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Similiyanornis brevipectus is een vogel, behorende tot de Ornithuromorpha, die tijdens het vroege Krijt leefde in het gebied van het huidige China.

Vondst en naamgeving
In 2004 werd een vogelskelet, gevonden bij het dorp Xierhuqiao in Liaoning, toegewezen aan Yanornis martini. Later werd de conclusie getrokken dat het een apart taxon betrof.

In 2020 werd de typesoort Similiyanornis brevipectus benoemd en beschreven door Wang Min, Li Zhiheng, Liu Qingguo en Zhou Zhonge. De geslachtsnaam is een combinatie van het Latijn similis, "gelijkend op", en Yanornis, een verwijzing naar de gelijkenis tussen de twee soorten. De soortaanduiding is een combinatie van het Latijn brevis, "kort", en pectis, "borstbeen", verwijzend naar het korte borstbeen.

Het holotype, IVPP V13278, is gevonden in een laag van de Jiufotangformatie die dateert uit het Aptien. Het bestaat uit een vrijwel compleet skelet, platgedrukt op een plaat. Resten van het verenkleed zijn bewaard gebleven.

Beschrijving

Grootte en onderscheidende kenmerken
Similiyanornis is wat kleiner dan Yanornis. De vleugelspanwijdte is een kleine meter.

De beschrijvers stelden een unieke combinatie van op zich niet unieke kenmerken vast. De achterste tak van de praemaxilla, richting bovenkaaksbeen, is korter dan het hoofdlichaam. Het traanbeen is T-vormig met een slanke achterste tak. Het dentarium van de onderkaak toont vlak bij de voorste punt een minuscule tandkas. De voorste tand van het dentarium is sterk vergroot. Er zijn twee vensters in het surangulare. Het eerste kootje van de tweede vinger (digitus major) heeft twee derden van de lengte van carpometacarpus. het dijbeen is langwerpig met 85% van de lengte van de tibiotarsus. De voetklauw van de vierde teen heeft een vergrote bult voor de pees van de krommende spier.

De soort onderscheidt zich verder in enkele kenmerken speciaal van Yanornis martini. De praemaxilla wordt doorboord door een groot foramen. Bij de halswervels zijn de voorste gewrichtsuitsteeksels langer dan de achterste in plaats van andersom. De binnenrand van de processus procoracoideus is minder verbreed in de lengterichting. Bij het opperarmbeen heeft de crista bicipitalis geen groeve in de vorm van een putje.

Skelet
Beide dentaria tonen een eigenaardige kleine opening in de bovenzijde. CAT-scans laten een doorgang naar een interne holte zien. Een gelijkende structuur bij Hesperornis is gezien als een rudimentaire tandkas, waarvan dan de tand ontbreekt. De vergrote eerste tand is speervormig en driemaal dikker dan het twintigtal andere tanden van de onderkaak. Bij Yanornis is deze tand niet speciaal groot. Het borstbeen is korter en breder dan dat van Yanornis.

Verenkleed
De penveren van de hand zijn iets korter dan het benige deel van de vleugel. Ze hebben een opvallend moderne vorm want ze zijn niet alleen asymmetrisch maar ook erg smal, zonder dominante rachis, welke een halve centimeter voor het uiteinde ophoudt. Similiyanornis was in 2020 de meest basale bekende vogel met zo'n afgeleide bouw van de veren.

Fylogenie
Similiyanornis werd in 2020 in de Yanornithidae geplaatst, in een polytomie of kam met Yanornis en de gelijktijdig benoemde Abitusavis.

Literatuur
He, H.Y., Wang, X.L., Zhou, Z.H., Wang, F., Boven, A., Shi, G.H. & Zh, R.X. 2004. "Timing of the Jiufotang Formation (Jehol Group) in Liaoning, northeastern China, and its implications". Geophysical Research Letters, 31: L12605
Zheng X., O'Connor J.K., Huchzermeyer F.†, Wang X., Wang Y., Zhang X. & Zhou Z., 2014, "New Specimens of Yanornis Indicate a Piscivorous Diet and Modern Alimentary Canal", PLoS ONE 9(4): e95036
Min Wang; Zhiheng Li; Qingguo Liu & Zhonghe Zhou, 2020, "Two new Early Cretaceous ornithuromorph birds provide insights into the taxonomy and divergence of Yanornithidae (Aves: Ornithothoraces)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 18 (21): 1805–1827

Uitgestorven vogels


text:
Le Kaņieris (en letton : Kaņiera ezers) est un lac de la province du Zemgale en Lettonie. Il est situé sur le territoire administratif de Lapmežciema pagasts dans Engures novads. Sa superficie s'étend sur .

Milieu naturel
Le site du lac représente une zone humide, avec les rives basses, couvertes en grande partie par la végétation hélophyte. Le fond est constitué de particules sédimentaires fines de limons et d'argiles couvrant le lit de dolomite. On y dénombre soixante-trois espèces de poissons.

Hydrologie
C'est un lac naturel qui par le bras de Slocene est relié à la Lielupe. Le canal artificiel Starpiņupīte est créé au début du  pour permettre l'écoulement de ses eaux vers le golfe de Riga. À cette époque le niveau de Kaņieris se situe à 2-2,3 m au-dessus du niveau de la mer, il baisse alors progressivement jusqu'à attendre 1,3 m en 1945-1965, la zone aux alentours se transforme alors en marécage. En 1965, on construit une écluse sur la Starpiņupīte.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

 Lac Rāzna
 Lac Lubans

Liens externes

Kaņieris
Système hydrologique de la Lielupe
Site Ramsar en Lettonie
Site Ramsar en 1995

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Nico and the Niners è un singolo del duo musicale statunitense Twenty One Pilots, pubblicato l'11 luglio 2018 come secondo estratto dal quinto album in studio Trench.

Descrizione
Al pari dell'altro singolo Jumpsuit, uscito nel medesimo giorno, il testo, molto criptico, parla di Clancy, perseguitato dalle sue paure personificate dai "vescovi" (bishops) che controllano la fittizia città di Dema, materializzazione della depressione. Mentre Jumpsuit ha un approccio più rock, Nico and the Niners è stata descritta come un «reggae rap psichedelico».

Video musicale
Il videoclip, diretto da Andrew Donoho, è stato pubblicato il 26 luglio 2018. Insieme a quelli di Jumpsuit e di Levitate, è parte di una trilogia di video dove viene raccontata la fuga del personaggio fittizio Clancy dalla città di Dema.

Tracce
Testi e musiche di Tyler Joseph.
Download digitale

CD promozionale (Stati Uniti)

CD promozionale (Benelux)

Formazione
 Tyler Joseph – voce, ukulele, chitarra, basso, sintetizzatore, programmazione
 Josh Dun – batteria, percussioni

Classifiche

Classifiche settimanali

Classifiche di fine anno

Note

Collegamenti esterni


text:
— фильм режиссёра Кэндзи Мисуми по произведениями Юкио Мисимы. Считается одним из лучших фильмов режиссёра, выражающим его эстетическую концепцию.

Сюжет
Действие происходит в клубе кэндо в одном из университетов Токио. Дзиро Кокубу (Райдзо Итикава) выделяется среди других учеников клуба своей техникой и фанатическим стремлением к совершенству. Он назначен старшим учеником (сэмпаем) и руководит подготовкой клуба к национальному чемпионату по кэндо. Почти равен ему по мастерству Кагава (). Он стремится сравняться с Кокубу в мастерстве, либо каким-то образом эмоционально его расшатать, чтобы сбить его настрой на достижение идеала. Подруга Кагавы Юки () чтобы ему помочь, неудачно пытается соблазнить Кокубу, но сама влюбляется в него.

Стремления Кокубу не понятны окружающим и даже его отцу. Он избегает вечеринок и любых отношений с девушками, и сосредоточен на кэндо. Стремясь достичь совершенства, он проводит излишне изнурительные тренировки и применяет унизительные наказания для тех, кто нарушает дисциплину и создаёт угрозу для будущего успеха команды. Наказанными оказываются Кагава и младший ученик Мибу, который предан Кокубу и старается во всём подражать ему.

Перед чемпионатом вся команда клуба оправляется под руководством Кокубу для углубленной тренировки (кэнсю) из Токио на некий отдалённый остров. Кокубу доводит учеников до крайнего истощения. Юки приезжает к нему, но Кокубу резко настаивает, чтобы она уехала. В тот день, когда мастер и руководитель клуба прибывает на остров для проверки подготовки команды и окончания 10-дневной углубенной тренировки, Кагава, пользуясь отсутствием Кокубу, «подбивает» всех нарушить запрет на купание и убежать купаться в море. Только Мибу отказывается нарушить запрет. Однако, когда мастер в сопровождении Кокубу и других сэмпаев прибывает раньше ожидаемого и ученики оказываются застигнуты врасплох, он встаёт в их ряды, чтобы не унизиться в глазах других своим «рабским» послушанием Кокубу. Не выдержав стыда, что он не справился со своей задачей руководителя и не смог сохранить чистоту намерения, Кокубу совершает самоубийство.

Интересные факты
 В фильме упоминается 10 глава знаменитого трактата о самурайской этике «Хагакурэ». Этот старинный трактат имел особое значение для Юкио Мисимы.

Фильмы-драмы Японии
Фильмы 1964 года
Чёрно-белые фильмы Японии
Фильмы о боевых искусствах
Фильмы Японии 1964 года
Фильмы-боевики Японии


text:
The Nuclear Cities Initiative is an initiative which purports to support the now struggling community and structures of post-USSR nuclear research, aimed at preventing nuclear proliferation.

History
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, concerns about the fate of the Soviet "nuclear cities" fell into the hands of Russia. It was in these secret, highly restricted cities that the Soviet Union designed and produced its nuclear weapons. Due to the great importance of these cities, they were generously funded by the Soviet Union. After the fall of the USSR, the 600,000 residents and workers of these cities were left enormous funding problems over the past decade of political, social, and economic difficulties in Russia.

Despite attempts by Moscow to create self-sustainable infrastructure, the attempts ultimately failed. The Russian-American Nuclear Security Advisory Council (RANSAC), now the Partnership for Global Security, responded by launching the Nuclear Cities Initiative. The initiative was brought about after a 1997 report by the RANSAC recommended action to prevent the "nuclear know-how" of the workers in the cities falling into undesirable hands. United States president Bill Clinton and Russian leader Boris Yeltsin made the deal in September 1998, confirming their approval of the overall concept. In 1999 $15 million were procured from American assistance programs, but a Russian financial crisis and Congress' decision to halve funding to $7.5 million reduced funding to the project.

The project at first worked only on a few of the cities; Russia disallowed development elsewhere until success could be proven in a handful of cities first.

