text:
Esta é uma visão estilo linha do tempo sobre como iniciou o conceito do software livre e evoluiu ao longo do tempo. A principal referência para o texto é o material disponível no Centro de Competência de Software Livre (IME/USP) intitulado Software Livre e Propriedade Intelectual: Aspectos Jurídicos, Licenças e Modelos de Negócio.

Início
Na década de 60, os computadores de grande porte, utilizados quase exclusivamente em grandes empresas e instituições governamentais, dominavam o mercado da Computação. Nesta época, não era comum do ponto de vista comercial a ideia do software como algo separado do hardware. O  software era entregue junto com o código-fonte ou, em muitas vezes, apenas o código-fonte, pois os utilizadores frequentemente modificavam-o para corrigir falhas ou adicionar novos recursos.  Existiam grupos de usuários que compartilhavam código e informações. A IBM, em 1967, já distribuia um sistema operacional para mainframes de modo muito similar ao Software Livre. Grupos de utilizadores como o do IBM 701, chamado SHARE, e o da Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), chamado DECUS se formaram para facilitar a troca de software. Assim, no início, para aqueles que tinham acesso à tecnologia, o software era livre.

1956: O governo dos EUA proíbe a AT&T de entrar no comércio de software (isso levou, posteriormente, o Bell Labs a distribuir livremente o seu Unix).

1960: O software é distribuído com seu código-fonte e sem nenhuma restrição em grupos de software como SHARE (IBM) e DECUS (DEC).

1969: O Request for Comments (RFC), que descreve a primeira Internet (depois chamada de ARPANET), é publicado; Ken Thompson e Dennis Ritchie desenvolvem uma versão simplificada do MULTICS para um PDP-7. Esse sistema foi batizado por Brian Kernighan de UNICS e depois como UNIX (um sistema operacional multitarefa).

Surgimento do software restrito e berço do software livre
Durante a década de 60 uma mudança começou a ocorrer: conforme os sistemas operacionais e os compiladores das linguagens de programação evoluíram, os custos manufatureiros de software aumentavam dramaticamente.  Uma pequena, embora crescente indústria de software se formava, e competia com os softwares empacotados pelas manufaturas de hardware (o custo do software empacotado estava incluído nos custos do hardware), máquinas arrendadas exigiam suporte de software, mas não forneciam nenhum retorno pelo software, e alguns clientes capazes de satisfazer melhor suas próprias necessidades não queriam estes custos de software embutidos nos custos dos produtos de hardware. No processo antitruste Estados Unidos contra IBM, iniciado em , o governo americano cobrou que software empacotado era anticompetitivo.

A IBM, líder do mercado de computadores de grande porte, anunciou que a partir de 1970 iria vender parte de seus programas separada do hardware.  Assim, a indústria de software mudou a sua cultura, tornando cada vez mais comum as restrições de acesso e as possibilidades de compartilhamento de código entre desenvolvedores.  O software começou a ser comercializado como os produtos de prateleira de um supermercado. Bill Gates, aos 21 anos, através da "carta aberta aos hobistas" levanta o potencial comercial do software como produto no mercado de microcomputadores e questiona a viabilidade do desenvolvimento fora do "modelo de prateleira". Nesta carta, Bill Gates alega que a prática de compartilhamento de software não é justa e afirma que tal prática evita que software bem feito seja escrito.
Neste mesmo período houve iniciativas que levaram à produção de sistemas de software livre que estão em uso até os dias de hoje, como o SPICE, TeX e Unix. Desde 1972, o Unix está em contínuo desenvolvimento e deu origem a diversas variantes, comercializadas por dezenas de empresas. O Unix tornou-se popular entre os desenvolvedores por conta da sua filosofia de compartilhamento e a relação com as universidades e centros de pesquisas.  Mesmo assim, em 1991, a AT&T Bell Labs demonstrou uma mudança de mentalidade ao tentar processar a Universidade de Berkeley por conta da publicação do código Unix BSD que o grupo de pesquisa de Berkeley (CSRG – Computer Systems Research Group) tinha criado.  Desde 1973, o CSRG havia sido um dos principais centros de desenvolvimento do Unix e de aplicações a ele relacionadas.

1970: Surge a ARPANET, precursora da Internet; A IBM começa a vender seu software separadamente, estabelecendo assim o início da indústria do software restrito.

1972: Portagem do Unix para outros PDP. Para simplificar esse processo, a equipe de Ken Thompson tenta reescrever o Unix em outra linguagem (B ou BCPL). A equipe melhora a linguagem B e cria a linguagem C para reescrever o Unix; Unix começa a ser distribuído em universidades e centros de pesquisa.

1973: Inicia-se a história do Unix BSD com a chegada do Unix à Universidade de Berkeley, na Califórnia; SPICE é colocado por Donald Pederson em domínio público.

1975: Lançada a primeira versão do Ingres, banco de dados livre (o ancestral do PostgreSQL).

1976: Bill Gates escreve a "carta aberta aos hobistas".

1977: A Arpanet atinge mais de 100 computadores.

1978: Donald Knuth, da Universidade de Stanford, começou a trabalhar no TeX, distribuído como software livre.

1979: AT&T começa a forçar licenças restritivas ao decidir que poderia lucrar através do sistema Unix.

O nascimento do movimento do software livre

Em 1980 foram criados os primeiros projetos organizados de forma consciente para serem software livre, assim como foram estabelecidos os fundamentos éticos, legais e financeiros desse movimento. Em 1984, Richard Stallman, então funcionário do laboratório de inteligência artificial do (AI Lab) MIT, deixou seu emprego e começou a trabalhar no Projeto GNU. Stallman gostava de compartilhar seus interesses tecnológicos, conhecimentos e código, algo incompatível com seu ambiente de trabalho no MIT. Podemos exemplificar alguns fatos ocorridos: um caso onde uma irritante falha no software de uma impressora Xerox não podia ser corrigida pois o código-fonte estava inacessível para seus usuários; um desacordo entre Stallman e a Symbolics sobre o acesso do MIT às atualizações feitas em sua máquina Lisp. Estes fatos motivaram Richard Stallman a criar um mecanismo legal a fim de garantir que, além daqueles que receberiam os programas diretamente do Projeto GNU, todos os demais pudessem desfrutar os direitos de copiar, redistribuir e modificar o software. Inclusive, todos aqueles que recebessem algum software após qualquer número de redistribuições e, eventualmente, modificações, também deveriam poder gozar dos mesmos direitos associados ao software original distribuído pelo Projeto GNU. Esta foi a razão pela qual ele elaborou a Licença GPL. Além disso, para institucionalizar o Projeto GNU, bem como obter fundos para desenvolver e proteger o software livre, de acordo com os princípios éticos que ele publicou no Manifesto GNU, Stallman fundou a Free Software Foundation (FSF). Dessa forma, definitivamente nomeado, nasce o Movimento do Software Livre.

1981: A IBM fecha acordo com Microsoft para que ela forneça o DOS para o PC, mas desconsidera a relevância do software e abre mão do copyright do DOS, abrindo espaço para a expansão da Microsoft, graças ao mercado de clones do PC surgido posteriormente.

1983: Richard Stallman posta mensagem no grupo net.unix-wizards com o assunto "new Unix implementation"; Anuncia a criação do GNU e explica seus princípios para a necessidade de criação de um novo Unix; Menciona que serão necessários um núcleo, um editor e um compilador, entre outras ferramentas. No final ele pede contribuições na forma de máquinas, dinheiro e ajuda para escrever o software.

1984: Stallman pede demissão do AI Lab do MIT para se dedicar ao Projeto GNU, e usa o termo software livre no Manifesto GNU; O primeiro software do Projeto GNU é liberado, o GNU Emacs, escrito por Richard Stallman e Guy L. Steele.

1985: O consórcio X distribui o sistema de janela X como software livre; Richard Stallman funda a Free Software Foundation (FSF). A FSF define software livre baseado em 4 liberdades fundamentais; GCC, escrito por Richard Stallman e Len Towe, tem sua primeira versão finalizada.

1987: Andrew Tanenbaum escreve uma versão didática simplificada do Unix, denominada MINIX; Para arrecadar dinheiro, a FSF vende cópias do software GNU em fita magnética por 150 dólares.

1989: A FSF cria o conceito de copyleft e a Licença GPL para garantir as 4 liberdades do software; Michael Stonebreaker, criador do Ingres, lança o PostgreSQL como software livre; A Cygnus, primeira empresa que essencialmente começou a prover serviços para software livre é fundada por Michael Tiemann, David Henkel-Wallace e John Gilmore; Começa a ser desenvolvido o Network Simulator (NS), um simulador de rede de telecomunicações livre, que passaria a ser o mais usado por pesquisadores de todo o mundo.
O advento da Usenet no começo de 1980 interligou ainda mais a comunidade de programadores e forneceu uma maneira mais simples para programadores compartilharem software e contribuírem para softwares escritor por outros.

Linux

Em julho de 1991, Linus Torvalds, um estudante finlandês da Universidade de Helsinki, de 21 anos de idade, divulgou sua primeira mensagem mencionando o seu projeto de construir um sistema livre similar ao Minix, e obteve ajuda de diversos desenvolvedores, de diversas partes do planeta. Linus já estava na pós-graduação e resolveu fazer experiências com o novo computador 386 que recebera na época. Ele conseguiu fazer com que um primeiro esboço do que seria o núcleo de seu sistema operacional executasse dois programas concorrentemente. Assim, anunciou na Internet que tinha um protótipo de sistema operacional. Em setembro do mesmo ano, Linus lançou uma versão oficial. Em março de 1994, a versão 1.0, a primeira a ser chamada de estável, foi liberada. Durante esse período, centenas de desenvolvedores se juntaram ao projeto para integrar todo o sistema GNU em torno do núcleo do Linux. Ao contrário dos BSDs, o núcleo do Linux e um grande número de componentes integrados em torno dele foram distribuídos sob licença GPL.  A falta de um núcleo informático para o Projeto GNU significa que não havia nenhum sistema operacional completamente livre.  O desenvolvimento do núcleo de Torvalds fechou este último vácuo.  A combinação do quase completo sistema operacional GNU e o núcleo Linux criou o primeiro sistema operacional totalmente livre. Dessa forma, nasceu o sistema operacional GNU/Linux. Linus relata que não queria dinheiro para esta empreitada por uma série de razões. Quando ele postou o Linux originalmente, ele sentiu que estava seguindo os passos de centenas de cientistas e outros acadêmicos: Pessoas que construíram seu trabalho apoiando-se em outros, ou seja, "apoiando-se nos ombros de gigantes".
Em 1992, surgiram as primeiras distribuições GNU/Linux, entre elas a SLS, que mais tarde deu origem ao Slackware (ainda distribuída atualmente). Isso levou à criação de uma competição no mundo dos sistemas empacotados em torno do GNU/Linux.
Desse momento em diante, o modelo original de desenvolvimento de software e compartilhamento de conhecimento foi resgatado, porém coexistindo com o modelo de software restrito que ganhara força nas duas décadas anteriores. O aspecto mais revolucionário do movimento de software livre não está na questão do código ser aberto, mas no fato de ter sido a primeira comunidade a explorar as novas possibilidades de desenvolvimento e colaboração, geograficamente distribuídos, que a Internet possibilita.
Dentre as distribuições GNU/Linux, a Debian GNU/Linux, iniciada por Ian Murdock em 1993, é notável por ser explicitamente comprometida com os princípios do GNU e da FSF para com softwares livres. Os princípios dos desenvolvedores do Debian estão expressos no Contrato social do Debian. Desde a sua incepção, o projeto Debian tem sido ligado de perto com a FSF, e foi de fato patrocinado pela FSF durante o ano de 1994-5. Em 1997, o ex-líder do projeto Debian Bruce Perens também ajudou a encontrar Software in the Public Interest, uma organização sem fins lucrativos de apoio e financiamento para vários projetos de software livre.
O GNU/Linux permanece software livre sob os termos da GNU GPL, mas muitas empresas oferecem produtos personalizados baseados nele, ou suporte técnico profissional, em contratos comerciais.  A nomenclatura permanece controversa dentre as comunidades, com grupos argumentando para ambos "Linux" (o nome genérico para código apenas aberto) e "GNU/Linux" (para código totalmente livre) para o sistema operacional completo.

