text:
The Cincinnati Type Foundry was a manufacturer of typefaces, matrices and other type-related equipment in Cincinnati, Ohio, established in 1826 by John P. Foote and Oliver Wells. In 1892 it was merged into American Type Founders.

References

Further reading
 Specimen of modern and light face printing types and ornaments, cast at the Cincinnati Type Foundery. 1834
 Cincinnati Type Foundry Co's specimen and price-list. 1870

 The seventeenth book of specimens from the Cincinnati Type Foundry. 1888

External links

 Smithsonian. Cincinnati Type Foundry Army Press, first manufactured in 1862

Images

Letterpress font foundries of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Cincinnati
Defunct companies based in Cincinnati
Manufacturing companies established in 1826
1826 establishments in Ohio
American companies established in 1826


text:
È noto soprattutto come cofondatore del Center for Social Justice e come creatore del sito web ConservativeHome, che ha curato dal 2005 al 2013, anno di ingresso nella squadra del Times, al quale aveva collaborato come commentatore fino al marzo 2013.

Il 17 febbraio 2016, Montgomerie si è cancellato dall'elenco degli iscritti del Partito conservatore, in aperto dissenso con i suoi vertici che erano contrari alla Brexit. Nel 2019, è stato per un breve periodo consigliere particolare del Primo Ministro Boris Johnson in materia di giustizia sociale.

Montgomerie è stata descritto come «uno dei più importanti attivisti conservatori degli ultimi 20 anni», rispetto al quale nel febbraio 2012 The Observer ha dichiarato: «agli occhi della maggior parte dei parlamentari, Montgomerie [è] uno dei Torie più influenti fuori dal gabinetto». La London Broadcasting Company lo ha inserito nella classifica dei primi 100 conservatori più influenti del 2019.

Biografia
Montgomerie nacque in una famiglia di militari dell'esercito britannico. In un'intervista al The Guardian affermò che  «il suo thatcherismo adolescenziale fu temperato scoprendo il cristianesimo evangelico a sedici anni».

Frequentò la King's School di Gütersloh, una scuola secondaria gestita dall'agenzia britannica Service Children's Education (SCE), dedicata a garantire l'istruzione del persone militare e amministrativo del Ministero della Difesa britannica dislocati in servizio all'estero. Proseguì gli studi iscrivendosi alla facoltà di Economia e Geografia dell'Università di Exeter, dove diretto l'Associazione conservatrice insieme a Robert Halfon, Sajid Javid e David Burrowes. tutti i futuri membri conservatori del Parlamento.

Nel dicembre 1990, Montgomerie e Burrowes diedero vita alla Conservative Christian Fellowship (CCF), un'associazione studentesca della Exeter sostenuta dalla Christian Coalition of America. Durante questo periodo, si è adoperato perché il Partito conservatore instaurasse legami più stretti con le chiese su questioni come l'omosessualità e la Sezione 28, convinto che il partito avrebbe dovuto spiegare ciò che non è biblico e che è libertino.

In seguito, ha modificato radicalmente la sua posizione su tali questioni e dal 1990 al 2003 è stato alla guida della CCF.
Negli anni novanta era occupato come statistico della Bank of England, dove le sue responsabilità includevano l'economia russa e lo studio del rischio sistemico per i sistemi finanziari.
Dal 1998 al 2003, Montgomerie è stato il logografo di due leader del Partito conservatore, William Hague, e poi Iain Duncan Smith, per il quale fu il principale ispiratore del cosiddetto conservatorismo compassionevole. Ricoprì anche il ruolo di rappresentante del partito per i rapporti con le comunità religiose e il Terzo settore. Nel settembre 2003, Montgomerie divenne capo dello staff di Smith, al quale due mesi dopo succedette Michael Howard come nuovo leader del partito.

 Center for Social Justice
Nel 2004, Iain Duncan Smith, la baronessa Philippa Stroud e Montgomerie istituirono il Center for Social Justice per portare avanti l'opera del "conservatorismo compassionevole", richiamandosi alla tradizione di persone come William Wilberforce, il conte di Shaftesbury e Richard Oastler. Diede avvio a un progetto di azione sociale chiamato "Rinnovare una nazione" che supportò Duncan Smith su questi temi.

ConservativeHome

Il 28 marzo 2005, Montgomerie lanciò il sito web ConservativeHome, pochi mesi prima della campagna per le elezioni generali di quell'anno.  Con il parlamentare conservatore John Hayes, promosse il sito conservativedemocracy.com, che riuscì a bloccare l'abolizione della regola "un membro, un voto", proposta da Howard per le elezioni del leader del partito nel 2005.

Nel settembre 2006, The Independent lo descrisse come «uno dei principali attori emergenti nella [scena] politica dei Tory». Montogomerie criticò Cameron per l'introduzione dell'A-List indicante i nominativi dei potenziali candidati del partito alle primarie e alle elezioni politiche inglesi. Suggerì a Cameron di assumere pubblicamente un impegno preciso in tema di tagli fiscali, per non perdere consensi all'interno della classe operaria britannica.

Nello stesso tempo, promosse l'introduzione del matrimonio omosessuale in Inghilterra e Galles, presentando la manovra come un rafforzamento a 360 gradi dell'istituzione famigliare tradizionale. Montgomerie è stato utilizzato dall'Ufficio Centrale del Partito Conservatore come esperto di comunicazione per le proprie campagne portate avanti su Internet tramite ConservativeHome.

TV e Internet
Montgomerie ha diretto il canale televisivo Internet 18 Doughty Street, che iniziò a trasmettere nell'ottobre 2006 e andò in onda nel novembre 2007. Montgomerie condusse il programma Campaign HQ, che faceva votare direttamente ai telespettarori i temi sviluppati nelle puntate all'interno di una rosa di tre proposte; furono scelti il taglio delle tasse, il finanziamento pubblico ai partiti e il sindaco di Londra Ken Livingstone.

L'ultima puntata, A World Without America, coprodotto da 18 Doughty Streete il sito web BritainAndAmerica, mostrava una copertina finale raffigurante la Statua della Libertà con un burqa e ottenne 50 000 visualizzazioni entro le prime 24 ore.

Dal 2010

Montgomerie continuò a collaborare ConservativeHome insieme ad altri, tra cui il condirettore Jonathan Isaby e il sostituto di quest'ultimo, l'ex deputato conservatore Paul Goodman. Dopo le elezioni generali del 2010, Montgomerie firmò un resoconto nei confronti della ampagna elettorale di Cameron, intitolato Falling short. Nel 2012, The Guardian lo recensì all'ottantunesimo posto della classifica dei protagonisti dei media più influenti.

Su ConservativeHome, Montgomerie scrisse numerosi articoli sulla politica conservatrice per il The Guardian e il The Times, e occasionalmente per il Daily Mail, The Independent''' e il Financial Times.

Nell'aprile 2011, divenne editorialista del The Sunday Telegraph, ma nell'ottobre dello stesso anno, Montgomerie lasciò l'incarico a seguito di una serie di attacchi mossi nei suoi confronti dalla rubrica Mandrake della rivista sorella The Daily Telegraph. Montgomerie rispose con un tweet alle critiche di Tony Gallagher, editorialista del Telegraph, che lo aveva attaccato per primo: «un anziano giornalista del Telegraph mi ha detto che Tony Gallagher... mi stava» scrivendo «per aver osato twittare una critica al giornale la scorsa settimana».
Poco tempo dopo, Montgomerie fu assunto come editorialista dal Times. Nel febbraio 2013, Montgomerie annunciò che nell'aprile dello stesso anno avrebbe sostituito Anne Spackman nel ruolo di commentatore, continuando a essere "consulente" di ConservativeHome e a intervenirvi come blogger una volta alla settimana.

Nel 2017, fondò il sito UnHerd, che abbandonò il 25 settembre 2018. Nel settembre 2019, Montgomerie fu nominata "consigliere per la giustizia sociale" del Primo Ministro, al numero 10 di Downing Street. Il 31 gennaio 2020, dichiarò ai microfoni di Politics Live'' della BBC che il suo ruolo era terminato col successo elettorale alle elezioni del novembre 2019 e che in quel momento stava discutendo con Boris Johnson su un nuovo ruolo consultivo nel suo Cabinet. Nel maggio 2020, Montgomerie si trasformò in un critico frequente del governo, in particolare del consigliere senior del Primo Ministro Dominic Cummings e dello stesso Primo Ministro.

 Limiti del liberalismo
Nel 2019, in una riunione presso l'Istituto del Danubio Montgomerie affermò che il governo britannico avrebbe dovuto stringere un "rapporto speciale" con l'Ungheria del dopo-Brexit, e che «Budapest e l'Ungheria si sono trovate d'accordo, credo, per un sacco di interessanti riflessioni introduttive sui limiti del liberalismo, e penso che sitamo assistendo a questo anche nel Regno Unito. Quindi spero che tra gli altri Stati ci sarà una relazione speciale con l'Ungheria».

Vita privata
Di religione cristiana, al 2020 Montgomerie non è sposato.

Note

Voci correlate
 Boris Johnson
 ConservativeHome

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Banchieri britannici
Studenti dell'Università di Exeter

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Paracephaelis saxatilis är en måreväxtart som först beskrevs av Scott-elliot, och fick sitt nu gällande namn av De Block. Paracephaelis saxatilis ingår i släktet Paracephaelis och familjen måreväxter. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Måreväxter
saxatilis


text:
-{Systur}- ( — "сестре"), такође су познате као и -{Sigga, Beta & Elín}- или -{Tripolia}-, представљају исландски бенд који се састоји од три сестре Сигриђур, Елисабет и Елин Ејурсдотир.

Сестре су раније биле у партнерству са ди-џејем Фридфинуром "Окулусом" Сигурдсоном, са којим су основале хаус бенд  у 2011. години.

Биографија
Сигриђур, Елисабет и Елин Ејурсдотир одрасле су у Рејкјавику. Њихова мајка је певачица , а њихов отац је композитор и клавијатуриста бенда Мезофорте. Сестре су почеле своју музичку каријеру 2011. године као део групе , који су назвали по својој баки.  Наступале су на Гластонбери фестивалу 2016. године.

Године 2017. објавили су свој први сингл као трио, под називом "-{Bounce from the Bottom}-", под псеудонимом -{Tripolia}-.

Осим музике, оне су активисте за транс права, посебно за трансродну децу, након што је једна од чланица прошла кроз изазове са својим трансродним дететом.

2022: Песма Евровизије
Дана 5. фебруара 2022, Сига, Бета и Елин су објављене као једне од десет извођача које је РУВ одабрао да се такмиче у предстојећем издању Söngvakeppnin-а, исландског националног избора за Песму Евровизије. Извеле су своју нумеру "" и победиле су на такмичењу, тиме су стекле право да представљају Исланд на Песми Евровизије 2022. у Торину, Италија.