In 2001, the U.S. General Accounting Office criticised the progress made so far, and recommended merging NCI and the Initiatives for Proliferation Prevention into a single programme to improve efficiency. By the end of the Clinton administration, over $30 million had been secured for the project, but this was heavily cut by the following Bush administration who reduced expenditure to $6.6 million. However, the 2002 Energy and Water Development Appropriations Act, which merged IPP and NCI, resulted in a substantial increase in funding to $42 million as it brought funding from the Russian Transition Initiatives budget, which was further increased by $15 million after the September 11 attacks.

Russia's ten nuclear cities

References

External links
 Nuclear Cities Initiative, Nuclear Threat Initiative, at www.nti.org.
 Nuclear Cities Initiative, at www.y12.doe.gov.

Nuclear proliferation
Cold War
Arms control
Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Military disbanding and disarmament
Nuclear history of Russia
Soviet Union–United States relations
Russia–United States relations
Nuclear weapons programme of Russia


text:
The 47th (London) Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army that was formed during the Second World War and remained in the United Kingdom until the end of the war. In March 1939, after the re-emergence of Germany as a significant military power and its occupation of Czechoslovakia, the British Army increased the number of divisions in the Territorial Army (TA) by duplicating existing units. The 2nd London Division was formed in August 1939 as a second-line duplicate of the 1st London Division; its battalions were all initially London-based.

The division was established as a motor division and was fully mobile, with two infantry brigades rather than the usual three for an infantry division. The intention was to increase battlefield mobility, enabling the motor divisions to follow armoured forces through breaches in the opposing front line rapidly to consolidate captured territory. Following the Battle of France, the motor division concept was abandoned. The division was then allocated a third infantry brigade, becoming an infantry division. In November 1940, it was renamed the 47th (London) Infantry Division.

The division was to remain in the United Kingdom to complete training before being deployed to France within twelve months of the war breaking out. Instead, after Dunkirk the division was dispersed to protect strategically important locations and undertake anti-invasion duties and was moved to Wales to defend the country from invasion. In early 1941, it was transferred to the southern English coast on anti-invasion duties. During this period, the division developed training methods that were disseminated throughout the British Army within the United Kingdom. In 1944, parts of the division assisted in Operation Bodyguard, the deception efforts in support of Operation Overlord, as well as providing administrative services during the build-up to invasion. Manpower in the division was slowly reduced as it reinforced combat formations within the 21st Army Group. The division was disbanded in August 1944.

In September 1944, the division was reformed as the 47th Infantry (Reserve) Division, which was composed of personnel from the disbanded 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division. The division, now a training formation, was made responsible for providing final tactical and field training once soldiers had passed their initial training. After five additional weeks of training, the soldiers would be posted to fighting formations overseas. The 47th Infantry (Reserve) Division was disbanded as part of the demobilisation of the British Armed Forces after the Second World War, in 1946 and was not reformed when the TA was reconstituted in 1947.

Background

Throughout the 1930s, tensions built between Germany and the United Kingdom and its allies. During late 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. To avoid war, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with the German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September 1938 and signed the Munich Agreement, which accepted that Germany would annexe the Sudetenland. Chamberlain had intended the agreement to lead to a further peaceful resolution of differences but relations between the countries soon deteriorated. On 15 March 1939, Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remnants of Czechoslovakia.

On 29 March, the British Secretary of State for War, Leslie Hore-Belisha, announced plans to increase the strength of the part-time Territorial Army (TA) from 130,000 men to 340,000, doubling the number of divisions. The plan was for existing TA divisions, referred to as the first-line, to recruit over their establishments. This would be accomplished by an increase in pay for territorials, the removal of restrictions on promotion that had hindered recruiting, the construction of better-quality barracks, and an increase in supper rations. The units would then form a new division that was referred to as the second-line from cadres. This process was dubbed "duplicating". The 2nd London Division was to be created as a second-line formation, a duplicate of the first-line 1st London Division. Despite the intention for the army to grow, the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication process, and issues regarding the lack of facilities, equipment and instructors. It had been envisioned by the War Office that the duplicating process and recruiting the required number of men would take no more than six months. In April, limited conscription was introduced; at that time 34,500 men, all aged 20, were conscripted into the regular army, initially to undergo six months of training before being deployed to the forming second-line units. The process varied widely between the TA divisions; some were ready in weeks while others had made little progress by early September 1939, when war on Germany was declared.

History

Formation

Due to a lack of official guidance, newly formed units were at liberty to choose numbers, styles, and titles. The 1st London Division created the 4th London Infantry Brigade as a second-line duplicate of the 1st London Infantry Brigade, and the 5th London Infantry Brigade as a second-line duplicate of the 2nd London Infantry Brigade. These newly formed brigades were assigned to the 2nd London Division, which became active on 24 August 1939 and was assigned to Eastern Command. Command of the 2nd London was given to Major-General Harry Willans, who had previously commanded the 2nd London Infantry Brigade. On formation, the 4th London Brigade consisted of the 11th and 12th Battalions, Royal Fusiliers, and the 2nd Battalion, London Irish Rifles (Royal Ulster Rifles). The 5th London Brigade was made up of the 2nd Battalion, Queen's Westminsters (King's Royal Rifle Corps), the 2nd Battalion, London Scottish (Gordon Highlanders), and the 2nd Battalion, London Rifle Brigade (Rifle Brigade). To denote the division's association with London, the formation insignia represented the bells of St Mary-le-Bow church.

The division was formed as a motor division, one of five such divisions in the British Army. British military doctrine development during the inter-war period resulted in three types of division by the end of the 1930s; the infantry division, the mobile division (later called the armoured division), and the motor division. Historian David French wrote, "the main role of the infantry ... was to break into the enemy's defensive position". This would then be exploited by the mobile division, followed by the motor divisions that would "carry out the rapid consolidation of the ground captured by the mobile divisions", therefore "transform[ing] the 'break-in' into a 'break-through'." According to French, the motor division "matched that of the German army's motorized and light divisions. But there the similarities ended." The German motorised divisions contained three brigades and were as fully equipped as a regular infantry division; while their smaller, light divisions contained a tank battalion. The British motor division was fully motorised and capable of transporting all of their infantry. However, it was "otherwise much weaker than normal infantry divisions", or their German counterparts. This was due to it being made-up of only two brigades instead of three, having two artillery regiments as opposed to an infantry division's three, and due it having no tanks.

Home defence

It was planned that the TA divisions would be deployed intact to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France as equipment became available, and that all 26 TA divisions would be deployed by the end of the first year of the war. Instead, the division was dispersed around London to protect strategically important locations, known as vulnerable points, including the London Docks. C. Northcote Parkinson, author of the Royal Fusiliers history of the Second World War, wrote that the 11th Battalion fired "some of the first shots of the war", a "hair-triggered" reaction to intruders near the Waltham Abbey explosives factory, which it was assigned to guard. At the end of the year, the division moved to Hertfordshire to conduct training exercises. In May 1940, the majority of the division's men were relocated to Cambridgeshire, leaving two battalions to defend London. In Cambridgeshire, the division was made Eastern Command's reserve formation, which was to be used as a counterattack force against any German airborne landings. Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces, General Walter Kirke, believing the East of England was under threat of invasion as a result of the German operations in mainland Europe, transferred several divisions to defend the coast. Part of this effort involved temporarily splitting the division into two brigade groups. One moved to the Suffolk coastline, to supplement the 55th (West Lancashire) Motor Division on the east coast. The other remained in Cambridgeshire, with troops assigned to varying duties that included the protection of vulnerable points, construction of defensive positions, and defending Royal Air Force (RAF) airfields. On paper, an infantry division was to have seventy-two 25-pounder field guns. On 31 May, the division had eight-such modern guns, four First World War-vintage 18-pounder field guns, and eight  howitzers of similar vintage. The division lacked the motor vehicles it needed to fulfil its motor division role and had to rely heavily on commandeered civilian transport.

As a result of the German victory in the Battle of France and the return of the BEF following the Dunkirk evacuation, the division was not deployed overseas per the original TA deployment timeline. As soon as the Battle of France ended, the British Army began implementing lessons learnt from the campaign; this included basing the standard division around three brigades and the abandonment of the motor-division concept. This process involved the break-up of four second-line territorial divisions to reinforce depleted formations and helping change the Army's five motor divisions – each of which consisted of two brigades – into infantry divisions made up of three brigades. As part of this process, the 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division was disbanded and its units were dispersed to other divisions to bring them up to strength. The 114th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery and the remnants of the 36th Infantry Brigade were assigned to the 2nd London Division at this time. The 36th Infantry Brigade was being reformed after suffering heavy casualties during the Battle of France; it was removed and assigned to III Corps shortly afterwards. The 25th Infantry Brigade, which had been part of the BEF's line-of-communication forces and then attached to a string of divisions during the fighting in France, was permanently assigned to the division on 25 June. A newly raised Royal Engineer field company, the 222nd, also became part of the division. With the addition of a permanent third brigade, and the additional artillery and engineer units, the 2nd London Division became an infantry division.

In late June 1940, the 2nd London Division was assigned to Western Command. It then moved to South Wales to relieve the 38th (Welsh) Infantry Division, which moved east across the country. A. T. M. Durand and R. H. W. S. Hastings, authors of the London Rifle Brigade's history of the war, wrote that while it was improbable Germany would invade Great Britain via Wales, "the last foreign troops to land with hostile intent in the British Isles came ashore at Fishguard during the Napoleonic War". After the move to Wales, some of the division's battalions were relocated to other parts of the United Kingdom. For example, the 11th Royal Fusiliers moved to Worcestershire after a brief deployment to South Wales. Others, such as the London Scottish, did not move with the division but moved to Staffordshire, where it provided guards for airfields and vulnerable points. On 21 November 1940, the 2nd London was redesignated the 47th (London) Infantry Division. During this period, two of the original battalions left the division because rifle units were selected to provide the motorised infantry support of armoured formations. This move, according to author Cyril Barclay, "emasculated the Division" and it was brought up to strength with former "pioneer and local defence battalions", which were "renamed, with small geographical or transitional justification". Following this, Willans was promoted to the War Office and was replaced as GOC on 8 December 1940 by Major-General Clifford Malden, who was previously Director of Military Training.