1990: A FSF anuncia que pretende desenvolver um núcleo para o sistema GNU, chamado de GNU Hurd, com o objetivo de completar o sistema operacional.

1991: William e Lynne Jolitz escrevem uma série sobre "como adaptar o BSD Unix para PC i386"; Linus Torvalds anuncia a criação do Free Minix, usando as ferramentas do Projeto GNU, como o GCC, e poucos meses depois lança a primeira versão do Linux.

1992: A força aérea dos Estados Unidos faz um contrato com a universidade de Nova York para desenvolver uma versão livre do compilador ADA. Eles escolhem o GNU GCC como base e criam o GNAT (GNU NYU Ada 95 Translator ); Lançado 386BSD 0.1, que depois deu origem ao NetBSD, FreeBSD e OpenBSD.

1993: A empresa SuSE é fundada com negócios são baseados em Slackware traduzido para o Alemão; FreeBSD 1.0 é disponibilizado na Internet.

1994: A Ada Core Technologies é fundada pelos desenvolvedores do GNAT e se torna líder do mercado de compiladores ADA; Debian GNU/Linux 0.91 é lançado, como resultado do desenvolvimento voluntário de 20 pessoas; Marc Ewing lança a primeira versão do Red Hat Linux.

1995: Bob Young funda a Red Hat Software ao comprar a distribuição Red Hat Linux; O Red Hat Linux 2.0 é lançado, a primeira com o formato de empacotamento RPM; Apache 0.6.2, primeira versão oficial, é lançado; Criado o MySQL.

1996: O projeto KDE é anunciado com o objetivo de tratar os problemas de usabilidade para o usuário final de ambientes similares ao Unix, que utilizam o sistema de janelas X.

Eric Raymond, a criação da OSI e o restante da história

Em 1997, Eric Raymond, apresenta o artigo e palestra A catedral e o bazar, onde discute as vantagens técnicas do software livre e aborda os mecanismos de funcionamento do desenvolvimento descentralizado. Em 1998, Raymond foi um dos protagonistas, junto com Linus Torvalds, da criação da Open Source Initiative (OSI), defendendo a adoção do software livre por razões técnicas e sugerindo o uso da expressão open source ao invés de free software. A principal motivação para a adoção da expressão open source foi introduzir o software livre no mundo dos negócios de uma forma mais palatável para empresas mais conservadoras, evitando a ambiguidade do termo free (que pode significar tanto livre quanto gratuito, na língua inglesa). A Open Source Initiative foi fundada em  para encorajar o uso do novo termo e evangelizar os princípios do código aberto para todos.

Para divulgar o lançamento desta nova forma de apresentar o movimento do software livre, Raymond publica, em fevereiro de 1998, o texto Goodbye, free software; hello, open source . Alguns membros da comunidade, em especial Richard Stallman e parte da comunidade em torno da FSF, não concordaram com o uso do termo pois, para eles, o termo software livre é mais apropriado. Assim, Stallman publica, em resposta, o texto: Why Free Software is better than Open Source. Como a receptividade do termo Open Source nas empresas foi bem significativa, ele foi adotado por muitos como a melhor maneira de se referir ao software livre, particularmente na língua inglesa.
A pluralidade de ideias e concorrência natural entre os sistemas e aplicações dentro do movimento software livre fazem parte de seu mecanismo de evolução, bem como influencia positivamente em sua qualidade. A concorrência entre os navegadores, ferramentas de escritório, gerenciador de janelas e banco de dados são os exemplos mais conhecidos. Do restante da história do software livre até os dias atuais, podemos encontrar uma grande quantidade de soluções de alta qualidade que foram e estão sendo liberadas sob licença livre, em geral apoiadas tanto pela OSI) quanto pela FSF.

1997: Eric Raymond apresenta a palestra A catedral e o bazar. Miguel de Icaza anuncia o projeto GNOME, um concorrente do KDE que nasce como resposta da FSF a problemas de licença com o KDE.

1998: Netscape Communications Corporation libera o navegador Netscape Communicator como software livre. Este código se transformou dentre outros, no popular Mozilla Firefox e no Thunderbird; Eric Raymond cria o movimento Open Source e cria a OSI; Corel anuncia o NetWinder, uma rede de computador baseada em Linux; Sun Microsystems e Adaptec são as primeiras grandes empresas a fazerem parte da Linux International; IBM anuncia que irá comercializar e dar suporte à Apache; Debian GNU/Linux 2.0, como trabalho de mais de 300 voluntários; KDE 1.0 é lançado e incorporado a várias distribuições GNU/Linux; Linus é capa da revista Forbes, representando o reconhecimento do mundo corporativo ao Linux e ao software livre; Microsoft reconhece o GNU/Linux e o software livre como importantes concorrentes e descreve como atacá-los, de acordo com os Halloween documents;  O arcabouço Qt foi licenciado sob a licença Q Public License QPL.

1999: Dell, HP e SGI anunciam que irão dar suporte a GNU/Linux em seus computadores; GNOME 1.0 é lançado; Red Hat Software compra a Cygnus e se torna a maior empresa do mundo na área de software livre; Criado o SourceForge.net, maior repositório de projetos de software livre.

2000: Mozilla M13, o primeiro considerado estável, é lançado; Criada a fundação GNOME; A Sun libera o código-fonte do seu StartOffice sob licença LGPL e é criado o projeto OpenOffice.org.

2001: Linux 2.4 é lançado; IBM anuncia investimento de US$ 1 bilhão no Linux; Surge a Wikipedia; Neste mesmo ano, Marcelo Tosatti (brasileiro!) tornou-se o primeiro latino americano a manter um código-fonte do kernel, indicado por Alan Cox e aprovado por Linus.

2002: Consórcio ObjectWeb é fundado pela Bull, France Telecom e INRIA, na França; KDE 3.0 e GNOME 2.0 são lançados e os gerenciadores de janelas chegam ao nível de concorrer com os desktops comerciais; Mozilla 1.0, o primeiro oficial estável, é disponibilizado; OpenOffice.org 1.0 é lançado; As primeiras licenças Creative Commons para compartilhamento de outros tipos de obras intelectuais
(que não software) são publicadas.

2003: Motorola inicia vendas do A760, o primeiro telefone celular com um Linux; Mozilla Foundation é criada; Lançado o Fedora Core, versão comunitária do Red Hat Linux; SCO processa IBM por suposto código de sua propriedade inserido no Linux, levantando dúvidas no mercado sobre a legitimidade do software livre e da licença GPL, mas perde.

2004: Novell compra a SuSE por 210 milhões de dólares; Primeira versão do Ubuntu e do Firefox são lançadas;

2005: MandrakeSoft compra a empresa brasileira Conectiva e a americana Lycoris, resultando na Mandriva; Open Document Format (ODF), usado pelo OpenOffice 2.0, é reconhecido como padrão pela OASIS; Sun Microsystems disponibiliza o Open Solaris, versão livre do sistema operacional Solaris; Nicholas Negroponte anuncia o projeto OLPC (One Laptop Per Child), projeto do MIT tendo como base o Linux.

2006: Primeiro protótipo do XO (One Laptop per Child) é disponibilizado; Sun libera a máquina virtual Java sob licença GPL (alterada para permitir que se distribua em aplicações comerciais); ODF é padronizado pela OASIS ODF TC e se torna um padrão ISO; Firefox atinge 200 milhões de downloads (12% do mercado mundial e 20% do Europeu); Neo1973, usando a plataforma OpenMoko para telefones móveis, é apresentado; Marcelo Tosatti desliga-se na tarefa de manutenção do núcleo e passa a trabalhar na RedHat.

2007: A Sun libera também a JDK sob GPLv2; Após longas controvérsias, FSF lança a versão definitiva da GPL versão 3; O estudo FLOSSImpact  sobre o efeito (especialmente econômico) do software livre, financiado pela Comissão Europeia, é publicado (o primeiro estudo de larga escala sobre o assunto); A Red Hat lança o IcedTea.

2008: Nokia compra TrollTech, dona da biblioteca multiplataforma e livre Qt, e anuncia transformação do Symbian em software livre.

2009: Oracle compra Sun Microsystems por US$ 7,4 bilhões e entra definitivamente no mercado de software livre, inclusive adquirindo o MySQL que havia sido comprado pela Sun.

2010: Oracle fecha escritórios da Sun na América Latina e não mantém a mesma relação com a comunidade software livre. A comunidade do Java ligada ao movimento do software livre volta a discutir a preferência e investimentos no OpenJDK; A Trolltech tornou a versão compatível com Unix das bibliotecas Qt disponíveis sob a GPL, além da QPL;  A Global Graphics completa uma pesquisa de opinião com 400 diretores de informática () de organizações acima de 1000 empregados nos EUA e no Reino Unido que mostra que aproximadamente três quartos, 76 porcento, das grandes organizações utiliza software livre em seus negócios, e mais da metade, 51 porcento, planeja aumentar esta utilização em 2010.

2011: Linus Torvalds disponibiliza a versão 2.6.38 do kernel do Linux. Entre as novidades, uma modificação no gerenciamento de processos (o wonder patch), que permite um melhor desempenho aos ambientes Desktop; Rompendo a tradição, neste mesmo ano foi lançada a versão 3.0 sem que houvesse alterações de grande impacto. A razão para isto é uma homenagem ao software livre, que faz 20 anos; OSI define uma nova política de estruturação interna que prevê a participação direta da comunidade em sua governança. Anuncia-se que os membros do corpo diretivo da OSI serão agora eleitos pelas instituições associadas a OSI e pelos grupos de trabalho da comunidade.

Este resumo da história do software livre mostra que ele já é realidade há mais de duas décadas como movimento e como solução tecnológica de alta qualidade e segurança.

Software livre no Brasil

Ver também

Software livre
Projeto GNU
GNU Hurd
GNU/Linux
Linux
GNU IceCat
Mozilla Firefox
História do Linux

Ligações externas

Software Is for Sharing, Time Magazine, By Philip Elmer-Dewitt, Jul 30, 1984
Richard Stallman speaking about free software and the GNU project in 1986, Sweden
David A. Wheeler on the history of free software, from his "Look at the numbers!" paper
The Daemon, the GNU, and the Penguin, by Peter Salus
Documents about the BSD lawsuit that lead to 386BSD and then FreeBSD
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution (January 1999)
The history of Cygnus solutions, the largest free software company of the early 90s
LWN.net's 1998-2008 timeline part 1 (part 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Open Source Software, a paper by Oliver Mezquita Prieto
Google timelines: Free software, GNU,BSD, Linux, Open source
A Brief History of FreeBSD, by Jordan Hubbard
UNESCO Free Software Portal
 Infinite Hands, a free licensed folk song about the history of free software.

Software livre
História da informática
Cultura da computação
História do software livre e do código aberto


text:
The Association of Architecture School Librarians (AASL) was founded in 1979. Its membership is open to any person or institution interested in the advancement of academic architectural librarianship and architecture education.

Mission

AASL was established to advance academic architectural librarianship, to develop and enhance the role of architecture school librarians in the advancement of architectural education, and to promote a spirit of cooperation among members of the profession.

History

AASL was established in January 1979 at the annual meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture.

Organizational structure

The officers of AASL consist of a president, vice-president/president-elect, secretary, treasurer, webmaster, column editors, and the immediate past president.
Past officers are listed on the association's website.

Annual conferences

AASL meets annually with the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture. Topics of conference sessions include collection development, user education, image retrieval, internet resources, special collections, electronic databases, the library's role in architecture school accreditation, and the acquisition of local architectural information.

