text:
Als Cherokee Freedmen werden die Nachkommen von afrikanischen Sklaven bezeichnet, die mit ihren Cherokee-Besitzern von den Bundesstaaten North Carolina, South Carolina und Georgia in das Indianerterritorium aufgrund des Indian Removal Act von 1830 vertrieben wurden.

Nach der Freilassung der Sklaven 1863 durch die Emanzipationsproklamation erhielten die Sklaven Land im heutigen Oklahoma zugesprochen. Viele Nachkommen der Sklaven wurden zu Mitgliedern des Stammes erklärt, oftmals gegen den Willen des Stammes (siehe Curtis Act). Nach der Wiedererrichtung der Cherokee Nation als souveräne Nation innerhalb der Vereinigten Staaten 1970 wurde den Cherokee Freedmen die Mitgliedschaft beim Stamm oftmals verwehrt. Nach der 1983 geänderten Verfassung der Cherokee Nation können nur Personen die Staatsbürgerschaft erhalten, die eine Blutsverwandtschaft nachweisen können. Am 30. August 2007 entschied der United States District Court for the District of Columbia, dass den Cherokee Freedmen die Staatsbürgerschaft in der Cherokee Nation nicht verweigert werden kann. Etwa 45.000 Cherokee Freedmen leben heute auf dem Gebiet der Cherokee Nation im Nordosten von Oklahoma. Bis heute gibt es Kontroversen um die Stammesmitgliedschaft der Cherokee Freedmen, die mit erheblichen Vorteilen wie kostenloser Gesundheitsvorsorge verbunden ist.

Fort Smith Council

Im September 1865 begannen Verhandlungen zwischen den Fünf Zivilisierten Stämmen und der Regierung der Vereinigten Staaten in Fort Smith, Arkansas. Nachdem die Mehrheit der Stämme auf Seiten der Südstaaten am Bürgerkrieg teilgenommen hatten, verlangte die Bundesregierung neue Verträge. Der Amerikanische Bürgerkrieg hatte die Stämme entzweit. Die Cherokee teilten sich in Southern und Northern Cherokee. Andere Stämme wie die Choctaw and Chickasaw unterstützten geschlossen die Konföderation. Ungefähr die Hälfte der Cherokee unterstützte die Vereinigten Staaten, die andere Hälfte die Konföderation. Am 19. Juli 1866 wurde ein Vertrag in Washington unterschrieben, welcher am 11. August 1866 bekanntgegeben wurde. In diesem Vertrag verpflichtete sich die Cherokee Nation, die Sklaverei in ihrem Gebiet zu verbieten. Im 9. Artikel des Vertrages wurde festgelegt, dass alle ehemaligen Sklaven und ihre Nachfahren Mitglieder des Stammes werden können. Allen ehemaligen Sklaven, die vor dem Ausbruch des Bürgerkriegs im Gebiet der Cherokee lebten, sollten dieselben Rechte und Pflichten wie den Cherokee zugestanden werden. Am 26. November 1866 änderte die Cherokee Nation ihre Verfassung. Der Artikel, der die Aufnahme von Schwarzen in die Nation verbot, wurde geändert. Die Cherokee Freedmen mussten sich innerhalb von sechs Monaten entscheiden. Entweder wurden sie Staatsangehörige der Vereinigten Staaten und mussten das Gebiet der Cherokee verlassen, oder sie wurden Angehörige der Cherokee und durften bleiben. Diese bekamen pro Familie 160 Acre Land zugewiesen. Am Ende des Bürgerkriegs zählte die Cherokee Nation 21.000 Stammesmitglieder. Zirka 9 % der Familien besaßen einen oder mehrere Sklaven. Es handelte sich dabei um zirka 4.000 Personen. Viele ehemalige Sklaven flüchteten aus der Indianerterritorium. Andere wurden von bewaffneten Cherokee gewaltsam vertrieben.

Cherokee Outlet
Das Cherokee Outlet war ein 97 Meilen breiter und 225 Meilen langer Streifen entlang der Grenze zu Kansas. Er zählte nicht zum Reservatsgebiet der Cherokee, sondern war diesen als Jagd und Weideland 1836 zur Verfügung gestellt worden. Da die Cherokee primär sesshafte Bauern waren und sich ihr Schwerpunkt im Nordosten des heutigen Bundesstaates Oklahoma befand, wurde das Gebiet von den Cherokee wenig genutzt und an Rinderzüchter verpachtet. Nach dem Bürgerkrieg wurden die Cherokee von der Bundesregierung gezwungen, Gebiete des Streifens an andere Indianerstämme zu verkaufen. Zum Beispiel kauften die in Kansas heimischen Osage ein Gebiet westlich der Cherokee Nation, dem heutigen Osage County. Die Erlöse durch die Landverkäufe sollten an die Cherokee-Familien verteilt werden. Dadurch entstanden Listen, die heutzutage für die Stammeszugehörigkeit Verwendung finden. Kein Freedmen wurde bei der Verteilung der Gelder 1880 berücksichtigt. Auch Delaware and Shawnee, die auf dem Gebiet der Cherokee Nation wohnten, gingen leer aus. Die Cherokee Nation plante, 7.240.000 Dollar an 28.243 Cherokee zu verteilen. 3.524 Freedmen sollten nichts erhalten, obwohl sie einen Anspruch auf 903.365 Dollar gehabt hätten. Moses Whitmire klagte im Auftrag der Freedmen und der anderen ausgeschlossenen Indianer auf Zahlung dieser Summe beim Court of Claims.