In February 1941, the 47th Division was assigned to IV Corps and was deployed to West Sussex on the south coast of England for coastal defence duties. Malden arrived at Shoreham-by-Sea on 25 March 1941 to review the progress of the beach defences. While touring the defences, Malden inadvertently walked into a minefield that had been laid and was killed after setting off a mine. On 18 April 1941, Major-General John Utterson-Kelso became GOC. Utterson-Kelso's prior experience included commanding the 131st Infantry Brigade during the Battle of France, and a brief stint as acting commander of the 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division. In July, under Utterson-Kelso's direction, the division established the first 'Battle School' in the United Kingdom. The school was a two-week training course, which included observing and practising fieldcraft, undertaking tactical exercises without troops, and engaging in battle drill in realistic conditions. French wrote, "Its purpose was to offer soldiers some experience of the noise and chaos of battle by giving them the opportunity to train under live-firing conditions". The success of the school was shown by the adoption of the idea and all divisions were ordered to form one. In November 1941, the division was assigned to V Corps and that December it was placed on the lower establishment. During the war, divisions of the British Army were classified as either higher establishment formations that were intended for deployment overseas and combat, or lower establishment ones that were detailed strictly for home defence in a static role.

On 10 April 1942, Major-General Gerald Templer replaced Utterson-Kelso as GOC. Templer had served in the BEF in France before being given command of a battalion on return to the United Kingdom, then a brigade. Following his appointment, Templer arranged a demonstration of the effects of fighter-aircraft strafing of ground targets but a pilot error led to 27 spectators being killed and 80 more – including Templer – were wounded in the Imber friendly fire incident. By May 1942, the division was based in Hampshire and tasked with countering any potential raids along the coast conducted by the German forces. In June, the division was placed under the command of the Hampshire and Dorset District and remained under this command until January 1944. On 14 September 1942, following Templer's promotion, Major-General Alfred Eryk Robinson became GOC of the division. Robinson had commanded the 1st Battalion, Green Howards during the Norwegian campaign, before being given command of an infantry brigade on his return to England. The division remained in the south until January 1944, when it was assigned to Northern Command, before being switched to Southern Command in March. It reverted to Northern Command in July. Some of these moves, as well as notional ones, were deliberately leaked through double agents as part of Operation Fortitude. Between April and October 1944, the 141st Brigade was made responsible for an embarkation sector in the Southampton area; an administrative and organisational role in support of Operation Overlord facilitating the movement of troops from their camps to ships to be deployed to France.

Wind down, training division, and disbandment

By mid-1944, the five lower establishment divisions allocated to home-defence duties – the 38th (Welsh), the 45th, the 47th (London), the 55th (West Lancashire), and the 61st – had a combined strength of 17,845 men. Of this number, around 13,000 were available as replacements for the 21st Army Group fighting in France. The remaining 4,800 men were considered ineligible for service abroad for a variety of reasons, including a lack of training or being medically unfit. Over the following six months, up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce the 21st Army Group following the completion of their training and certification of fitness. On 15 August, what was left of the division was dispersed; this process took until the end of the month, when the division and its brigades were disbanded.

During 1944, the British Army suffered a severe shortage of manpower. In an effort to downsize the army and consolidate as many men within as few formations as possible to maintain efficiency, the War Office began disbanding divisions and restructuring the Army. It was believed that division numbers familiar to the British public held recruiting value, and should be retained. As a result, the 76th Infantry (Reserve) Division was disbanded; its GOC, Utterson-Kelso and his staff, reformed the division as the 47th Infantry (Reserve) Division on 1 September. As part of this process, the 76th's 213th Infantry Brigade was renumbered the 140th and assigned to the 47th. Likewise, the 220th Infantry Brigade was assigned from the 76th to the 47th and in November 1944 was re-designated the 141st Infantry Brigade. The 7th Infantry Brigade, which was previously part of the 9th Armoured Division, was also assigned to the new division. Soldiers who had completed their basic and their job-specific training were sent to reserve divisions for additional training. These soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section, platoon and company levels before undertaking a final three-day exercise. Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations. Training was handled in this manner to relieve combat formations of the need to train new recruits. For example, the 9th Battalion, Dorsetshire Regiment trained soldiers who were then dispatched to other battalions within the regiment and the Royal Norfolk Regiment. The division remained in this role for the duration of the war. It was disbanded during the demobilisation of the British Armed Forces after the Second World War, and was non-existent by January 1946 when Utterson-Kelso retired. The TA was reformed in 1947 on a much smaller scale of nine divisions, which did not include the 47th.

General officers commanding

Order of battle

See also

 List of British divisions in World War II
 British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
 British logistics in the Normandy Campaign

Notes
 Footnotes

 Citations

References

Further reading

External links

Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations in London
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1944
Military units and formations established in 1944
Military units and formations disestablished in 1946


text:
Wydarzenia
 Sojusz Polski z Rusią Kijowską, Bolesław III Krzywousty żeni się ze Zbysławą, córką Światopełka.
 Wojna z Czechami (w sojuszu ze Zbigniewem), którzy spustoszyli Śląsk, Bolesław Krzywousty najechał Morawy.
 24 sierpnia Magnus III Bosy, król Norwegii, ginie w bitwie pod Downpatrick w Irlandii.

Zmarli
 10 lipca Eryk I Zawsze Dobry, król duński.

Przypisy

Kalendarium polityczne


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Adrianna Płaczek (født 10. december 1993) er en polsk håndboldspiller, som spiller i Nantes Loire Atlantique Handball og Polens kvindehåndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Polen
Håndboldspillere fra Nantes Atlantique Handball


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Euphorbia mayurnathanii é uma espécie de planta da família Euphorbiaceae. Era endémica de Palghat Lacuna, na Índia, mas agora acredita-se estar extinta na natureza. Ela ainda existe em cultivo, mas o comércio internacional é controlado, estando incluída no Apêndice II da CITES.

mayurnathanii


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Brezovička (; ) is a village and municipality in Sabinov District in the Prešov Region of north-eastern Slovakia.

History

In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1320 AD.

Geography
The municipality lies at an altitude of 494 metres and covers an area of 8.985 km². It has a population of about 422 people.

Genealogical resources

The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive "Statny Archiv in Presov, Slovakia"

 Roman Catholic church records (births/marriages/deaths): 1788-1895 (parish A)

See also
 List of municipalities and towns in Slovakia

External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20071116010355/http://www.statistics.sk/mosmis/eng/run.html
Surnames of living people in Brezovicka

Villages and municipalities in Sabinov District
Šariš


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Lazăr Șăineanu (, also spelled Șeineanu, born Eliezer Schein; Francisized Lazare Sainéan, , or Sainéanu; April 23, 1859 – May 11, 1934) was a Romanian-born philologist, linguist, folklorist and cultural historian. A specialist in Oriental and Romance studies, as well as a Germanist, he was primarily known for his contribution to Yiddish and Romanian philology, his work in evolutionary linguistics, and his activity as a literary and philological comparatist. Șăineanu also had innovative contributions to the investigation and anthologizing of Romanian folklore, placed in relation to Balkan and East Central European traditions, as well as to the historical evolution of Romanian in a larger Balkan context, and was a celebrated early contributor to Romanian lexicography. His main initiatives in these fields are a large corpus of collected fairy tales and the 1896 Dicționarul universal al limbii române ("The Universal Dictionary of the Romanian Language"), which have endured among the most popular Romanian scientific works.

A member of the non-emancipated Jewish-Romanian community, Lazăr Șăineanu stood for the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) ideas, and opted in favour of Jewish assimilation into the Romanian mainstream. His repeated requests for naturalisation were eventually unsuccessful, but propelled him to the center of a political conflict which opposed the antisemitic current to the advocates of tolerance. In 1901, Șăineanu and his family quit the Kingdom of Romania and resettled in France, where the scholar lived until his death. Becoming known for his pioneering work to the study of Middle French and his investigations into the origins of argot, as well as for his critical essays on 16th-century writer François Rabelais, he was a recipient of the Institut de France's Volney Prize for 1908. The son in law of publisher Ralian Samitca, Șăineanu was survived by his brother Constantin, a noted lexicographer, journalist and polemicist.

Biography

Early life
Eliezer Schein (whose name was originally rendered in Romanian as Lazăr Șain or Shain) was born in the city of Ploiești to impoverished Jewish-Romanian residents. His father, Moisi, was a house painter and amateur artist, who, by the time his son was sixteen, had left to work in the United States. Eliezer studied with private tutors from the age of 5, and was admitted into regular school at the age of 10, when he entered second grade. Moisi Schein died shortly after returning to Romania, leaving Eliezer the sole provider for his mother and six siblings. He was however able to pass his Baccalaureate, with a thesis on writer and theorist Ion Heliade Rădulescu: Ioan Eliad Rădulescu ca grămătic și filolog ("Ioan Eliad Rădulescu as a Grammarian and Philologist").

By 1881, having been exempted from his compulsory term in the Romanian Land Forces as the eldest son of a widow, the young man went on to study at the University of Bucharest's Faculty of Letters. Taught and regarded with admiration by academic Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Șăineanu was primarily a student of etymology, stylistics and semantics (which formed the basis of his first three studies, published in 1882 and 1887). He published his first study, the 1883 Câteva specimene de etimologie populară română ("A Few Samples of Romanian Folk Etymology"), in Hasdeu's magazine Columna lui Traian. By then, Șăineanu had begun contributing to Anuar pentru Israeliți ("The Yearbook for Israelites"), the Hebraist magazine edited by his friends and fellow scholars Moses Gaster and Moses Schwartzfeld, which mainly published articles on Jewish history and espoused a moderate assimilationist agenda (Haskalah). Gaster also sent Șăineanu's various studies on folklore and linguistics also published in Revista pentru Istorie, Arheologie și Filologie, a review founded and led by Romanian historian Grigore Tocilescu. The direct contacts between the two scholars ended in 1885, when Gaster was expelled from Romania for protesting against the antisemitic measures condoned by the National Liberal Party cabinet of Ion Brătianu.

The 1887 Încercare asupra semasiologiei române ("Essay on Romanian Semasiology"), presented by Schein as his graduation paper, was retrospectively commended by ethnologist Iordan Datcu for its innovative value, and argued by the same commentator to have attracted universally positive reactions from "objective critics". According to Șăineanu's account, it followed closely after semasiology itself had been established as an independent branch by the French academic Michel Bréal. It reportedly earned him the praise of a future adversary the Education Minister and National Liberal politician Dimitrie Sturdza, who allegedly recommended him to study abroad, reassuring him that, unlike in Gaster's case, "we will receive you back with open arms." Printed by the Romanian Academy's press and prefaced by Hasdeu, Încercare earned Șăineanu the Manoah Hillel scholarship, amounting to 5,000 lei in gold.