The association introduced an open-access Conference Content Portal in 2016 that provides access to content produced for and/or sponsored by the AASL annual conference.

2019 - 41st annual, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
2018 - 40th annual, Denver, Colorado
2017 - 39th annual, Detroit, Michigan
2016 - 38th annual, Seattle, Washington
2015 - 37th annual, Toronto, Ontario
2014 - 36th annual, Miami, Florida
2013 - 35th annual, San Francisco, California
2012 - 34th annual, Boston, Massachusetts
2011 - 33rd annual, Montreal, Quebec
2010 - 32nd annual, New Orleans, Louisiana
2009 - 31st annual, Portland, Oregon
2008 - 30th annual, Houston, Texas
2007 - 29th annual, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
2006 - 28th annual, Salt Lake City, Utah
2005 - 27th annual, Chicago, Illinois
2004 - 26th annual, Miami, Florida
2003 - 25th annual, Louisville, Kentucky
2002 - 24th annual, New Orleans, Louisiana
2001 - 23rd annual, Baltimore, Maryland
2000 - 22nd annual, Los Angeles, California
1999 - 21st annual,. Minneapolis, Minnesota
1998 - 20th annual, Cleveland, Ohio
1997 - 19th annual, Dallas, Texas
1996 - 18th annual, Boston, Massachusetts
1995 - 17th annual, Seattle, Washington
1994 - 16th annual, Montreal, Quebec
1993 - 15th annual, Charleston, South Carolina
1992 - 14th annual, Disney World, Florida
1991 - 13th annual, Washington, District of Columbia
1990 - 12th annual, San Francisco, California
1989 - 11th annual, Chicago, Illinois
1988 - 10th annual, Quebec City, Quebec
1987 - 9th annual, Los Angeles, California
1986 - 8th annual, Miami, Florida
1985 - 7th annual, Vancouver, British Columbia
1984 - 6th annual, Charleston, South Carolina
1983 - 5th annual, Santa Fe, New Mexico
1982 - 4th annual, Quebec City, Quebec
1981 - 3rd annual, Asilomar, California
1980 - 2nd annual, San Antonio, Texas
1979 - 1st annual, Savannah, Georgia

Awards and honors

AASL offers two travel awards to its annual conference and two service awards.

The travel awards are the Francis Chen Travel Award and the Student Travel Award, both established in 2007.

The service awards are the Distinguished Service Award (established in 2012) and the Professional Service Award (established in 2015).

Past recipients are listed on the association's website.

Affiliated organizations

 ARCHLIB
 Art Libraries Society of North America
 Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture
 Society of Architectural Historians
 Visual Resources Association

See also
List of library associations

References

External links

Library associations

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Национальный медицинский исследовательский институт нейрохирургии имени академика Н. Н. Бурденко Министерства здравоохранения Российской Федерации (НИИ им. Н. Н. Бурденко) — научно-исследовательский медицинский институт нейрохирургии. Университет является лучшим нейрохирургическим учреждением Российской Федерации и занимает 9 место в Европе. Крупнейшая в Европе нейрохирургическая клиника, где ежегодно выполняют более 10 000 нейрохирургических операций.

История
В 1929 году Н. Н. Бурденко и невролог В. В. Крамер организовали при Государственном рентгеновском институте 40-коечное нейрохирургическое отделение, которое в 1932 году было преобразовано в Центральный нейрохирургический институт; в 1934 году  он получил отдельное помещение на 300 коек.

В разные годы Институт нейрохирургии возглавляли академики АМН СССР:
 1946—1947 — Владимир Николаевич Шамов
 1947—1964 — Борис Григорьевич Егоров
 1964—1975 — Александр Иванович Арутюнов
 1975—2014 — Александр Николаевич Коновалов
 2014—2019 — Александр Александрович Потапов
 2019 г. по настоящее время Институт возглавляет член-корреспондент РАН Дмитрий Юрьевич Усачёв.

На базе Института был создан Всесоюзный Нейрохирургический Совет, Всесоюзная проблемная комиссия «Хирургическое лечение заболеваний ЦНС», Научный совет «Нейрохирургия» РАМН и Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития РФ.

На базе института проводятся курсы повышения квалификации, на которых обучается более 150 врачей в год, преподавание нейрохирургии студентам Российского государственного медицинского университета, работают кафедры общей и педиатрической нейрохирургии Российской медицинской академии постдипломного образования.

В 1968 году впервые в стране при Институте был создан специализированный диссертационный совет по специальности «Нейрохирургия», в котором защищено 110 тем докторских и 450 кандидатских диссертаций.

Достижения учёных института нейрохирургии опубликованы не менее чем в 175 монографиях, учебниках и руководствах СССР и РФ, а также за рубежом (США, Германия, Италия, Китай и др.). По инициативе Института нейрохирургии с 1937 г. издаётся один из первых в мире профессиональный журнал «Вопросы нейрохирургии».

Благодаря сотрудникам института, появились новые научные направления: нейропсихология (А. Р. Лурия), количественная нейроанатомия (С. М. Блинков) и нейропсихиатрия (А. С. Шмарьян).

В мае 2002 года открыт музей Института нейрохирургии.

Направления деятельности института

НИИ Нейрохирургии специализируется на проблемах разного уровня нейрохирургии, а именно:
 Детская нейрохирургия
 Сосудистая нейрохирургия
 Нейроонкология
 Нейротравматология
 Спинальная нейрохирургия
 Функциональная нейрохирургия
 Химиотерапия при заболеваниях ЦНС
 Стереотаксическая лучевая терапия и радиохирургия
 Нейрореабилитация
 Нейрореаниматология
 Диагностика заболеваний нервной системы:
 Нейрорентгенология
 Нейроофтальмология
 Отоневрология
 Нейропсихиатрия
 Нейрофизиология

Помимо нейрохирургии, в институте развиваются смежные медицинские дисциплины:
 нейрорентгенология (М. Б. Копылов, Н. Н. Альтгаузен, А. М. Кун),
 нейрореаниматология (В. А. Неговский, А. З. Маневич),
 нейроморфология (А. С. Чернышёв, Б. Н. Клосовский, Л. И. Смирнов, А. П. Авцын),
 нейрофизиология (П. К. Анохин, В. С. Русинов, В. Е. Майорчик),
 отоневрология (Г. С. Циммерман, О. С. Агеева-Михайлова, Н. С. Благовещенская),
 нейроофтальмология (М. Н. Благовещенский, А. Я. Самойлов, А. В. Скородумова),
 ликворология (А. Ц. Возная, Т. П. Бургман),
 нейробиохимия (А. В. Труфанов, М. Ш. Промыслов).
 нейропсихология (А. Р. Лурия),
 количественная нейроанатомия (С. М. Блинков)
 нейропсихиатрия (А. С. Шмарьян).

Известные сотрудники института

В Институте работали А. А. Арендт, А. И. Арутюнов, С. Г. Ахундов, С. С. Брюсова, Н. Я. Васин, Н. М. Волынкин, Г. А. Габибов, И. Н. Ефремова, И. М. Иргер, Л. С. Кадин, Э. И. Кандель, Л. А. Корейша, Г. П. Корнянский, О. А. Максакова, В. И. Ростоцкая, М. А. Салазкин, Ф. А. Сербиненко, К. Г. Тэриан, А. А. Шлыков, С. Н. Фёдоров и другие.

Примечания

Литература

Ссылки
 Научно-исследовательский институт нейрохирургии имени академика Н. Н. Бурденко РАМН
 6-е Нейроонкологическое отделение
 3-е клиническое отделение (сосудистая нейрохирургия)

Институты РАМН
Нейрохирургия
Радиотерапевтические клиники
Тверской район
Появились в 1932 году в России


text:
WETL (91.7 FM) is a radio station licensed to serve the community of South Bend, Indiana, United States. The station is owned by the South Bend Community School Corporation and airs a high school radio format, with programming designed and hosted by high school students. The station is housed at James Whitcomb Riley High School. Students in any of the school corporation's four high schools can take a class in radio and TV broadcasting, which provides credit through Vincennes University.

History

On July 2, 1958, the School City of South Bend applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a new FM radio station in South Bend. The construction permit was granted on September 3, but even before then, plans were made to put the station into use. School City had received a Ford Foundation grant to study the use of radio programming as part of an experiment in enlarged homeroom sizes at three of the district's high schools.

WETL began broadcasting on 91.9 MHz on November 18, 1958. Its six hours a day of programming nearly exclusively consisted of classes to be received by students. Programming originated from the Audio-Visual Center on the third floor of the then-Morris School (now Tippecanoe Place) the former home of Clement Studebaker; the radio station was located in the ballroom, while studios were converted from cedar closets that had once held furs. From the early days, student-produced programming also featured alongside the classes. The first school to get on the air was Riley High School; two students produced a 15-minute weekly magazine program on school happenings. After the first year of the program, it was successful enough that radio instruction was expanded from 1,200 to 4,200 students. In 1962, the station broadcast its first programs for a general audience with a series of classical music shows airing five nights a week. In 1969, school offices moved out of the Morris School into another former Studebaker building, and WETL also was relocated there.

In 1976, WETL moved from 91.9 to 91.7 MHz; this change was necessitated by an approved proposal to add an FM station allotment in Goshen, Indiana, that in turn moved WHPD in Dowagiac, Michigan, to 92.1 MHz. That forced WETL to move down a channel. In 1980, the station broadcast during the summer for the first time in order to maintain its license under new FCC rules that required more airtime and power of smaller noncommercial educational stations; by this time, its programming for general audiences included school board meetings and a daily opera.

WETL transitioned to providing primarily daytime educational programming for elementary school students—including, for kindergarten students, the only art, music, and physical education material in their curriculum—and a training ground for high school DJs. Students from all of the South Bend corporation high schools and St. Joseph High School received class credit and were on the air at WETL. Each student selected the format and the music to play on their show; one student in 1996 did political commentaries, even if there was not much of an audience.

In 2005, WETL moved from the Education Center to Riley High School; it became a 24-hour station two years later.

References

External links

ETL
Radio stations established in 1958
1958 establishments in Indiana
High school radio stations in the United States
South Bend, Indiana


text:
La Capital Department (Spanish: Departamento La Capital) may refer to some departments of Argentine provinces:

 La Capital Department, Santa Fe (Santa Fe Province)
 La Capital Department, San Luis (San Luis Province)

See also
 Capital Department (disambiguation), the most utilized form

Department name disambiguation pages


text:
Сан-Педро-де-ла-Наве-Альмендра () — муниципалитет в Испании, входит в провинцию Самора в составе автономного сообщества Кастилия и Леон. Муниципалитет находится в составе района (комарки) Тьерра-дель-Пан. Занимает площадь 22,60 км². Население — 395 человек (на 2010 год).

Население

Примечания

Ссылки
 [www.turismo-prerromanico.es/arterural/spnave/spnaveficha.htm Arte Prerrománico Español: San Pedro de la Nave]

Муниципалитеты Саморы


text:
Srećko Stipović (Travnik, 9. rujna 1959.), hrvatski novinar, fotograf, snimatelj i publicist iz Bosne i Hercegovine.

Životopis

U Sarajevu je 1987. godine diplomirao žurnalistiku na Fakultetu političkih znanosti. Novinarstvom se bavi od 1981., a kao novinar i fotoreporter surađivao je s Jutarnjim listom, Večernjim listom, Slobodnom Dalmacijom, BHRT-om, Radijom Slobodna Europa i agencijom Anadolijom. Kao fotograf surađivao je s fotoagencijama Pixsell i Cropix.

Snimio je nekoliko dokumentarnih filmova. Svoje TV priloge sam snima i montira. S Marinkom Slipcem surađivao je na izradi dokumentarnih filmova Divovi Središnje Bosne i Tise u Bosni i Hercegovini.

Živi i radi u Vitezu.

