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History of immigration to the United States
Film by Edison Studios showing immigrants disembarking from the steam ferryboat William Myers onto Ellis Island on July 9, 1903.
The history of immigration to the United States details the movement of people to the United States starting with the first European settlements from around 1600. Beginning around this time, British and other Europeans settled primarily on the east coast. In 1619, Africans began being imported as slaves. The United States experienced successive waves of immigration, particularly from Europe. Immigrants sometimes paid the cost of transoceanic transportation by becoming indentured servants after their arrival in the New World. Later, immigration rules became more restrictive; the ending of numerical restrictions occurred in 1965. Recently, cheap air travel has increased immigration from Asia and Latin America.
Attitudes towards new immigrants have cycled between favorable and hostile since the 1790s.
Colonial EraEdit
Main articles: Colonial history of the United States, British colonization of the Americas, Thirteen Colonies, European colonization of the Americas, Indentured servant, and Nationality law in the American Colonies
In 1607 the first successful English colony settled in Jamestown, Virginia. Once tobacco was found to be a profitable cash crop, many plantations were established along the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland.
Thus began the first and longest era of immigration, lasting until the American Revolution in 1775; during this time settlements grew from initial English toe-holds from the New World to British America. It brought Northern European immigrants, primarily of British, German, and Dutch extraction. The British ruled from the mid-17th century and they were by far the largest group of arrivals, remaining within the British Empire. Over 90% of these early immigrants became farmers.[1]
Large numbers of young men and women came alone as indentured servants. Their passage was paid by employers in the colonies who needed help on the farms or in shops. Indentured servants were provided food, housing, clothing and training but they did not receive wages. At the end of the indenture (usually around age 21) they were free to marry and start their own farms.[2]
New EnglandEdit
Seeking religious freedom in the New World, one hundred English Pilgrims established a small settlement near Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. Tens of thousands of English Puritans arrived, mostly from the East Anglian parts of England (Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex), as well as Kent and East Sussex.,[3] and settled in Boston, Massachusetts and adjacent areas from around 1629 to 1640 to create a land dedicated to their religion. The earliest New English colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, were established along the northeast coast. Large scale immigration to this region ended before 1700, though a small but steady trickle of later arrivals continued.[4]
The New English colonists were the most urban and educated of all their contemporaries, and they had many skilled farmers, tradesmen and craftsmen among them. They started the first university, Harvard, in 1635 in order to train their ministers. They mostly settled in small villages for mutual support (nearly all of them had their own militias) and common religious activities. Shipbuilding, commerce, agriculture, and fishing were their main sources of income. New England's healthy climate (the cold winters killed the mosquitoes and other disease-bearing insects), small widespread villages (minimizing the spread of disease), and an abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate and the highest birth rate of any of the colonies. The Eastern and Northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the descendants of the original New Englanders. Immigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1% (about equal to the death rate) in nearly all of the years prior to 1845. The rapid growth of the New England colonies (approximately 900,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate (>3%) and the low death rate (<1%) per year.[5]
DutchEdit
The Dutch, primarily driven by the United East Indian Company, first established settlements along the Hudson River in New York starting about 1626. Wealthy Dutch patroons set up large landed estates along the Hudson River and brought in farmers who became renters. Others established rich trading posts to trade with Native Americans and started cities such as New Amsterdam (now New York City) and Albany, New York.[6] After the British took over and renamed the colony New York, Germans (from the Palatinate), and Yankees (from New England) began arriving.[7]
Middle coloniesEdit
Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware formed the middle colonies. Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers from Britain, followed by Ulster Scots (Northern Ireland) on the frontier and numerous German Protestant sects, including the German Palatines. The earlier colony of New Sweden had small settlements on the lower Delaware River, with immigrants of Swedes and Finns. These colonies were absorbed by 1676.[8]
The middle colonies' were scattered West of New York City (established 1626; taken over by the English in 1664) and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (established 1682). The initial Dutch colony of New York had the most eclectic collection of residents from many different nations and prospered as a major trading and commercial center after about 1700. From around 1680 to 1725, the Pennsylvania colonial center was dominated by the Quakers for decades after they emigrated, mainly from the North Midlands of England. During this time, the main commercial center of Philadelphia was run mostly by prosperous Quakers, supplemented by many small farming and trading communities, with a strong German contingent located in several small towns in the Delaware River valley.[9]
Starting around 1680, when Pennsylvania was founded, many more settlers arrived to the middle colonies. Many Protestant sects were encouraged to settle there for freedom of religion and good, cheap land. Their origins were about 60% British and 33% German. By 1780, New York's population were around 27% descendants of Dutch settlers, about 6% were African, and the remainder were mostly English with a wide mixture of other Europeans. New Jersey, and Delaware had a British majority, with 7–11% German-descendants, about 6% African population, and a small contingent of the Swedish descendants of New Sweden.
FrontierEdit
The colonial frontier was mainly settled from about 1717 to 1775. These were mostly Presbyterian settlers from North England border lands, Scotland, and Ulster, fleeing hard times and religious persecution.[10] The fourth major center of settlement was the Western frontier, located in the Western parts of Pennsylvania and in the South, which was settled during the early to late 18th century by mostly Scots-Irish, with others mostly from North England border lands. Some French Huguenots and Germans were also present. Between 250,000 and 400,000 Scotch-Irish migrated to America in the 18th century.[10] The Scotch-Irish soon became the dominant culture of the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Areas where people reported 'American' ancestry were the places where, historically, northern English, Scottish and Scotch-Irish Protestants settled: in the interior of the South, and the Appalachian region.[11] Scotch-Irish American immigrants, were made up of people from the southernmost counties of Scotland who had initially settled in Ireland. They were heavily Presbyterian, and largely self-sufficient. The Scotch-Irish arrived in large numbers during the early 18th century and they often preferred to settle in the back country and the frontier from Pennsylvania to Georgia, where they mingled with second generation and later English settlers. They enjoyed the very cheap land and independence from established governments common to frontier settlements. Often, the main port of entry for these immigrants was Philadelphia, after which they (or, in many cases, their descendants) migrated west and south.
Southern coloniesEdit
The mostly agricultural Southern English colonies initially had very high death rates for new settlers due to malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases as well as skirmishes with Native Americans. Despite this, a steady flow of new settlers, mostly from Central England and the London area, kept up population growth. Initially, the large plantations were mostly owned by friends (mostly minor aristocrats) of the British-appointed governors. A group of Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highlanders created a settlement at Cape Fear in North Carolina, which remained culturally distinct until the mid-18th century, at which point it was swallowed up by the dominant English-origin culture.[12] Many settlers arrived as indentured servants who had to work off their passage with five to seven years of work for room and board, clothing, and training, but no cash wages. After their terms of indentures expired, most of the indentures settled small farms on the frontier. The Southern colonies were about 55% British, 38% Black, and roughly 7% German.[citation needed] The Atlantic slave trade primarily ceased after 1775 and it was outlawed in 1808, although some slaves were smuggled in afterwards.
After 1630, the initial areas of settlement had been largely cleared of Native Americans by major outbreaks of measles, smallpox, and bubonic plague beginning decades before the settlers began arriving in large numbers. The leading killer was smallpox, which arrived in the New World around 1510–1530.[13]
While the thirteen colonies differentiated in how they were settled and by whom, they had many commonalities. Nearly all were settled and financed by privately organized British settlers or families using free enterprise without any significant English Royal or Parliamentary government support or input. Nearly all commercial activity was run in small, privately owned businesses with good credit both at home and in England, which was essential since they were often cash poor. Most settlements were nearly independent of British trade since they grew or made nearly everything they needed; the average cost of imports per household was 5–15 pounds per year. Most settlements were created by complete family groups with several generations often present. The population was typically rural, with close to 80% owning the land they lived and farmed on. After 1700, as the Industrial Revolution progressed, more of the population started to move to cities, much like what had happened in Britain. Initially, the Dutch and German Americans primarily spoke dialects brought over from Europe, while English was the main trade language. Governments and laws primarily copied the English. The only major British institution to be abandoned was the aristocracy, noted by nearly universal absence. The settlers generally established their own popularly elected governments and courts on as many levels as they could and were nearly all, within a few years, self-governing, self-supporting, and self-replicating. This self-ruling pattern became so ingrained that almost all new settlements would have their own government up and running shortly after arrival for the next 200 years.
After the colonies were initially settled, their population growth was made up almost entirely of natural growth with foreign-born immigrant populations rarely exceeding 10% (except in isolated instances). The last significant colonies to be settled primarily by immigrants were Pennsylvania (1680s+), the Carolinas (1663+), and Georgia (1732+). Even here the immigrants came mostly from England and Scotland with the exception of a large Germanic contingent to Pennsylvania. Elsewhere internal American migration from other colonies provided nearly all of the settlers for each new colony or state.[14] Populations grew by about 80% at a 3% "natural" annual growth rate sustained over a 20-year interval.