Using this grant, he furthered his studies in France, at the University of Paris, under Bréal, Gaston Paris and Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, and later at the École Spéciale des Langues Orientales, where he specialized in the study of Oriental languages. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Leipzig, in the German Empire, his dissertation receiving an award from the Institut de France. According to historian Lucian Nastasă, the scholar's choice was confirming a common practice of Romanians, who opted to bridge the gap between Francophilia and Germanophilia by frequenting venues in both countries. As Șăineanu wrote to Gaster, he had decided in favor of the "intellectual center" Leipzig because Karl Brugmann, "the leading representative of present-day linguistics", worked and taught there. He studied with both Brugmann and August Leskien, earning much praise for his work and the right to take his diploma under special circumstances (which took into consideration his previous works, and did not require him to research a full-sized new thesis). Șăineanu was pleased with the scientific rigor of his German teachers, but believed the system to suffer greatly in the matter of pedagogy, and considered French academics much more talented in this respect. The young scholar published two works during the interval: Legenda Meșterului Manole la grecii moderni ("The Meșterul Manole Legend among the Modern Greeks") and his Ph.D. thesis on Romanian folklore, Les Jours d'emprunt ou les jours de la vieille ("The Borrowed Days or The Old Woman's Days"). The latter was hosted by Gaston Paris' journal Romania.

Beginnings as a teacher
He returned to Romania as a teacher of Latin and Romanian, pursuing a career path which eventually earned him a position at Bucharest University. He was given employment as a high school teacher, and obtained an unpaid university position as assistant to Hasdeu, head of the Department of Letters. Nastasă, who notes Șăineanu's enthusiasm for his work, writes: "His opening lecture for the Comparative Philology course—like all of his work—is a proof of erudition more or less unparalleled within the areas of Romania."

Despite his qualifications, Șăineanu was unable to advance professionally because of his non-citizen status. The young researcher was also appointed substitute teacher of Latin in Bucharest Gheorghe Lazăr High School by an administrative decision of the Education Ministry, taken despite the antisemitic protestations of Undersecretary Ștefan Michăilescu. His assignment to the post followed the intercession of his friend and former teacher, the writer and archeologist Alexandru Odobescu, and inaugurated a short period during which Șăineanu focused on writing textbooks.

Shortly afterward, Conservative Minister Titu Maiorescu, leader of the influential literary club Junimea and himself one of Lazăr Șăineanu's former professors, appointed him to a position at the university, within the History and Literature Department of V. A. Urechia. The latter, an outspoken antisemite and prominent member of the opposition National Liberal group, reacted strongly against the measure, launching that claim that, unlike an ethnic Romanian, a Jew "could never awaken in the mind and heart of the young generation the image of our past laden with lessons for the future". According to Șăineanu's own recollection, he had not himself asked for the university appointment, and suspected that it was offered to him in the first place so that the Gheorghe Lazăr position would be assigned to "a favorite of the day, the former tutor of Prince Ferdinand." He nevertheless noted that Urechia had a conflict of interest when opposing his appointment, given that he had designed the department around his own chairmanship, and that, with the aid of University of Iași academic Alexandru D. Xenopol, he had set in motion a set of "miserable intrigues" to maintain his hold on the faculty.

Șăineanu also commented on the alleged oscillations of Tocilescu, who, after agreeing to lead the History section upon its recommended division, and supporting his Jewish colleague for chairmanship of the Letters section, threw his support behind Urechia. Nastasă, who mentions the scheming on the part of Urechia and Tocilescu, cites Moses Gaster's letter to Șăineanu, which defined Tocilescu as a double-crosser, "a filthy twicer and a bloodsucker". The complications eventually led Șăineanu to present his resignation, and Maiorescu to accept it. He recalled: "Every reasonable man would doubtlessly assume that [...] the resentment Mr. Urechia held against this unfortunate nomination would have been appeased. To assume thus would mean not to know the person or the Romanian social environment well enough, for barely two months had passed before grandiose patriotism again displayed the effects of its hatred."

The young linguist also contributed to Convorbiri Literare, a magazine edited by Junimea. It was there that, in 1887, he published his study on the Khazars' possible presence in Romanian folklore: Jidovii sau Tătarii sau Uriașii ("The Jews or the Tatars or the Uriași"). Produced on the basis of folkloric surveys in Muntenian and Oltenian localities such as Dragoslavele, Schitu Golești and Radomir, the study was later used against him by his political adversaries, who resented the implications it seemed to carry for the traditional relations between Jews and Romanians.

Scholarly prominence and early naturalization efforts

By that moment in his career, Șăineanu was also publishing several books on comparative linguistics. Initially, he focused on assessing the impact of Turkish and Ottoman Turkish on the mainly Romance Aromanian language, producing the 1885 study  ("Turkish Elements in the Aromanian Language"). In 1889, he published his innovative work on the links between German and Yiddish,  ("A Dialectologic Study on Judeo-German Speech"). His recognized field of expertise, Nastasă notes, was by then the widest in Romania, comprising not just Yiddish and Romance linguistics, but also the study Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and various other languages and dialects.

Also in 1889, Șăineanu applied for naturalization, which, according to the 1866 Constitution, a Jew could only receive by special act of the Romanian Parliament and in exchange for exceptional merits. The effort, which consumed some 12 years of his life, pitted him against the antisemitic current in politics and the scientific community: among the most vocal adversaries of his naturalization were two prominent National Liberals, Urechia and Sturdza, both of whom had a following among nationalist sections of the electorate. As head of the parliamentary commission on legal integration, Sturdza signed a recommendation to reject the proposed law, which had been previously approved by Justice Minister George D. Vernescu, on grounds that Șăineanu lacked qualifications. Their campaign, which depicted Șăineanu as an adversary of Romania, culminated when Senate voted 79 to 2 against the naturalization request.

The resistance to his application was a surprise for Șăineanu, who wrote: "I was not aware that this path [...] is the more thorny as the [person's] merits are more real." He also accused the political establishment of endemic corruption, writing: "any banker who demanded naturalization received it without the least of difficulties". During the following interval, Șăineanu's cause reportedly won the support of King Carol I, Conservative Premier Lascăr Catargiu and moderate National Liberal politico Mihail Kogălniceanu. Reviewing the situation, Șăineanu cited an unusual incident in neighboring Austria-Hungary, where local Romanians were demanding increased group rights as part of the Memorandum movement. Their arguments about cultural repression were met with the reply of Hungarian intellectuals, who cited the Șăineanu issue as proof that Austria-Hungary had more to offer than Romania: "He had all of Romania on his case, but he had rendered [the country] as many services as most Romanian demigods." In 1893, the naturalization request came before the lower chamber, resulting in a vote of 76 in favor to 20 against. According to the scholar's recollections, his only adversary in this forum was his former Convorbiri Literare colleague, writer Iacob Negruzzi, who reportedly stated the unsupported claim that Șăineanu had campaigned against Romania "in English" (Șăineanu believed that this was "doubtlessly" stated "because [English] was completely unfamiliar to the majority of Chamber members").

Parallel controversies and 1895 Senate vote

Despite his involvement in a political scandal, Lazăr Șăineanu did not interrupt his work in linguistics. His 1891 book,  ("The Relations between Grammar and Logic"), written on the basis of his university lectures, comprised his thoughts on the origin of language and was among volumes pioneering the study of logical aspects within natural language. Datcu notes this contribution, alongside the 1892 Istoria filologiei române ("History of Romanian Philology"), for the "up to date information" provided. The latter was explained by the author as "destined to encourage the new generation to work, and come to its aid through useful advice." The two volumes were accompanied by a printed expansion of his earliest thesis on Heliade Rădulescu.

In 1895, Șăineanu completed work on one of his major contributions to folkloristics in general and the study of Romania folklore in particular: Basmele române în comparațiune cu legendele antice clasice și în legătură cu basmele popoarelor învecinate și ale tuturor popoarelor romanice ("Romanian Fairy Tales as Compared to the Legends of Classical Antiquity and Those of All Romance Peoples"). An exhaustive monograph, it comprised some 1,000 pages of main text and 100 pages of index. The volume was presented anonymously to the Romanian Academy (in accordance with its regulations), and received its Heliade Rădulescu Award. Consternation ensued once the author revealed his name, prompting Sturdza and Negruzzi to ask, unsuccessfully, for the Academy's decision to be overturned. On the occasion, Urechia (himself an Academy member) publicly stated that his adversary had purchased the award, but, Șăineanu noted, never presented proof for this assertion.

That same year, the matter of his citizenship was returned to the Senate. By then, Șăineanu's file had been further enriched with the award certificate, a guarantee of good conduct from Bucharest City Hall, and several favorable reports from Hasdeu (an exception to the latter's own antisemitic discourse). Hasdeu also arranged him interviews with Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan Ghenadie (who was also president of the commission on naturalization), while Alexandru Odobescu brought the case to the attention of Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino, the Conservative President of the Senate. There followed a major Senate debate, during which Urechia stood out for his repeated criticism of his former competitor, likening him to a Trojan Horse and demanding from fellow parliamentarians not to let "a foreigner" slide into "the Romanian citadel" (statements to which many responded with applause). Listing his various claims alongside his and Hasdeu's replies, the Jewish scholar himself recounted that Urechia eventually came to state, at the Senate tribune, that "Mr. Șăineanu did not publish anything against the country, but neither did he write in favor of the national question".

The early vote gave 33 to 26 against Șăineanu's naturalization, short of the supermajority required, but a second take resulted in 61 against to 12 in favor. The antisemitic segment of the board celebrated this victory with loud cheers, as witnessed by Odobescu, who recorded feeling himself confronted with the image of "cannibals who rejoiced like beasts over having slashed and devoured a civilized man". Another voice from academia to speak unfavorably of the opposition met by Șăineanu was Alexandru Philippide, who wrote: "I am not philosemitic, but if there ever was a kike deserving of naturalization, that would be Șăineanu." Shortly after this incident, the new National Liberal Minister Spiru Haret reshuffled the teaching posts, and Șăineanu, who was holding a new teacher's position at Bucharest's Școala Normală Superioară, found himself unemployed, and opted to seek employment outside Romania, in Paris and Berlin.

Late 1890s works and ramifications of the scandal

Without ceasing to publish works for the Junimea periodical Convorbiri Literare, Șăineanu continued to frequent its adversary Hasdeu, and contributed some of his other essays to Hasdeu's magazine Revista Nouă. Basmele române was followed in 1896 by Studii folclorice ("Studies in Folklore"), a collection of short writings on comparative mythology. That same year, he completed his fundamental work in lexicography, Dicționarul universal al limbii române, which codified the Romanian lexis from archaisms and dialectical varieties to neologisms and modern jargon, comprising around 30,000 entries and 80,000 definitions. The first extensive project of its kind in the history of the local philological school, it was to prove his most popular contribution from its first edition, circumstances themselves described by writer Ion Luca Caragiale as a phenomenon in Romanian culture. Caragiale, who deemed Lazăr Șăineanu "a genuine talent in popularization", opined on the book's originality: "[Șăineanu] sought to embrace the entire manifestations in the life of a modern people [...]. Therefore, this universal dictionary provides a reduced, but precise image of our present-day culture, as it is reflected in the language." In contrast to this positive appraisal, nationalists such as Urechia's son Alceu publicly mocked the book and claimed that it lacked merit.