Дискографија

Синглови

Извори

Исландске музичке групе
Представници Исланда на Песми Евровизије
Учесници Песме Евровизије 2022.


text:
Ви́ктор Петро́вич Лисако́вич (род. 6 августа 1937, Рига, Латвия) — советский и российский режиссёр, сценарист документального кино, преподаватель. Народный артист Российской Федерации (1999), лауреат Государственной премии СССР (1976).

Биография
Творческая биография началась в 1954 году, когда он был принят на должность ассистента оператора Рижской киностудии, где он проработал до 1959 года.В Москве, будучи студентом мастерской документального кино Арши Ованесовой и Леонида Кристи во ВГИКе, с 1962 года работал режиссёром на Центральной студии документальных фильмов. По окончании института в 1964 году был оставлен на ЦСДФ, где кроме фильмов работал над кинопериодикой: «Новости дня» и другие.

С 1968 года — режиссёр творческого объединения «Экран» Гостелерадио СССР. С 1969 года — художественный руководитель студии документальных программ. В период 1988—1993 годов являлся художественным руководителем кинопрограммы «ХХ в.» на Киностудии имени М. Горького.

С 1981 года руководит мастерской, а с 1997 года и заведует кафедрой неигрового кино во ВГИКе. Профессор с 1999 года. Автор учебных пособий «Мастерская И.П. Копалина» (2014) и «Мастерская Арши Ованесовой и Леонида Кристи» (2017), сборника «Мастерская Романа Кармена» (2019).

Член КПСС с 1966 года. Член Союза кинематографистов СССР (Москва), с 1976 года — секретарь правления СК СССР. Член президиума Академии кинематографических искусств и наук, член рабочей группы Российского организационного комитета «Победа» по координации работы по патриотическому воспитанию граждан.

Семья
 жена — Лидия Львовна Зайцева (1939—2010), звукооператор;
 дочь — Яна Викторовна Лисакович, редактор телевидения;
 сын — Степан Викторович Лисакович, оператор на телевидении.

Фильмография

Признание и награды
 приз «За гуманизм» 15-го Международного каннского кинофестиваля (1962) — за фильм «Осень надежды» (1962);
 премия ЦК ВЛКСМ и премия Министерства Обороны СССР на I Всесоюзного кинофестиваля в Ленинграде (1964) — за фильм «Его звали Фёдор» (1963);
 приз «Серебряный голубь» МКФ в Лейпциге (1964) — за фильм «Его звали Фёдор» (1963);
 приз «Золотой голубь» МКФ в Лейпциге (1966) — за фильм «Катюша» (1964);
 главный приз II Всесоюзного кинофестиваля в Киеве (1966) — за фильм «Катюша» (1964);
 приз Всемирного совета мира на МКФ в Лейпциге (1970) — за фильм «Мир в этот день» (1970);
 приз МКФ в Лейпциге (1971) — за фильм «Час Ирландии» (1971);
 приз МКФ в Лейпциге (1972) — за фильм «Туманы Британии» (1972);
 Орден Трудового Красного Знамени (1974);
 Государственная премия СССР (1976) — за цикл фильмов «Программа мира в действии» (1973);
 приз города Лейпцига на МКФ в Лейпциге (1976) — за фильм «Расскажи о доме своём» (1976);
 Заслуженный деятель искусств РСФСР (17 декабря 1982 года);
 Орден Дружбы народов (22 августа 1986 года);
 Народный артист Российской Федерации (30 августа 1999 года) — за большой вклад в развитие киноискусства;
 премия «За вклад в киноискусство» в области неигрового кино и телевидения «Лавровая ветвь» (2006);
 премия «Золотой орёл» (2007) в категории «Лучший неигровой фильм» — за фильм «С Романом Карменом… Путешествие в молодость» (2006);
 приз «Золотой кентавр» XVIII МКФ «Послание к Человеку» в Санкт-Петербурге (2008) — за фильм «Анастасия» (2008);
 специальный приз жюри Международного фестиваля фильмов о правах человека «Сталкер» (2008) — за фильм «Анастасия» (2008);
 приз зрительских симпатий на Открытом кинофестивале неигрового кино «Россия» — за фильм «Анастасия» (2008);
 кинопремия за лучший неигровой фильм «Ника» (2009) — за фильм «Анастасия» (2008);
 Премия Правительства Российской Федерации в области культуры (17 декабря 2015 года) — за создание документальной кинотрилогии «Гроза 1914» («Ратная палата», «Высокая Ставка», «Мы не подписывали договора в Версале»).
 Орден Дружбы (12 октября 2022 года) — за большой вклад в развитие отечественной культуры и искусства, многолетнюю плодотворную деятельность

Критика
По словам режиссёра Рустама Мамина, фильмом «Катюша» (1964) вчерашний выпускник института кинематографии «будто прорвал плотину в документальном кино — настолько он был органичный, искренний, с настоящей — живой и потрясающей — героиней». Историк кино Людмила Джулай в книге «Документальный иллюзион» констатирует, что в истории кино Лисакович останется прежде всего как автор «Катюши».

Сценарист Виктор Листов вспоминает, что Лисакович глубоко вникал в литературные тексты и стремился увидеть будущую картину «глазами драматурга». Сценарист Александр Руднев характеризует Лисаковича как режиссёра, способного «превращать документ в художественное зрелище».

На торжественной церемонии «Лавровая ветвь» в 2006 году киновед Андрей Плахов («Коммерсантъ») прокомментировал вручение премии режиссёру: «Её обладателем заслуженно стал Виктор Лисакович — классик отечественной документалистики и пионер многих жанров и методов съёмки, которые зародились на заре ТВ».

Примечания

Литература

Ссылки
 Виктор Лисакович в Энциклопедии отечественного кино

Выпускники ВГИКа
Преподаватели ВГИК
Кинодокументалисты
Кинорежиссёры-документалисты России
Персоналии:Рижская киностудия
Персоналии:ЦСДФ
Персоналии:Киностудия имени М. Горького
Члены КПСС
Лауреаты премии «Лавровая ветвь»


text:
Johann Stockhausen ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Johann Stockhausen (Orgelbauer), deutscher Orgelbauer aus Linz am Rhein
 Johann Stockhausen (Pilot) (1876–nach 1920), deutscher Pilot
 Johann Christoph Stockhausen (1725–1784), deutscher Pädagoge und Theologe
 Johann Friedrich Gustav von Stockhausen (1743–1804), deutscher Generalmajor
 Johann Gottfried von Stockhausen (1685–1759), königlich preußischer Oberst
 Johann Karl Friedrich Ludwig von Stockhausen (1775–1843), preußischer Generalleutnant, Hofmarschall des Prinzen Albrecht von Preußen


text:
Argostemma propinquum är en måreväxtart som beskrevs av Henry Nicholas Ridley. Argostemma propinquum ingår i släktet Argostemma och familjen måreväxter. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Måreväxter
propinquum


text:
Horváth György (Búcsúszentlászló, 1811. március 21. – Budapest, 1889. december 11.) színész.

Pályafutása

Apja Horváth János földbirtokos volt. A gimnázium osztályait nem végezte el, megszökött hazulról, és Szombathelyre ment, ahol egy ideig háziszolga volt; később Komlóssy Ferenc színtársulatához állt be; ettől kezdve a vándorszínészet sanyarú és viszontagságos életét élte; 1859-től 1863-ig színigazgató is volt. Budára került, Molnár György magához fogadta a Budai Népszínházhoz, ott volt vele két évig; bukása után pedig folytatta a vándorszínészetet Bakonyi István társulatánál. 1868-ban újra visszatért a Budai Népszínházhoz, és a választmány ellenőrnek és házigazdának nevezte ki, 1860-ban pedig mind a három budai színház inspectora lett. 1870-ben a Nemzeti Színház igazgatósága vette át a budavári színházat, és Horváthot annak gazdájává tette.

Cikkei jelentek meg a Reformban (1870. 258., 260. sz.) és a Vasárnapi Ujságban (1881-82. A magyar színészet viszonyai ezelőtt félszázaddal c. élményei saját elbeszélései után közli Egervári P. Ödön, hét közlés).

Források

 PIM

További információk

 Enyedi Sándor: Rivalda nélkül. Bp., Teleki László Alapítvány, 1999.
 Gulyás Pál: Magyar írók élete és munkái. Bp., Magyar Könyvtárosok és Levéltárosok Egyesülete, 1939-2002. 7. kötettől sajtó alá rend. Viczián János.
 Magyar Színművészeti Lexikon. Szerk. Erődi Jenő és Kürthy Emil összegyűjtött anyagának felhasználásával... Schöpflin Aladár. [Bp.], Országos Színészegyesület és Nyugdíjintézete, [1929].

Magyar színészek
1811-ben született személyek
1889-ben elhunyt személyek


text:
Berlin to Broadway with Kurt Weill is a musical revue with a book by Gene Lerner, music by Kurt Weill, and lyrics by various songwriting partners Weill worked with over his career. The plot follows Weill's life as he begins his career in Germany writing the music for controversial musicals, through his journey fleeing Nazi persecution, immigrating to the United States, and becoming successful on Broadway. Songs featured include those Weill collaborated on with Maxwell Anderson, Marc Blitzstein, Bertolt Brecht, Jacques Deval, Michael Feingold, Ira Gershwin, Paul Green, Langston Hughes, Alan Jay Lerner, Ogden Nash, George Tabori and Arnold Weinstein.

Song List
The Threepenny Opera (medley)
How to Survive
Barbara Song
Jealousy Duet
Useless Song (reprise)
Mack the Knife (Moritat)
How to Survive (reprise)
Happy End (medley)
March Ahead to the Fight
Don't Be Afraid
Bilbao Song
Surabaya Johnny
Childhood's Bright Endeavor
Mandalay Song
Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (medley)
Alabama Song
Deep in Alaska
Oh, Heavenly Salvation
As You Make Your Bed
Pirate Jenny (from The Threepenny Opera)

I Wait For a Ship (from )

Sailor Tango (Happy End)

Johnny Johnson (medley)
Songs of War and Peace
A Hymn to Peace
Listen to My Song (Johnny's Song)
Knickerbocker Holiday (medley)
How Can You Tell an American
September Song
Lady in the Dark (medley)
Girl of the Moment
Saga of Jenny
My Ship
One Touch of Venus (medley)
Speak Low
That's Him

Progress (from Love Life)

Street Scene (medley)
Ain't It Awful the Heat?
Lonely House
Lost in the Stars (medley)
Trouble Man
Train to Johannesburg
Cry, the Beloved Country
Lost in the Stars
Love Song (from Love Life)

Moritat (Reprise)

Productions
The revue premiered off-Broadway on October 1, 1972 at the Theater de Lys, starring Margery Cohen, Ken Kercheval, Judy Lander, Jerry Lanning, and Hal Watters. Eileen Barett and Hal Robinson were the understudies.  It was directed by Donald Saddler, conducted by Newton Wayland, with William Glenn operating the follow spots and ran for 152 performances before closing on February 11, 1973. When the show premiered, Christopher Street was renamed "Kurt Weill-Strauss" for an hour to honor Weill's legacy and lasting impact on off-Broadway theatre.