Over half of all new British immigrants in the South initially arrived as indentured servants.[15] They were mostly poor young people who could not find work in England and could not afford passage to America. In addition, about 60,000 British convicts were transported to the British colonies in the 18th century. Most of these so-called convicts were guilty of being very poor and out of work. "Serious" criminals were generally executed. Ironically, these "convicts" are often the only immigrants with nearly complete immigration records as other immigrants typically showed up with few or no records.[16]
Other coloniesEdit
SpanishEdit
Although Spain set up a few forts in Florida, notably San Agustín (present-day Saint Augustine) in 1565, they sent few settlers to Florida. Spaniards moving north from Mexico founded the San Juan on the Rio Grande in 1598, and Santa Fe in 1607–1608. The settlers were forced to leave temporarily for 12 years (1680–1692) by the Pueblo Revolt before returning.
Spanish Texas lasted from 1690 to 1821 when Texas was governed as a colony which was separate from New Spain. In 1731, Canary Islanders (or "Isleños") arrived to establish San Antonio.[17] The majority of the few hundred Texan and New Mexican colonizers in the Spanish colonial period were Spaniards and criollos.[18] California, New Mexico, and Arizona all had Spanish settlements. In 1781 Spanish settlers founded Los Angeles.
At the time they joined the U.S., Californios in California numbered about 10,000 and Tejanos in Texas about 4,000. New Mexico had 47,000 Spanish settlers in 1842. Arizona was only thinly settled.
However, not all these settlers were of European descent. As in the rest of the American colonies, new settlements were based on the casta system, and although all could speak Spanish, it was really a melting pot of whites, Natives, and mestizos.
FrenchEdit
In the late 17th century, French expeditions established a foothold on the Saint Lawrence River, Mississippi River, and Gulf Coast. Interior trading posts, forts, and cities were thinly spread throughout Louisiana such as Saint Louis, Baton Rouge, Sault Sainte Marie, Prairie du Rocher, and Sainte-Geneviève. The city of Detroit was the third largest settlement in New France. New Orleans expanded when several thousand French-speaking refugees from the region of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, Canada) made their way to Louisiana following British expulsion, settling largely in the Southwest Louisiana region now called Acadiana. Their descendants are now called Cajun and still dominate the coastal areas.[19] It is estimated that 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century.
Population in 1790Edit
The following were the countries of origin for new arrivals to the United States before 1790.[20] The regions marked with an asterisk were part of Great Britain. The ancestry of the 3.9 million population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names from the 1790 census and assigning them a country of origin. The Irish in the 1790 census were mostly Scotch-Irish. The French were primarily Huguenots. The total U.S. Catholic population in 1790 was probably less than 5%. The Native American population inside territorial U.S. boundaries was less than 100,000.[citation needed]
U.S. historical populations
Immigrants before 1790
Population 1790[21]
Africa[22]
England*
Ulster Scotch-Irish*
Germany[23]
Scotland*
Ireland*
(Incl. in Scot-Irish)
Wales*
Jewish[24]
Other[25]
British total
Total[26]
The 1790 population reflected the loss of approximately 46,000 Loyalists, or "Tories", who immigrated to Canada at the end of the American Revolution, 10,000 who went to England and 6,000 to the Caribbean.
The USA of 1790 recorded 3.9 million inhabitant (not counting American Indians). Of the total white population of just under 3.2 million in 1790, 85% was of British ancestry - 60% were English or 1.9 million. 4.3% Welsh, 5.4% Scots, Irish (South) 5.8%, Scots-Irish 10.5%), Germans were 9%, Dutch 3.4%, French 2.1% and Swedish 0.25%; blacks made up 19.3% or 762,000)[27] The number of Scots was 200,000; Irish and Scot-Irish 625,000. The overwhelming majority of Southern Irish were Protestant as there were only 60,000 Catholics in the USA in 1790, 1.6% of the population. Many were descendants of English Catholics settlers in the 17th century. The rest were Irish, German and some Acadians who remained. In this era the population roughly doubled mostly due to natural increase every 23 years. Relentless population expansion pushed the U.S. frontier to the Pacific by 1848. Most immigrants came long distances to settle in the U.S. However, many Irish left Canada for the U.S. in the 1840s. French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860 and the Mexicans who came north after 1911 found it easier to move back and forth.[citation needed]
1790 to 1849Edit
There was relatively little immigration from 1770 to 1830; while there was significant emigration from the U.S. to Canada, including about 75,000 Loyalists as well as Germans and others looking for better farmland in what is now Ontario. Large scale immigration resumed in the 1830s from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of Central Europe as well as Scandinavia. Most were attracted by the cheap farmland. Some were artisans and skilled factory workers attracted by the first stage of industrialization. The Irish Catholics were primarily unskilled workers who built a majority of the canals and railroads, settling in urban areas. Many Irish went to the emerging textile mill towns of the Northeast, while others became longshoremen in the growing Atlantic and Gulf port cities. Half the Germans headed to farms, especially in the Midwest (with some to Texas), while the other half became craftsmen in urban areas.
Nativism took the form of political anti-Catholicism directed mostly at the Irish (as well as Germans). It became important briefly in the mid-1850s in the guise of the Know Nothing party. Most of the Catholics and German Lutherans became Democrats, and most of the other Protestants joined the new Republican Party. During the Civil War, ethnic communities supported the war and produced large numbers of soldiers on both sides. Riots broke out in New York City and other Irish and German strongholds in 1863 when a draft was instituted, particularly in light of the provision exempting those who could afford payment.
Based on available records, immigration totaled 8,385 in 1820, with immigration totals gradually increasing to 23,322 by the year 1830; for the 1820s decade immigration more than doubled to 143,000. Between 1831 and 1840, immigration more than quadrupled to a total of 599,000. These included about 207,000 Irish, starting to emigrate in large numbers following Britain's easing of travel restrictions, and about 152,000 Germans, 76,000 British, and 46,000 French, constituting the next largest immigrant groups of the decade.
Between 1841 and 1850, immigration nearly tripled again, totaling 1,713,000 immigrants, including at least 781,000 Irish, 435,000 Germans, 267,000 British, and 77,000 French. The Irish, driven by the Potato Famine (1845–1849), emigrated directly from their homeland to escape poverty and death. The failed revolutions of 1848 brought many intellectuals and activists to exile in the U.S. Bad times and poor conditions in Europe drove people out, while land, relatives, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the US lured them in.
Population and foreign born 1790–1849
Census population, immigrants per decade
Foreign born
1. The total number immigrating in each decade from 1790 to 1820 are estimates.
2. The number of foreign born in 1830 and 1840 decades are extrapolations.
Starting in 1820, some federal records, including ship passenger lists, were kept for immigration purposes, and a gradual increase in immigration was recorded; more complete immigration records provide data on immigration after 1830. Though conducted since 1790, the census of 1850 was the first in which place of birth was asked specifically. The foreign-born population in the U.S. likely reached its minimum around 1815, at approximately 100,000 or 1% of the population. By 1815, most of the immigrants who arrived before the American Revolution had died, and there had been almost no new immigration thereafter.
Nearly all population growth up to 1830 was by internal increase; around 98% of the population was native-born. By 1850, this shifted to about 90% native-born. The first significant Catholic immigration started in the mid-1840s, shifting the population from about 95% Protestant down to about 90% by 1850.
In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluding the Mexican War, extended U.S. citizenship to approximately 60,000 Mexican residents of the New Mexico Territory and 10,000 living in California. An additional approximate 2,500 foreign born California residents also become U.S. citizens.
In 1849, the California Gold Rush attracted 100,000 would-be miners from the Eastern U.S., Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe. California became a state in 1850 with a population of about 90,000.