In parallel, the volume consecrated Șăineanu's collaboration with the Craiova-based printing house of Jewish entrepreneur Iosif Samitca (Institutul Samitca), where the scholar also published Mitologia clasică ("Classical Mythology"), the 1895 Romanian literature anthology Autori români moderni. Bucăți alese în versuri și proză din principalii scriitori ai sec. al XIX-lea ("Modern Romanian Authors. Verse and Prose Samples Collected from the Main Writers of the 19th Century"), and an 1897 biographical essay on English author William Shakespeare. The business connection turned into family relations, after Șăineanu married the daughter of Ralian Samitca, Iosif's son, associate and eventual successor. They had a daughter, Elisabeth.

Șăineanu followed up with a comprehensive study regarding Levantine presences in the vocabulary and society alike, published by Editura Socec in 1900 (as , "The Oriental Influence on Romanian Language and Culture") and being made into a French-language edition in 1901. It received attention from the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, and consequently a nomination for the Institut de France's Volney Prize. However, in what has been seen as proof of the author's isolation in Romania, it was ignored by the Romanian Academy, which presented its prize for that year to a volume on the history of horses. The book was also a cause for conflict between Șăineanu and Nicolae Iorga, an established historian and nationalist politician. The heated debate, carried out in Constantin Rădulescu-Motru's periodical Noua Revistă Română, was sparked by Iorga's review, which claimed to provide some necessary amends. Șăineanu found the objections outlined by Iorga frivolous, and the overall text, in which his opponent had cited himself some 15 times, egocentric.

This reaction was met with a virulent reply by Iorga, whose renewed accusations borrowed from antisemitic discourse: "[Șăineanu wrote] about many things that he does not comprehend. He was crafting with his clumsy hands manuals, grammars, anthologies, dictionaries for speculative profit. I however had an explanation for such defects. We all know that Mr. Șăineanu is not a Romanian, and we know that which he is. His people has many traits that are very elevated and noble, but also many defects that are low and ungainly. These, I had been telling myself, are in his blood; he could never get rid of them. I wish to talk about the passion for high praise and multiple earnings, without much investment". In 1907, Iorga and his Neamul Românesc journal also retorted against Caragiale's praise for Șăineanu, calling Caragiale one who "deals with the Jews", and prompting Caragiale to satirize Iorga's own scholarly ambitions.

1899 parliamentary vote and self-exile
In order to facilitate the naturalization procedures, Lazăr Șăineanu eventually renounced Judaism and accepted baptism in the Romanian Orthodox Church. His godfather was Take Ionescu, at the time a rising figure within the Conservative Party ranks. Ionescu himself served as Minister of Education, appreciating the scholar's insight and enjoying his company before taking his distance from him for reasons unknown. Șăineanu's case was again presented for Senate approval in December 1899, this time with a favorable review from the special parliamentary commission, and the motion for his naturalization was carried with 37 to 2 votes (or, according to Șăineanu, a 39-vote unanimity). Although the result was positive, the scientist was informed that a new procedure had just been passed with support from across the floor, specifying that naturalization could only be enforced by vote in a common session of the two chambers. The dossier was therefore submitted to another vote, on the last session of 1899, which again enlisted attacks from the antisemitic groups, before being canceled due to lack of quorum.

Reflecting on the early result, which had left him "submerged into complete happiness", and on the new vote, which he believed was a mere technicality introduced on purpose by Justice Minister Constantin Dissescu, he recalled: "for 24 hours I was politically [Șăineanu's italics] within the Romanian nationhood!" He recalled having been received by King Carol, who reportedly agreed with his belief that the action was abusive. By then, Șăineanu also lost the support of Hasdeu, who, like Take Ionescu, gave his approval to a restructuring of the university, which stripped the Jewish scholar of his honorary position. He sought instead backing from Petre P. Carp, the Conservative doyen, who reportedly answered his request with the ambiguous Latin adage Gutta cavat lapidem ("The water drop will drill through stone"). On the other side of the divide, the attacks on Șăineanu had come to be led by the antisemitic paper Apărarea Națională, whose articles, the scholar argued, "reached the summit of stupidity and ridiculousness".

On December 14, 1900, the issue of Lazăr Șăineanu's naturalization was also revisited by the lower chamber, and the proposal defeated with 44 votes to 31 (from an insufficient quorum of 75), followed by a definitive vote on December 15, at which 48 out of 95 deputies voted against. This outcome was celebrated by Apărarea Națională, which published editorial comments such as "All Romanian hearts have jumped up with immense glee" and "Our ancestors have shuddered with joy in their graves". Among those who expressed condemnation of the decision were La Roumanie journal and aristocrat Alexandru Bibescu. In 1901, frustrated by the political reaction and feeling uncomfortable in Romania, the scholar and his family resettled in Paris, where he primarily used a Francization of his Romanian name, signing as Lazare Sainéan.

French career and final years

His main interest for the following period were the theories of evolutionary linguistics, with focus on the Neogrammarian approach, ethnolinguistics and psycholinguistics. He also added to his interests the groundbreaking investigation of French argot, and published a short memoir (Une carrière philologique en Roumanie, "A Philologist's Career in Romania"). Șăineanu's studies also focused on a comparative research of building rituals as found in Balkan literature, and notably the Romanian Meșterul Manole myth (the book saw print in French, as the 1902 Les rites de la construction d'après la poésie populaire de l'Europe Orientale). By then, he was in correspondence with fellow linguist Alfred Landau, with whom he discussed the history of Yiddish.

Șăineanu's parallel investigations into the history of French included his 1905-1907 La Création métaphorique en français et en roman: images tirées du monde des animaux domestiques ("The Metaphoric Creation in French and Romance Languages: Images from the World of Domestic Animals"), which was structured into several tomes, respectively dedicated to the principal household companions. He also began work on major syntheses on French vocabulary, L'Argot ancien ("Ancient Argot") and its companion Les Sources de l'argot ancien ("The Sources of Ancient Argot", 1907). The former earned him the Volney Prize for 1908. Writing in 1999, historian Joan Leopold argued that this was a significant achievement, since the Volney Commission "seemed to fear direct competition by foreigners"—other exceptions to this rule being Liu Bannong, Wilhelm Schmidt and Marie-Louise Sjoestedt. According to Leopold, Șăineanu was among the Volney prizewinners, "particularly foreigners", who "were never elected to an affiliation with the French Académies." However, she also notes that "there were no titles honored [during 1900-1909] which are now remembered as significant in the history of linguistics". She places the fact that Șăineanu "did not achieve major university positions in France" in connection with a tendency of awarding the prize to scholars who mainly did field work (Schmidt, Adolphe de Calassanti-Motylinski, George Abraham Grierson, Leo Reinisch and others). Literary critic Laszlo Alexandru passed a similar judgment: "Lazăr Șăineanu's disappearance from the Romanian cultural space was received with an almost unanimous silence; but the emergence of Lazare Sainéan in Parisian scientific research would not itself result, for the rest of his days, in the much coveted and entirely deserved university chair."

Between 1912 and 1922, Șăineanu worked with the Société des Études rabelaisiennes on publishing the annotated edition of Rabelais' complete works. His career was not interrupted by World War I, and, in 1915, he published a report on the special language of French soldiers entrenched on the Western Front (L'Argot des tranchés, "Trench Argot"). His 1920 volume on the evolution of argot in Parisian French (, "Parisian Language in the 19th Century"), was again nominated for a Volney Prize.

In 1922, Șăineanu published Manuel de phonétique latin ("Manual of Latin Phonetics"), the last of his contributions to be shortlisted for a Volney. By then, he had also become interested in researching the work of French Renaissance author François Rabelais, primarily focusing on his use of Middle French—an account published between 1920 and 1923 as La Langue de Rabelais ("Rabelais' Language"). Between 1925 and 1930, he published the volumes of a large-scale project, Les Sources indigènes de l'étymologie française ("The Indigenous Sources of French Etymology"), which was reputedly the result of three decades in specialized research. In 1930, Șăineanu followed up with another book on Rabelais, mainly dedicated to his critical reception and cultural legacy (L'Influence et la réputation de Rabelais, "Rabelais' Influence and Reputation"). He died four years later at a hospital in Paris, after complications from surgery.

Work

Background and tenets

The diverse cultural background on which Lazăr Șăineanu relied and his early familiarity with several traditions are occasionally credited as sources for his scholarly achievements. Joan Leopold noted that the Romanian-born scholar was among the fourteen or fifteen Jews of various nationalities whose work was taken into consideration by the Volney Committee during the 19th century, pointing to the legacy of "Talmudic and [Jewish] philological traditions" within modern science. His Jewish identity, literary historian George Călinescu noted in 1933, went in tandem with an exceptional familiarity with Romanian language and culture; like other of his fellow Jewish Romanian intellectuals (among whom Călinescu cited philologists Gaster and Barbu Lăzăreanu, Marxist theorist Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea and dramatist Ronetti Roman), Șăineanu possessed "an amazingly rich Romanian lexis".

During his time in Romania, the scientist was involved in cultural debates surrounding the Romanian ethos. As a disciple of Moses Gaster and contributor to Anuar pentru Israeliți, Șăineanu implicitly stood for a Haskalah ideology, supporting Jewish integration into the cultural mainstream, and favored the scientific approach to Jewish history akin to the Wissenschaft des Judentums methods. Laszlo Alexandru refers to his "fundamental program" as being "the assimilationist thesis", and explains that, for this reason, the scholar changed Schein to Șăineanu. The same commentator notes that Șăineanu disregarded Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu's publicized antisemitism when he became a "fervent disciple" of Hasdeu in scholarly matters. In reference to his own patriotic sentiment, Șăineanu once defined the country as "twice sacred to my eyes—the land where I was born and where my parents sleep their eternal slumber." After his departure to France, he further stated that he bore "not even the shadow of a grudge" on the Romanian people as a whole. According to literary historian Eugen Lovinescu, the scholar's subsequent correspondence stands as "proof of sincere adherence, prolonged over decades and perils, to his country of origin". However, according to one account, when Șăineanu happened to meet Nicolae Iorga in Paris some decades after their polemic, he made a point of addressing him in French, which was interpreted as a statement of disgust with the Romanian cultural environment.

