existed before the creation of our universe. It was born in the Todash Space, the darkness between worlds, and It is mortal enemies with Maturin the Turtle, who accidentally created our universe after a severe case of indigestion.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Atheist Morality

does anyone have a video explaining atheist morality and ethics fairly?

is atheist morality subjective or objective, and where does atheist morality come from, from the perspective of an atheist?

[Assistant]
Presumably all the standard normative theories are available for atheists to accept. So, various forms of consequentialism (including varieties of utilitarianism), various forms of deontology, and various forms of virtue ethics.

But you seem to be asking for the basis of ethics. Some philosophers think morality is grounded in our wants, desires, and sympathies with one another. Others think there are moral facts that are in some important way independent of our actual wants and desires. Some think morality has to do with agreement, either real agreement, or agreement in certain ideal cases.

Where does morality come from? Is an interesting philosophical question. But the atheist has many available avenues for at least beginning to give an answer.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
Why do microwave ovens make such a distinctive humming sound?

When I look this up the only answers I come across either talk about the beep sound or just say the fans are powerful.

But I can't find out why they all make the *same* distinctive humming noise, surely it should differ from manufacturer to manufacturer? Surely some brands would want to use quieter fans?

[Assistant]
The hum is 60Hz (or 50Hz if you live in Europe), its either oscillations in the components of the rather massive power supply required to feed nearly 1.5kW to the magnetron. Or mechanical oscillations induced in the magnetron due to ripple in its power supply.

Electronic components can produce mechanical vibrations. Power transformers have to deal with changing magnetic fields that will produce torques in a similar way to a motor. Ceramic capacitors tend to be piezoelectric and mechanically distort with changing voltages. To provide 1.5kW to anything large fields are involved, and it becomes rather hard to provide stable power.

---

Edit: As it was pointed out by several people (and confirmed by measurements from others (isn't it nice how science works)). the actual fundamental frequency is twice the line frequency. So that's 120Hz for the US (and related areas) and 100Hz for Europe (and related areas). Those roughly correspond to a B3 and a G2 in the music scale.

There are multiple reasons for this, the main one among them is that the movement of components (such as the microwave's metal case and transformer core and coils) are affected by the magnitude of the magnetic field not its direction, which leads to rectification of mechanical displacement at twice the cycle rate.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
ELI5 at what generation does a royal become a commoner?

Prince Harry has children. Those children will have children and so on. How many generation is it that the mother/father is royalty but the kids are not and considered a common folk?

[Assistant]
It depends on the country. Some countries have extensive royal families (and nobility who are not themselves royal but also not commoners) such as the UK.  Others, such as Japan have very limited royal families.

In the UK there are basically three levels of society. The nobility (ie people with titles), the gentry (people without titles but above commoners, historically land owners), and the commoners.  The rules on who goes where is somewhat complicated but you can look them up if you want.

As for the British Royal family, the King/Queen can generally decide to grant titles to whomever they want, but custom and societal pressures do place some limits.  Since a decree by King George V in 1917 the children and grandchildren of the current sovereign have the right to the titles of Prince or Princess.  So outside of the main line of succession youll lose the automatic right to a title of Prince or Princess after three generations. The great grand nieces and nephews of Charles III for example would not be entitled to Prince or Princess by that rule.

However, members of the British Royal family may (and many do) also hold other noble titles (such as Duke, Earl, etc) which may or may not be hereditary and pass down to their heirs or entitle their children to Noble titles.  The rules for these are quite complicated and differ from title to title and realm to realm (England, Scottland, Wales, etc).

Finally, while they may not automatically gain titles, descendants of previous monarchs may remain in the line of succession to the throne.  There are, as of last count over 5,700 living descendants of the British Royal line, some obviously very distant from the current main line.  That may seem like a lot but one need not actually look very far to find the first person in the line of succession who does not currently have a title and is thus technically a commoner, and that would be Prince Harrys son Archie, currently 6th in line to the throne.  There is some question remaining of whether he and his sister will become Prince and Princess per the rules of George V (Charles III can change them), but assuming they do get titles its only a few more steps to the next current commoner, #10 in line Sienna Mozzi, daughter of Princess Beatrice, grand-niece of Charles III.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User]
[netflix Castlevania] How did Dracula manage to hide sevearl hundreds of meters of underground castle under Gresit without anyone knowing?

The catacombs under Gresit where Alucard is burried are massive, Trevos and Sypha falls for atleast a hundred meters if not more, this place is absolutely massive, and its mostly hollow, with giant open halls.

Did he just build them and the city grew up on top of them? he cant have built it for Alucard , he only rebelled against his father after his mother died, thats only a year before Trevor finds him there. (Tho the legends of the savior beneith Gresit is ancient, did Dracula burry him there becasue he found it funny that it would now fit the legend or what?)

Or did Dracula teleport it into place specificly to hide Alucard there?

[Assistant]
They've clearly been down there for a very long time, judging from their fragility. Option A makes the most sense: they're older than the city.

Building cities on top of ruins isn't unheard of in real life, by the way.


[System] Given the following post, respond as if you're commenting on Reddit:

[User] [Star Trek] Could the Genesis torpedo 'defeat' Vger?

[Assistant]
Doubtful. If the torpedo impacted then it might do some damage, probably not a one hit KO but still do damage.

The problem is getting the torpedo to hit. The Klingons noted it appeared as though their photon torpedo just disappeared.