"From the Old to the New World" shows German emigrants boarding a steamer in Hamburg and arriving in New York. Harper's Weekly, (New York) November 7, 1874
DemographyEdit
Between 1850 and 1930, about 5 million Germans migrated to the United States, peaking between 1881 and 1885 when a million Germans settled primarily in the Midwest. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 million British and 4.5 million Irish entered America. Before 1845 most Irish immigrants were Protestants. After 1845, Irish Catholics began arriving in large numbers, largely driven by the Great Famine.[28]
After 1880 larger steam-powered oceangoing ships replaced sailing ships, which resulted in lower fares and greater immigrant mobility. In addition, the expansion of a railroad system in Europe made it easier for people to reach oceanic ports to board ships. Meanwhile, farming improvements in Southern Europe and the Russian Empire created surplus labor. Young people between the ages of 15 to 30 were predominant among newcomers. This wave of migration, constituting the third episode in the history of U.S. immigration, may be better referred to as a flood of immigrants, as nearly 25 million Europeans made the long trip. Italians, Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, and others speaking Slavic languages made up the bulk of this migration. 2.5 to 4 million Jews were among them.[citation needed]
DestinationsEdit
Each group evinced a distinctive migration pattern in terms of the gender balance within the migratory pool, the permanence of their migration, their literacy rates, the balance between adults and children, and the like. But they shared one overarching characteristic: they flocked to urban destinations and made up the bulk of the U.S. industrial labor pool, making possible the emergence of such industries as steel, coal, automotive, textile, and garment production, enabling the United States to leap into the front ranks of the world's economic giants.[citation needed]
Their urban destinations, numbers, and perhaps an antipathy towards foreigners, led to the emergence of a second wave of organized xenophobia. By the 1890s, many Americans, particularly from the ranks of the well-off, white, and native-born, considered immigration to pose a serious danger to the nation's health and security. In 1893 a group formed the Immigration Restriction League, and it, along with other similarly inclined organizations, began to press Congress for severe curtailment of foreign immigration.[citation needed]
Irish and German Catholic immigration was opposed in the 1850s by the Nativist/Know Nothing movement, originating in New York in 1843 as the American Republican Party (not to be confused with the modern Republican Party). It was empowered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Catholic immigrants, who were often regarded as hostile to American values and controlled by the Pope in Rome. Active mainly from 1854–56, it strove to curb immigration and naturalization, though its efforts met with little success. There were few prominent leaders, and the largely middle-class and Protestant membership fragmented over the issue of slavery, most often joining the Republican Party by the time of the 1860 presidential election.[29][30]
European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.[31] Many Germans could see the parallels between slavery and serfdom in the old fatherland.[32]
Between 1840 and 1930, about 900,000 French Canadians left Quebec in order to immigrate to the United States and settle, mainly in New England. Considering the fact that the population of Quebec was only 892,061 in 1851, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large portion of them have ancestors who emigrated from French Canada, since immigration from France was low throughout the history of the United States. During the same period almost 4 million other Canadians immigrated to the U.S. In the New England states 12% of the population can trace its ancestry back to Quebec and 10% can trace its ancestry back to the Maritime Provinces.[citation needed] The communities established by these immigrants became known as Little Canada.
Shortly after the U.S. Civil War, some states started to pass their own immigration laws, which prompted the U.S. Supreme Court to rule in 1875 that immigration was a federal responsibility.[33] In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875, also known as the Asian Exclusion Act, outlawing the importation of Asian contract laborers, any Asian woman who would engage in prostitution, and all people considered to be convicts in their own countries.[34]
In 1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. By excluding all Chinese laborers from entering the country, the Chinese Exclusion Act severely curtailed the number of immigrants of Chinese descent allowed into the United States for 10 years.[35] The law was renewed in 1892 and 1902. During this period, Chinese migrants illegally entered the United States through the loosely guarded U.S.-Canadian border.[36]
Illustration from Walter Crane's Columbia's Courtship: A Picture History of the United States in Twelve Emblematic Designs in Color with Accompanying Verses(1893)
Prior to 1890, the individual states, rather than the Federal government, regulated immigration into the United States.[37] The Immigration Act of 1891 established a Commissioner of Immigration in the Treasury Department.[38] The Canadian Agreement of 1894 extended U.S. immigration restrictions to Canadian ports.
Late 19th Century broadside advertisement offering cheap farm land to immigrants; few went to Texas after 1860.
The Dillingham Commission was set up by Congress in 1907 to investigate the effects of immigration on the country. The Commission's 40-volume analysis of immigration during the previous three decades led it to conclude that the major source of immigration had shifted from Central, Northern, and Western Europeans to Southern Europeans and Russians. It was, however, apt to make generalizations about regional groups that were subjective and failed to differentiate between distinct cultural attributes.[39][40]
The 1910s marked the high point of Italian immigration to the United States. Over two million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million between 1880 and 1920.[41][42] About half returned to Italy, after working an average of five years in the U.S.[43]
About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united Sweden-Norway. This accounted for around 20% of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest, especially Minnesota and the Dakotas. Danes had comparably low immigration rates due to a better economy; after 1900 many Danish immigrants were Mormon converts who moved to Utah.[citation needed]
In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. from 1881–1924.
Mulberry Street, along which Manhattan's Little Italy is centered. Lower East Side, circa 1900.
Over two million Central Europeans, mainly Catholics and Jews, immigrated between 1880 and 1924. People of Polish ancestry are the largest Central European ancestry group in the United States after Germans. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.[citation needed]
Lebanese and Syrian immigrants started to settle in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The vast majority of the immigrants from Lebanon and Syria were Christians, but smaller numbers of Jews, Muslims, and Druze also settled. Many lived in New York City's Little Syria and in Boston. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of these immigrants set out West, with Detroit getting a large number of Middle Eastern immigrants, as well as many Midwestern areas where the Arabs worked as farmers.[citation needed]
Congress passed a literacy requirement in 1917 to curb the influx of low-skilled immigrants from entering the country.[citation needed]
Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924, which supplanted earlier acts to effectively ban all immigration from Asia and set quotas for the Eastern Hemisphere so that no more than 2% of nationalities as represented in the 1890 census were allowed to immigrate to America.
New ImmigrationEdit
The Sunday magazine of the New York World appealed to Immigrants with this 1906 cover page celebrating their arrival at Ellis Island.
"New immigration" was a term from the late 1880s that came from the influx of Catholic and Jewish immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (areas that previously sent few immigrants).[44] Though the majority of immigrants came through Ellis Island in New York, thus making the Northeast a major target of settlement, there were various efforts, such as the Galveston Movement, to redirect immigrants to other ports and disperse some of the settlement to other areas of the country.
Nativists feared the new arrivals lacked the political, social, and occupational skills needed to successfully assimilate into American culture. This raised the issue of whether the U.S. was still a "melting pot," or if it had just become a "dumping ground," and many old-stock Americans worried about negative effects on the economy, politics, and culture.[45] A major proposal was to impose a literacy test, whereby applicants had to be able to read and write in their own language before they were admitted.[46]
Catholicism became a leading denomination 1860–1910. St. John Cantius, one of Chicago's "Polish Cathedrals" was one of the churches these new immigrants founded.
Restriction proceeded piecemeal over the course of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but immediately after the end of World War I (1914–18) and into the early 1920s, Congress changed the nation's basic policy about immigration. The National Origins Formula of 1921 (and its final form in 1924) not only restricted the number of immigrants who might enter the United States, but also assigned slots according to quotas based on national origins. A complicated piece of legislation, it essentially gave preference to immigrants from Central, Northern and Western Europe, severely limiting the numbers from Soviet Union and Southern Europe, and declared all potential immigrants from Asia unworthy of entry into the United States.
The legislation excluded the Western Hemisphere from the quota system, and the 1920s ushered in the penultimate era of U.S. immigration history. Immigrants could and did move quite freely from Mexico, the Caribbean (including Jamaica, Barbados, and Haiti), and other parts of Central and South America. This era, which reflected the application of the 1924 legislation, lasted until 1965. During those 40 years, the United States began to admit, case by case, limited numbers of refugees. Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany before World War II, Jewish Holocaust survivors after the war, non-Jewish displaced persons fleeing Communist rule in Central Europe and the Soviet Union, Hungarians seeking refuge after their failed uprising in 1956, and Cubans after the 1960 revolution managed to find haven in the United States when their plight moved the collective conscience of America, but the basic immigration law remained in place.
Equal Nationality Act of 1934Edit
This law allowed foreign-born children of American mothers and alien fathers who had entered America before the age of 18 and had lived in America for five years to apply for American citizenship for the first time.[47] It also made the naturalization process quicker for the alien husbands of American wives.[47] This law equalized expatriation, immigration, naturalization, and repatriation between women and men.[47][48] However, it was not applied retroactively, and was modified by later laws, such as the Nationality Act of 1940.[47][49]
Tydings–McDuffie ActEdit
In 1934, the Tydings–McDuffie Act provided independence of the Philippines on July 4, 1946. Until 1965, national origin quotas strictly limited immigration from the Philippines. In 1965, after revision of the immigration law, significant Filipino immigration began, totaling 1,728,000 by 2004.[50]
Postwar immigrationEdit
In 1945, the War Brides Act allowed foreign-born wives of U.S. citizens who had served in the U.S. Armed Forces to immigrate to the United States. In 1946, The War Brides Act was extended to include the fiancés of American soldiers. In 1946, the Luce-Celler Act extended the right to become naturalized citizens to those from the newly independent nation of The Philippines and to Asian Indians, the immigration quota being set at 100 people per year per country.[51]
At the end of World War II, "regular" immigration almost immediately increased under the official national origins quota system as refugees from war torn Europe began immigrating to the U.S. After the war, there were jobs for nearly everyone who wanted one, when most women employed during the war went back into the home. From 1941 to 1950, 1,035,000 people immigrated to the U.S., including 226,000 from Germany, 139,000 from the UK, 171,000 from Canada, 60,000 from Mexico and 57,000 from Italy.[52]
The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 finally allowed the displaced people of World War II to start immigrating.[53] Some 200,000 Europeans and 17,000 orphans displaced by World War II were initially allowed to immigrate to the United States outside of immigration quotas. President Harry S. Truman signed the first Displaced Persons (DP) act on June 25, 1948, allowing entry for 200,000 DPs, then followed with the more accommodating second DP act on June 16, 1950, allowing entry for another 200,000. This quota, including acceptance of 55,000 Volksdeutschen, required sponsorship for all immigrants. The American program was the most notoriously bureaucratic of all the DP programs and much of the humanitarian effort was undertaken by charitable organizations, such as the Lutheran World Federation as well as other ethnic groups. Along with an additional quota of 200,000 granted in 1953 and more in succeeding years, a total of nearly 600,000 refugees were allowed into the country outside the quota system, second only to Israel's 650,000.