Djela

(popis nepotpun)

 Umrijeti ali živjeti, fotomonografija, 1994.
 Terorizam bez kazne, fotomonografija, 2014.
 Vitez, grad i općina, monografija, 2018. (sa Zvonimirom Čilićem i Željkom Kocajom)
 Svjetlost i nada – Bolnica u Novoj Biloj i Bijeli put, fotomonografija, 2017. (sa Zvonimirom Čilićem i Željkom Kocajom)
 Hrvatska bolnica "Dr. fra Mato Nikolić" Nova Bila, fotomonografija, 2019. (sa Zvonimirom Čilićem i Željkom Kocajom)
Špiljski čovjek u srcu Europe,  e-knjiga, 2021.

Filmografija

(popis nepotpun)

 "Vode srednje Bosne" kao snimatelj (2008.)
 "Pogrešan krug" kao snimatelj (2007.)
 "Divovi Središnje Bosne" kao suautor i pripovjedač (2011.)
 "Tise u Bosni i Hercegovini" kao snimatelj (2014.)
 "Tetoviranje katolika u Bosni" (2019.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 flash.ba

Hrvatski novinari iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Hrvatski fotografi iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Hrvatski publicisti iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Filmski snimatelji
Životopisi, Vitez


text:
Macrobunus multidentatus är en spindelart som först beskrevs av Albert Tullgren 1902.  Macrobunus multidentatus ingår i släktet Macrobunus och familjen mörkerspindlar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Mörkerspindlar
multidentatus


text:
William Augustus Prentiss (March 24, 1799November 10, 1892) was an American merchant, Republican politician, and Wisconsin pioneer.  He played an important role in creating the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and was the  10th mayor of that city.  He also served in the Vermont House of Representatives, the 2nd Wisconsin Territorial Assembly, and the Wisconsin State Assembly.

Early life
William A. Prentiss was born in Northfield, Massachusetts, where his father was a prominent physician.  Prentiss received a common school and academic education, and went to work in mercantile pursuits.  He spent a year with his brother, John Holmes Prentiss, in Cooperstown, New York, then spent five years employed by Pomeroy, Prior & Brown, of Northfield, Massachusetts.  In 1822, he went to live with his other brother, Samuel Prentiss, in Montpelier, Vermont, where he began his own mercantile business.  After two years, he moved to Jericho, Vermont, where he prospered for more than a decade.

While living in Jericho, Prentiss became active in politics, serving as a justice of the peace, overseer of the poor, and chairman of the board of selectmen (town board).  In 1829, he was elected as Jericho's member of the Vermont House of Representatives.

Wisconsin pioneer
In June 1836, Prentiss came west to the Wisconsin Territory.  He settled at Milwaukee when it was still just three small villages.  He quickly formed a partnership with Lemuel W. Weeks to operate a general merchandise store in the Juneautown area.  The following year, Prentiss was appointed justice of the peace for Milwaukee County—at that time, Milwaukee County comprised all of what is now Milwaukee, Jefferson, Ozaukee, Washington, and Waukesha counties, as well as most of what's now Dodge County.  He remained a justice of the peace for the next 11 years.  Prentiss was technically only the second justice of the peace in the Wisconsin Territory, the other located in the Green Bay area.

Also in 1837, he was elected to the board of county commissioners, which was the county government in that era, and served three years as chairman of the county board.  That same year, he was elected to the board of trustees of the village of "Milwaukee on the east side" (Juneautown).  In 1838, he was elected to the Council (upper house) of the Wisconsin Territory government.  He served through all of the 2nd Wisconsin Territorial Assembly (November 1838 through November 1840), and was president of the council at the special session held in the fall of 1840.

It was largely due to Prentiss' efforts in the county board, the town board, and the Legislature that the two rival villages of Milwaukee (Kilbourntown and Juneautown) were consolidated under a single village government.  Prentiss then served on the board of trustees of the unified village for its entire existence, until the village government was replaced by the city government in 1846.  He then served several years on the Milwaukee City Council, and, in 1858, he was elected mayor.  Prentiss had been a member of the Whig Party, but joined the Republican Party when it was organized in the 1850s.  He was the first Republican to be elected mayor of Milwaukee.

The Democratic administration after him let by Herman L. Page, was very hostile toward him, and lying in their attempts to prove him bad.

He was elected to the Wisconsin State Assembly in 1866 and 1867.  He represented Milwaukee County's 7th Assembly district in the 1867 and 1868 sessions.  His district comprised what was then the seventh ward of Milwaukee, the Lower East Side.

Personal life and family
William A. Prentiss was the sixth of nine children born to Dr. Samuel Prentiss and his wife Lucretia ( Holmes).  Two of his older brothers were significant political figures in Vermont and New York.  Samuel Prentiss was a chief justice of the Vermont Supreme Court, a United States senator, and a United States district judge.  John Holmes Prentiss served two terms as a U.S. congressman from New York.  Samuel Prentiss' son, Theodore Prentiss, moved to Wisconsin, became the first mayor of Watertown, Wisconsin, and also served in the Wisconsin State Assembly.

Their father, Dr. Samuel Prentiss was a prominent physician and served as a combat surgeon for his father, Colonel Samuel Prentice, during the American Revolutionary War.  The Prentiss family were descendants of Captain Thomas Prentice, who emigrated from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1640s and served as a captain during King Philip's War.

He was said to be a tall and stout man, with a large head, light brown hair and blue eyes.  His voice was strong and powerful; he spoke slow and distinct, with a heavy accent. He walked slow and was never in a hurry.

Prentiss largely retired from public life in 1872, but still made occasional appearances at party gatherings or civic events.  He was one of the oldest delegates to the 1888 Republican National Convention.  He was a prominent and active member in the Milwaukee Pioneer Association. He was the first president and was instrumental in drafting its first constitution.

His last public appearance was at the annual banquet of the pioneer association, on February 23, 1891.  He died on November 10, 1892, at his home in Milwaukee.

References

1799 births
1892 deaths
Wisconsin state court judges
Members of the Vermont House of Representatives
Members of the Wisconsin Territorial Legislature
19th-century American politicians
Republican Party members of the Wisconsin State Assembly
County supervisors in Wisconsin
Milwaukee Common Council members
Mayors of Milwaukee
People from Northfield, Massachusetts
People from Jericho, Vermont
19th-century American judges


text:
Dom Afonso (23 February 1845 – 11 June 1847) was the Prince Imperial and heir apparent to the throne of the Empire of Brazil. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the eldest child of Emperor Dom Pedro II and Dona Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies, and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza.

Afonso died from epilepsy at the age of two, devastating the emperor. The following year, Pedro and Teresa Cristina had another son, Pedro Afonso, but he too died in infancy. After the loss of his second son, doubts grew in Pedro II's mind that the imperial system could be viable. He still had an heir in his daughter Isabel, but he was unconvinced that a female would prove to be a suitable successor.  He showed less concern about the effects his policies had on the monarchy, provided his daughter Isabel with no training for her role as potential empress, and failed to cultivate her acceptance within the country's political class. Pedro II's lack of interest in protecting the imperial system ultimately led to its downfall.

Birth

Afonso was born at 13:35 on 23 February 1845 in the Palace of São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He was named after his ancestor Afonso, Duke of Braganza, son of King João I of Portugal and founder of the House of Braganza (Portuguese: Bragança). His full name was Afonso Pedro de Alcântara Cristiano Leopoldo Filipe Eugênio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Pedro II, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza (Portuguese: Bragança) and was referred to using the honorific "Dom" (Lord) from birth. Afonso was the grandson of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil and nephew of Queen Maria II of Portugal. Through his mother, Teresa Cristina, he was a grandson of Francis I and nephew to Ferdinand II, who ruled as kings of the Two Sicilies in turn.

The U.S. minister in Brazil reported that his birth was heralded "by rockets and artillery, and was followed by a grand fête day at court... and by illuminations and displays of various sorts and public rejoicings". As was customary within the House of Braganza, Afonso's birth was a formal event attended by the imperial court. Pedro II immediately presented the newborn baby to the throng gathered in the palace, announcing "Gentlemen, it is a prince whom God ..."—here he was overcome with emotion and was unable to continue. The birth of a much needed male heir—thus regarded by contemporaries—was met with joy throughout the empire. Luís Alves de Lima e Silva (then Baron and later Duke of Caxias) wrote to his father: "No one was happier than I with the news [of the prince's birth]".

Life and impact

The birth of an heir produced changes in Pedro II's character. Previously isolated and shy, he became more outgoing and confident as monarch. His strained relationship with his wife, the product of a disappointing arranged marriage, also improved, and with children came shared domestic interests that developed into an affectionate friendship.

Afonso was healthy, and as the eldest son of Pedro II, was heir to the throne and styled "Prince Imperial". The young prince resembled his father, particularly in his face, hair and eyes. Because of his gender and position as heir apparent, he became the center of attention, particularly for Pedro II. A letter written by Pedro II to his elder sister Maria II a few months after the birth of his second child—a daughter named Isabel—displayed his happiness: "No news here save the good state of health of myself, of the empress, and of the little ones, who are becoming increasingly cute, principally little Afonso, who is already walking and who says many words, still half incomprehensible, the which increases their charm."

Death
On 11 June 1847, the young prince was playing in the library of the palace when he experienced a series of strong convulsions and died, not quite two and a half years old. His death revealed that Afonso suffered from epilepsy, as did his father. The grief of Pedro II and his wife was enormous. It was feared that the shock might affect Teresa Cristina's health, as she was pregnant at the time with her third child. She later gave birth without complications on 13 July to a girl, who was christened Leopoldina. The devastated emperor wrote a letter to his stepmother, the Empress Amélia, dated 11 July 1847, telling her of Afonso's death: "With the most piercing grief I tell you that my little Afonso, your godson, unfortunately died of convulsions, which he suffered during five hours on the 4th of last month; and a few days ago little Isabel was put at risk by a strong attack of convulsions that greatly frightened me."

A grand state funeral—not seen since the death of Pedro II's sister Paula in 1833—was held for the Prince Imperial at 7 p.m. three days after his death. He was buried in the Convento da Ajuda (Convent of Aid) in Rio de Janeiro. When the convent was demolished in 1911 his remains were moved to the mausoleum of the Convento de Santo Antônio (Convent of Saint Anthony) in Rio de Janeiro, where other members of the Brazilian House of Braganza (including his younger brother Pedro, his uncle João and his aunt Paula) are also located.

Legacy

The prince's early death (and the later demise of his younger brother) had an enormous impact on Pedro II: on a personal level, on his future conduct as monarch, and on the empire. In his eyes, the deaths of his only sons seemed to presage the end of the imperial system. Although the emperor still had a legal successor in his daughter Isabel, in the male-dominated society of the time he had little confidence that a woman could rule Brazil. He was fond and respectful of the women in his life, but he did not consider it feasible that Isabel could survive as monarch. He did nothing to prepare Isabel for the responsibilities of ascending the throne, nor did he attempt to encourage acceptance of a female ruler among the political class.

Pedro II began his rule as a figurehead who held together a realm on the verge of disintegration. He quickly matured and successfully navigated the empire through repeated and serious crises. By the time of Afonso's death, the nation was entering an unprecedented era of prosperity, development and tranquility. Even as the emperor's political successes and policies began to bear fruit, the lack of a male heir caused him to lose motivation to promote the imperial office as a position to be carried on by his descendants. The emperor turned away from personal and family ties, and focused on upholding the constitution while directing Brazil toward policies that furthered modernization and social advancement. The future of the monarchy as an institution no longer mattered to him, and in 1889, he was deposed in a coup, marking the end of the Empire of Brazil.

Titles, styles and honors

Titles and styles
 23 February 1845 – 11 June 1847: His Imperial Highness The Prince Imperial

The prince's full style and title was "His Imperial Highness Dom Afonso, Prince Imperial of Brazil".

Appointments

 Honorary President of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute.