The first off-Broadway revival opened August 19, 2000 at the Triad Theatre and closed on December 3, 2000 after 121 performances. Hal Simmons directed, with Eric Stern as musical director, and the cast included Lorinda Lisitza, Bjorn Olsson, Veronica Mittenzwei and Michael Winther.

References

Revues
1972 musicals
Off-Broadway musicals
Kurt Weill tribute albums


text:
Cette page concerne les événements qui se sont déroulés un 7 avril dans les chemins de fer.

Événements

1856, en France : inauguration du chemin de fer de Dole-Ville à Besançon.

Naissances

Décès

Notes et références

07


text:
LEurasia è una delle tre superpotenze continentali nate dopo l'ipotetica guerra atomica degli anni cinquanta e inventate da George Orwell nel romanzo 1984.

La sua forma di governo è il neobolscevismo, nato dalle ceneri del Partito Comunista dell'Unione Sovietica.

Nei suoi territori include l'Europa continentale e l'Asia settentrionale, a partire dal Portogallo fino a raggiungere lo stretto di Bering.

Vengono compresi molti territori dell'ex URSS. Nel romanzo partecipa anch'essa alla guerra eterna tra i super-stati, e ai suoi continui cambi di alleanze, con Oceania ed Estasia. Nel romanzo avvengono infatti almeno due rovesciamenti di fronte:
 Durante la "settimana dell'odio" in Oceania, l'Eurasia passa da nemica dell'Oceania a sua alleata. La popolazione, che si accorge che i manifesti ritraggono come nemici i soldati eurasiatici, grida al sabotaggio;
 Alla fine del romanzo torna a essere nemica, e subisce una pesante sconfitta, annunciata con fragore dai teleschermi dell'Oceania.
A differenza della guerra contro l'Estasia, che viene solo nominata, relativamente a quella con l'Eurasia vengono citate due battaglie, in territori ben precisi:
 All'inizio del libro, l'Oceania riesce a sconfiggere l'esercito eurasiatico a Malabar, in India;
 Alla fine, invece, è l'Eurasia ad avere inizialmente la meglio sul fronte africano, arrivando a spingere il proprio esercito a pochi chilometri dal confine con l'Oceania, riuscendo quindi a minacciarne il territorio; l'avanzata, tuttavia, viene stroncata dall'esercito dell'Oceania, che consegue una grande vittoria, conquistando l'intera Africa.

Luoghi di 1984
Nazioni immaginarie


text:
Капилля́р (от  — волосяной) является самым тонким сосудом в организме человека и других животных. Средний диаметр капилляра составляет 5—10 мкм. Соединяя артерии и вены, он участвует в обмене веществ между кровью и тканями.

Строение
Стенки капилляров состоят из одного слоя клеток эндотелия. Толщина этого слоя настолько мала, что позволяет проходить обмену веществ между тканевой жидкостью и плазмой крови через стенки капилляров. Продукты, образующиеся в результате жизнедеятельности организма (такие как диоксид углерода и мочевина), также могут проходить через стенки капилляров для транспортировки их к месту выведения из организма. На проницаемость капиллярной стенки оказывают влияние цитокины. Стенки капилляров высоко проницаемы для всех растворенных в плазме крови низкомолекулярных веществ. Чтобы преодолеть огромное сопротивление выбросу воды и солей во внеклеточный матрикс через проницаемые стенки капилляров, в артериальных сосудах за счёт их вазомоций накапливается энергия крови, давлением которой с каждым сердечным циклом происходит гидравлический удар, вышибающий «пробку» в капиллярах из деформированных эритроцитов в посткапилляры и воды во внеклеточный матрикс. Именно эта картина описана в книге «Механика кровообращения»: «ускорение крови в начале фазы изгнания происходит очень быстро: картина такая, как если бы по столбу крови нанесли удар молотком» — это и есть пульсовый удар, ощущаемый в сосудах всего тела.

Общая площадь поперечных сечений капилляров человека — 50 м², это в 25 раз больше поверхности тела, всего их насчитывается 100—160 млрд капилляров. Суммарная длина капилляров среднестатистического взрослого человека составляет приблизительно 100 000 км.

Функции
В функции капилляра входит перенос питательных веществ, сигнальных веществ (гормонов) и других соединений. В некоторых случаях крупные молекулы могут быть слишком велики для диффузии через эндотелий, и для их переноса используются механизмы эндоцитоза и экзоцитоза.

В механизме иммунного ответа клетки эндотелия выставляют молекулы-рецепторы на своей поверхности, задерживая иммунные клетки и помогая их последующему переходу во внесосудистое пространство к очагу инфекции или иного повреждения.

Объём фильтрации через общую обменную поверхность капилляров организма составляет около 60 л/мин или примерно 85 000 л/сут. При этом давление в начале артериальной части капилляра 37,5 мм рт. ст. — эффективное давление составляет около (37,5—28) = 9,5 мм рт. ст. — давление в конце венозной части капилляра, направленное наружу капилляра, 20 мм рт. ст. — эффективное реабсорбционное давление около (20—28) = −8 мм рт. ст.

Виды
Существует три вида капилляров:

Непрерывные капилляры
Межклеточные соединения в этом виде капилляров очень плотные, что позволяет диффундировать только малым молекулам и ионам.

Фенестрированные капилляры
В их стенке встречаются просветы для проникновения крупных молекул. Фенестрированные капилляры встречаются в кишечнике, эндокринных железах и других внутренних органах (почки), где происходит интенсивный транспорт веществ между кровью и окружающими тканями.

Синусоидные капилляры (синусоиды)

В стенке этих капилляров содержатся щели (синусы), величина которых достаточна для выхода вне просвета капилляра эритроцитов и крупных молекул белка. Синусоидные капилляры есть в печени, лимфоидной ткани, эндокринных и кроветворных органах, таких, как костный мозг и селезёнка. Синусоиды в печеночных дольках содержат клетки Купфера, способные захватывать и уничтожать инородные тела.

Примечания

Литература

Ангиология
Сердечно-сосудистая система


text:
Linum arboreum, called tree flax, evergreen flax and shrubby flax, is a species of Linum native to Greece, including Crete and the Aegean Islands, and Turkey. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit as an ornamental.

References

arboreum
Plants described in 1753


text:
Hugh McLaughlin may refer to:

 Hugh McLaughlin (publisher) (1918–2006), Irish publisher and inventor
 Hugh McLaughlin Sr. (1909–1977), Australian rules footballer for South Melbourne and Footscray
 Hugh McLaughlin Jr. (1935–2004), Australian rules footballer for South Melbourne
 Hugh McLaughlin (politician) (1827–1904), American politician
 Hugh McLaughlin (footballer, born 1943), Scottish footballer for Brentford
 Hugh McLaughlin (footballer, born 1945) (died 2020), Scottish footballer for St Mirren


text:
Groß Kreutz is a municipality in the Potsdam-Mittelmark district, in Brandenburg, Germany.

Demography

The "Groß Kreutz" Group
The settlement gave its name to the Groß Kreutz Group of exiled Norwegians who were active in humanitarian work in the later stages of WWII, and were based at an estate in the area.  Group initiatives included the White Buses Operation in the spring of 1945. Members of the group included Johan Bernhard Hjort, Didrik Arup Seip and Wanda Hjort Heger.

References

Localities in Potsdam-Mittelmark


text:
Gabriella Da Silva Fick (* 23. August 2000 in Collaroy) ist eine australische Tennisspielerin.

Karriere
Da Silva Fick begann im Alter von acht Jahren mit dem Tennissport. Sie spielt vor allem Turniere der ITF Women's World Tennis Tour, wo sie bislang zwei Titel im Doppel gewann.

Im Oktober 2016 erreichte sie mit ihrer Partnerin Jaimee Fourlis das Hauptfeld im Doppel bei den mit 50.000 US-Dollar dotierten Bendigo Tennis International. Eine Woche später erreichte sie mit ihrer Partnerin Seone Mendez ebenfalls über die Qualifikation das Hauptfeld im Doppel der Canberra Tennis International. Im Dezember gewann sie die australische U16-Meisterschaft.

2017 bestritt sie ihr erstes Grand-Slam im Juniorenbereich bei den Australian Open, wo sie sowohl im Einzel als auch im Doppel antrat. Im Einzel erreichte sie mit einem Sieg über Catherine McNally die zweite Runde, während sie im Doppel bereits in der ersten Runde ausschied.

2018 trat sie erneut bei den Juniorinnenkonkurrenzen der Australian Open an. Im Einzel erreichte sie mit einem Sieg über Nika Radišić die zweite Runde, im Doppel erreichte sie mit ihrer Partnerin Ivana Popovic das Viertelfinale. Im Dezember 2018 gewann sie die australische Meisterschaft in der U18-Konkurrenz.

2019 startete Da Silva Fick mit einer Wildcard in der Qualifikation zu den Hobart International einem mit 250.000 US-Dollar dotierten Turnier der WTA Tour. Sie unterlag aber bereits in der ersten Runde Anna Blinkowa mit 4:6 und 2:6. Bei den Australian Open erhielt sie eine Wildcard für die Qualifikation zum Dameneinzel, verlor jedoch ebenfalls bereits in der ersten Qualifikationsrunde gegen Ljudmila Samsonowa mit 4:6, 6:4 und 4:6.

Doppel

Weblinks

 Gabriella Da Silva Fick - The Climb to the top YouTube, 3:52 Min.

Einzelnachweise

Tennisspieler (Australien)
Australier
Geboren 2000
Frau


text:
Belemnia aplaga is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It was described by George Hampson in 1901. It is native to Ecuador.

References

Arctiini
Moths described in 1901


text:
Four-wheel drive, also called 4×4 ("four by four") or 4WD, refers to a two-axled vehicle drivetrain capable of providing torque to all of its wheels simultaneously. It may be full-time or on-demand, and is typically linked via a transfer case providing an additional output drive shaft and, in many instances, additional gear ranges.

A four-wheel drive vehicle with torque supplied to both axles is described as "all-wheel drive" (AWD). However, "four-wheel drive" typically refers to a set of specific components and functions, and intended off-road application, which generally complies with modern use of the terminology.

Definitions
Four-wheel-drive systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology that describes the various architectures and functions. The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. SAE International's standard J1952 recommends only the term "all-wheel drive" with additional subclassifications that cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles.

4×4
"Four-by-four" or "4×4" is frequently used to refer to a class of vehicles in general. Syntactically, the first figure indicates the total number of axle ends and the second indicates the number of axle ends that are powered. Accordingly, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine torque to only two axle ends: the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Similarly, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which provide torque to two axle ends each. If this vehicle were a truck with dual rear wheels on two rear axles, so actually having ten wheels, its configuration would still be formulated as 6x4. During World War II, the U.S. military would typically use spaces and a capital 'X' – as "4 X 2" or "6 X 4".