1950sEdit
In 1950, after the start of the Korean War, the Internal Security Act barred admission of Communists, who might engage in activities "which would be prejudicial to the public interest, or would endanger the welfare or safety of the United States."
In 1950, the invasion of South Korea by North Korea started the Korean War and left a war-ravaged Korea behind. There was little U.S. immigration due to the national origin quotas of the immigration law. Significant Korean immigration began in 1965 after revision of the law, totaling 848,000 by 2004.
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 affirmed the national-origins quota system of 1924 and limited total annual immigration to one-sixth of one percent of the population of the continental United States in 1920, or 175,455. This exempted the spouses and children of U.S. citizens and people born in the Western Hemisphere from the quota. In 1953, the Refugee Relief Act extended refugee status to non-Europeans.
In 1954, Operation Wetback forced the return of thousands of illegal immigrants to Mexico.[54] Between 1944 and 1954, "the decade of the wetback," the number of illegal immigrants coming from Mexico increased by 6,000 percent. It is estimated that before Operation Wetback got under way, more than a million workers had crossed the Rio Grande illegally. Cheap labor displaced native agricultural workers, and increased violation of labor laws and discrimination encouraged criminality, disease, and illiteracy. According to a study conducted in 1950 by the President's Commission on Migratory Labor in Texas, the Rio Grande Valley cotton growers were paying approximately half of the wages paid elsewhere in Texas. The United States Border Patrol aided by municipal, county, state, federal authorities, and the military, began a quasi-military operation of the search and seizure of all illegal immigrants. Fanning out from the lower Rio Grande Valley, Operation Wetback moved Northward. Initially, illegal immigrants were repatriated through Presidio because the Mexican city across the border, Ojinaga, had rail connections to the interior of Mexico by which workers could be quickly moved on to Durango. The forces used by the government were relatively small, perhaps no more than 700 men, but were augmented by border patrol officials who hoped to scare illegal workers into fleeing back to Mexico. Ships became a preferred mode of transport because they carried illegal workers farther from the border than buses, trucks, or trains. It is difficult to estimate the number of illegal immigrants that left due to the operation—most voluntarily. The INS claimed as many as 1,300,000, though the number officially apprehended did not come anywhere near this total. The program was ultimately abandoned due to questions surrounding the ethics of its implementation. Citizens of Mexican descent complained of police stopping all "Mexican looking" people and utilizing extreme "police-state" methods including deportation of American-born children who were citizens by law.[55]
The failed 1956 Hungarian Revolution, before being crushed by the Soviets, forged a temporary hole in the Iron Curtain that allowed a burst of refugees to escape, with 245,000 Hungarian families being admitted by 1960. From 1950 to 1960, the U.S. had 2,515,000 new immigrants with 477,000 arriving from Germany, 185,000 from Italy, 52,000 from the Netherlands, 203,000 from the UK, 46,000 from Japan, 300,000 from Mexico, and 377,000 from Canada.
The 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro drove the upper and middle classes to exile, and 409,000 families immigrated to the U.S. by 1970.[56] This was facilitated by the 1966 Cuban Adjustment Act, which gave permanent resident status to Cubans physically present in the United States for one year if they entered after January 1, 1959.
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act)Edit
This all changed with passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, a by-product of the civil rights movement and a jewel in the crown of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society programs. The measure had not been intended to stimulate immigration from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and elsewhere in the developing world. Rather, by doing away with the racially based quota system, its authors had expected that immigrants would come from "traditional" societies such as Italy, Greece, and Portugal, places subject to very small quotas in the 1924 Act. The 1965 Act replaced the quotas with preferential categories based on family relationships and job skills, giving particular preference to potential immigrants with relatives in the United States and with occupations deemed critical by the U.S. Department of Labor.
After 1970, however, following an initial influx from European countries, immigrants from places like Korea, China, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan, as well as countries in Africa became more common.
In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was passed, creating, for the first time, penalties for employers who hired illegal immigrants. IRCA, as proposed in Congress, was projected to give amnesty to about 1,000,000 workers in the country illegally. In practice, amnesty for about 3,000,000 immigrants already in the United States was granted. Most were from Mexico. Legal Mexican immigrant family numbers were 2,198,000 in 1980, 4,289,000 in 1990 (includes IRCA), and 7,841,000 in 2000. Adding another 12,000,000 illegal immigrants of which about 80% are thought to be Mexicans would bring the Mexican family total to over 16,000,000—about 16% of the Mexican population.[citation needed]
1990s: Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act of 1996Edit
Passed in September 1996, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) was a comprehensive immigration reform focused on restructuring the process for admitting or removing undocumented immigrants.[57] Its passing helped to strengthen U.S. immigration laws, restructured immigration law enforcement, and sought to limit immigration by addressing undocumented migration. These reforms affected legal immigrants, those seeking entry into the U.S., and those living undocumented in the U.S.
IIRIRA Changes to AsylumEdit
IIRIRA created new barriers for refugees seeking asylum in the U.S. by narrowing asylum criteria previously established in the Refugee Act of 1980.[58] To prevent fraudulent asylum filings from people who were migrating for economic or work related reasons, IIRIRA imposed an all inclusive filing deadline called the "One Year Bar" to asylum.[59] IIRIRA provided limited exceptions to this rule when an "alien demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Attorney General either the existence of changed circumstances which materially affect the applicant's eligibility for asylum or extraordinary circumstances relating to the delay in filing the application."[60] IIRIRA also made the asylum process more difficult for refugees by allowing for the resettlement of refugees to third countries, "precluding appeals" to denied asylum applications, implementing higher processing fees, and having enforcement officers rather than judges determine the expedited removal of refugees.[57]
IIRIRA and Illegal ImmigrationEdit
Law enforcement under IIRIRA was strengthened to restrict unlawful immigration. The Act sought to prevent illegal immigration by expanding the number of Border Patrol agents and allowing for the Attorney General to obtain resources from other federal agencies. Provisions were also made to improve infrastructure and barriers along the U.S. border area.[61] IIRIRA also delegated law enforcement capabilities to state and local officers via 287(g) agreements.[61] Illegal entry into the U.S. was made more difficult by cooperation between federal and local law enforcement, in addition to stiffening penalties for illegal entry and racketeering activities which included alien smuggling and document fraud.
IIRIRA addressed unlawful migration already present in the U.S. through enhanced tracking systems that included detecting employment eligibility and visa stay violations as well as creating counterfeit-resistant forms of identification.[62] The Act also established the 3 and 10 year re-entry bars for immigrants who accumulated unlawful presence in the U.S. and become inadmissible upon leaving the country. [63]
The restructuring of law enforcement contributed to an increased number of arrests, detentions, and removals of immigrants.[64] Under IIRIRA, the mandatory detention of broad groups of immigrants occurred, including those who had legal residence status but upon removal could have their status be removed after committing violent crimes. Relief and access to federal services were also redefined for immigrants as IIRIRA reiterated the 1996 Welfare Reform Act's tier system between citizens, legal immigrants, refugees, and illegal immigrants which determined public benefits eligibility.[62] In addition, IIRIRA also redefined financial self-sufficiency guidelines of sponsors who previously did not have to meet an income requirement to sponsor an immigrant.[62]
Immigration summary since 1830Edit
The top ten birth countries of the foreign born population since 1830, according to the U.S. Census, are shown below. Blank entries mean that the country did not make it into the top ten for that census, not that there is no data from that census. The 1830 numbers are from immigration statistics as listed in the 2004 Year Book of Immigration Statistics.[65]
• The 1830 numbers list un-naturalized foreign citizens and does not include naturalized foreign born. The 1850 census is the first census that asks for place of birth. The historical census data can be found online in the Virginia Library Geostat Center.[66] Population numbers are in thousands.