Honors
Prince Afonso was a recipient of the following Brazilian Orders:

 Major Commander of the Order of Christ
 Major Commander of the Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz
 Major Commander of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
 Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I
 Grand Cross and Grand Major Dignitary of the Order of the Rose

Ancestry

Endnotes

Footnotes

References

External links

1845 births
1847 deaths
People from Rio de Janeiro (city)
Brazilian people of Austrian descent
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Brazilian people of Portuguese descent
Neurological disease deaths in Rio de Janeiro (state)
Princes Imperial of Brazil
Heirs apparent who never acceded
House of Braganza
Deaths from epilepsy
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
Sons of emperors
Royal reburials
Royalty who died as children


text:
Prințesa Eleonore de Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (17 septembrie 1871 – 16 noiembrie 1937), a fost a doua soție a lui Ernest Louis, Mare Duce de Hesse.

Biografie

Familie
A fost al patrulea copil și a doua fiică a lui Hermann, Prinț de Solms-Hohensolms-Lich și a soției acestuia, Contesa Agnes de Stolberg-Wernigerode.

Căsătorie și copii
Eleanore s-a căsătorit cu Ernest Louis, Mare Duce de Hesse la Darmstadt la 2 februarie 1905. Prima lui soție a fost  Prințesa Victoria Melita de Saxa-Coburg și Gotha (sora reginei Maria a României). Ernest și Victoria Melita au divorțat la 21 decembrie 1901 pe motive de "antipatie reciprocă invincibilă" printr-un verdict special al Curții Supreme de Hesse.

Eleanore și Ernest Louis au avut doi fii:
Georg Donatus, Mare Duce Ereditar de Hesse (1906–1937), care s-a căsătorit cu Prințesa Cecilie a Greciei și Danemarcei (sora Prințului Filip, Duce de Edinburgh); au avut copii.
Prințul Louis de Hesse și de Rin (1908–1968). Căsătorit cu Hon. Margaret Geddes fiica Lordului Geddes, fără copii. L-au adoptat ca moștenitor pe Moritz, Landgraf de Hesse.

Deces
Eleonore a murit într-un accident de avion pe drumul către nunta fiului ei cel mic la Londra. De asemenea, în accident au murit fiul ei cel mare Georg Donatus, soția lui și doi din cei trei copii ai lor. Copilul cel mic al lui Georg Donatus, Prințesa Johanna, nu a fost în avion și a fost adoptată de unchiul ei Prințul Louis de Hesse și de Rin însă micuța a murit de meningită după un an și jumătate.

Note

Nașteri în 1871
Decese în 1937
Nobili germani
Mari Ducese de Hesse
Casa de Hesse-Darmstadt


text:
Trioza laserpitii är en insektsart som beskrevs av Burckhardt och Lauterer 1982. Trioza laserpitii ingår i släktet Trioza och familjen spetsbladloppor. Arten är reproducerande i Sverige. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Spetsbladloppor
laserpitii


text:
Bazilica Sfântul Nicolae din Bari (în italiană Basilica di San Nicola) este o biserică din orașul Bari, Italia. Este un  loc de pelerinaj pentru întreaga creștinătate, aici aflându-se moaștele Sfântului Nicolae.

Istorie
Înființarea bazilicii este legată de cucerirea orașului bizantin Myra de către armatele turcilor selgiucizi. Myra a fost un loc important de pelerinaj pentru creștini deoarece acesta era orașul unde Sfântul Nicolae a fost episcop și totodată locul unde se afla mormântul său. După venirea turcilor selgiucizi la sfârșitul secolului al XI-lea, pelerinajul a fost oprit. Moaștele au fost furate de către niște marinari italieni cu gândul de a le duce la Roma. Cu toate acestea pe drum, conform legendei, sfântul le-a dat de înțeles marinarilor că orașul Bari este locul unde vrea să fie înmormântat. Moaștele au ajuns la Bari pe data de 9 mai 1087. A fost o competiție destul de mare între orașele Bari și Veneția pentru moaște, în cele din urmă au rămas la Bari.

Bazilica a fost construită între anii 1087-1197, în timpul dominației normanzilor în sudul Italiei. În anul 1089 a fost sfințită cripta unde se află moaștele de către Papa Urban al II-lea, iar în anul 1197 bazilica a fost finalizată și sfințită în prezența episcopului german Conrad de Hildesheim și a altor prelați.

Bazilica Sfântul Nicolae din Bari este un exemplu de edificiu în stil romanic. Lăcașul este vizitat mai ales în ziua de 6 decembrie, de sărbătoarea sfântului Nicolae.

Fotogalerie

Biserici din Bari
Biserici cu hramul Sfântul Nicolae
Biserici romano-catolice din Italia
Arhitectură romanică din Italia


text:
La International Bulb Society se fundó en 1933 y es una sociedad internacional dedicada a informar al público acerca de la ciencia, el cultivo, la conservación y la botánica de las plantas geofitas, conocidas comúnmente como bulbos .

Premios
 La Medalla Herbert -  la sociedad otorga esta medalla a las personas que han hecho contribuciones sobresalientes al estudio de las plantas geofitas.
 The Hamilton P. Traub Outstanding Service Award - la sociedad otorga esta medalla a las personas que prestan un excelente servicio a la sociedad.

Enlaces externos
 International Bulb Society

Sociedades de botánica


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Sylvie Pierre, née le  à Paris, est une critique de cinéma française.

Éléments biographiques
Sylvie Pierre fréquente dès 1963 le cercle de critiques des Cahiers du cinéma, Jean Wagner, Jean Narboni, Jean-Louis Comolli, Jacques Bontemps, s'imprégnant de leurs goûts cinématographiques et critiques d'André Bazin à Éric Rohmer.

Elle entre à proprement parler à la rédaction de la revue en 1966, et devient collaboratrice régulière de  à , demeurant officiellement au sein du comité de rédaction jusqu'à juillet-. Elle y écrit sur Jerry Lewis, John Cassavetes et Maurice Pialat, réalise des entretiens avec Jacques Rivette, Walerian Borowczyk, Subrata Mitra ou Marco Ferreri, et publie notamment un texte théorique remettant en cause la notion de photogramme chez Roland Barthes ("Éléments pur une théorie du photogramme"). Elle introduit Jacques Aumont, avec qui elle est mariée de 1965 à 1973, au sein de la revue. De 1968 à 1971, elle prend la succession de Jean-Pierre Biesse et de Patrick Brion comme responsable salariée de la photothèque des Cahiers, travaillant également au secrétariat de la rédaction en 1968 et 1969 avec Michel Delahaye.

Elle quitte la France en , et habite de manière continue à Rio de Janeiro puis à Brasilia au Brésil, entre 1971 et 1976. Elle y conduit notamment pendant trois mois, début 1972, un cours sur le cinéma et le montage de Sergueï Eisenstein au Musée d'art moderne de Rio de Janeiro, et apparaît en 1973 dans un film de Carlos Diegues, Jeanne, la Française. De retour en France en , où elle épouse Georges Ulmann, elle collabore sporadiquement aux Cahiers comme spécialiste du cinéma d'Amérique du sud à partir de juillet-. Elle publie en 1987 une monographie de Glauber Rocha aux éditions des Cahiers du cinéma, puis réalise avec Ulmann en 1989 un long métrage documentaire sur Rocha, L'Homme aux cheveux bleus.

À la création de la revue Trafic par Serge Daney en 1991, Sylvie Pierre entre au comité de rédaction aux côtés de Jean-Claude Biette, Raymond Bellour et Patrice Rollet, signant une trentaine de textes à partir du premier numéro à l'hiver 1991. Au moment de la rétrospective John Ford à la Cinémathèque française fin 2014, elle publie une analyse de Frontière chinoise.

Filmographie

Réalisatrice
 1989 : L'Homme aux cheveux bleus, coréalisé avec Georges Ulmann

Actrice
 1970 : Petit à petit de Jean Rouch
 1973 : Jeanne, la Française de Carlos Diegues
 2010 : Biette de Pierre Léon
 2011 : À voir absolument (si possible) : Dix années aux Cahiers du cinéma, 1963-1973 de Jean-Louis Comolli

Bibliographie

Notes et références

Liens externes

Journaliste française du XXe siècle
Journaliste française du XXIe siècle
Critique française de cinéma
Collaborateur des Cahiers du cinéma
Naissance en juillet 1944


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The Vertigo of Bliss je druhé studiové album skotské rockové kapely Biffy Clyro. Bylo vydáno 16. června 2003 vydavatelstvím Beggars Banquet Records. Album dosáhlo 48. pozice v žebříčku UK Albums Chart a byly z něj vydány čtyři singly. V roce 2012 byla vydána deluxe remasterovaná edice, která obsahuje, kromě původních 13 skladeb alba, řadu B-sides ze singlů alba.

Obal alba
Obal alba The Vertigo of Bliss byl navržen umělcem komiksových knih Milem Manarem. Navzdory kontroverznosti byl obal alba pochválen hudebním magazínem ShortList, který jej zařadil do jejich žebříčku "50 nejstylovějších alb všech dob" s vysvětlením, že "erotický a kontroverzní" obal "Biffy Clyro pouze zaměřují více k malé, ale loajální, základně fanoušků, kterou začali kultivovat".

Seznam skladeb

Obsazení

Biffy Clyro
 Simon Neil – vokály, kytara, produkce
 James Johnston – basová kytara, vokály, produkce
 Ben Johnston – bicí, vokály, produkce

Další hudebníci
 Kimberlee McCarrick – housle (skladby 1, 3 a 14)
 Martin McCarrick – violoncello (skladby 1, 3 a 14)

Produkční obsazení
 Chris Sheldon – produkce, nahrávání a audio inženýrství (všechny skladby kromě 17–20), mixování
 Phil English – audio inženýrství
 Sam Miller – audio inženýrství
 DP Johnson – produkce (skladby 17–20)
 S.A.G. – produkce (skladby 17–20)

Dodatečné obsazení
 Chris Blair – mastering
 Phil Lee – grafický design
 Stefan De Batselier – fotografie
 Milo Manara – illustrace

Historie vydání

Reference

Alba z roku 2003
Alba Beggars Banquet Records


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Gang Gang Dance is an American band based in Manhattan, New York City. They are known for their distinctive sound which blends elements of psych-rock, ambient electronics, hip-hop, and Eastern music influences with the vocals of singer Lizzi Bougatsos. They have released several albums to critical praise, including Saint Dymphna (2008) and Eye Contact (2011). They are currently signed to the British label 4AD and previously recorded on labels such as Warp and The Social Registry.

Career
Gang Gang Dance were formed in 2001 by keyboardist Brian DeGraw and drummer Tim DeWit, who first met in Washington, D.C. in 1993 and played in The Cranium. In 1998 the band released one album, A New Music for a New Kitchen on the Slowdime record label, which was described as "deconstructionist anti-music" and "insane, rule-breaking almost-noise", before breaking up. While on tour, DeGraw and DeWit met vocalist Liz Bougatsos (who joined them some years later), a frontwoman for an experimental New York band called Russia at the time. After The Cranium's breakup, DeGraw and DeWit relocated to New York City. DeGraw, along with guitarist Josh Diamond (later a Gang Gang Dance member too), performed in film director Harmony Korine's experimental project SSAB Songs.

In the early 2000s, DeGraw, DeWit, and Diamond formed Death and Dying, a short-lived band which soon, with the addition of Bougatsos and vocalist Nathan Maddox, evolved into Gang Gang Dance. In August 2002, Maddox, aged 25, died after being struck by lightning during a thunderstorm he was watching from the rooftop of a building in Manhattan's Chinatown. As a four-some, the band signed to Brooklyn label The Social Registry record label in 2004 to release the debut Revival of the Shittest album, followed by Hillulah EP (2005) and the second album God's Money (2005). Critics praised Bougatsos' unique approach. As Jo-Anne Green of AllMusic argued, "without her, God's Money would be a haunting journey through an ever-shifting electronic world... With her, the musical experience is far more difficult, as she cuts across the grain of the atmospheres and moods, suggesting the group will never sit comfortably in any niche but its own." In 2007, The Social Registry released Retina Riddim DVD/CD, a year later Saint Dymphna followed, marking a shift in the band's sound "...toward employing grime as compositional elements, while relying on more structured electronic workouts in general."