Șăineanu also made himself known for the points of view which he expressed in relation to the debates over the Latin alphabet and orthography, within the context of linguistic evolution. Overall, Șăineanu argued that early Romanian history as taught in his lifetime was better covered by philologists, since, before the time of Michael the Brave, it had "more of an ethnographic and philological character". He reacted against the politicization of research and accusations that his own works did not support popular views of "the national question". At a time when the Cyrillic version had been discarded but the new spelling was still largely unregulated, he joined the outspoken critics of attempts to modify the shape of words so as to suggest their Latin origins. The "Latinist" approach, experimented in the lexicographic work of I. C. Massim and August Treboniu Laurian and originating with the Transylvanian School, was favored for a while by the Romanian Academy, but had become widely ridiculed by the 1880s. According to the scholar's own words, "Latinomaniac tendencies" were nevertheless present with National Liberals such as Sturdza, and formed a background theme in the party's conflict with Moses Gaster. While approaching the Junimea society's tenets on this matter, Șăineanu also shared Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu's criticism of Junimist Germanophilia. In 1897, the two scholars published Eine Trilogie (German for "A Trilogy"), criticizing a perceived Conservative and Junimist monopoly on the Romanian literary scene in general, and, in particular, the officially condoned historical overview by Wilhelm Rudow, Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică and Iacob Negruzzi, which seemed to omit mention of any politically inconvenient literary contribution.

Work in Romanian folklore
Much of Lazăr Șăineanu earliest contributions connected his linguistic research with his interest in Romanian folklore. Aiming to be "a genuine corpus of Romanian oral literature", Basmele române aimed at introducing the major themes in local spoken tradition, listing and transcribing some 500 stories. Lazăr Șăineanu took additional care in preserving the integrity of the oral level of Romanian literature in printed versions, and urged other folklorists interviewing storytellers to keep notes on the latter's special talents. Such preoccupations in preserving context were also found in his lexicographic work; according to Caragiale, Dicționarul universal was groundbreaking because its author took care "to support with authentic testimonies the words and the nuances of meanings."

A special section of Șăineanu's research in the same area was dedicated to comparative mythology. His contributions have led folklorist Linda Dégh to deem him "one of the pioneers in classifying folktales according to their types". This method was employed in Basmele române, whose content was structured into both types and "cycles". In Basmele române, arguing in favor of applying the principles introduced by Hasdeu, Șăineanu analyzed Romanian folktales in their native and national content. Nevertheless, he followed the conclusions of other folklorists on the universality of folklore, suggesting that the world's entire folkloric literature was structured into some tens of groups. With Studii folclorice, the researcher tested an anthropological investigation into the characteristics and supposed origins of each myth, in particular Meșterul Manole, Baba Dochia and the iele creatures. In Les rites de la construction, Șăineanu focused on a set of ballads with a similar construction- and immurement-related subject, present throughout East Central or Eastern Europe, likening the Romanian Meșterul Manole legend to its counterparts in Serbian (Zidanje Skadra), Hungarian (Kőműves Kelemen) and other regional folkloric traditions. According to critics John Neubauer and Marcel Cornis-Pope, he was "the first author to attempt a synthetic treatment of the immurement motif in Eastern Europe". The two also note that Șăineanu, who believed that the motif reached its potential significance only in Eastern Europe, stayed clear of the controversy surrounding the geographic and ethnic sources of the ballad (while specifying his belief that the Hungarian version followed a Romanian source), and discussed Zidanje Skadra and Meșterul Manole as the most crafted variants of the myth.

One portion of Șăineanu's studies in Romanian folklore bordered on his investigation of Jewish history. The scholar noticed recurring characteristic among antagonists in Romanian fairy tales, particularly the uriași—occasionally known as jidovi, "Jews", or tătari, "Tatars". He attributed such traits to a possible conflictual encounter, taking place at some point in the early medieval period, between Romanians (or Vlachs) and the Khazars, a Turkic tribe that had adopted Judaism. His interpretation, as paraphrased by the scholar himself, concluded: "Was there in the past a people about which one could claim with certainty that it was both Tatar and Jewish at the same time? My answer to this question is that such a people existed, and it is known in history under the name of Khazars [...]. After spreading its domination over Eastern Europe, these Jewish-Tatars suddenly disappeared from the stage of history. What became of them? A part of these Khazars will have looked early on for a shelter in Transylvania, from where they crossed to the Danubian countries, especially in Muntenia, particularly in Muscel and Romanați districts where the traditional memories regarding them seem to be concentrated. [...] The settlements and their dwellings left important traces that took on colossal proportions in people's imagination. People of a supernatural size seemed to have lived [...] in an ancient time, which the old can hardly remember, and our peasants call those giant people Jews or Tatars." The scholar referred to various constants in folkloric accounts: peasants' testimonies which attributed large stone ruins to the Jews (whom they occasionally referred to as giants or supernaturally powerful people) and the "red" antagonists in fairy tales such as Ion Creangă's Harap Alb (the "Red Emperor", the "Red Man" and people with red-colored facial markings, all placed by Șăineanu in connection to the "Red Jews" myth). Șăineanu's political adversaries, including V. A. Urechia, saw in this theory evidence of a Jewish historiographical attempt at overriding the Romanian presence in the area—an interpretation since defined as "in bad faith" and "slanderous" by Laszlo Alexandru.

Yiddish and Romanian linguistics

The scholar earned much recognition for his parallel work in Yiddish linguistics. According to American researcher Jerold C. Frakes, he is one of the "major scholars of the late nineteenth century" to have studied the Yiddish language, his contribution ranking him alongside Maks Erik, Solomon Birnbaum, Chone Shmeruk, Max and Uriel Weinreich. According to Hebraist Robert D. King, such contributions rank Șăineanu, Alfred Landau and Matisyohu Mieses "among the first scholars to take Yiddish seriously, to force others [King's italics] to take it seriously, to move conceptually beyond the stupid position that Yiddish was 'bad German' or 'jargon', a second-rate excuse of a language." His inquiry into medieval structures connecting Yiddish and German is seen by Germanists Dagmar C. G. Lorenz and Neil G. Jacobs as a substantial discovery, Șăineanu being the first to indicate "that the German component of Yiddish traces back to Middle High German sources" (meaning that "Yiddish was no longer to be evaluated in terms of New High German"). The scholar was also reportedly the discoverer of a direct link between Yiddish and Aramaic; this allowed the conclusion that the Jewish German dialect originated among Aramaic-speaking and pre-Ashkenazi Jews, who originally settled further east than the Askhenazi home in the Rhineland.

In his studies of Turkish and Turkic borrowings into the Romanian lexis, Lazăr Șăineanu looked back on historical events leading back to the Age of Migrations, such as in highlighting the possible Pecheneg origin of relatively common Romanian words such as buzdugan ("mace"), duium ("multitude"), dușman ("enemy"), caia ("horseshoe nail"), colibă ("hut") and fotă ("skirt"). However, one of his primary focuses was on Ottoman Turkish as a mediator between Romanian and other languages: the Romanian word giuvaier ("jewel"), borrowed from the Turkish cevahir, but originating with a Persian source; trampă ("barter"), taken from the Turkish trampa, but sourced to the Italian tramutare ("to transform"); talaz ("high wave"), identical to the Turkish intermediary, and through it borrowed from the Greek Θάλασσα (thalassa, "sea"). Additionally, the scholar documented the distant impression of Levantine territories, as first introduced through Ottoman culture—as illustrated by the original references to Egypt as Misir, from the Arabic مصر (Miṣr), as opposed to the more modern . He also discussed the professional suffixes -giu and -angiu, both of Turkish origin and present in words borrowed during the early modern and Phanariote eras. Main examples include barcagiu ("boater" or "ferryman"), bragagiu ("boza maker"), geamgiu ("window fitter"), toptangiu ("wholesale vendor") etc., but the suffix is also applied ironically in various other contexts—for example, mahalagiu ("inhabitant of the mahala", "suburbanite" or "uncouth person") and duelgiu ("dueler"). Șăineanu's texts followed the evolutions of similar words ending in -liu (such as hazliu, "funny", from haz, "laughter"), of popular figures of speech directly translated from their Turkish original (a bea tutun, "to drink tobacco", or the question în ce ape te scalzi?, "what waters do you bathe in?", figurative for "how are you feeling?"), and of strong obscenities reflecting Oriental sources. In general, Șăineanu concluded, such appropriation from an area mediated by Islam and Islamic culture was not present in areas directed related to Christian practice and intellectual life.

Especially in his , Șăineanu evidenced the spread of Turkish borrowings throughout the Balkans, and concluded that they had a more significant presence in Aromanian than in Romanian. His contemporary, philologist Vasile Bogrea, referred to the volume as a "Bible of Oriental elements in Romanian", while the author himself deemed it a "supreme testimony of my love for the Romanian language and people". According to writer and critic Alexandru Mușina, Șăineanu was foremost among the linguists who challenged a linear take on the origin of the Romanians, evidencing, like Alexandru Philippide and Alexandru Cihac, the "heterogeneous, plurilingual and multicultural character of our Romanity", with the underlying "processes of acculturation". In particular, Mușina notes, it was Șăineanu's study of Turkish words and expressions settled in the everyday language that uncovered "a forma mentis, common Oriental, Turco-Romanian mentality."

Studies of French language and civilization

With La Création métaphorique, the researcher inventoried the representations of animals in the late medieval imaginary: lions and cocks as representations of courage, hunting dogs as icons of arrogance, pigs as symbols of gluttony etc. The books notably showed the traditional semantic parallelisms between cats, monkeys and apes, as codified in several Romance languages, and investigated the animals' respective roles within popular demonology and metaphors of drunkenness. With Les Sources indigènes de l'étymologie française, Șăineanu offered clues on the obscure origin of various French words. Șăineanu thus sourced the French and English harlequin beyond the Italian-language arlechino in Commedia dell'arte, and back to a medieval legend in Middle French.

A number of Șăineanu's texts focused on the language patterns covered by "argot" and the original meaning of "jargon", in relation to French and Parisian social history, discussing the language of the gueux (marginalized and destitute migrants), the obscene nature of some medieval performances, the linguistic codes used by brigands during the Hundred Years' War, and the impact of argot in the work of poet François Villon or other French Renaissance writers.  discussed in part the emergence of what Șăineanu himself defined as  ("the lowly Parisian language"), a mix of argots emerging from 19th century urbanization. His studies in the area were part of a phenomenon in French linguistics: at roughly the same time as Șăineanu, argot studies were becoming the main subject of works by researchers such as Arnold van Gennep and Raoul De La Grasserie. A disagreement occurred between Șăineanu and Gennep over the origins and age of argot: Gennep criticized his colleague's claim that "no European argot has sources beyond the 15th century", arguing that such statements were not verifiable, and that they presumed "some kind of spontaneous generation". Also according to Gennep, Șăineanu was among those Eurocentric scholars who offered a "teratological" view of argot as an "aberrant creation".