Country/Year
1830•
2 148 717 1,180 1,310 953 812 843 745 678
8 584 1,967 2,663 1,609 990 833 849 712
54 962 1,855 1,615 745 339
484 1,790 1,257 1,009 832 581
11 13 641 576 760 2,199 4,298 7,841
501 913 1,222
1,269 748 548 418
27 379 918 1,168 1,403 833 686 669 640
424 1,154 691 463 406
Total foreign born
108* 2,244 6,679 10,341 14,204 10,347 9,619 14,079 19,763 31,100
0.8%* 9.7% 13.3% 13.6% 11.6% 5.8% 4.7% 6.2% 7.9% 11.1%
Native born
12,677 20,947 43,476 65,653 108,571 168,978 193,591 212,466 228,946 250,321
% Native born
99.2% 90.3% 86.7% 86.4% 88.4% 94.2% 95.3% 94% 92.1% 88.9%
Persons obtaining legal permanent resident status fiscal years 1820–2010[67]
1820 8,385 1885 395,346 1950 249,187
1825 10,199 1890 455,302 1955 237,790
1840 84,066 1905 1,026,499 1970 373,326
1845 114,371 1910 1,041,570 1975 385,378
1850 369,980 1915 326,700 1980 524,295
1860 153,640 1925 294,314 1990 1,535,872
1870 387,203 1935 34,956 2000 841,002
1875 227,498 1940 70,756 2005 1,122,257
Historical foreign-born population by stateEdit
Foreign-born population by U.S. state as a percentage of the total population (1850–2010)[68][69]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Immigration in the United States.
Demographics of the United States
History of immigration to Canada
Guest Worker Program
Race and ethnicity in the United States
Ethnic groupsEdit
European Americans
Emigration from Europe
American Jews
Albanian Americans
Austrian Americans
Baltic Americans
Estonian Americans
Latvian Americans
Lithuanian Americans
Belgian Americans
British Americans
Cornish Americans
English Americans
Manx Americans
Scottish Americans
Welsh Americans
Slavic Americans
Belarusian Americans
Bosnian Americans
Bulgarian Americans
Croatian Americans
Czech Americans
Macedonian Americans
Montenegrin Americans
Polish Americans
Russian Americans
Rusyn Americans
Serbian Americans
Slovak Americans
Slovenian Americans
Ukrainian Americans
Scandinavian Americans
Danish Americans
Faroese Americans
Finnish Americans
Greenlandic Americans
Icelandic Americans
Norwegian Americans
Sami Americans
Swedish Americans
Swedish emigration to the United States
Armenian Americans
Cypriot Americans
Dutch Americans
Flemish Americans
French Americans
Breton Americans
Georgian Americans
German Americans
Greek Americans
Hungarian Americans
Irish Americans
Italian Americans
Sicilian Americans
Luxembourg Americans
Maltese Americans
Pennsylvania Dutch, refers to German immigrants in colonial Pennsylvania
Portuguese Americans
Romani Americans
Romanian Americans
Spanish Americans
Basque Americans
Swiss Americans
African immigration to the United States
Central Africans in the United States
Horn Africans in the United States
North Africans in the United States
Southeast Africans in the United States
Southern Africans in the United States
West Africans in the United States
Middle Eastern Americans
Afghan Americans
Assyrian Americans
Azerbaijani Americans
Iranian Americans
Iraqi Americans
Kurdish Americans
Lebanese Americans
Pashtun Americans
Saudi Americans
Syrian Americans
Turkish Americans
Asian immigration to the United States
Bangladeshi Americans
Burmese Americans
Cambodian Americans
Chinese Americans
Hmong Americans
Indian Americans
Japanese Americans
Karen Americans
Korean Americans
Laotian Americans
Pakistani Americans
Filipino Americans
Tajikistani Americans
Uzbek Americans
Vietnamese Americans
Pacific Islander Americans
Australian Americans
Fijian Americans
French Polynesian Americans
Marshallese Americans
Māori Americans
Micronesian Americans
New Zealand Americans
Palauan Americans
Samoan Americans
Tongan Americans
Canadian Americans
Hispanic and Latino Americans
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^ Several West African regions were the home to most African immigrants. Population from U.S. 1790 Census.
^ Germany in this time period consisted of a large number of separate countries, the largest of which was Prussia.
^ Jewish settlers from several European countries.
^ The Other category probably contains mostly English ancestry settlers; but the loss of several states' census records make better estimates difficult. The summaries of the 1790 and 1800 census from all states survived.
^ Total represents total immigration over the approximately 130 year span of existence of the U.S. colonies as found in the 1790 census. At the time of the American Revolution the foreign born population was estimated to be from 300,000 to 400,000.
^ Bonwick, Colin (1991). The American Revolution. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-8139-1347-6. quoting from Purvis, Thomas L. (January 1984). "The European Ancestry of the United States Population, 1790". William and Mary Quarterly. 41 (1): 85–101. doi:10.2307/1919209. JSTOR 1919209 – via JSTOR.
^ Jay P. Dolan, The Irish Americans: A History (2010) pp. 67–83
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^ Immigration Act of 1891 Archived April 17, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
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^ Antonio de la Cova. "Italian Immigrants". Latinamericanstudies.org. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
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^ Petit, Jeanne D. (2010). The Men and Women We Want: Gender, Race, and the Progressive Era Literacy Test Debate. University of Rochester Press. ISBN 978-1-58046-348-5.
^ a b c d Sally Kitch (August 6, 2009). The Specter of Sex: Gendered Foundations of Racial Formation in the United States. SUNY Press. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-1-4384-2754-6.
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^ Richard Marback (February 16, 2015). Generations: Rethinking Age and Citizenship. Wayne State University Press. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-0-8143-4081-3.
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^ Acer, Eleanor; Byrne, Olga (June 2017). "How the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 Has Undermined US Refugee Protection Obligations and Wasted Government Resources". Journal on Migration and Human Security. 5 (2): 356–378. doi:10.1177/233150241700500207. ISSN 2331-5024.
^ Schrag, Philip G. (2010). Rejecting Refugees : Homeland Security's Administration of the One-Year Bar to Asylum. OCLC 775859663.
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^ a b Macías-Rojas, Patrisia (January 2018). "Immigration and the War on Crime: Law and Order Politics and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996". Journal on Migration and Human Security. 6 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1177/233150241800600101. ISSN 2331-5024.
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Barkan, Elliott Robert. And Still They Come: Immigrants and American Society, 1920 to the 1990s (1996), by leading historian
Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage (1999), 600 pp; essays by scholars on 27 groups
Barone, Michael. The New Americans: How the Melting Pot Can Work Again (2006)
Bayor, Ronald H., ed. The Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity (2015)
Bodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (1985)
Dassanowsky, Robert, and Jeffrey Lehman, eds. Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America (2nd ed. 3 vol 2000), anthropological approach to 150 culture groups; 1974 pp
Gjerde, Jon, ed. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (1998) primary sources and excerpts from scholars.
Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. American Immigrant Cultures 2 vol (1997) covers all major and minor groups
Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia (2003) (ISBN 0-313-31643-0)
Steidl, Annemarie et al. From a Multiethnic Empire to a Nation of Nations: Austro-Hungarian Migrants in the US, 1870–1940 (Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2017). 354 pp.
Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980) (ISBN 0-674-37512-2), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups online
Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics (1990)
Recent migrationsEdit
Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001
Hernández, Kelly Lytle. "The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943 to 1954," Western Historical Quarterly, 37 (Winter 2006), 421–44.
Kemp, Paul. Goodbye Canada? (2003), from Canada to U.S.
Khadria, Binod. The Migration of Knowledge Workers: Second-Generation Effects of India's Brain Drain, (2000)
Mullan, Fitzhugh. "The Metrics of the Physician Brain Drain." New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 353:1810–18 October 27, 2005 Number 17
Odem, Mary and William Brown. Living Across Borders: Guatemala Migrants in the U.S. South Southern Spaces, 2011.
Palmer, Ransford W. In Search of a Better Life: Perspectives on Migration from the Caribbean Praeger, 1990.
Skeldon, Ronald, and Wang Gungwu; Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese 1994.
Smith, Michael Peter, and Adrian Favell. The Human Face of Global Mobility: International Highly Skilled Migration in Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific, (2006)
Historical studiesEdit
Alexander, June Granatir. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1870–1920: How the Second Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (2nd ed. Ivan R. Dee, 2009) 332 pp.
Archdeacon, Thomas J. Becoming American: An Ethnic History (1984)
Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. Immigration in U.S. History (2006)
Bergquist, James M. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1820–1870: How the First Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (2nd ed. Ivan R. Dee, 2009) 329 pp.
Cohn, Raymond L. Mass Migration under Sail: European Immigration to the Antebellum United States (2009) 254 pp.; emphasis on economic issues
Daniels, Roger. Coming to America 2nd ed. (2002) ISBN 0-06-050577-X
Daniels, Roger. Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (2005)
Eltis, David; Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800
Glynn, Irial: Emigration Across the Atlantic: Irish, Italians and Swedes compared, 1800–1950 , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: June 16, 2011.