In August 2008, the band conducted the Brooklyn chapter of 88 Boadrum. A month later, the fourth album, Saint Dymphna, was released to positive reviews. On July 22, 2009, Gang Gang Dance played on a Russian Ferry in Japanese waters with their friends the Boredoms during an eclipse.

In 2010, the band received publishing royalties from British group Florence and the Machine. Members of Gang Gang Dance noticed that a line ('how quickly the glamour fades') in "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up)" was lifted from their song "House Jam" and approached Florence and the Machine's label who acknowledged that infringement had occurred. Florence Welch, the band's singer and main songwriter, had openly talked about her love of the band in interviews prior to the discovery, and Gang Gang Dance are thanked in the liner notes of copies of the album printed before they contacted her management. Welch claims she always intended the band to be credited and receive royalties, saying the fact they didn't until the mistake was highlighted was an error on the part of her management.

In 2010, Gang Gang Dance signed with British label 4AD. A limited-edition EP Kamakura, recorded in 2007, was also released via Latitudes in 2010.

In 2011, they released the album Eye Contact, which received wide acclaim, chosen as "Best New Music" by Pitchfork who also named it as one of their top albums of the year as did New York Magazine, and The Guardian. Tracks off of the albums were remixed by Lee "Scratch" Perry, Nguzunguzu, and gg.

The band was chosen by Animal Collective to perform at their All Tomorrow's Parties festival in May 2011. In 2011 they also performed at Planeta Terra Festival in São Paulo, Meredith Fest in Australia, Le Guess Who Festival in Utrecht, Teatro Fru Fru in Mexico, the Filter Block Party in LA, and Pitchfork Festival in Chicago.

In 2013, founding member, Brian DeGraw, released a solo album under the moniker bEEdEEgEE. The album was called Sum/One and came out on 4AD.

On April 10, 2018, Gang Gang Dance announced their first album in seven years, Kazuashita, and shared the first single "Lotus". The album was released on June 22 through 4AD.

Discography
Studio albums
Revival of the Shittest (The Social Registry) (2004)
Gang Gang Dance (FUSETRON) (2004)
God's Money (The Social Registry) (2005)
Saint Dymphna (The Social Registry/Warp) (2008)
Eye Contact (4AD) (2011) (UK chart peak: #150)
Kazuashita (4AD) (2018)

EPs
Hillulah (The Social Registry) (2005)
RAWWAR (The Social Registry/Young) (2007)
Kamakura (Latitudes) (2010)

DVDs
Retina Riddim (with CD) (The Social Registry) (2007)

References

External links
 Official website
 Gang Gang Dance Interviewed on Identitytheory.com
 Gang Gang Dance – Hot Chip and Klaxons' Favourite Band NME October 2008.
 Dummymag.com interview with Lizzie, explaining her musical and singing influences, May 2009
 November 2008 Interview with L.A. Record
 2011 interview with Gang Gang Dance delving into history and influences

American experimental musical groups
Musical groups from New York (state)
4AD artists
Musical groups established in 2001


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Grasque is the third studio album by Copenhagen-based Danish chamber pop band Choir of Young Believers, released on February 19, 2016 on Ghostly International in the United States and on Tigerspring in Europe.

The album was preceded by the singles "Face Melting", "Jeg Ser Dig", and "Serious Lover".

The album's title, Grasque, is a phonetic spelling of the Danish word "Græske", meaning "Greek".

Critical reception

Grasque received mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 59, based on 11 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews".

Cody Ray Shafer of Under the Radar praised the album, stating, "Makrigiannis' contribution to pop music is certainly underappreciated, but creatively rivaled by artists like Brian Eno and Scott Walker. Big, complicated ideas are understandably hard to execute, but Grasque is a serious exploration of the deepest reaches of pop music. But it is the gracefulness of those explorations that rival even Rhine Gold, a feat that shouldn't even be possible, but Grasque pulls it off without missing a single note."

Brice Ezell of PopMatters was more critical of the album, stating, "Grasque's biggest missteps come when it fails to strike the balances that Makrigiannis has skillfully executed in the past: the wispy with the visceral, the esoteric and the catchy. In fleeting moments Grasque offers glimpses into Makrigiannis's inventive musical mind, but too often it gets stuck wandering up in the clouds. The view is pretty up there, but the risk of running out of oxygen increases the longer you stay."

Track listing

Personnel
Main personnel
 Jannis Noya Makrigiannis –
 Jakob Falgren –
 Casper Henning Hansen –
 Nicolai Kleinerman Koch –
 Sonja Labianca –
 Rosa Noya Makrigiannis –
 Cæcilie Trier –
 Rasmus Valldorf –

Additional personnel
 Aske Zidore – engineering, mixing, production
 Glenn Nielsen – engineering
 Flemming Rasmussen – engineering
 Tommy Kamp Vestergaard – engineering

References

Choir of Young Believers albums
2016 albums
Ghostly International albums
Tigerspring albums


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La spedizione Braddock, chiamata anche campagna di Braddock o più comunemente sconfitta di Braddock, fu una fallimentare spedizione britannica con la quale si cercò di conquistare la fortezza francese di Fort Duquesne (oggi nella periferia di Pittsburgh) nell'estate del 1755 durante la guerra franco-indiana. Fu sconfitta nella battaglia del Monongahela del 9 luglio ed i sopravvissuti si ritirarono. La spedizione prende il nome dal generale Edward Braddock che guidò i britannici e morì nel corso dell'operazione. La sconfitta di Braddock fu un'importante sconfitta per gli inglesi nelle prime fasi della guerra con la Francia ed è stata definita una delle più disastrose per i britannici nel XVIII secolo.

Contesto storico
La spedizione Braddock faceva parte di una massiccia offensiva britannica nei confronti dei francesi in America del Nord quell'estate. Da comandante in capo del British Army in America, il generale Braddock guidava l'esercito principale contro l'Ohio Country con una colonna di circa 2100 unità. Il suo comando era composto da due reggimenti regolari di linea, il 44° ed il 48° per un totale di circa 1350 uomini, oltre ai circa 500 regolari e milizie di altre colonie ed all'artiglieria. Con questi uomini Braddock pensava di poter conquistare Fort Duquesne con facilità, per poi proseguire con altre fortezze fino a Fort Niagara. George Washington, allora di soli 23 anni, conosceva il territorio e fu aiutante di campo volontario del generale Braddock. Il capo ricognitore di Braddock era il tenente John Fraser del reggimento della Virginia. Fraser era proprietario di terreni a Turtle Creek, era stato a Fort Necessity ed era stato secondo in comando a Fort Prince George (rinominato Fort Duquesne dai francesi), alla confluenza di Allegheny e Monongahela.

Braddock non riuscì a reclutare alleati nativi americani dalle tribù non alleate dei francesi. Aveva con sé solo otto Mingo che facevano da ricognitori. Molti indiani della zona, soprattutto il capo Delaware Shingas, rimasero neutrali. Stretti tra le due potenze europee in guerra, i nativi locali non volevano rischiare di schierarsi con i perdenti. Avrebbero deciso con chi schierarsi in base al risultato della spedizione Braddock.

Rotta di Braddock

Partita da Fort Cumberland in Maryland il 29 maggio 1755, la spedizione dovette affrontare un enorme problema logistico: lo spostamento di tanti uomini con equipaggiamento, provviste e cannoni pesanti sul terreno fittamente boscoso dei monti Allegani e della Pennsylvania occidentale, un viaggio di circa 180 km. Braddock aveva ricevuto aiuto da Benjamin Franklin, il quale gli aveva fornito una carovana e rifornimenti per la spedizione. Tra i conducenti della carovana c'erano due giovani uomini che divennero poi leggende della storia americana: Daniel Boone e Daniel Morgan. Tra gli altri membri della spedizione vi furono gli alfieri William Crawford e Charles Scott, Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, il futuro presidente George Washington ed Horatio Gates.

La spedizione proseguì lentamente perché Braddock considerava una priorità la costruzione di una strada fino a Fort Duquesne, in modo da rifornire la postazione che pensava di conquistare e difendere le biforcazioni dell'Ohio, ed a causa della carenza di animali da soma sani. In alcuni casi la colonna fu in grado di avanzare solo 3 km al giorno, costruendo la Braddock Road. Per velocizzare il movimento Braddock divise gli uomini di una "colonna veloce" di circa 1300 uomini che comandò personalmente e, molto indietro, una colonna con i rifornimenti composta da 800 uomini con buona parte delle provviste comandata dal colonnello Thomas Dunbar. Lungo la strada oltrepassarono le rovine di Fort Necessity, dove francesi e canadesi avevano sconfitto Washington l'estate precedente. Piccoli gruppi di franco-indiani affrontarono Braddock per tutta la marcia.

Nel frattempo a Fort Duquesne la guarnigione francese composta da soli 250 regolari e milizie canadesi, con circa 640 indiani alleati, si accampò fuori dalla fortezza. Gli indiani facevano parte di varie tribù, tra cui Ottawa, Ojibway e Potawatomi. Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, comandante canadese, ricevette il resoconto dei ricognitori indiani secondo i quali i britannici stavano giungendo ad assediare la fortezza. Capì di non poter affrontare i cannoni di Braddock, e decise di fare un attacco preventivo, un'imboscata all'esercito di Braddock quando avrebbe attraversato il fiume Monongahela. Gli alleati indiani furono inizialmente riluttanti ad attaccare un gruppo così nutrito di nemici, ma il comandante di campo francese Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu, vestitosi in abiti da guerra indiani con tanto di pitture facciali, li convinse a seguirlo.

Battaglia del Monongahela

L'8 luglio 1755 gli uomini di Braddock si trovavano sulla terra del capo ricognitore John Fraser. Quella sera gli indiani mandarono una delegazione dai britannici a chiedere un incontro. Braddock mandò Washington e Fraser. Gli indiani chiesero ai britannici di fermare l'avanzata per tentare di negoziare una pace con i francesi di Fort Duquesne. Sia Washington che Fraser consigliarono a Braddock di accettare, ma questi rifiutò.

Il 9 luglio 1755 Braddock attraversò il Monongahela senza trovare resistenza, circa 16 km a sud di Fort Duquesne. L'avanguardia composta da 300 granatieri e truppe coloniali con due cannoni guidata dal tenente colonnello Thomas Gage iniziò ad avanzare. Si scontrarono con francesi ed indiani, diretti di corsa al fiume ma giunti troppo tardi per organizzare un'imboscata.

Nello scontro che seguì tra Gage ed i francesi, il comandante francese Beaujeu fu ucciso da una raffica di moschetti sparata dai granatieri. Nonostante circa 100 canadesi fuggirono al forte ed il rumore dei cannoni avesse fatto fuggire gli indiani, la morte di Beaujeu non ebbe effetti negativi sul morale francese. Dumas inseguì il resto dei francesi e dei loro alleati indiani. La battaglia, nota come battaglia del Monongahela, battaglia del Wilderness o sconfitta di Braddock era ufficialmente iniziata. Braddock aveva a disposizione circa 1400 uomini. I britannici affrontarono tra i 300 ed i 900 franco-indiani. La battaglia, spesso descritta come un'imboscata, fu in realtà uno scontro causale non previsto. La risposta rapida ed efficace dei franco-indiani, nonostante la perdita del loro comandante, portò molti uomini di Braddock a credere di aver subito un'imboscata. La documentazione francese mostra che i franco-indiani erano troppo in ritardo per organizzare un'imboscata, e che furono sorpresi quanto gli inglesi.

Dopo uno scontro a fuoco, l'avanzata di Gage fu respinta. Lungo la stretta strada collisero con l'esercito principale di Braddock che era avanzato rapidamente sentendo gli spari. L'intera colonna fuggì in disordine quando canadesi ed indiani li accerchiarono continuando a sparargli ai fianchi dagli alberi ai lati della strada. I regolari francesi iniziarono un'avanzata lungo la strada ed iniziarono a far retrocedere i britannici.