4WD
Four-wheel drive (4WD) refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four axle ends. In the North American market, the term generally refers to a system optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term "4WD" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfer case that switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically.

AWD

All-wheel drive (AWD) was historically synonymous with "four-wheel drive" on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, and so on, being used in that fashion at least as early as the 1920s. Today in North America, the term is applied to both heavy vehicles and light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles, the term is increasingly applied to mean "permanent multiple-wheel drive" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6, or 8×8 drive-train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts. This is often coupled with some sort of antislip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds, but still be capable of transferring the torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use. When used to describe AWD systems in light passenger vehicles, it refers to a system that applies torque to all four wheels (permanently or on-demand) or is targeted at improving on-road traction and performance (particularly in inclement conditions), rather than for off-road applications.

Some all-wheel drive electric vehicles use one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual-motor variant of the Tesla Model S, which controls the torque distribution between its two motors electronically.

SAE recommended practices
According to the SAE International standard J1952, AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories.

Part-time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple the secondary axle from the primarily driven axle, and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range.

Full-time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (interaxle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fixed or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address the inclusion or exclusion of a low-range gear.

On-demand AWD systems drive the secondary axle via an active or passive coupling device or "by an independently powered drive system". The standard notes that in some cases, the secondary drive system may also provide the primary vehicle propulsion. An example is a hybrid AWD vehicle where the primary axle is driven by an internal combustion engine and the secondary axle is driven by an electric motor. When the internal combustion engine is shut off, the secondary, electrically driven axle is the only driven axle. On-demand systems function primarily with only one powered axle until torque is required by the second axle. At that point, either a passive or active coupling sends torque to the secondary axle.

In addition to the above primary classifications, the J1952 standard notes secondary classifications resulting in a total of eight systems, designated as:
Part-time nonsynchro
Part-time synchro
Full-time fixed torque
Full-time variable-torque passive
Full-time variable-torque active
On-demand synchro variable-torque passive
On-demand synchro variable-torque active
On-demand independently powered variable-torque active

Design

Differentials

Two wheels fixed to the same axle (but on the opposite axle ends) need to turn at different speeds as a vehicle goes around a curve. The reason is that the wheel that is located on the inner side of the curve needs to travel less distance than the opposite wheel for the same duration of time. However, if both wheels are connected to the same axle driveshaft, they always have to spin at the same speed relative to each other. When going around a curve, this either forces one of the wheels to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this, the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential. This allows one driveshaft to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds.

The differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of torque) evenly, while distributing angular velocity (turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the differential ring gear. When powered, each axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and right sides. When power is distributed to all four wheels, a third or 'center' differential can be used to distribute power between the front and rear axles.

The described system handles extremely well, as it is able to accommodate various forces of movement and distribute power evenly and smoothly, making slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for instance, the slipping wheel spins faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Since a differential applies equal torque to each half-shaft, power is reduced at the other wheels, even if they have good traction. This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles, because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels with which to lose traction, increasing the likelihood that it may happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to drive on surfaces with reduced traction. However, since torque is divided between four wheels rather than two, each wheel receives roughly half the torque of a 2WD vehicle, reducing the potential for wheel slip.

Limiting slippage

Many differentials have no way of limiting the amount of engine power that gets sent to their attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction, the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low-traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, several designs of differentials can either limit the amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally.

Locking differentials work by temporarily locking together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between the front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping.

The two most common factory-installed locking differentials use either a computer-controlled multiplate clutch or viscous coupling unit to join the shafts, while other differentials are more commonly used on off-road vehicles generally use manually operated locking devices. In the multi-plate clutch, the vehicle's computer senses slippage and locks the shafts, causing a small jolt when it activates, which can disturb the driver or cause additional traction loss. In the viscous coupling differentials, the shear stress of high shaft speed differences causes a dilatant fluid in the differential to become solid, linking the two shafts. This design suffers from fluid degradation with age and from exponential locking behavior. Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference that hastens torque transfer.

A third approach to limiting slippage is taken by a Torsen differential, which allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where no torque exists, but provides excellent handling in less extreme situations. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high-traction side before traction is exceeded at the low-traction side.

A fairly recent innovation in automobiles is electronic traction control. It typically uses a vehicle's braking system to slow a spinning wheel. This forced slowing emulates the function of a limited-slip differential, and by using the brakes more aggressively to ensure wheels are being driven at the same speed, can also emulate a locking differential. This technique normally requires wheel sensors to detect when a wheel is slipping, and only activates when wheel slip is detected. Therefore, typically no mechanism exists to actively prevent wheel slip (i.e., locking the differential in advance of wheel slip is not possible); rather, the system is designed to expressly permit wheel slip to occur, and then to attempt to send torque to the wheels with the best traction. If preventing all-wheel slip is a requirement, this is a limiting design.

Operating modes
The architecture of an AWD/4WD system can be described by showing its possible operating modes. A single vehicle may have the ability to operate in multiple modes depending on driver selection. The different modes are:
Two-wheel drive mode – In this mode, only one axle (typically the rear axle) is driven. The drive to the other axle is disconnected. The operating torque split ratio is 0:100.
Four-wheel drive mode – Here, depending on the nature of torque transfer to the axles, three submodes (below) can be defined.
Part-time mode – The front and rear axle drives are rigidly coupled in the transfer case. Since the driveline does not permit any speed differentiation between the axles and would cause driveline wind-up, this mode is recommended only for part-time use in off-road or loose-surface conditions where driveline wind-up is unlikely. Up to full torque could go to either axle, depending on the road conditions and the weight over the axles.
Full-time mode – Both axles are driven at all times, but an interaxle differential permits the axles to turn at different speeds as needed. This allows the vehicle to be driven full-time in this mode, regardless of the road surface, without fear of driveline wind-up. With standard bevel-gear differentials, the torque split is 50:50. Planetary differentials can provide asymmetric torque splits as needed. A system that operates permanently in the full-time mode is sometimes called all-the-time 4WD, all-wheel drive, or AWD. If the interaxle differential is locked out, then the mode reverts to a part-time mode.
On-demand mode – In this mode, the transfer case operates primarily in the 2WD mode. Torque is transferred to the secondary axle as needed by modulating the transfer clutch from open to a rigidly coupled state, while avoiding any driveline wind-up. The torque modulation may be achieved by active electronic/hydraulic control systems, or by passive devices, based on wheel slip or wheel torque, as described in the section on traction control systems.
In addition to these basic modes, some implementations can combine these modes. The system could have a clutch across the center differential, for example, capable of modulating the front axle torque from a full-time mode with the 30:70 torque split of the center differential to the 0:100 torque split of the 2WD mode.

History

Late 1800s
In 1893, before the establishment of the modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer Bramah Joseph Diplock patented a four-wheel drive system for a steam-powered traction engine, including four-wheel steering and three differentials, which was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Bramah's Pedrail wheel system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.

Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel-driven electric vehicle for the k. u. k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. in Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition in Paris. The vehicle was a series hybrid car that used an electric hub motor at each wheel, powered by batteries, which were in turn charged by a gasoline-engine generator. It was clumsily heavy, and due to its unusual status, the so-called Lohner–Porsche is not frequently given its credit as the first four-wheel driven automobile.

1900s–1920s

The world's first four-wheel-drive car directly powered by an internal-combustion engine, and the first with a front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout, was the Dutch Spyker 60 H.P., Commissioned for the Paris to Madrid race of 1903, it was presented that year by brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam. The two-seat sports car featured permanent four-wheel drive and was also the first car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, as well as four-wheel braking. Later used as a hill-climb racer, it is now an exhibit in the Louwman Museum (the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) in the Hague, the Netherlands.

Designs for four-wheel drive in America first came from the Twyford Motor Car Company.

The Reynolds-Alberta Museum has a four-wheel-drive vehicle, named "Michigan", from 1905 in unrestored storage.

The first four-wheel-drive vehicles to go into mass production were built by (what became) the American Four Wheel Drive Auto Company (FWD) of Wisconsin, founded in 1908. (not to be confused with the term "FWD" as an acronym for front-wheel-drive)
Along with the 1- and 2-ton Nash Quad (see below), the 3-ton FWD Model B became a standard military four-wheel-drive truck for the U.S. Army in World War I. Some 16,000 FWD Model B trucks were built for the British and American armies during World War I – about half by FWD and the rest by other licensed manufacturers. Only about 20% of the trucks built were four-wheel drives, but the 4x4s were more often on the front lines.

About 11,500 of the Jeffery / Nash Quad trucks were built for similar use between 1913 and 1919. The Quad not only came with four-wheel-drive and four-wheel brakes, but also featured four-wheel steering. The Quad was one of the first successful four-wheel drive vehicles ever to be made, and its production continued for 15 years with a total of 41,674 units made by 1928.

Daimler-Benz also has a history in four-wheel drive. After the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft had built a four-wheel-driven vehicle called Dernburg-Wagen, also equipped with four-wheel steering, in 1907, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in Namibia; Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced some rather sophisticated four-wheel drives, the G1, the G4, and G4 following. Mercedes and BMW developed this further in 1937.

1930s

The American Marmon-Herrington Company was founded in 1931 to serve a growing market for moderately priced four-wheel-drive vehicles. Marmon-Herrington specialized in converting Ford trucks to four-wheel drive and got off to a successful start by procuring contracts for military and commercial aircraft refueling trucks, 4×4 chassis for towing light weaponry, and an order from the Iraqi Pipeline Company for what were the largest trucks built at the time.

The early Marmon-Herringtons proved to be the exception to the rule — 4WD cars and trucks developed in the 1930s were mainly built for governments, with (future) warfare applications in mind.

Dodge developed its first four-wheel-drive truck in 1934 — a military  ton designated K-39-X-4(USA), of which 796 units were built for the U.S. Army in several configurations. Timken supplied front axles and transfer cases, added to militarized a civilian truck. The Timken transfer case was the first part-time design, that allowed the driver to engage or disengage four-wheel drive using a lever inside the cab. In spite of the limited 1930s U.S. military budgets, the '34 truck was liked well-enough that a more modern  ton truck was developed, and 1,700 RF-40-X-4(USA) trucks were produced in 1938, and 292 TF-40-X-4(USA) in 1939.

Starting in 1936, Japanese company Tokyu Kurogane Kogyo built roughly 4,700 four-wheel-drive roadsters, called the Kurogane Type 95 reconnaissance car, used by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 until 1944, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Three different bodystyles were manufactured – a two-door roadster, a two-door pickup truck, and a four-door phaeton, all equipped with a transfer case that engaged the front wheels, powered by a 1.3-litre, two-cylinder, air-cooled OHV V-twin engine.

The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4×4 featured full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of a government demand for a four-wheel-drive passenger vehicle. The modern G-series/Wolf such as the G500 and G55 AMG still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension, since it can compromise ground clearance. The Unimog is also a result of Mercedes 4x4 technology.