Handlin, Oscar. The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People (1951), classic interpretive history; Pulitzer prize for history
Hoerder, Dirk and Horst Rössler, eds. Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, 1840–1930 1993. 312 pp
Hourwich, Isaac. Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States (1912), argues immigrants were beneficial to natives by pushing them upward
Jenks, Jeremiah W. and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigrant Problem (1912; 6th ed. 1926) based on 1911 Immigration Commission report, with additional data
Kulikoff, Allan; From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers (2000), details on colonial immigration
LeMay, Michael, and Elliott Robert Barkan. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History (1999)
Miller, Kerby M. Emigrants and Exiles (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration
Motomura, Hiroshi. Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (2006), legal history
Wittke, Carl. We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (1939), 552 pp good older history that covers major groups
HistoriographyEdit
Archdeacon, Thomas J. "Problems and Possibilities in the Study of American Immigration and Ethnic History", International Migration Review Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1985), pp. 112–34 in JSTOR
Diner, Hasia. "American Immigration and Ethnic History: Moving the Field Forward, Staying the Course", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2006, Vol. 25 Issue 4, pp. 130–41
Gabaccia, Donna. "Immigrant Women: Nowhere at Home?" Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 10, No. 4 (Summer, 1991), pp. 61–87 in JSTOR
Gabaccia, Donna R. "Do We Still Need Immigration History?", Polish American Studies Vol. 55, No. 1 (Spring, 1998), pp. 45–68 in JSTOR
Gerber, David A. "Immigration Historiography at the Crossroads." Reviews in American History v39#1 (2011): 74–86. in Project MUSE
Gerber, David A. "What's Wrong with Immigration History?" Reviews in American History v 36 (December 2008): 543–56.
Gjerde, Jon. "New Growth on Old Vines – The State of the Field: The Social History of Ethnicity and Immigration in the United States", Journal of American Ethnic History 18 (Summer 1999): 40–65. in JSTOR
Harzig, Christiane, and Dirk Hoerder. What is Migration History (2009) excerpt and text search
Joranger, Terje, and Mikael Hasle. "A Historiographical Perspective on the Social History of Immigration to and Ethnicity in the United States", Swedish-American Historical Quarterly, Jan 2009, Vol. 60 Issue 1, pp. 5–24
Jung, Moon-Ho. "Beyond These Mythical Shores: Asian American History and the Study of Race", History Compass, March 2008, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 627–38
Kazal, Russell A. "Revisting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept in American Ethnic History", American Historical Review Vol. 100, No. 2 (Apr. 1995), pp. 437–71 in JSTOR
Kenny, Kevin. "Twenty Years of Irish American Historiography", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 4, pp. 67–75
Lederhendler, Eli. "The New Filiopietism, or Toward a New History of Jewish Immigration to America", American Jewish History, March 2007, Vol. 93 Issue 1, pp. 1–20
Meagher, Timothy J. "From the World to the Village and the Beginning to the End and After: Research Opportunities in Irish American History", Journal of American Ethnic History, Summer 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 4, pp. 118–35 in JSTOR
Persons, Stow. Ethnic Studies in Chicago, 1905–1945 (1987), on Chicago school of sociology
Rodriguez, Marc S. (2004). Repositioning North American Migration History: New Directions in Modern Continental Migration, Citizenship, and Community. U. of Rochester Press. ISBN 9781580461580.
Ross, Dorothy. The Origins of American Social Science (1992), pp. 143–71, 303–89 on early sociological studies
Rothman, David J. "The Uprooted: Thirty Years Later", Reviews in American History 10 (September 1982): 311–19, on influence of Oscar Handlin in JSTOR
Segal, Uma Anand (2002). A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States. Columbia U.P. ISBN 978-0-231-12082-1.
Stolarik, M. Mark. "From Field to Factory: The Historiography of Slovak Immigration to the United States", International Migration Review, Spring 1976, Vol. 10 Issue 1, pp. 81–102 in JSTOR
Ueda, Reed (2011). A Companion to American Immigration. Wiley. ISBN 9781444391657.
Vecoli, Rudolph J. "Contadini in Chicago: A Critique of The Uprooted", Journal of American History 5 (December 1964): 404–17, critique of Handlin in JSTOR
Vecoli, Rudolph J. "'Over the Years I Have Encountered the Hazards and Rewards that Await the Historian of Immigration,' George M. Stephenson and the Swedish American Community", Swedish American Historical Quarterly 51 (April 2000): 130–49.
Weinberg, Sydney Stahl, et al. "The Treatment of Women in Immigration History: A Call for Change" Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1992), pp. 25–69 in JSTOR
Primary sourcesEdit
U.S. Immigration Commission, Reports of the Immigration Commission (1911) complete set of reports
Abstracts of Reports, 2 vols. (1911); summary of the full 42-volume report; see also Jenks and Lauck
Reports of the Immigration Commission: Statements (1911) text of statements pro and con
Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey: English translations of 120,000 pages of newspaper articles from Chicago's foreign language press from 1855 to 1938.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States&oldid=904554118"


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Harry Khachatrian
THE ROLLING STONES' 'LET IT BLEED,' ALTAMONT, AND THE END OF THE 1960S
Posted on December 9, 2019 by Harry
This December marks the 50th anniversary of the Rolling Stones' seminal 60s record, "Let it Bleed." A record which, with its accompanying American tour, marked, and more broadly encapsulated, the end of an era: the 1960s.
The 60s was defined by its youth, aestheticized by the carefree hippie counterculture movement that made pilgrimages to music festivals and experimented with psychedelics. The end of the decade, however, saw the political and social climate become increasingly turbulent. Domestically, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968. Riots followed. Less than three months later, JFK's brother Robert Kennedy met a similar fate. In 1969, a string of brutal murders in California by members of the Manson family followed by a deadly stabbing at a Rolling Stones' concert at the Altamont Speedway further rocked the nation. Overseas, in Southeast Asia, America's entanglement in the Vietnam War was at its peak. Meanwhile, in Europe, democratic, liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia were crushed under Soviet tanks as the Communists rolled through Prague.
While the world around them was on fire, the Rolling Stones themselves were, by the end of the decade, on the brink of collapse, brimming with financial woe and internal conflict. They hadn't toured since 1966 (except a few European shows in '67) and under the new management of Allen Klein, had seen whole swaths of their royalties funneled into Klein's pockets. Meanwhile, the band's founder, Brian Jones, had been slowly deteriorating for years, succumbing to his worst, most self-destructive vices. He had been absent for most recording sessions, and, even when present, was barely able to function. While this was happening, his girlfriend, Anita Pallenberg, left him for Keith Richards. And bassist Bill Wyman was going through his divorce, while Mick Jagger's relationship with his girlfriend, Marianne Faithful, deteriorated as she spiralled down the rabbit-hole of addiction herself.
It was against this dark and disorderly backdrop that the Rolling Stones began sessions for their 8th U.K. studio album. The bulk of the record was recorded over six-months, beginning in February 1969. What resulted was a record that reflected not just the era in which it was recorded, but the internal state of the band recording it. Rather than allowing themselves to be consumed and destroyed by the turbulence and chaos surrounding them and boiling within, the Stones instead channelled that dark aura onto the grooves of their 1969 magnum opus, "Let It Bleed."
With Brian Jones' mental state, weighed down by his addiction, not to mention the bevy of arrests on his criminal record hampering potential U.S. tours, the band had no other option but to replace the founder of the group. On May 30, 1969, Mick Taylor from John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers played his first session with the Rolling Stones in Olympic Studios.
It was around that time that the band recorded the opening track, "Gimme Shelter." There's a reason Martin Scorsese used this song in three of his gangster films ("Goodfellas," "Casino," and "The Departed"). It starts with a subtle, foreboding guitar riff. Next, as the drums kick in, a new layer is added: a creepy, brooding background vocal, those haunting "oohs," coupled with the creaking sound of guiros, leading up to Jagger's vocals. The song is composed and structured to convey the dread of an impending storm, as well as its impact. It's like a hurricane that starts with a trickle and builds to a thunderous pour. The opening lines, "A storm is threatening my very life today," were written by Richards in his London apartment, staring out into the dreary, stormy skies and pouring out his anger and frustration at Mick Jagger over a suspected affair he was having with his then–girlfriend, Anita Pallenberg.
The entire composition is elevated, rocketed through the stratosphere in its second half by the soulful Merry Clayton. Her gospel cries, pushing her vocal prowess to its breaking point as her voice cracks on the third iteration singing, "Rape, murder! It's just a shot away, it's just a shot away," animate the aesthetics of the era – the late 60s – the racial tensions, the anti–war protests, et al. In those few minutes and simple lyrics, "Gimme Shelter" sends genuine shivers running down your spine.