Seguendo l'esempio di Braddock, gli ufficiali provarono a riorganizzare le unità sulla strada, non facendo altro che fornire facili bersagli ai nemici nascosti. Furono usati i cannoni, ma in così poco spazio si dimostrarono inutili. La milizia coloniale che accompagnava gli inglesi si coprì ed rispose al fuoco. Nella confusione alcuni dei soldati che sparavano dagli alberi furono scambiati per nemici e colpiti dai regolari britannici.

Dopo molte ore di combattimento intenso Braddock fu fatto cadere da cavallo, e la resistenza collassò. Il colonnello Washington, nonostante non avesse ufficialmente una posizione di comando, riuscì ad imporre un certo ordine e formò una retroguardia che permise ai sopravvissuti di allontanarsi. Questo gli valse il nomignolo di Eroe del Monongahela che lo accompagnò per un certo periodo.

Al tramonto i sopravvissuti britannici stavano fuggendo lungo la strada che avevano costruito. Braddock morì il 13 luglio durante la lunga ritirata per le ferite riportate, e fu sepolto a Fort Necessity.

Dei circa 1300 uomini che Braddock condusse in battaglia, 456 furono uccisi e 422 feriti. Degli 86 ufficiali presenti 26 furono uccisi e 37 feriti. Delle 50 donne che accompagnavano la colonna come cameriere e cuoche, solo 4 sopravvissero. Francesi e canadesi subirono 8 morti e 4 feriti. I loro alleati indiani subirono 15 morti e 12 feriti.

Il colonnello Dunbar, rimasto con le riserve ed i rifornimenti, prese il comando quando i sopravvissuti lo raggiunsero. Ordinò la distruzione dei rifornimenti e dei cannoni prima di iniziare la ritirata, diede alle fiamme circa 150 carri lungo il tragitto. Ironicamente, a questo punto gli sconfitti, demoralizzati e disorganizzati inglesi erano ancora numericamente superiori ai nemici. Francesi ed indiani non inseguirono i fuggitivi e si dedicarono alla cattura degli scalpi ed al saccheggio. Il comandante francese Dumas capì che i britannici avrebbero potuto venire completamente sconfitti, ma non aveva abbastanza uomini per organizzare un inseguimento.

Discussione
Subito dopo la battaglia iniziarono le discussioni su come Braddock con soldati professionisti, superiorità numerica ed artiglieria abbia potuto venire sconfitto tanto miseramente in battaglia. Alcuni criticano Braddock, altri criticano i suoi ufficiali, alcuni criticano le truppe di soldati regolari o le milizie coloniali. George Washington difese Braddock ed incolpò i soldati regolari.

La tattica di Braddock è discussa. Una scuola di pensiero pensa che la fiducia posta da Braddock nei metodi di stile europeo, mentre gli uomini dovevano combattere corpo a corpo in campo aperto, non fu appropriata per la lotta di frontiera e fu la causa della sconfitta di Braddock. La guerriglia che i coloni avevano appreso lungo la frontiera, composta da copertura e fuoco individuali, era migliore dello stile americano organizzato.

In alcuni studi l'interpretazione della superiorità del cosiddetto "stile indiano" è stata messa in discussione da molti storici militari. Stephen Brumwell sostiene proprio l'opposto, dicendo che i contemporanei di Braddock, come John Forbes e Henry Bouquet, riconoscevano che "la guerra nella foresta americana era molto diversa dalla guerra in Europa". Russell sostiene che fu un errore di Braddock quello di fidarsi delle tecniche europee che gli costarono la battaglia. I britannici avevano già combattuto con eserciti irregolari durante le rivolte giacobite. Gli irregolari europei orientali come ad esempio Pandours e Ussari erano già stati studiati ed usati in Europa fin dagli anni 1740. Il fallimento di Braddock, secondo i sostenitori di questa teoria, fu dovuto al fatto che non adeguò la dottrina militare tradizionale (soprattutto non usando la distanza), non la mancanza di tattiche di frontiera. Peter Russell, nel suo studio, mostra che in molte occasioni prima della battaglia Braddock aveva usato con successo le tattiche europee per sconfiggere le imboscate, e che era stato quasi immune ai precedenti attacchi franco-indiani.

Note

Bibliografia

Chartrand, Rene. Monongahela, 1754-1755: Washington's Defeat, Braddock's Disaster. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-683-6.
Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988. ISBN 0-393-30640-2.
Kopperman, Paul E. Braddock at the Monongahela. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8229-5819-8.
O'Meara, Walter. Guns at the Forks. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1965. ISBN 0-8229-5309-9.
Russell, Peter. "Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760", The William and Mary Quarterly, 3ª serie, Vol. 35, No. 4 (ottobre 1978), pp. 629–652

Altri progetti

Battaglie della guerra franco-indiana
Battaglie che coinvolgono il Canada
Battaglie che coinvolgono la Francia
Battaglie che coinvolgono l'Inghilterra
Guerra nel 1755


text:
De Rijksoverheid, vaak kortweg het Rijk genoemd, is het onderdeel van de Nederlandse overheid dat wettelijke taken heeft op landelijk niveau: de 'centrale overheid'. Het Rijk wordt gevormd door alle ministeries, de uitvoeringsorganisaties die onder de verantwoordelijkheid van een ministerie vallen, inspecties en Hoge Colleges van Staat, en houdt zich bezig met de voorbereiding en de uitvoering van plannen van de regering en het parlement.

Uitvoeringsorganisaties
Naast de ministeries telt de Rijksoverheid ruim tweehonderd uitvoeringsorganisaties die landelijk werken. Deze uitvoeringsorganisaties ontvangen hun inkomsten via het ministerie waar ze onder vallen. Voorbeelden van uitvoeringsorganisaties zijn:
 Belastingdienst (Ministerie van Financiën)
 Dienst Domeinen (Ministerie van Financiën)
 Dienst Justitiële Inrichtingen (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid)
 Immigratie- en Naturalisatiedienst (Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid)
 Onderwijsinspectie (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap)
 Rijkswaterstaat (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat)
 Uitvoeringsinstituut Werknemersverzekeringen (Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid)
 Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (Ministerie van Economische Zaken)
 Nederlandse Voedsel- en Warenautoriteit (Ministerie van Economische Zaken)

De ministeries zijn te vinden in Den Haag, de uitvoeringsorganisaties zitten door het hele land verspreid.

Informatiekanalen
In het jaar 2010 werden alle websites van de ministeries samengevoegd op een nieuwe website, www.rijksoverheid.nl. In de loop van dat jaar waren alle verschillende logo's van de ministeries al vervallen en vervangen door één rijkslogo voor de gehele Nederlandse Rijksoverheid. Op 16 december 2010 werd bekendgemaakt dat voor de website van de Rijksoverheid open standaarden en opensourcesoftware wordt gebruikt. Het gaat hierbij om de vrijheid programma's te gebruiken, te wijzigen, te verbeteren en verder te verspreiden. Ook is gekozen voor open data en open content. De informatie van Rijksoverheid.nl mag sinds dat moment worden gekopieerd, bewerkt en verspreid.

Mensen kunnen voor vragen aan de Rijksoverheid ook bellen met telefoonnummer 1400. Dit sluit aan bij de reeks telefoonnummers voor overheden en andere diensten van bijzonder maatschappelijk belang die beginnen met 14.

Geschiedenis
Tot 1 juli 2012 verstrekte de Rijksoverheid informatie aan burgers via informatiekanalen met de naam "Postbus 51".

Zie ook
 overheid.nl
 Rijksvoorlichtingsdienst

Externe links
 Rijksoverheid.nl

Nederlandse overheid


text:
Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS ) is the rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (YU). It is located along Amsterdam Avenue in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City.

Named after Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor, the school's Hebrew name is Yeshivas Rabbeinu Yitzchok Elchonon (). The name in Hebrew characters appears on the seals of all YU affiliates.

History

The first Jewish schools in New York were El Hayyim and Rabbi Elnathan's, on the Lower East Side. In 1896, several New York and Philadelphia rabbis agreed that a rabbinical seminary based on the traditional European yeshiva structure was needed to produce American rabbis who were fully committed to what would come to be called Orthodox Judaism. There were only two rabbinical seminaries in the United States, Hebrew Union College, which followed Reform Judaism, and the Jewish Theological Seminary, which was first affiliated with the more established Orthodox community in America and later Conservative Judaism. Bernard L. Levinthal and other leading Orthodox rabbis of the day founded the school, calling it the Rabbinical College of America (not related to the current institution of that name). In 1915, it merged with an elementary school, the Eitz Chaim Yeshiva, and its name was changed to Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS), named after Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor, a Russian rabbi who died the year of the school's founding. Bernard Revel was appointed as head of the combined school. In 1916 it expanded to include a high school, the Talmudical Academy. In the late 1920s, the institution began a building campaign of US$5 million, announcing an institution called the "Yeshiva of America", later the "Yeshiva College of America", before finally settling simply on Yeshiva College. In 1926, it bought a three-block site in Washington Heights, built its first building, and moved its operation there. , that building continued to house the Yeshiva University (YU) affiliated high school, but all other operations had moved to other buildings on the expanded campus surrounding it.

The high school, previously part of RIETS, became a separate entity, and RIETS became exclusively a college-level program, including granting of degrees via semikhah (rabbinical ordination). Secular studies were added, with the RIETS rosh yeshiva (dean) also serving as president of the college secular academic programs while Moshe Soloveichik served as co-head of RIETS. This arrangement continued into the 1940s. However, the second president, Samuel Belkin, legally separated the two institutions in order to obtain United States government funding and research grants for a variety of YU's secular departments due to the separation of church and state in the United States.

RIETS scholar Joseph B. Soloveitchik strongly opposed the split, but Belkin prevailed and, following the split, remained both the official rosh yeshiva of RIETS and president of YU. Despite the separation, the identities have continued to be blended Both the religious seminary and the college undergraduate Talmudic department are called RIETS, and have the same faculty and students.

With the 2003 appointment of Richard Joel, a layman, as president of YU, the dual role ended. Joel's predecessor, Norman Lamm, continued as the official rosh yeshiva of RIETS with Richard Joel being the Chief Executive and responsible for fundraising and administrative issues.

Menachem Penner became the dean of RIETS in 2013 after Yona Reiss's resignation. Previously, Penner had been the assistant dean of RIETS.

At the time of Reiss's appointment, RIETS absorbed the academic administration of the Undergraduate Torah Studies programs affiliated with Yeshiva College and Sy Syms School of Business on the Wilf Campus (Mazer Yeshiva Program, Stone Beit Midrash Program, Isaac Breuer College, and the James Striar School).

Program
The RIETS semikhah program is a structured four year curriculum. The primary focus is on advanced Talmudic learning as well as developing a proficiency in deciding matters of classical and contemporary halakha (Jewish law; see ).
There are a variety of required ancillary courses intended to train students for careers as practicing rabbis, in fields such as homiletics, pastoral counseling, and Jewish philosophy. There is an honors track within the general semikhah program where students receive an extra stipend and are required to take additional supplemental courses.

The majority of students in the semikhah program are also enrolled in the Katz Kollel which is led by the rosh kollel, Hershel Schachter. Many RIETS students are also concurrently enrolled in a variety of other graduate degree granting programs, including those in law, education, academic Jewish studies, psychology, and the sciences.
RIETS has two post-semikhah kollelim, referred to as the Kollel Elyon, which offer students the opportunity to study Torah at an advanced level and take supplemental courses for an additional 3 to 4 years while receiving a stipend. The roshei kollel of the Kollel Elyon are  Michael Rosensweig and Mordechai Willig.

Faculty
Members of the Brisker dynasty, Moshe Soloveichik and Joseph B. Soloveitchik were heads of RIETS, and Ahron Soloveichik and Aharon Lichtenstein lectured there for significant portions of their careers. Shimon Shkop taught at RIETS for a short period in 1929, as did Shlomo Polachek, Menachem Mendel Zaks, Moshe Shatzkes, Nisson Alpert, Dovid Lifshitz and Moshe David Tendler.