The first Russian-produced four-wheel-drive vehicle, also in part for civilian use, was the GAZ-61, developed in the Soviet Union in 1938. "Civilian use" may be a bit of a misnomer, as most, if not all, were used by the Soviet government and military (as command cars), but the GAZ-61-73 version is the first four-wheel-drive vehicle with a normal closed sedan body. Elements of the chassis were used in subsequent military vehicles such as the 1940 GAZ-64 and the 1943 GAZ-67, as well as the postwar GAZ-69, and the properly civilian GAZ-M-72, based on the rear-wheel drive GAZ-20 "Victory" and built from 1955 to 1958. Soviet civilian life did not allow the proliferation of civilian products such as the Jeep in North America, but through the 1960s, the technology of Soviet 4×4 vehicles stayed on par with British, German, and American models, even exceeding it in some aspects, and for military purposes just as actively developed, produced, and used.

World War II – a leap in AWD proliferation

Until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for the military on a large scale, four-wheel drive and all-wheel-drive vehicles had not found their place. The World War II Jeep, originally developed by American Bantam, but mass-produced by Willys and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel-drive vehicle in the world during the war. The American Dodge WC series and Chevrolet G506 4x4 variants were also produced by the hundreds of thousands, as well as the Canadian Military Pattern trucks, of which 4x4s were by far the most prevalent of their various driveline configurations. All told, North America built about  million 4x4 driven vehicles during the war,

Availability of certain critical components, such transfer cases and especially constant-velocity joints affected development. Though not used much on commercial vehicles, all-wheel drive vehicles all needed these; and they would use two or three times the number of driven axles, meaning more gears to cut for all the differentials. Produced up to the war by a few specialized firms with limited capacity, from spring 1942, Ford, Dodge, and Chevrolet joined in fabricating these in a quantity more than a 100-fold greater than in 1939.

Although Russia had their own jeep-like vehicle (the GAZ-64) up and running in 1940, a year earlier than the American jeep, in the early years of the war, they relied significantly on Lend-Lease vehicles, provided by the western allies. In 1943, they launched a further-developed version: the GAZ-67.

By contrast, the Axis powers' closest equivalent to the jeep, the VW Kübelwagen, of which only some 50,000 were built, though being equipped with portal gear hubs, only had rear-wheel drive.

1945–1960s

Willys introduced the model CJ-2A in 1945, the first full-production four-wheel-drive vehicle for sale in the general marketplace. Due to the ubiquitous World War II Jeep's success, its rugged utilitarianism set the pattern for many four-wheel-drive vehicles to come. Hot on its heels, Dodge also started production of the civilian 4WD Power Wagon trucks, for the 1946 model year. Both the Willys and the Dodge were developed directly from their WW II predecessors.

Equally boxy to the Jeep, and also inline-four powered, the Land Rover appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948. Originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, despite chronic underinvestment, it succeeded far better than their passenger cars. Inspired by a Willys MB – the ubiquitous WWII "jeep" – that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer Maurice Wilks, Land Rover developed the more refined yet still off-road capable luxury 4WD Range Rover in the 1970s.

With the acquisition of the "Jeep" name in 1950, Willys had cornered the brand. Its successor, Kaiser Jeep, introduced a revolutionary 4WD wagon called the Wagoneer in 1963. Not only was it technically innovative, with independent front suspension and the first automatic transmission coupled to 4WD, but also it was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile. In effect, it was the ancestor of the modern SUV. The luxury AMC or Buick V8-powered Super Wagoneer produced from 1966 to 1969 raised the bar even higher.

Jensen applied the Formula Ferguson (FF) full-time all-wheel-drive system to 318 units of their Jensen FF built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in a production GT sports car. While most 4WD systems split torque evenly, the Jensen split torque roughly 40% front, 60% rear by gearing the front and rear at different ratios.

1970s–1990s
American Motors Corporation (AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of off-road 4WD vehicles. With its added roadworthiness, the top-range full-sized Grand Wagoneer continued to compete with traditional luxury cars. Partially hand-built, it was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after Chrysler's buyout of AMC.

Subaru introduced the category-expanding Leone in 1972, an inexpensive compact station wagon with a light-duty, part-time four-wheel-drive system that could not be engaged on dry pavement. In September, AMC introduced Quadra Trac full-time AWD for the 1973 model year Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer. Due to full-time AWD, which relieved the driver of getting out to lock hubs and having to manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes, it dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition. Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the Press-on-Regardless Rally FIA championship with a Quadra Trac-equipped Jeep in 1972.

American Motors introduced the innovative Eagle for the 1980 model year. These were the first American mass-production cars to use the complete front-engine, four-wheel-drive system. The AMC Eagle was offered as a sedan, coupe, and station wagon with permanent automatic all-wheel drive passenger models. The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger automobile platform. They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or crossover SUV. AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high-level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used the off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction.

The Eagle's thick viscous fluid center differential provided a quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. No low range was used in the transfer case. This became the forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers. The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles. Four Wheeler magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars."

The Eagles were popular (particularly in the snowbelt), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. Two additional models were added in 1981, the subcompact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982, a unique convertible was added to the line. The Eagle's monocoque body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel targa bar with a removable fiberglass roof section. The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one model year after Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987. Total AMC Eagle production was almost 200,000 vehicles.

Audi also introduced a permanently all-wheel-driven road-going car, the Audi Quattro, in 1980. Audi's chassis engineer, Jörg Bensinger, had noticed in winter tests in Finland that a vehicle used by the West German Army, the Volkswagen Iltis, could beat any high-performance Audi. He proposed developing a four-wheel-drive car that would also be used for rallying to improve Audi's conservative image. The Audi quattro system became a feature on production cars.

In 1987, Toyota also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns. A limited number of road-going FIA Homologation Special Vehicle Celica GT-Four (known as Toyota Celica All-Trac Turbo in North America) were produced. The All-Trac system was later available on serial production Toyota Camry, Toyota Corolla, and Toyota Previa models.

Some of the earliest mid-engined four-wheel-drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for Group B homologation, such as the Ford RS200 made from 1984 to 1986. In 1989, niche maker Panther Westwinds created a mid-engined four-wheel drive, the Panther Solo 2.

2000–present
In the United States, as of late 2013, AWD vehicles comprised 32% of new light vehicle sales, up 5% since 2008. This is in large part due to the popularity of the crossover. Most crossovers offer the popular technology, in spite of it increasing vehicle price and fuel consumption. Car manufacturers have inundated consumers with marketing proclaiming AWD as a safety feature, although the advantage of AWD over FWD occurs in accelerating, not braking or steering. Tests have shown that though AWD gives improved acceleration in wintery conditions, it does not help with braking.

In 2008, Nissan introduced the GT-R featuring a rear-mounted transaxle. The AWD system requires two drive shafts, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels.

Uses

Road racing
Spyker is credited with building and racing the first four-wheel-drive racing car, the Spyker 60 HP in 1903.

Bugatti created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor handling.

Miller produced the first 4WD car to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, the 1938 Miller Gulf Special.

Ferguson Research Ltd. built the front-engined P99 Formula One car that actually won a non-World Championship race with Stirling Moss in 1961. In 1968, Team Lotus raced cars in the Indy 500 and three years later in Formula 1 with the Lotus 56, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 1969 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard 3-litre V8 Ford Cosworth engine. Matra also raced a similar MS84, and McLaren entered their M9A in the British Grand Prix, while engine manufacturers Ford-Cosworth produced their own version, which was tested but never raced. All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, though Lotus tried repeatedly.

Nissan and Audi had success with all-wheel drive in road racing with the former's advent of the Nissan Skyline GT-R in 1989. So successful was the car that it dominated the Japanese circuit for the first years of production, going on to bigger and more impressive wins in Australia before weight penalties eventually levied a de facto ban on the car. Most controversial was the win pulled off at the 1990 Macau Grand Prix, where the car led from start to finish. Audi's dominance in the Trans-Am Series in 1988 was equally controversial, as it led to a weight penalty midseason and to a rule revision banning all AWD cars; its dominance in Super Touring eventually led to a FIA ban on AWD system in 1998.

New  24 Hours of Le Mans regulations may revive AWD/4WD in road racing, though such systems are only allowed in new hybrid-powered Le Mans prototypes. One example is the Audi R18 e-tron quattro (winner of  race, the first hybrid/4WD to win Le Mans), using an electric motor in the front axle with the gasoline engine in the rear.

In heavy trucks
Medium-duty and heavy-duty trucks have recently adopted 4×4 drivetrains; 4×4 medium-duty trucks became common after Ford began selling Ford Super Duty trucks. These trucks shared many parts between the light-duty and medium-duty, reducing production costs. The Dana 60 front axle is used on both medium- and light-duty Super Duty trucks. Furthermore, the Big Three share/shared parts between the companies, reducing costs. The Dana S 110 is currently being used for the rear drive, under Ford and Ram's medium-duty trucks. The Dana 110 was also used on the General Motors 4×4s. Ram Trucks began selling medium-duty trucks, 4×4 and 4×2, in 2008. General Motors sold a 4×4 for model years 2005–2009.

In construction equipment

Volvo introduced the Model 646 four-wheel-drive backhoe loader in 1977. Case Corporation followed suit in the U.S. in 1987.

Terminology
In engineering terms, "four-wheel drive" designates a vehicle with power delivered to four wheel ends spread over at least two axles. The term "4×4" (pronounced four by four) was in use to describe North American military four-wheel-drive vehicles as early as the 1940s, with the first number indicating the number of wheel ends on a vehicle and the second indicating the number of driven wheels.

Trucks with dual tires on the rear axle and two driven axles are designated as 4×4s despite having six wheels, because the paired rear wheels behave as a single wheel for traction and classification purposes. True 6×6 vehicles, which have three powered axles, are classified as 6×6s regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the six-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.

Four-wheeler is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The "four" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven.

Unusual systems
Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, French motor manufacturer Citroën developed the 2CV Sahara in 1958. Unlike other 4×4 vehicles, which use a conventional transfer case to drive the front and rear axles, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches, and gear-change mechanisms could be linked, so the two   engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today.

BMC experimented with a twin-engined Mini Moke (dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. This made advantage of the Mini's 'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the gearbox in the engine sump. Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4×4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the British Army had more user-friendly linked systems.

In 1965, A. J. M. Chadwick patented a 4WD system, GB 1113068, that used hemispherical wheels for an all-terrain vehicle. Twenty years later, B. T. E. Warne, patented, GB 2172558, an improvement on Chadwick's design that did not use differential gear assemblies. By using near-spherical wheels with the provision to tilt and turn each wheel co-ordinatively, the driven wheels maintain constant traction. Furthermore, all driven wheels steer, and as pairing of wheels is not necessary, vehicles with an odd number of wheels are possible without affecting the system's integrity. Progressive deceleration is made possible by dynamically changing the front-to-rear effective wheel diameter ratios.