If "Let it Bleed," as a record, marked the transition period from the Stones' Brian Jones era to the Mick Taylor era, then its second track, "Love in Vain," a Robert Johnson blues cover, is where Keith Richards officially replaced Jones as the blues engine of the band. The tragic irony of this track is that Brian Jones, the man who formed the band with intent to import the blues to Britain, was completely absent from these sessions where the Stones played the purest, most earthly blues they'd done yet. Richards, apart from playing his guitar parts, played all of Jones', including Jones' signature slide guitar. While covers are sometimes put on records as filler to make up for lack of material, the Stones' "Love in Vain" is far from facile. Richards, influenced by Gram Parsons at the time, made the song entirely his own, rewriting it as a country-blues arrangement.
The Stones' latest single at the time was "Honky Tonk Women." When it came to putting it on the record, Jagger and Richards stripped the grease and slickness clean off the twangy single, exposing its acoustic, country-blues underpinnings, and releasing it in all its rawness. "Country Honk," the resulting track, isn't showy or grand. Whereas "Honkey Tonk Women" is electric, refined, and written for concert venues, "Country Honk" is relaxed and laid-back. It exudes that country aesthetic of southerners sitting back in wooden rocking chairs and strumming their guitars at the ranch, off, somewhere in Jackson, Tennessee.
Posted in Music	| Tagged Classic Rock, Let it Bleed, Rock and roll, The Rolling Stones
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: THE ROLLING STONES
Posted on August 6, 2019 by Harry
"Ladies and Gentlemen: The Rolling Stones." These thundering words precede a pantheon of rock and roll that takes its place on stage as tens of thousands of fans, whose ages span several generations, look on in anticipation and joy.
It all started for the big, bad progenitors of rock and roll back in 1962. At London's Marquee Jazz Club where, one summer night, the Rolling Stones played their first ever gig. At the time, their roster featured founder and multi-instrumentalist extraordinaire, Brian Jones; vocalist Mick Jagger; guitarist Keith Richards; and keyboardist, Ian Stewart. United by their passion for American blues, the unparalleled ensemble set off to bring the music of Chuck Berry, Muddy Mutters, et al. to Europe. As Richards explains in his autobiography, Life, "the British invasion was really an invasion of American music into Europe." The four were joined a few months later, in January, by bassist Bill Wyman and jazz drummer Charlie Watts, thus completing the lineup.
In May of 1963, with a producer on board, the Rolling Stones were signed by Decca, the record label notorious for passing on The Beatles. In June, the Stones released their first single, "Come On," a Chuck Berry cover.
They have been at it ever since, performing more than 2,000 concerts around the world, with grueling, nearly nonstop touring through the 1960s and early 1970s. They have claimed the title of top-grossing tour four separate times and amassed the world's highest-grossing tours in both the 1990s and 2000s.
Now, showing no signs of stopping, the Stones are in the last stretch of their latest tour, "No Filter," spanning two continents, and 45 shows. But the tour has not been without turbulence. A brief scare postponed the last set of shows, as Jagger had to undergo emergency heart surgery. However, Jagger — who just celebrated his 76th birthday — recovered from heart surgery at around the same rate that most adolescents recover from having their wisdom teeth pulled out. Within mere weeks, he announced he was back to his usual exercise routine and had a clean bill of health from his doctor. The tour was back on.
I, myself, saw the Rolling Stones play in their one Canadian show, and suffice it to say, every minute of the six hours spent standing still against the stage-front barricade was worth it for the spectacle that followed. The Stones regaled spectators with fan favorites, the majority of the set-list being drawn from the band's famed, four sequential chef d'oeuvres: Beggars Banquet (1968), Let it Bleed (1969), Sticky Fingers (1971), and Exile on Main St. (1972).
Lesser-known records were played as well, especially thanks to the audience having a say in the set-list via online voting. Contenders were picked from a bag of forgotten hits and esoteric cuts off earlier albums: "Mercy Mercy" from 1965's Out of our Heads – played for the first time in 50 years; "Under My Thumb" from 1966's Aftermath; and the one I got to see, "She's a Rainbow." It was a welcome revival of a colorful, pop-ballad from the Stones' oft-overlooked, early-era Pink Floyd inspired album, Their Satanic Majesties Request.
The Stones opened the show with the energetic, lively paean to protest: "Street Fighting Man." Jagger emerged, draped in glam and glitter, his bellowing vocals filling the field, Richards in his usual debonair, driving the main riff, Ronnie Wood and Darryl Jones commanding the band's tight rhythm, and Watts keeping the beat, as a bona fide human metronome. Any remaining qualms concerning the Stones' ability to perform at peak performance were henceforth quashed.
Posted in Music	| Tagged Classic Rock, Music, Rock and roll, The Rolling Stones
Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the USA", 35 Years Old Today
Posted on June 4, 2019 by Harry
Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." marks its 35th anniversary today. The American rock icon's seventh studio album was met with massive commercial success upon release, featuring seven top-ten singles; it was certified as a three-times platinum record within a year of its release, and has sold over 30 million copies just since 2012.
Working with remnant recordings from sessions off of his then-previous record release, "Nebraska," Springsteen reunited with the E-Street Band and producer Jon Landau to assemble his most pop-infused album since "Born to Run."
In "Born in the U.S.A.," Springsteen pooled a flourishing gamut of themes and ideas explored in previous records: The poignant depths of the human spirit on the verge of collapse from "Nebraska" (1982); the hardship of lost love and heartbreak from "The River" (1980); and the eminence of one's roots and upbringing in "Born to Run" (1975).
In honor of the album's anniversary, here's a deeper dive into a few key songs that, 35 years later, have stood the test of time, and carry themes as relevant today as they were in 1984.
Born in the U.S.A.
The eponymous opening track, "Born in the U.S.A." sets the tone for the album, kicking off as the most anthemic rocker in Springsteen's discography since "Born to Run." Set against a backdrop of red, white, and blue, it's easy to see why the album's title track is oft misinterpreted as either a paean to patriotism and America or as an anti-war harangue.
In fact, it's neither of the two. If anything, it leans closer to the upbeat celebration of Americana than its browbeating. In standard Springsteen style, the song is a story, telling the tale of a wounded combatant who, at no choosing of his own, was sent off to fight in Vietnam and then returns home to find his town left hung out to dry.
Come back home to the refinery
Hiring man said "son if it was up to me"
Went down to see my V.A. man
He said "son, don't you understand"
There's a widespread consensus now that the Vietnam War was largely a tragic boondoggle. It isn't a controversial position. And Springsteen, in his lyrics, doesn't focus on the vagaries of Vietnam; he instead lends his voice to the neglected and abandoned veterans of the conflict.
Springsteen's affection for the downtrodden veterans of Vietnam has its reprise on the opening track of the record's B-Side (the flip-side of the record), "No Surrender." The track ties the album back to its namesake theme.
Well, we made a promise we swore we'd always remember
No retreat, baby, no surrender
Like soldiers in the winter's night
With a vow to defend
The song "No Surrender" is about camaraderie and staying true to oneself in the face of adversity. Springsteen communicates this idea soulfully:
Now on the street tonight the lights grow dim
The walls of my room are closing in
There's a war outside still raging
You say it ain't ours anymore to win
I want to sleep beneath
Peaceful skies in my lover's bed
With a wide open country in my eyes
And these romantic dreams in my head
Once we made a promise we swore we'd always remember
Blood brothers in a stormy night
Life is unpredictable. But even in the thick of battle, amid raging war when all one wants to do is go to sleep and dream of a more idyllic era, one has to stay true to himself and to those around him. No retreat, baby, no surrender.
Posted in Music	| Tagged America, Born in the USA, Bruce Springsteen, Music, Patriotism
CHARLES AZNAVOUR: 1924-2018
Posted on October 8, 2018 by Harry
Charles Aznavour (Shahnour Vaghinag Aznavourian), the Paris-born Armenian singer-songwriter, actor, and diplomat, who was known as "France's Frank Sinatra", died this month, on October 1st, 2018.
Born in 1924 to Armenian immigrants who'd fled to France amid Turkey's perpetration of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Armenians in the early 20thcentury, Aznavour was raised by a family of artists. His father was a singer, performing in French restaurants prior to opening his own.
Aznavour dropped out of school at a young age of nine to pursue his career as an entertainer — before his 10th birthday, he'd already starred in a movie and a theater production. Despite his young age, Aznavour insisted that he was never pressured or forced to become a performer. To him, it was a natural calling. "People say that they put me on the stage, but I put myself there. It was natural. It was what I wanted to do."
Aznavour later shifted his focus to professional dancing. He didn't write his first song until the age of 24 in 1950.
He got his big break when he began opening for the legendary French singer, Edith Piaf. After his distinctive rich, mellow voice caught her attention, Piaf took Aznavour under her wing, mentoring the young virtuoso. Piaf advised Aznavour to pursue a singing career.
Aznavour went on to command a career lasting 80 years. He wrote a whopping 1000 songs, sold 180 million albums, and dazzled audiences in sold-out auditoriums well into his 90's. He sang in an astounding 8 different languages: French, English, Italian, Spanish, German, Russian, Armenian, and Neapolitan.