Later roshei yeshiva include: Hershel Schachter, Eliyahu Ben Haim, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, Mayer Twersky, Jeremy Wieder, Yaakov Neuburger, Baruch Simon, Zvi Sobolofsky, David Hirsch, J. David Bleich, and Daniel Stein, Hershel Reichman and Ezra Schwartz.

Chag Hasemikhah
Ordination can technically be conferred upon a student who completes all of the necessary requirements for semikhah at any point in time. Nonetheless, every three or four years, RIETS conducts a formal Chag Hasemikhah—an official celebration of the students who received rabbinic ordination since the previous Chag. It is traditionally held on or about the yartzeit of Isaac Elchanan Spektor which is Adar 21.

Notable alumni
 Mordechai Gifter (1915–2001), rosh yeshiva of the Telz Yeshiva in Cleveland
 Joseph Lookstein (1902–1979), rabbi and president of Bar-Ilan University
 Avigdor Miller (1908–2001), right-wing rabbi and author
 Emanuel Rackman (1910–2008), Modern Orthodox rabbi; President of Bar-Ilan University
 Yitzchok Scheiner (1922–2021), rosh yeshiva of the Kamenitz yeshiva of Jerusalem
 Nosson Meir Wachtfogel (1910–1998), mashgiach ruchani (spiritual supervisor) of Beth Medrash Govoha

References

External links
Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary
Yeshiva University High School for Boys (The Mesivta of Yeshivat Rabbeinu Yitzchak Elchanan)
YU Torah Online

1896 establishments in New York City
Educational institutions established in 1896
Orthodox yeshivas in New York City
Yeshiva University
Jewish seminaries


text:
Nephele leighi är en fjärilsart som beskrevs av James John Joicey och Talbot 1921. Nephele leighi ingår i släktet Nephele och familjen svärmare. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Svärmare
leighi


text:
Rejentpol (; ) – dawniej chutor, obecnie część Kuryłowa na Białorusi, w obwodzie witebskim, w rejonie szarkowszczyńskim, w sielsowiecie Hermanowicze.

Historia
W czasach zaborów folwark w gminie Stefanpol, w powiecie dzisieńskim, w guberni wileńskiej Imperium Rosyjskiego.

W latach 1921–1945 wieś leżała w Polsce, w województwie wileńskim, w powiecie dziśnieńskim, w gminie Stefanpol, a od 1926 roku w gminie Hermanowicze.

Według Powszechnego Spisu Ludności z 1921 roku zamieszkiwały tu 32 osoby, 27 było wyznania rzymskokatolickiego, 5 prawosławnego. Jednocześnie 20 mieszkańców zadeklarowało polską, 12 białoruską przynależność narodową. Było tu 8 budynków mieszkalnych. W 1931 w 3 domach zamieszkiwały 34 osoby.

Wierni należeli do parafii rzymskokatolickiej w Hermanowiczach i prawosławnej w Stefanpolu. Miejscowość podlegała pod Sąd Grodzki w Łużkach i Okręgowy w Wilnie; właściwy urząd pocztowy mieścił się w Stefanpolu.

W wyniku napaści ZSRR na Polskę we wrześniu 1939 miejscowość znalazła się pod okupacją sowiecką. 2 listopada została włączona do Białoruskiej SRR. Od czerwca 1941 roku pod okupacją niemiecką. W 1944 miejscowość została ponownie zajęta przez wojska sowieckie i włączona do Białoruskiej SRR.

Od 1991 w składzie niepodległej Białorusi.

Uwagi

Przypisy

Wsie w rejonie szarkowszczyńskim
Miejscowości województwa wileńskiego (II Rzeczpospolita)


text:
77856 Noblitt è un asteroide della fascia principale. Scoperto nel 2001, presenta un'orbita caratterizzata da un semiasse maggiore pari a 2,6403214 UA e da un'eccentricità di 0,1195700, inclinata di 12,69833° rispetto all'eclittica.

L'asteroide è dedicato a Niles Noblitt, membro della direzione dell'osservatorio dove è avvenuta la scoperta.

Collegamenti esterni

Noblitt
Corpi celesti scoperti nel 2001


text:
А́нос () — согласно «Дивана абхазских царей» один из первых князей (эристави) Абазгии. Примерно с 510 года.

Примечания

Аносиды
Правители Абхазии
Правители Азии VII века
Правители Европы VII века


text:
est un film italien réalisé par Giuseppe Piccioni, sorti en 2001.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre :
 Réalisation : Giuseppe Piccioni
 Scénario : Giuseppe Piccioni, Linda Ferri et Umberto Contarello
 Photographie : Arnaldo Catinari
 Musique : Ludovico Einaudi
 Production : Lionello Cerri
 Pays d'origine : Italie
 Genre : drame
 Date de sortie : 2001

Distribution
 Luigi Lo Cascio : Antonio
 Sandra Ceccarelli : Maria
 Silvio Orlando : Saverio Donati
 Barbara Valente : Lisa
 Toni Bertorelli : Mario
 Mauro Marino : Franco
 Riccardo Zinna :

Lien externe

Film réalisé par Giuseppe Piccioni
Film italien sorti en 2001
Film dramatique italien
Film de Rai Cinema


text:
Goodwill is an unincorporated community and former census-designated place (CDP) in Roberts County, South Dakota, United States. Prior to the 2020 Census, the CDP was merged into the Agency Village census-designated place. Over 90% of the population is Native American.

Demographics

2010 census

Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.

References

External links

Former census-designated places in South Dakota


text:
Крістофер (Кріс) Шайер (;  Норт-Йорк, Торонто, Онтаріо, Канада) — канадський актор. Працював у понад 50 кіно- й телефільмах та телесеріалах (в основному, канадського виробництва — «Вістлер», «V», «Добрий Бог» тощо). Лауреат телекінопремії «Лео» (Британська Колумбія) — за роль у фільмі «Запрошення» (2003); номінант премії Кінофестивалю в Орландо («Можливо, завтра», 2014) та театральної премії Джессі Річардсон («Джессі») за роботу в «Сальвадорі» Рафаеля Ліми.

Народився в Торонто, Канада, в родині косметолога Ширлі Ханни Марі та механіка Денніса Лемуана Джонстона. Кріс – наймолодший у родині з шести дітей, яка постійно переїжджала.

Дебют Шаєра на канадському телебаченні відбувся у мильній опері «Рівердейл» (1997), наступна роль – у фільмі «Падіння» (1998).

Має подвійне громадянство –  Канади й США. Понад 30 років працює в театрі та на телебаченні. Займається виробництвом незалежних фільмів, організацією театральних фестивалів та благодійних концертів.

Фільмографія

Примітки

Посилання

Канадські кіноактори
Канадські телеактори


text:
Euthalia lubentina, the gaudy baron, is a species of nymphalid butterfly found in South, Cambodia, and Southeast Asia. It was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1777.

Description
Male. Upperside dark greenish brown. Forewing: a bar across middle and a bar beyond the apex of the cell crimson bordered with black: a slightly oblique transverse discal series of small white spots from costa to interspace 1, followed by a preapical curved row of four similar spots and a transverse subterminal series of elongate black spots forming an obscure band. Hindwing: a crescent-shaped black loop near apex of the cell area; a curved postdiscal series of four or five crimson spots outwardly bordered with black, the subcostal spot the largest, followed by a subterminal series of velvety-black subquadrate spots, the anterior three and the tornal spot outwardly crimson. Underside dark purplish brown suffused slightly with ochraceous, the markings as on the upperside but larger and more clearly defined, and in addition: forewing: two small black spots at base; basal half of costal margin crimson; hindwing: four crimson spots bordered with black at base; costal and dorsal margins crimson; another spot in the postdiscal series; the velvety-black spotting of the upperside more or less obsolete. Antennae dark brown, club beneath crimson; head, thorax and abdomen dark greenish brown; beneath, the palpi and the forelegs crimson, the rest pale brown.

Female. Similar, paler. Upperside forewing: the transverse crimson bands in cell obscure with a broad black-bordered white band interposed, the discal series of white spots very large, very irregular in shape. Hindwing: the ground colour suffused with greenish blue on terminal posterior half of wing; markings similar to those of the male. Underside brown, the tornal half of the hindwing bluish green. Forewing: the markings as on the upperside with the addition of two small black spots at base and an obscure broad terminal pale band. Hindwing with four black-bordered transverse crimson spots at base in addition to the markings as on the upperside. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male, but paler; the palpi beneath with a stripe of pink, the forelegs whitish.

Distribution
The lower foot-hills of the Himalayas from Haridwar to Sikkim, but recorded from Mussooree, at ; Oudh; Bengal; eastward through Bhutan, Assam, Cachar to Myanmar, Teuasserim, Siam, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. On continental India southward from Bombay.

Life history

Egg
Its egg is reddish brown.

Larva
Armed with ten pairs of long, horizontally projected, very delicately branched spines. Colour grass green with a dorsal row of large purplish-brown angulated spots each with or without a small pure white diamond spot in its middle, these dorsal spots placed on the anterior half of the 4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th segments; the lateral spines green tipped with purple brown.

Pupa
Green, but with two lateral brown marks, each with a dirty-white centre and two brown points equally with whitish centres between these and the terminating projection.

Gallery

References

L
Butterflies of Asia
Butterflies of Indochina
Butterflies of Sri Lanka
Insects of Bangladesh
Insects of Myanmar
Butterflies described in 1777
Taxa named by Pieter Cramer


text:
Yixing, tidigare romaniserat Ihing, är en stad på häradsnivå som lyder under Wuxis stad på prefekturnivå i Jiangsu-provinsen i östra Kina. Den ligger omkring 120 kilometer sydost om provinshuvudstaden Nanjing.

Staden är känd för sin tillverkning av tekannor, så kallade Yixingkannor.

Källor

WP:Projekt Kina


text:
Мо́шно () — озеро в Шумилинском районе Витебской области Белоруссии. Относится к бассейну реки Сечна.

Физико-географическая характеристика
Озеро Мошно располагается в 4 км к югу от городского посёлка Шумилино. К востоку от озера находится деревня Приозёрная. Высота над уровнем моря составляет 140,8 м.

Площадь зеркала составляет 0,65 км². Длина озера — 2,1 км, наибольшая ширина — 0,5 км. Длина береговой линии — 6,03 м. Наибольшая глубина — 3,9 м, средняя — 2,3 м. Объём воды в озере — 1,51 млн м³. Площадь водосбора — 16,3 км².

Котловина лощинного типа, вытянута с северо-запада на юго-восток и состоит из двух плёсов. Склоны котловины пологие, суглинистые, понизу поросшие кустарником, поверху распаханные. Северные склоны покрыты лесом. Высота склонов составляет 3—5 м, на юге повышаясь до 9 м. Береговая линия образует несколько небольших заливов. Берега низкие, торфянистые. на востоке песчаные, в заливах сплавинные. Озеро окружает неширокая заболоченная пойма.

Дно плоское, сапропелистое. Мелководье преимущественно торфянистое, местами песчаное. 35 % площади озера характеризуется глубиной не свыше 2 м.

Минерализация воды достигает 200 мг/л. Прозрачность в западном плёсе составляет 2 м, в восточном — 1 м. Озеро подвержено эвтрофикации.

На юго-востоке впадает ручей из озера Круглик и вытекает другой ручей, впадающий в озеро Добеевское. В озеро также впадает ещё несколько ручьёв.

Флора и фауна
Озеро сильно зарастает подводной растительностью до глубины 3,1 м. В озере растёт частуха Валенберга — редкое растение, занесённое в Красную книгу Республики Беларусь.

В воде обитают щука, линь, карась, окунь, плотва, краснопёрка, лещ и другие виды рыб.

Примечания

Литература

Бассейн Западной Двины
Озёра Шумилинского района