Suzuki Motors introduced the Suzuki Escudo Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Earlier Suzuki versions were twin-engined; from 1996 on, the engine is a twin-turbocharged 2.0-L V6, mated to a sequential six-speed manual transmission.

Nissan Motors has developed a system called E-4WD, designed for cars that are normally front-wheel drive; however, the rear wheels are powered by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the Nissan Cube and Tiida. (This is similar to the system used on the Ford Escape Hybrid AWD.)

Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin-engined,  Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. This is accomplished by driving the left wheels as a pair and the right wheels as a pair, as opposed to driving the front and rear pairs. A central gearbox allows one side to drive in the opposite direction from the other. It also has dual Hemi V8s.

Some hybrid vehicles such as the Lexus RX400h provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the Harrier hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine, as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction conditions and need, making this an all-wheel-drive system.

The 4RM system used in the Ferrari FF in 2011 is unique in that it has a rear transaxle with a secondary front transaxle connected directly to the engine. The car operates primarily as a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Clutches in the front transaxle engage when the rear wheels slip. Drive to the front wheels is transmitted through two infinitely variable clutch packs that are allowed to 'slip' to give the required road wheel speeds. The front transaxle has three gears, two forward, and reverse. The two forward gears of the front transmission match the lower four forward gears of the rear transmission. It is not used in higher gears. The connection between this gearbox and each front wheel is via independent Haldex-type clutches, without a differential. Due to the difference in ratios, the clutches continually slip and only transmit, at most, 20% of the engine's torque.

Systems by design type

Center differential with mechanical lock
 Alfa Romeo 164 Q4 (central viscous coupling, epicyclic unit and Torsen rear differential)
 Alfa Romeo 155 Q4 (central epicyclic unit, Ferguson viscous coupling and Torsen rear differential)
 AMC Eagle (central viscous coupling)
 Audi – Quattro Coupé, 80, 90, 100 & 200 (locking center and rear differentials) – up to 1987
 Audi Q7 -double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack
 BMW 3 series and 5 series in the 1980s – planetary center differential with a 37–63 (front-back) torque split and viscous lock (also in rear differential but not front differential)
 Chevrolet Rounded-Line K Fleetside, K Stepside, K Blazer, and K Suburban – permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential.
 Ford Escort RS (RS 2000 16v 4×4 models and RS Cosworth), Sierra Cosworth, Sierra and Granada 4×4 models,
 Dodge Power Wagon – permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock.
 Ford Expedition (1997–present) and Expedition EL/Max (2007–present) – automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential
 Ford Explorer (1995–2010) – automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential
 Ford F-Series – permanent four-wheel-drive (1974–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock.
 GMC Rounded-Line K Wideside, K Fenderside, K Jimmy, and K Suburban – permanent four-wheel-drive (1973–1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center planetary differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential.
 H1 & Humvee NVG 242HD AMG open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range locked. Also Torsen1 differential at the front and rear axle, The H1 moved to Torsen2 when ABS was added. The H1 Alpha had optional locking differentials in place of torsens.
 Hummer H2, H3 40/60 planetary with lock
 Jeep Grand Cherokee, Commander (except models equipped with Quadra-Trac I)
 Jeep Liberty, Jeep Cherokee (XJ), Dodge Durango (Select-Trac) – NV 242 transfer case- rear drive, open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range
 Full size Jeeps with Borg Warner QuadraTrac: limited-slip center differential, 50/50 locked center differential. Low range could be used in locked or unlocked mode, allowing for use of the low range on pavement.
 Land Rover Defender (and Series III V8 models)
 Land Rover Discovery/LR3
 Land Rover Freelander
 Lada Niva (VAZ-2121) – full-time 4WD using open center differential. Transfer case with high/low range and manual central diff lock. Low range selectable in locked or unlocked mode, allowing use on pavement.
 Lexus RX300 -viscous coupling across the otherwise open center differential.
 Lincoln Navigator (1998–2006) – automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential
 Navigator and Navigator L (2007–present) use a one-speed single range transfer case, no reduction gearing
 Mercedes-Benz Unimog (locking center and rear with up to 10 low range gears).
 Mercedes-Benz G-Class (locking center and lockers on both front- and rear axle)
 Mercedes-Benz GL-Class – 4Matic all-wheel-drive system
 Mitsubishi Pajero (also known as Montero or Shogun)
 Porsche Cayenne – 38/62 planetary with lockup clutch pack
 Range Rover Classic 1970–1995 all full-time 4WD either plate LSD, manual lock or Ferguson viscous center differential.
 Range Rover 2nd Gen. 1994–2002 full-time 4WD Ferguson viscous center differential
 Suzuki Grand Vitara/Escudo (2005 and later models, excepting the XL-7) -full-time 4WD using limited-slip center differential, off-road 4WD with selectable center differential lock and low range transfer case 4 mode (4h, 4h lock, 4l n), traction control and electronic stability control
 Subaru – manual transmissions come with 50/50 viscous-type center differential; performance models include a planetary differential with computer-regulated lockup; automatic transmission models have an electronically controlled variable transfer clutch.
 Toyota Land Cruiser
 Toyota Sequoia (Multi-mode)
 Volkswagen Touareg -double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack

Torsen center differential
 Alfa Romeo Q4s – with (Torsen T-3):
 156 Crosswagon and Sportwagon
 159
 Brera, Spider
 Audis with quattro – various iterations of Torsen, the T-3 starting from the 2007 B7 RS4
 80, 90 & Coupé (Typ 89)
 100 & 200
 A4, S4, RS4
 A5 & S5
 A6, S6, RS6
 A8, S8
 Q5, Q7
 Bentley Continental GT, Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005) initially Torsen T-2, current have T-3
 Chevrolet Trailblazer SS Torsen T-3
 Lexus GX470, Toyota Land Cruiser Prado 120 Torsen T-3
Range Rover 3rd Gen. 2002–2009
 Toyota 4Runner (Only 2003-2009 model and 2010+ Limited V6 model) Torsen T-3 with lock
 Toyota FJ Cruiser (only manual models) Torsen T-3 with lock
 Toyota Hilux Surf Torsen T-3 with lock
 Toyota Land Cruiser 200/2008/V8 Torsen T-3 with lock
 Toyota Sequoia (only 2005–07 Models)
 Volkswagen Passenger Cars with 4motion:
 Volkswagen Passat Torsen T-2 (B5.5 model, not latest B6 model with transverse engine)
 Volkswagen Phaeton Torsen T-2

Non-locking center differential
 BMW 3-series and X5 between 2001 and xDrive – planetary center differential with permanent 38–62 (front-back) torque split #
 Cadillac Escalade, STS AWD, SRX AWD (The first two generations had a viscous clutch on the center differential) #
 Chrysler 300C AWD#
 Dodge Ramcharger 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case
 Dodge Magnum, Charger AWD #
 GMC Yukon Denali, XL Denali, Sierra Denali #
 Mercedes 4MATIC cars, R class, and ML class (note some MLs had low range) #
 Plymouth Trail Duster 1974–1981 – NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case
 Toyota Highlander #
 Toyota Sienna AWD (−2010 only) #

The above systems ending with "#" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.

Multiple-clutch systems
 Acura RL, RDX (SH-AWD) Right and left axle shaft
 Acura MDX SH-AWD & VTM4
 Ford Explorer – Ford's full-time shift-on-the-fly Intelligent 4WD System (I-4WD) on the 2011 Explorer with Terrain Management System and RSC (Roll Stability Control), Curve Control functionality, HDC (Hill Descent Control) and HAA (Hill Ascent Assist).
 Honda Ridgeline
 Honda Pilot
 Infiniti FX (ATTESA E-TS)
 Mercedes-Benz 1st generation 4MATIC (normally rear-drive, automatic clutch in transfer case engages 4WD on demand)
 Mitsubishi GTO MR/3000GT VR-4
 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Series S-AWC
 2010 Mitsubishi Outlander GT S-AWC
 Mitsubishi Outlander (2003–2006) independent front and rear axle coupling, and Active Center Differential.
 Nissan GT-R (ATTESA E-TS)
 Nissan Skyline GT-R (ATTESA E-TS and ATTESA E-TS-PRO) front axle coupling, rear differential locking
 Nissan Skyline GTS4 (ATTESA E-TS)
 Nissan A31 Cefiro SE4 (ATTESA E-TS)
 Porsche 959 PSK front axle coupling, rear differential locking
 Saab 9-3, Saab 9-5, Saab 9-4X (Saab XWD)

Multi-plate clutch coupling
 Audi A3 quattro, Audi S3, Audi TT quattro, Audi R8 (with Haldex Traction)
 BMW xDrive: latest 3 Series, latest 5 series, X3, latest X5 series
 Chevrolet Equinox (GMPCA)
 Chrysler Pacifica (BorgWarner ITM3e) (on 2007 model)
 Dodge Nitro (Quadra-Trac 1)
 Dodge Caliber
 Ford: Escape, Freestyle, Edge, Fusion, Five Hundred (Freestyle, FiveHundred Haldex Traction based) (Escape Control Trac II, based)
 Honda CR-V, HR-V, Element
 Hyundai Santa Fe, Hyundai Tucson Borg-Warner ITM 3e magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling
 Hyundai Veracruz IMJ magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling
 Infiniti: G35x, M35x
 Jeep Compass (Freedom Drive)
 Jeep Grand Cherokee and SRT8 NVG 249, 247
 Land Rover Freelander 2/LR2 (also Haldex Traction)
 Lamborghini: AWD variants VT series (viscous traction)
 Lincoln: MKS, MKZ
 Mazdaspeed6 (a power takeoff unit linked to clutch pack with torque sensitive rear differential)
 Mazda: Mazda3, Mazdaspeed6, Tribute, CX-3, CX-30, CX-5, CX-50, CX-60, CX-7, CX-8, CX-9 (tribute Control Trac II, based)
 Mercury: Milan, Montego, Mariner (Montego Haldex Traction–based)
 Mitsubishi Outlander (current generation)
 Nissan Murano automatic with manual lockup switch
 Porsche 911 AWD variants (a version of BorgWarner ITM3e) — excluding the 964-series Porsche 911 Carrera 4 31/69 planetary center differential
 Pontiac Torrent (GMPCA)
 Subaru low powered automatic transmission models
 Subaru Legacy, Outback, Impreza, Forester, Tribeca automatic transmission models: mechanical front drive, clutch coupled rear axle
 Suzuki: SX4, XL7, Aerio, Swift/Cultus based Subaru Justy. (viscous clutch)
 Toyota RAV4 – from 2005 (third generation only)
 Toyota Sienna AWD (2011 and newer only)
 Volkswagen Golf 4motion, Volkswagen Jetta 4motion, Volkswagen Tiguan 4motion, Volkswagen Passat (B6) 4motion (initially viscous coupling, later with Haldex Traction)
 Volvo: S40, S60, S80, V50, V70, XC70, XC90 (Visco system until 2003; then all Haldex Traction–based)

Note: the above all function like 2WD when the multi-plate clutch coupling is not engaged (with exception of Subaru models), and like 4WD high-range in a part-time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). Some in this category have varying degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear by allowing some of the clutches in a multi-plate clutch coupling to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner i-Trac(TM) system.
Note: the Haldex Traction-based car list was created from the list on Haldex Traction corporate website: Haldex Cars. A version of the BorgWarner ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. The Borg-Warner ITM 3e is also used in the 2006-now Hyundai Santa Fe and the Hyundai Tucson. In the Hyundais, the ITM 3e acts like a full-time AWD with 95:5 normal torque split. In extreme conditions, the system can be locked in a 50:50 split via the 4WD LOCK button.