Aznavour's music knew no boundaries, touching upon an eclectic range of themes.
He wrote songs that by any standard were ahead of their time. In "What Makes a Man" (1972), Aznavour sang about a gay transvestite. The lyrics are overall great but especially outstanding are the lines, "Nobody has the right to be; the judge of what is right for me; tell me if you can; what make a man a man."
Posted in Armenian Genocide, Arts, Hollywood, Music, World War II	| Tagged Arts, Hollywood, Music

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Film Noir of Lampedusa by Clay Apenouvon
"Film Noir of Lampedusa." Clay Apenouvon
"Film Noir of Lampedusa" (November 20 - December 20, 2015)
Artist: Clay Apenouvon
Commissioned by the Église Saint-Merri, (Church Saint Merri) for the Paris Climate Conference COP21. Installation in situ: Extended plastic film with various objects.
In this extraordinary installation, artist Clay Apenouvon, born in Togo, West Africa, has created a haunting memorial to the untold thousands of migrants/refugees from Africa and the Middle East who have struggled across the Mediterranean to reach Sicily and the safety of Europe in makeshift boats and rafts. In many cases, their corpses and possessions have washed up on the small Italian island of Lampedusa, 70 miles from Tunisia and 127 miles from Sicily. The artist is inspired by the work of Lampedusa activist Giacomo Sferlazzo, who has tirelessly collected the objects thrown overboard or lost at sea by the refugees and assembled them into a "Museum of Silence," composed of the mute traces of those lost forever beneath the waves.
Nearly all of those who attempt this perilous crossing are climate refugees, victims of the modern world's relentless hunger for hydrocarbon-based energy. The current wars and economic crises in Africa and the Middle East are ultimately driven by struggles over oil and related resources, and are exacerbated by climate change, itself the product of the endless burning of fossil fuels. Here, from a ledge that sometimes hold the host, an endless waterfall of blackness pours out from the walls, a vast oil spill that cannot be capped. Upon the floor of the sanctuary waves of black gold disgorge all manner of lost things—a mismatched pair of children's shoes, a bottle containing a message of love, a Qur'an, an image of the virgin, a small crucifix, a cell phone. In this corner of a stunningly beautiful ancient church we find ourselves before a latter-day sacrificial altar, pondering all those whose dreams of refuge will never be realized.
The work's title, "Film Noir," has many allusions. It recalls the black film left on the ocean's surface by each oil spill. It reminds us that so many of the victims of the Mediterranean are African, who all too quickly fade from the view and conscience of the world's wealthy nations. It evokes as well the Film Noir genre of Hollywood melodrama, celebrated for tangled plot lines of crime and passion, low key lighting and unbalanced composition. For here we are in the presence of a vast crime scene, a movie reel that plays over and over and over again, a film noir nightmare from which, it appears, we can never awake.
The installation was commissioned for the Paris Climate Conference COP21, before the brutal mass murders of Friday, November 13 in the environs of the Saint Merri Church. The work now strikes us eerily prophetic, anticipating the spontaneous memorials erected to the lost in the nearby Place de la République. The very walls of the church, one senses, are weeping—for all the victims, near and far. This endless filmstrip of tragedy plays again and again, mute testimony to all those who can no longer speak for themselves.
Appropriately, Apenouvon's installation emerges from beneath the grand painting by Charles Antoine Coypel, Les Disciples d'Emmaüs,(The Disciples of Emmaus, 1749), Soon after his death and resurrection, Jesus reveals himself to two of his disciples, who are despondent over his crucifixion. When he breaks bread with them, they recognize him and are filled with joy (Luke 24:13-35). This setting, it seems to me, is even more deeply appropriate after the terrorist horrors of November 13. In our anguish, in our grief, whatever our faith, we long for some trace of hope, for a better future for ourselves and for those that will come after us. That is the spirit of COP21—an insistence that we gaze squarely and unflinchingly upon the ravages to which our planet is now subjected, combined with a demand that we act in concert to imagine, and actively produce, a better world. That is now the silent prayer of Clay Apenouvon, a Parisian born in West Africa: that the atrocities of the Paris assaults will not cause us to turn our back on the world's least fortunate, on the refugees struggling to reach Fortress Europe. The terrorists, after all, viciously attacked those engaged in the most fundamental expressions of common humanity—eating and drinking together, listening to music, dancing together. Should not our response, in the spirit of Coypel's painting of the scene from Luke 21, be to move beyond misrecognition of those whom we encounter on the journey? Should we not, instead, recognize in the Other all that binds us, from the richest and poorest, and join in that most basic of communions, breaking bread together?
Posted by Mark Auslander at 8:23 AM


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Jet 2 launches new routes from Belfast
Posted on 10th July 2008 at 2:23 pm.
Written by Team Writer
Home » News » Jet 2 launches new routes from Belfast
Low-cost airline Jet 2 announced plans last week to launch two new routes flying from Northern Ireland's Belfast International Airport. Beginning in 2009, the flights will serve Menorca, one of the Balearic Islands and Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands. The new routes will increase the total number of Jet 2 services from the airport to thirteen, offering Northern Ireland holidaymakers even more choice of budget destinations.
Both Jersey and Menorca have been popular destinations with travellers for many years, each offering a taste of idyllic island life. Menorca is particularly popular with families and couples seeking quiet beaches and relaxing holidays. Jersey also draws in many holidaymakers each year, as well as a large number of people travelling to the Channel Islands on business.
Jet 2's prices are a great incentive for holidaymakers, particularly in the current financial climate. From May 29th 2009 travellers will be able to purchase one-way flights to Menorca for £55.99 and to Jersey for just £34.99, both inclusive of taxes and fees.
John Doran, managing director at Belfast International Airport, commended Jet 2's decision to increase its usage of Belfast Airport, acknowledging that Northern Ireland travellers now have even more reasons to fly from Belfast rather than from Dublin, a much larger and busier airport. He said: "We are delighted to acknowledge Jet 2's commitment to delivering greater choice for Northern Ireland travellers."
There are now a total of 48 services flying from Belfast, a number which is expected to increase even further over the next few years.
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Mollie Cronin
Curator 2015
Mollie Cronin was born in Windsor, Ontario, in 1993 and grew up in Fredericton, New Brunswick, and Halifax, Nova Scotia. She completed the Foundation Year Programme at the University of King's College in 2012 before transferring to NSCAD University where she earned a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Art History in 2015. A self-described "art brat", Cronin was raised by two parents both heavily involved in the Halifax arts scene and has grown to become an involved member herself – whether this involvement takes the form of curation, writing, speaking, volunteering, or through the arts podcast that she runs out of the No Offense* Gallery on Gottingen street. Mollie Cronin currently resides in Halifax where she works full-time as a collections supervisor, as well as a freelance writer and curator.
Art Out Loud, Nova Scotia Creative Awards Gala
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Enjoy Whisky
Visit Our Distillery
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Your Need To Know Guide
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Eperimental bartender
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Catching up with friends
I recently caught up with an old friend and very important whisky connoisseur, Mahesh Patel.
It is fair to say that Mahesh's great passion in life is whisky. A successful commercial real estate developer in Atlanta, Georgia, he is best known in whisky circles as the founder of the Universal Whisky Experience. An event for whisky aficionados, connoisseurs, and collectors, it is a great opportunity to attend master classes taught by brand leaders and sample some of the finest whisky from around the world.
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Exporters' Choice Award
OeKB takes on honour in Venice
In 2016 OeKB was voted "Best Performing ECA in 2016" by 100 leading export companies in Europe as part of the Exporters' Choice Awards. On 7th of June 2016 the prize was officially presented at the TXF conference in Venice.
OeKB best Export Credit Agency (ECA) 2016
For several years, Trade & Export Finance (TXF), a renowned London-based conference and trend analysis agency, has been awarding Exporters' Choice Awards in several categories. In 2016, OeKB won the Export Credit Agencies (ECA) category for the first time after its already good performance in the previous years.
At a conference in Venice in early June, the awards were handed over to the winners. Helmut Bernkopf, Member of the Board, and Ferdinand Schipfer, then OeKB Director for Export Guarantees, accepted the award and are delighted with the first place: "We are very happy about this award and it is very motivating to see that our constant commitment for the benefit of the exporting industry is appreciated. However, this price does not make us complacent, but rather spurs us on to continue working with full commitment for Austria's economy. "
Top marks in customer care and competence
The results are based on a telephone survey of more than 100 export companies from 25 countries. The quality of ECAs was questioned in nine different dimensions such as business understanding, flexibility, risk appetite, product range or customer orientation. The overall result consists of the evaluation of these key criteria. OeKB received particularly good marks for customer support and expertise.
Ferdinand Schipfer and Helmut Bernkopf with the Exporters' Choice Award.