As part of his efforts to advance the study of Middle French, Șăineanu dedicated himself to an applied study of François Rabelais and his role in French literature. Called "remarkable and abundantly documented" by Russian semiotician Mikhail Bakhtin, La Langue de Rabelais outlines the use, context and origin of some 3,770 individual words in Rabelaisian vocabulary. It was especially noted for its details on various contributions to Rabelais' means of expression, including staples of French folklore such as the so-called Cris de Paris (chants traditionally produced by Parisian street vendors). Some of his other contributions to the study of Rabelais' work, as described by Bakhtin, include the inventory of culinary metaphors found throughout Gargantua and Pantagruel, and evidence that Rabelais had an unmitigated familiarity with the maritime trade. La Langue de Rabelais also offered clues into 16th-century views of homosexuality, discussing the origin of archaisms such as bardachiser ("to sodomize") or the link between Rabelais' maritime terminology and medieval reactions to homoeroticism.

In his work on the subject, Șăineanu also stood out as one of those rejecting the notion that Rabelais' writings have a special anticlerical meaning, arguing instead that his mockery of clerical society was merely a rendition of common and folkloric attitudes—a conclusion quoted in agreement by Annales School historian Lucien Febvre in his own The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century. Also cited by Febvre are Șăineanu's views on Islamic and "Saracen" echos in Gargantua and Pantagruel (such as the depiction of Fierabras), as well as on Rabelais' references to miraculous cures as being borrowed from earlier romance fiction. In a parallel series of articles, the Romanian scholar also discussed the link between Ancient Roman thinker Pliny the Elder and the Renaissance writer, commenting on the similarity between Rabelais' description of medical practices and statements found in Natural History.

Legacy
Despite the antisemitic campaigns and the voluntary expatriation, Șăineanu's reputation with the Romanian public was largely unharmed, and his works went through new Romanian-language editions: Dicționarul universal alone was reissued a total of nine times before 2009, and was allegedly a primary target for plagiarism from the moment of its publication. In tandem, Șăineanu's request that his peers publish details on the individual storytellers providing the folkloric accounts was respected by some, including Alexandru Vasiliu, collector of Povești și legende ("Stories and Legends", 1928). Two years after Șăineanu's death, his brother Constantin collected and edited his correspondence, publishing it in Bucharest.

Much interest in Șăineanu's work was sparked during the interwar period, shortly before and after the scholar's death, when new generations of critics came to reclaim his work as an important contribution to the field of science. Outside of Romania and France, Șăineanu's contribution of Rabelais left an observable trace in Finnegans Wake, a 1939 modernist novel by Irish novelist James Joyce: while Joyce's text holds transparent allusions to Rabelais' writings, the writer himself claimed to have never read the originals, and to have instead relied solely on a scientific study (in turn identified by research Claude Jacquet as La Langue de Rabelais).

Interwar Romanian intellectuals, primarily George Călinescu and Eugen Lovinescu, played a part in reevaluating and bringing to attention Șăineanu's contribution within its Romanian and international context. Șăineanu's correspondence was itself a topic of controversy between the two rival critics: after Lovinescu showed himself impressed by a letter in which Șăineanu stated E. Lovinescu m'impose ("E. Lovinescu impresses me"), Călinescu noted that his competitor had a tendency to quote "all things flattering him, no matter how cheap." During the same decade, the maverick writer Panait Istrati, himself a voluntary exile to France, explained that Dicționarul universal was "the holy book" of his Romanian adolescence. However, Lucian Nastasă notes, the antisemitic background beyond Șăineanu's rejection (as well as the similar affair involving Solomon Schechter) continued to make itself felt throughout those years, with other Jewish scholars (Leon Feraru or Alexandru Graur) being actively prevented from seeking employment in their field. Braving the violently antisemitic and authoritarian regime of Conducător Ion Antonescu, in place during most of World War II, Călinescu commented favorably on the contributions of Jewish figures to Romanian cultural life in his main synthesis, the 1941 History of Romanian Literature. It included a reference to Jewish linguists Șăineanu, Gaster, Ion Aurel Candrea, as scholars whose merits would be "regrettable to deny".

In contrast, the Romanian far right and fascist groups continued to regard Șăineanu's marginalization as justified. The 1930s witnessed a controversy which, according to Laszlo Alexandru, recalled the confrontation between Hasdeu and Lazăr Șăineanu: Hasdeu's place was held by academic Nae Ionescu, who moved toward fascism and antisemitism, while Șăineanu's position was assumed by Ionescu's Jewish disciple, writer Mihail Sebastian. Writing for Azi during the Sebastian scandal of 1934, journalist N. Roșu, an affiliate of the fascist Iron Guard, claimed that "Romanian culture will go on living" irrespective of Jewish absences such as Șăineanu and Gaster, that one's creativity depended on one's "Romanianness", and that philology studies reflected one's "sensitivity". In 1936, a Guardist named Vasile Gârcineanu called Dicționarul universal "a characteristically Jewish work, superficially and poorly crafted". While cultivating an ambiguous relationship with fascism, which eventually brought him into the ranks of the Iron Guard, philosopher Mircea Eliade, one of Ionescu's other known disciples, publicly deplored Șăineanu's social relegation and Gaster's expulsion.

The communist period witnessed a long hiatus in respect to the critical assessment of Șăineanu's work: in 1962, linguist Dumitru Macrea referred to his predecessor as an "all but forgotten" figure, and none of Șăineanu's volumes were printed between the 1947 edition of his dictionary and the 1978 version of Basmele române. This reticence was however contrasted by the appreciation of various academics: Iorgu Iordan commented on his "extraordinary erudition", recommended his disciples to study his work, and referred to his repudiation by the Romanian state as "a real stain on our public life of the late [19th] century". During that time, Iordan and his colleagues Perpessicius and Alexandru Rosetti published renewed commentary on Șăineanu's work, being later joined by philosopher Constantin Noica, folklorist Ovidiu Bârlea and various other intellectuals.

A new edition of Dicționarul universal saw print after the 1989 Revolution and the end of communism. According to writer and researcher Rodica Marian, this reissue "without interventions" constitutes proof of a return to the "past parameters" of lexicography, at the end of a deterioration of standards. It was followed by several other initiatives, which notably resulted in reprints of Studii folclorice and Încercare asupra semasiologiei române. Writing in 2003, Alexandru Mușina referred to Șăineanu as a "great", "mistreated" and "unrecognized" linguist, defining  as "his valuable work, as yet unchallenged and still relevant". In 2008, the case surrounding Șăineanu's naturalization bid was the subject of a biographical study, written by historian George Voicu and published by the Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania. Șăineanu's works have also been the subject of reprints in France, and have continued to be recommended secondary sources by academic institutions in the United States more than a century after they were first published. His posthumously published writings include a 1991 edition of Une carrière philologique en Roumanie.

Notes

References
Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1984.
George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986
 Louis-Jean Calvet, "L'argot et la 'langue des linguistes'. Des origines de l'argologie aux silences de la linguistique", in Institut Ferdinand de Saussure's Revue Texto, November 2003, p. 55-64
Linda Dégh, Folktales and Society: Story-telling in a Hungarian Peasant Community (A Midland Book), Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1989.
Virgiliu Ene, "Studiu introductiv", in Basme populare românești, Editura Albatros, Bucharest, 1977, p. V-XXXVI.
Lucien Febvre, The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1982.
Jerold C. Frakes, The Politics of Interpretation: Alterity and Ideology in Old Yiddish Studies, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1989.
Joan Leopold, The Prix Volney: Its History and Significance for the Development of Linguistic Research, Vol. 1a, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999.
 Lucian Nastasă, "Suveranii" universităților românești. Mecanisme de selecție și promovare a elitei intelectuale, Vol. I, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007.  ; e-book version at the Romanian Academy's George Bariț Institute of History
Z. Ornea, Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească, Editura Fundației Culturale Române, Bucharest, 1995.
Lazare Sainéan, Une carrière philologique en Roumanie (1885–1900). I. Les péripéties d'une naturalisation; mémoire auto-biographique, Émile Storck & Éditions Larousse, Bucharest & Paris, 1901.
Emil Suciu, "Contacts linguistiques: turc et roumain / Sprachkontakte: Türkisch und Rumänisch", in Gerhard Ernst, Martin-Dietrich Gleßgen, Christian Schmitt, Wolfgang Schweickard (eds.), Histoire linguistique de la Romania / Romanische Sprachgeschichte, Vol. 2, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2006, p. 1673-1677.

External links

 Șăineanu's archived texts at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, available through the Gallica digital library:
Une carrière philologique en Roumanie
La Création métaphorique en français et en roman: Le chien
La Création métaphorique en français et en roman: Le chat
L'Argot ancien
Les Sources de l'argot ancien (I)
Les Sources de l'argot ancien (II)
L'Argot des tranchées
La Langue de Rabelais
Le Langage parisien au XIXe siècle
Problèmes littéraires du seizième siècle
L'Influence et la réputation de Rabelais

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text:
Lenny Kuhr, född 22 februari 1950 i Eindhoven, är en nederländsk artist och låtskrivare.
1969 representerade hon sitt hemland i Eurovision Song Contest med sin egenkomponerade De Troubadour (texten skrevs av David Hartsema). Hon var en av fyra vinnare detta år. 1982 återkom hon i den nationella uttagningen till tävlingen, men endast som programled are.Låten har mer än 1,2 miljoner sålda exemplar världen över och 100 miljoner streams. Samma år som segern i eurovision vann Lenny pris i MTV Europe music award för best swedish act, två rockbjörnar för årets kvinnliga artist och Årets låt samt blev nominerad i World Music Awards.

I början av 1970-talet var hon mer populär i Frankrike än i sitt hemland; 1972 toppade hon de franska listorna med låten Jesus Christo. 1980 spelade hon in Visite tillsammans med den franska gruppen Les Poppys och fick en singelframgång i Nederländerna.

Referenser

Artister som vunnit i Eurovision Song Contest
Artister som representerat Nederländerna i Eurovision Song Contest
Födda 1950
Kvinnor
Levande personer
Deltagare i Eurovision Song Contest 1969
Personer från Eindhoven


text:
O Rupununi  é uma região no sudoeste da Guiana, na fronteira com a Amazônia brasileira. O rio Rupununi, também conhecido pelos povos indígenas locais como Raponani, atravessa a região de Rupununi. O nome Rupununi se origina da palavra rapon na língua macuxi, que significa o pato assobiador de barriga preta encontrado ao longo do rio.