Part-time
These are vehicles that have no center differential. Since there is no center differential to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels when turning, a small amount of tire slippage must occur during turns. When used on slick surfaces, this is not a problem, but when turning on dry pavement, the tires grip, then are forced to slip, then grip again, and so on, until the turn is completed. This causes the vehicle to exhibit a 'hopping' or 'binding' sensation. Using an engaged part-time 4WD system on a hard surface is not recommended, as damage to the drive-line eventually occurs. Part-time transfer cases are the industry standard transfer case for the 4x4 truck market. Any other transfer case can be considered more robust, however more moving parts and complexity can, sometimes, make other transfer cases less durable.

See also

 4WS
 Dune bashing
 Four-wheel drive in Formula One
 Limited slip differential
 Off-road vehicle
 Rock crawling
 Sport utility vehicle
 Transfer case
 Driveline windup

Footnotes

References

Off-road vehicles
Car layouts
Drivetrain

All-wheel-drive vehicles
English inventions
British inventions

af:Motordryfuitleg


text:
Constantine Keroularios () was a high-ranking Byzantine official in the third quarter of the 11th century.

Life
Constantine was a nephew of the powerful Michael Keroularios, Patriarch of Constantinople in 1043–1059. The name of his father is unknown. A friend and correspondent of Michael Psellos, Constantine and his brother Nikephoros were among the supporters of Isaac I Komnenos when he rose in revolt to seize the throne in 1057, and went on to occupy senior offices in the Byzantine hierarchy. In his correspondence with Psellos, Constantine is variously referred to by the high court ranks of sebastos, proedros, protoproedros, and magistros, the senior fiscal offices of sakellarios and genikos logothetes, and the judicial offices of epi ton kriseon and droungarios tes viglas. It was probably under Constantine's tenure that the latter office acquired the epithet "megas" ("grand"), and was confirmed as the Empire's senior-most judicial authority. Constantine was apparently also the first person to hold the title of sebastos. A seal which may be attributable to him further records the titles of "vestarches, judge of the Velum, and grand curator of the Mangana".

Constantine was also a cousin of Eudokia Makrembolitissa, who married Isaac's lieutenant and successor as emperor, Constantine X Doukas, as she too is referred to as a niece of the patriarch. In 1067, Constantine X was dying. Eudokia, as empress-dowager and mother of Constantine's under-age sons, would lead the regency, but Constantine X feared that she might well include her relatives, who already held high posts in court, in the regency, thus posing a potential threat to the succession of Constantine X's own children. He therefore had Eudokia swear publicly that she would not remarry nor appoint any co-regents over her under-age sons with Constantine other than the latter's brother John Doukas, an oath that she would soon break, however, with her marriage to Romanos IV Diogenes.

Constantine Keroularios died sometime under Nikephoros III Botaneiates (ruled 1078–1081), as his will was the subject of an investigation at this time.

Family
According to genealogy of the 12th-century writer John Tzetzes, Constantine Keroularios married a Georgian lady, a relative of the empress Maria of Alania. The couple had a daughter, who was eventually adopted by Eudokia Makrembolitissa. She married a tax official named George, and gave birth to Tzetzes' own mother. Constantine had also several sons, of whom Michael Keroularios was the most prominent: he likewise became megas droungarios tes viglas and married into the Komnenos dynasty, but defrauded his other brothers of their father's inheritance.

References

Sources

11th-century deaths
11th-century Byzantine people
Byzantine officials
Constantine
Year of birth unknown
Magistroi
Vestarchai
Sebastoi


text:
Antidesma fordii är en emblikaväxtart som beskrevs av William Botting Hemsley. Antidesma fordii ingår i släktet Antidesma och familjen emblikaväxter. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Emblikaväxter
fordii


text:
Ula Tirso este o comună din provincia Oristano, regiunea Sardinia, Italia, cu o populație de 589 de locuitori și o suprafață de 18,85 km².

Demografie

Referințe

Legături externe

Comunele Italiei

Comune din provincia Oristano


text:
Finnkampen (Swedish, literally The Finn Battle), Suomi-Ruotsi-maaottelu (literally The Finland-Sweden match) or Ruotsi-ottelu (Sverigekampen, literally The Sweden Battle), is a yearly international athletics competition held between Sweden and Finland since 1925.

It is (since the late 1980s) the only annual athletics international with only two participating countries still held at a professional level. The two-day event attracts significant audiences, with a combined total of over 50,000 tickets sold for the 2011 competition. Three-time heptathlon world champion Carolina Klüft made her final international appearance for Sweden at the meeting in 2012.

Competition

The competition is actually divided into two internationals, one for men and one for women. Youth competitions for men and women are also held. Each country provides their three best participants in each of the events, except for the relays where there are four participants (one team) from each country. Traditionally, the competitions have been arranged alternatively, with Finland hosting in even years and Sweden in odd years. This has changed few times in recent years, seeing one country arranging the international twice in a row a few times. The reasons for this include stadium renovations and major international competitions. Points are given to all contestants completing their event (no points are given to athletes who are disqualified, do not finish the event or don't get the result in field competitions), based on the final position in every event. Points given in each event are, from 1st to 6th place: 7-5-4-3-2-1, and in relays 1st and 2nd place are awarded with 5 and 2 points.

The competition may not be a world class one looking at the results, no single world record has been set, but there are few competitions in the world that are fiercer and more prestigious. This is most often seen in the middle-distance running, where tactics are more important than time, and these events have seen many foul tricks during the years, in 1992 resulting in the disqualification of all six runners in the men's 1500 metres event.

Another important aspect of the event is that it is a team competition. A competitor who manages to reach fourth place instead of a projected sixth place can be just as important, or even more important, for the end result as a "star" that secures the expected first place. A fight to the finish between competitor number five and six, half a lap behind the winner, can be just as important as the actual winner. The race is not over until the last competitor crosses the line. For many of the competitors the international is the most prestigious competition of the year.

The events in Finland have always been held in Helsinki, after 1939 at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, but 2016 and 2018 events took place at Ratina Stadium in Tampere due to renovation of the Olympic Stadium. The Swedish events have mostly been held in Stockholm at the Stockholm Olympic Stadium. From 1999 until 2012 they were held in Gothenburg at the Ullevi Stadium because of larger spectator capacity.

Events

History

Finnkampen was held for the first time in Helsinki in 1925, with one of the participants being the five-time Olympic champion in the 1924 Summer Olympics, Paavo Nurmi. Competitions were held in 1927, 1929 and 1931. After a pause of eight years the next competition was held in 1939, just before the outbreak of the Second World War, which led to the cancellation of the competition between 1941 and 1944. The 1940 competition was held as a triple event between Finland, Sweden and Germany, with only two athletes from each country competing in each event. The international has been continually held for men since 1945 and for women since 1964, although the first women's competition was held already in 1953.

1931 breakup
The first competitions were very much influenced by the love-hate relationship between Sweden and Finland.
The 1931 event was a victory for Finland, but tensions at the track led to a knuckle fight between the runners-up in the 800 metres race.

At the banquet after the games, the new chairman of the Finnish athletics union and future president of Finland, Urho Kekkonen announced that Finland would no longer take part in the event.
The tension was in a large part caused by Swedish attempts, spearheaded by Sigfrid Edström, the Swedish president of the IAAF and vice-president of the IOC, to have Paavo Nurmi declared a professional athlete, and thus banned from international competitions. After Kekkonen's speech Swedish efforts intensified, and Nurmi was banned from the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.

It took eight years until 1939, before the Finns again decided to participate in the games, at the eve of the planned 1940 Summer Olympics in Helsinki.

Results

Totals
 Men:
Finland  46 – 36  Sweden
 Women:
Finland  25 – 42  Sweden
 Total:
Finland  71 – 78  Sweden

Competition records

Men

Women

References

External links
 Finnkampen - Swedish site
 Ruotsi-ottelu - Finnish site
 The event at SVT's open archive

International athletics competitions
Athletics competitions in Finland
Athletics competitions in Sweden
Recurring sporting events established in 1925
Finland–Sweden relations
Inter-Nordic sports competitions
Team combination track and field competitions


text:
Sleep Token ist eine im Jahr 2016 gegründete britische Rock-Band aus London.

Geschichte
Die 2016 gegründete Gruppe behält die Identität ihrer Mitglieder anonym und tritt stets maskiert auf. Lediglich der Sänger der Gruppe ist unter seinem Pseudonym "Vessel" bekannt, die restlichen drei Instrumentalisten sind nicht namentlich oder unter einem Pseudonym bekannt. In dem Herausgeberverzeichnis ihrer beiden Alben werden Vessel1 für Keyboard, Gesang und Gitarre und Vessel2 für Schlagzeug genannt. Als Konzept der Gruppe dient eine Hintergrundgeschichte, laut der dem Musiker der Gott "Sleep" (zu Deutsch "Schlaf") in seinen Träumen erschienen ist, diesen würde das Kollektiv seitdem durch ihre Musik verehren. Die erste Veröffentlichung der Gruppe war die Extended Play One und die Single Thread the Needle.

Ein Jahr darauf, 2017, veröffentlichte Sleep Token seine zweite EP, Two und dazu die Singles Calcutta, Nazareth und Jericho. Im selben Jahr folgten darauf die Singles Hey Ya!, eine Coverversion des gleichnamigen Liedes von OutKast, Jaws und The Way That You Were, welche unabhängig von einem Album veröffentlicht wurden.

Im Juni 2019 zeigte das Kollektiv mit The Night Does Not Belong to God das erste Lied seines Debütalbums Sundowning, dessen Titel auf das gleichnamige Krankheitsbild anspielte und welches noch im selben Jahr unter dem Label Spinefarm Records erschien. Nach der Veröffentlichung dieser ersten Single folgten alle zwei Wochen zum Sonnenuntergang das jeweils nächste Lied der, insgesamt zwölf Stücke umfassenden, LP. Die Deluxe-Version des Albums wurde im darauffolgenden Jahr zusammen mit vier zusätzlichen Liedern veröffentlicht. Die Gruppe tritt auf dem Euroblast Festival auf.