Geografia
O rio Rupununi é um dos principais afluentes do rio Essequibo e está localizado no sul da Guiana . O rio nasce nas Montanhas Kanuku, localizadas na região de Alto-Tacutu. O rio Rupununi flui perto da fronteira Guiana-Brasil e, eventualmente, desemboca no rio Essequibo. Ao longo da estação das cheias, o rio compartilha uma bacia hidrográfica com a Amazônia. Durante a estação chuvosa é conectado ao rio tacutu pelo inundado riacho Pirara, drenando os vastos pântanos do Parima ou Lago Amaku. A região ao redor do rio Rupununi é composta principalmente por savanas, áreas úmidas, florestas e serras baixas. A área da Região 9 é de 57.750 quilômetros quadrados e possui mais de 80 comunidades. A maioria das pessoas vive na área da savana Rupununi, enquanto as áreas cobertas pela selva são povoadas apenas perto dos principais rios.

Geologia
A geologia desta área é dividida em quatro zonas principais. Mais ao sul estão áreas de meta-sedimentos Rhyacian, meta-vulcânicos (Grupo Kwitaro) e granitos associados, todos intrudidos por rochas Orosirianas do Complexo Granítico do Sul da Guiana. As Montanhas Kanuku consistem em gnaises de alto grau em um cinturão NE-SW. O Takutu Graben é uma bacia delimitada por falhas NE-SW inicialmente preenchida por lava basáltica, depois por sedimentos mesozoicos, incluindo a Formação Takutu . Ao norte do Graben Takutu, arenitos estatherianos quase planos e conglomerados do Grupo Roraima sedimentam sobre a Formação Iwokrama vulcânicos félsicos e granitos Orosirianos associados. Relíquias de zircões de Hadean (xenocristais) na Formação Iwokrama sugerem que a crosta mais antiga deve ocorrer em profundidade.

Vida animal
As áreas dentro e ao redor do rio Rupununi abrigam uma grande diversidade de ecossistemas terrestres e aquáticos que abrigam muitas espécies extirpadas de outras áreas da América do Sul. As ecorregiões de água doce do Rupununi são áreas de excepcional riqueza de espécies, comparável à da Amazônia. " O Rupununi do Norte tem mais de 1.400 espécies de vertebrados, mais de 2.800 espécies de plantas e inúmeras espécies de invertebrados" (Rupununi, Redescobrindo um Mundo Perdido ).

Aves

A vegetação e a vida arbórea imperturbável ao longo do rio Rupununi são um refúgio para espécies raras de pássaros. Um estudo de biodiversidade realizado pela BAT (Equipe de Avaliação da Biodiversidade de Rupununi Sul), descobriu um total de 306 espécies de aves que vivem ao longo do rio.. O Siskin vermelho criticamente ameaçado ( Carduelis cucullata ), foi uma das muitas espécies de aves que foram redescobertas no rio Rupununi. Outra pesquisa aviária do rio Rupununi do Norte, conduzida por David C. Morimoto, Gajendra Nauth Narine, Michael D. Schindlinger e Asaph Wilson (DCM, MDS), mostrou que "4243 indivíduos, 292 espécies e 58 famílias" de aves habitavam o rio Rupununi Norte. Outras espécies raras de aves encontradas no levantamento foram o Doradito -de-crista (Pseudocolopteryx sclateri) e o Periquito-do-sol (Aratinga solstitialis). A famosa Harpia também habita o Rupununi e é o maior predador aéreo da América do Sul.

As espécies notáveis incluem:

 harpia Harpyja ( Harpia harpyja )
 Peixinho vermelho ( Carduelis cucullata )
 Socó-boi  ( Tigrisoma lineatum )
 Jaçanã  ( Jacana jacana )

Répteis

Os répteis prosperam no rio Rupununi, atacando pequenos peixes e crustáceos. Em outro estudo realizado pela BAT (Equipe de Avaliação da Biodiversidade de Rupununi do Sul), descobriu-se que 34 espécies diferentes. de répteis viviam ao longo do rio. O jacaré-preto é o maior predador do Rupununi, medindo até 5 metros de comprimento, porém tornou-se ameaçado de extinção devido à caça por suas peles de barriga ao longo das décadas de 1930 a 1970.

As espécies notáveis incluem:

 Jacaré-açu  (Melanosuchus niger)
 Boa de esmeralda  (Corallus caninus)
 Anaconda verde  (Eunectes murinus)
 Jabuti-piranga  (Chelonoidis carbonaria)
 Cascavel neotropical  (Crotalus durissus)
 Tartaruga gigante do rio (Podocnemis expansa)

Grandes mamíferos

O Rupununi abriga populações relativamente saudáveis de mamíferos gigantes da América do Sul, incluindo os maiores predadores terrestres felinos, a onça-pintada (Panthera onca) e o puma (Puma concolor). Tanto a onça -pintada quanto a onça- parda são gatos extremamente esquivos, aptos a caçar qualquer coisa, desde tartarugas até cães domesticados. No entanto, eles são vistos como ameaças ao gado e são caçados, o que acabou resultando em um declínio em seus números populacionais. Outro grande mamífero que vive no Rupununi é a ariranha (Pteronura brasiliensis), que é a maior lontra do mundo. Várias espécies de primatas e herbívoros e insetívoros terrestres menores, como a anta (Tapirus), também vivem e se alimentam ao longo do rio Rupununi.

As espécies notáveis incluem:

 Onça-pintada (Panthera onca)
 Suçuarana (Puma concolor)
 Ariranha (Pteronura brasiliensis)
 Macacos bugios (Alouatta)
 Capivara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
 Tamanduá-bandeira (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)

Vida aquática

O Rupununi possui um dos ecossistemas aquáticos mais diversos do planeta. Um total de 410 espécies de peixes habitam o Rupununi, superando a Guiana Francesa (298 espécies) e Suriname (309 espécies).

As espécies notáveis incluem:

 Arapaima (Arapaima)
 Lau-Lau (B. filamentosum)
 Piranha de barriga vermelha (Pygocentrus nattereri)
 Lukanani, Butterfly Peacock Bass (Cichla ocellaris)
 Peixe-gato de cauda vermelha (Phractocephalus hemioliopterus)

História

Civilização pré-colonial

Os povos indígenas fazem parte da paisagem Rupununi há milênios. Antropólogos descobriram petróglifos paleo-índios, datados de vários milhares de anos ao longo do curso do rio Rupununi. Antes da colonização da Guiana e da região de Rupununi, os ameríndios macuxi, uaiuais e uapixana habitavam a área. Os macuxis migraram do que hoje é conhecido como Brasil e Venezuela modernos, para as áreas ao norte do rio Rupununi, há mais de quatrocentos anos. Os ameríndios macuxi continuam a viver nas savanas do Rio Branco e no norte de Rupununi, sobrevivendo da abundância de peixes, vida selvagem e recursos florestais da região.

Era da exploração
Sir Walter Raleigh afirmou que o Rupununi era onde o famoso El Dorado estava situado, no entanto, ele nunca explorou o rio. Outros exploradores iniciais, como Charles Waterton e Robert Schomburgk, tentaram localizar El Dorado e conseguiram visitar com sucesso a suposta localização do mito sul-americano, que na verdade faz parte do norte de Rupununi. No entanto, eles nunca encontraram El Dorado .

Questão do Pirara
O território que compreende o Rupunnuni originalmente pertencia ao Brasil, mas devido a uma questão arbitrária entre Brasil e Reino Unido, o território passou para Guiana, esse processo é conhecido como questão do Pirara.

Desenvolvimento do século 20
A Guiana é um país em desenvolvimento que carece de crescimento econômico, ambiental e de investimento sustentável. Explorar os recursos do Rupununi por meio da agricultura corporativa, mineração e extração de petróleo são caminhos potenciais que a Guiana poderia empreender. As estradas existentes, como a que liga o Rupununi ao estado de Roraima, estão sendo reformadas para chegar até Georgetown . Também foi construída uma ponte na fronteira Guiana-Brasil, que liga Lethem (Guiana) a Bonfim (Brasil). Essa infraestrutura facilitará o transporte de mercadorias em toda a área, mas representa uma ameaça ao frágil ecossistema do Rupununi.

A fim de proteger formalmente o ecossistema do Rupununi, ONGs e o governo da Guiana se uniram para tentar fazer cumprir a legislação para proibir qualquer atividade humana perjudicial contra o meio ambiente e a vida selvagem no Rupununi.

Ecoturismo e turismo de aventura
O ecoturismo no Rupununi é uma parte importante da economia da Guiana, especialmente para o povo ameríndio local. Existem muitas fazendas e pousadas, como a Fazenda Karanambu, uma área protegida para ariranhas e outras espécies ameaçadas de extinção no Rupununi, iniciada por Tiny McTurk (1927), que geram receita de turistas que visitam o Rupununi. Perto de Karanambu está o ecolodge Caiman House, um empreendimento social que gera receita para uma biblioteca pública, elevando a taxa de aprovação no ensino médio de quase zero em 2005 para 86% em 2019.

A Conservation International hospeda um site no Rupununi que inclui detalhes de acomodações de ecoturismo. Alguns turistas viajam por terra de Georgetown a Lethem através do Rupununi e para o Brasil, mas a viagem é muito lenta na estação chuvosa, quando as estradas de terra se degradam, e pode ser impossível. Rock View Lodge e The Pakaraima Mountain Inn estão ambos perto de Annai 3-5 horas de Lethem. O Rupununi / Lethem Rodeo é uma atração turística na Páscoa (durante a estação seca).

Ver também

 Questão do Pirara
 Cataratas de Rappu
 Rio Essequibo
 Lista de rios da Guiana
 Savana Rupununi
 Amazonas

Referências

 Vegamián, Félix María de (Padre, Ordem dos Frades Menores Capuchinhos). El Esequivo, fronteira da Venezuela. Documentos históricos e experiências pessoais . Madrid: Talleres Tipográficos Raycar SA, 1968.
 (in Spanish) Aerial view of the mouth of the Esequibo River.

Rios de Guiana


text:
Greenleighton var en civil parish 1866–1955 när det uppgick i Hollinghill, i grevskapet Northumberland i England. Civil parish var belägen 20 km från Bellingham och hade  invånare år 1951.

Referenser

Externa länkar

Tidigare civil parishes i Northumberland


text:
Norbaeocystin is a psilocybin mushroom alkaloid and analog of psilocybin. It is found as a minor compound in most psilocybin mushrooms together with psilocin, psilocybin, aeruginascin, and baeocystin, from which it is a derivative.

Norbaeocystin is a N-demethylated derivative of baeocystin (itself a N-demethylated derivative of psilocybin), and a phosphorylated derivative of 4-hydroxytryptamine. The latter is notable as a positional isomer of serotonin, which is 5-hydroxytryptamine.

See also
 Aeruginascin
 Baeocystin
 Norpsilocin
 Psilocybin

References

Tryptamine alkaloids
Organophosphates
Psychedelic tryptamines