2021 wurden die drei Promotion-Singles The Love You Want, Alkaline und Fall for Me (in genannter Reihenfolge veröffentlicht) als Vorbereitung auf das zweite Album der Band unter demselben Label publiziert, welches wenige Monate darauf noch im selben Jahr erschien. This Place Will Become Your Tomb, in dem die Gruppe erneut mit dem Produzenten George Lever zusammenarbeiteten, wurde von dem Metal- und Rockmagazin Loudwire auf Platz zwölf der 45 besten Rock- und Metalalben 2021 genannt und erreichte für einen Tag die Position 39 in den britischen Charts.

Im Januar 2023 veröffentlichten Sleep Token mit Chokehold, The Summoning, Granite und Aqua Regia die ersten vier Singles zu ihrem Album Take Me Back to Eden. Im Februar selbigen Jahres folgt zusammen mit der fünften Single, Vore eine Ankündigung über das Erscheinungsdatum von Take Me Back to Eden, das Album soll am 19. Mai 2023 erscheinen.

Musikstil
Der Musikstil von Sleep Token wird von Rezeptionisten wiederholt als "schwer kategorisierbar", "einzigartig" und "als Kombination verschiedener Genres" beschrieben. In einem Interview mit dem Musikmagazin Metal Hammer meinte der Sänger Vessel hierzu, Musik sei "für jedermann" und man solle "sich nicht in Genres verlieren", da sie einen "verwirren" würden. Das Genre der Band wird weiterhin als Mischung von Indie-Rock, Post-Metal, Tech-Metal, Alternative Metal, Metalcore und Ambient beschrieben.

Diskografie
Studioalben

Extended Plays

Singles

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website

Einzelnachweise

Britische Band
Metal-Band
Rockband
Alternative-Metal-Band
Progressive-Metal-Band
Post-Metal-Band


text:
Michael Joseph O'Connor est un footballeur international nord-irlandais né le  à Belfast (Irlande du Nord). Il évolue au poste de milieu de terrain au Glenavon FC.

Biographie

O'Connor reçoit 11 sélections en équipe d'Irlande du Nord entre 2008 et 2013. Il joue son premier match en équipe nationale le  contre la Géorgie. Il dispute 4 matchs comptant pour les éliminatoires de la coupe du monde.

Il joue 66 matchs en Championship (deuxième division anglaise) : deux avec Crewe Alexandra et 64 avec Scunthorpe.

Le , il rejoint le Notts County.

Le , il rejoint Salford City.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur international nord-irlandais
Joueur du Scunthorpe United FC
Joueur du Port Vale FC
Joueur du Rotherham United FC
Joueur du Lincoln City FC
Joueur du Crewe Alexandra FC
Joueur du Notts County FC
Joueur du Salford City FC
Joueur du Glenavon FC
Naissance en octobre 1986
Naissance à Belfast


text:
Podzamcze (też: Podzamcze Chęcińskie) – wieś w Polsce, położona w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie kieleckim, w gminie Chęciny.

W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa kieleckiego.

We wsi znajduje się kompleks budynków Regionalnego Centrum Naukowo-Technologicznego. Do nich zaliczają się: zabytkowy dwór obronny udostępniony do zwiedzania po uprzedniej rezerwacji, Biobank, Centrum Nauki Leonardo.

Integralne części wsi

Zabytki
Dwór obronny. Powstał na początku XVII wieku na rozkaz starosty chęcińskiego Jana Branickiego na miejscu folwarku. Po spustoszeniu Chęcin, w tym zamku chęcińskiego przez Szwedów w czasie Potopu do Podzamcza przeniesiono siedzibę starosty chęcińskiego i rozbudowano dwór, dobudowując oficynę. Na początku XVIII wieku, w związku z odbudową Chęcin, starosta opuścił Podzamcze, a sam dwór pełnił już tylko rolę folwarku. W XIX wieku przebudowano dwór na spichlerz skuwając większość elementów wystroju barokowego. W latach 20. XX wieku przekazano budynki jako siedzibę szkoły rolniczej, wtedy też przebudowano dwór i oficynę i dobudowano dwa łączniki między głównym budynkiem dworu a sąsiednimi budowlami. Kolejny remont miał miejsce w okresie 1939-1944. Po 1945 we dworze mieściła się siedziba technikum rolniczego, a następnie dyrekcji tej szkoły.

Współcześnie z pierwotnego założenia zachował się główny budynek (południowy) dworu obronnego, choć znacznie przebudowany i pozbawiony prawie całego wystroju barokowego, z wyjątkiem jednego portalu okiennego z herbem Gryf fundatorów dworu, oficyna (również mocno przebudowana) oraz resztki fosy wykorzystywane obecnie jako staw.

Barokowa brama ozdobna, będąca wolno stojącym łukiem triumfalnym wzniesionym na część zwycięstwa Jana III Sobieskiego pod Wiedniem w 1683 r. Według innych źródeł powstała ona w pierwszej dekadzie XVII wieku z fundacji starosty chęcińskiego Stanisława z Ruszczy, a intencją bramy było uczczenie odzyskania dla katolików kościoła franciszkańskiego w Chęcinach, zajmowanego do 1603 r. przez Braci polskich.

Aleja lipowa, której drzewa liczą ponad 300 lat oraz otaczający Dwór park.

Zespół dworski (dwór z bramą i parkiem) został wpisany do rejestru zabytków nieruchomych (nr rej.: A.267/1-3 z 17.12.1932, z 20.07.1946, z 17.12.1957 i z 15.06.1967).

We dworze i parku kręcono w 1959 r. sceny do komedii Tysiąc talarów, reżyserem której był Stanisław Wohl, współscenarzystą był Edmund Niziurski, a grała m.in. Irena Kwiatkowska i Jarema Stępowski.

Dwór, wraz z otaczającym parkiem został nabyty pod koniec 2010 r. przez Regionalne Centrum Naukowo-Techniczne.

Przypisy

Podzamcze Chęcińskie


text:
Lavora är ett släkte av insekter. Lavora ingår i familjen Tropiduchidae.

Kladogram enligt Catalogue of Life:

Källor

Halvvingar
Lavora


text:
Аналитический сигнал (аналитическое представление сигнала) — используемое в теории обработки сигналов математическое представление аналогового сигнала в виде комплекснозначной аналитической функции времени. Обычный, действительный сигнал x является при этом действительной частью аналитического представления xa.

Идея преобразования — оставить лишь неотрицательные частоты в спектре сигнала, достаточные для его восстановления в силу эрмитовой симметрии: .

Аналитический сигнал является обобщением понятия комплексной амплитуды на случай сигналов, отличных от гармонического.

Определение
Пусть x(t) — представляющая сигнал действительнозначная функция, преобразование Фурье (т.е. спектр) которой обозначим X(f),, а u(f) — функция Хевисайда.

Тогда:

содержит лишь неотрицательную часть спектра X(f).

Подвергая полученный спектр  обратному преобразованию Фурье, мы и получаем аналитический сигнал:

где * — свёртка,  — преобразование Гильберта функции  а  означает мнимую единицу.

Примеры
Пусть   для некоторой частоты

Тогда:

Это комплексная функция с возрастающим по времени аргументом.

Практические применения
Устранение «отрицательных частот» используется в аналоговой передаче звука (АМ-радиовещание, аналоговая телефонная связь) для экономии полосы частот.

Примечания

См. также
 Комплексное сопротивление

Внешние ссылки
  Преобразование Гильберта. Аналитический сигнал.
Преобразование Гильберта. Аналитический сигнал.

Обработка сигналов
Преобразование Фурье


text:
Klatovské katakomby jsou označením pro krypty pod klatovským jezuitským kostelem zasvěceným Neposkvrněnému početí Panny Marie a sv. Ignácovi.

Historie
Krypty byly budovány jako součást stavby kostela v letech 1656–1676. Podle plánů stavitelů se staly pohřebištěm příslušníků jezuitského řádu a jeho dobrodinců z řad místní šlechty, vojska, měšťanů. V letech 1676–1783 do nich bylo uloženo k věčnému spánku více než 200 zemřelých. V roce 1784 panovník Josef II. zakázal pohřbívání v kryptách, a tak posledním zde pohřbeným se stal v roce 1783 Antonín Weichs. Zřejmě nejznámějším z pohřbených je Pater Adalbert Chanovský z Dlouhé Vsi, misionář působící v jihozápadních Čechách v 1. polovině 17. století.

Těla položená na hoblinách v dubových rakvích byla obložena chmelem. Každá rakev byla označena olověnou identifikační destičkou. Působením vzduchu dovedeného do krypt důmyslným systémem větracích kanálů došlo k jejich postupnému vysušení – k mumifikaci – tak, že dnes váží 8 – 10 kg. Větrací systém, jenž ústil až na střeše kostela, zajišťoval v katakombách relativně stálou teplotu a vlhkost vzduchu. Po dlouhá léta byla těla prakticky nedotčena.

Při opravě střechy jezuitského kostela ve 30. letech 20. století zasypali dělníci stavebním odpadem větrací šachty a kanály, které stoupaly zdivem pilířů až pod střešní římsu. Tím se zcela změnilo prostředí ve sklepení a převážná část mumií se rozpadla. Celkem 140 zničených mumií bylo v roce 1937 pohřbeno do hromadného hrobu na hřbitově sv. Jakuba v Klatovech. Místo uložení ostatků připomíná pamětní kámen s textem.

Dnešní stav
Dnes mohou návštěvníci v klatovských katakombách zhlédnout 30 mumifikovaných těl, 7 dalších je uloženo ve veřejnosti nepřístupné části krypt. Všechna těla jsou předmětem péče konzervátorů, o klimatické podmínky krypt se stará klimatolog.

Katakomby, jež se během času staly významnou klatovskou památkou, atmosférou spojující věčnost s časností, připomínají nejen historii města a jezuitského řádu. Lze v nich pohlédnout do tváří těch, jejichž životy a činy se podílely na vytvoření dodnes viditelné tváře Klatov – k ní patří kostel, kolej, seminář, škola (gymnázium). Všechny tyto budovy vystavěli jezuité a výrazně tak změnili architekturu velké části jihozápadního města.

Ačkoliv dnes klatovské katakomby lze navštívit jako "samostatný objekt", byly vždy součástí kostela. Původní vstup do katakomb byl z chrámové lodi, další pak z bývalé latinské školy (dnes komplex divadla).

Návštěvnost katakomb překonala roku 2016 47 tisíc.

Odkazy

Reference

Externí odkazy
 Občanské sdružení Klatovské katakomby

Hrobky v Česku
Historická podzemí v Česku
Hřbitovy v Klatovech
Tovaryšstvo Ježíšovo
Náboženství v Klatovech
Postaveno 1676
Podzemní stavby v okrese Klatovy


text:
Raphael Loth (born 9 November 1996) is a Tanzanian football midfielder who plays for Young Africans.

References

1996 births
Living people
Tanzanian footballers
Tanzania international footballers
Mbeya City F.C. players
Young Africans S.C. players
Association football midfielders
Tanzanian Premier League players