Dawes Act und Curtis Act
Nach diesen Gesetzen sollte Stammesland an individuelle Familien verteilt werden. Auch hier entstanden Listen von Berechtigten, die für die Ermittlung der Stammeszugehörigkeit Verwendung fanden und finden.

Einzelnachweise und Anmerkungen

Sklaverei in den Vereinigten Staaten
Cherokee


text:
Амари́ліс (Amaryllis) — оліготипний рід однодольних рослин родини Амарилісові (Amaryllidaceae). Виділено шведським систематиком Карлом Ліннеєм в 1753 році.

Популярна декоративна кімнатна рослина, що часто зустрічається під цією назвою, насправді є гібридним гіпеаструмом — справжні амариліси в домашніх умовах практично не вирощуються.

Опис кімнатного Амариліса
Має великі, переважно червоні квітки, цвіте в лютому. Після цвітіння рослину поливають рідше, щоб забезпечити їй стан спокою. У такому стані амариліси перебувають протягом зими, тому, починаючи з осені, поступово припиняють їх поливати, потім зрізують листя і ставлять горщик з цибулиною в темне місце.

Види
За інформацією бази даних The Plant List, рід включає 4 види:

  — Амариліс прекрасний

Примітки

Посилання

Амарилісові
Роди холодкоцвітих

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Achille Joseph Comte, né le  à Grenoble (Isère) et  mort le  à Nantes, est un médecin, professeur d'histoire naturelle, zoologiste et physiologiste français.

Aperçu biographique
Comte fait ses études de médecine à la Faculté de médecine de Paris, devient interne et fréquente les plus grands hôpitaux parisiens. Recruté par Jean Cruveilhier, il l'est un des membres fondateurs de la Société anatomique de Paris. Il abandonne cependant la voie médicale après avoir soutenu sa thèse pour tenir un poste de professeur de sciences naturelles au Collège Royal Charlemagne. Il est pendant plusieurs années président de la Société des gens de lettres et membre de nombreuses sociétés savantes. Jusqu'à la Révolution de 1848, il est chef de bureau des « Compagnies savantes et des affaires médicales », au ministère de l'Instruction publique. Contraint de quitter ce poste mais plus tard reconnu pour ses talents dans ses activités pédagogiques, il est nommé directeur de l'École préparatoire à l'enseignement supérieur des sciences et des lettres de Nantes sous le Second Empire.

Il épouse Aglaé de Bouconville, veuve du dramaturge Jean-Louis Laya, qui elle-même publiera plusieurs pièces de théâtre mais également une  Histoire naturelle racontée à la jeunesse, ou Exposé des instincts et des mœurs des animaux, précédé d'une notice sur les races humaines.

Œuvres et publications

Il est l'auteur de très nombreuses publications, aux multiples rééditions, destinées à l'enseignement de l'histoire naturelle pour les collèges et les écoles normales primaires. En 1833, il assure l'édition, à la librairie médicale de Crochard, du Règne animal ("disposé en tableaux méthodiques par J. Achille Comte") de Georges Cuvier, Texte intégral en ligne.

 Circulation du sang dans le fœtus, décrite et dessinée, [Thèse de médecine, Paris], 1827.
 Recherches anatomico-physiologiques relatives à la prédominance du bras droit sur le bras gauche, [avec planches] , Paris , chez l'auteur, 1828, VIII-48 p.-[2] p. de pl ; 22 cm.
 Keepsake d'histoire naturelle. Description des oiseaux. Suivie d'un exposé de l'art de les préparer et de les conserver, Paris, Bazouge-Pigoreau et Londres, Robert Tyas, [1838].
 Règne animal disposé en tableaux méthodiques, [Porte en page de titre la mention "ouvrage adopté par le Conseil Royal de l'Instruction publique pour l'enseignement des collèges et autres établissements de l'université"], Paris, Fortin Masson, 1840, 1 vol. ([2] p.) : 90 pl. ; In-fol., Planches 81 x 57 cm.
 Organisation et physiologie de l'homme, expliquées à l'aide de figures coloriées découpées et superposées, (), Paris, Les principaux libraires scientifiques, 1842,  ([IV]-204 p.) ; in-8, ; cinquième édition de 1845 ; sixième édition de 1851, Texte intégral.
  Traité complet d'histoire naturelle, Paris, F. Didot frères, in-12, 1844-1849 :
 Tome 1, « Zoologie. Mammifères », .
 Tome 2, « Organisation et physiologie comparée des animaux », .
 Tome 3, « Zoologie. Mammifères », .
 Les Jussieu, [notice sur Antoine, Bernard et Laurent de Jussieu], [Paris], [Langlois et Leclercq], [1846],  (p. (235-247)) : plaq. ; In-8.
 Annuaire des Sociétés savantes de la France et de l'Étranger, 1846.
 Structure et physiologie de l'homme : démontrées à l'aide de figures coloriées, découpées et superposées, Paris, V. Masson et fils, 1861, 1 vol. (252 p.) : ill. ; in-8 + 1 atlas (7 p.-8 p. de pl. ; in-8.
 Planches murales d'histoire naturelle. Zoologie, botanique, géologie. Légendes, [2e édition publiée par Henri Bocquillon], Paris, V. Masson et fils, 1869, In-18, 75 p., .
 Structure et physiologie animales démontrées à l'aide de figures coloriées et superposées, Paris, G. Masson, 1875, 1 vol. (252 p.) : 8 pl. en coul. ; In-8 (12 X 18).
 Structure et physiologie de l'homme, [multiples éditions], Paris, Masson, 1885.

 En collaboration
 avec Henri Milne Edwards : Cahiers d'histoire naturelle: I. Zoologie, II. Botanique, III. Géologie, 3 tomes en 1 vol., [S.l.] , [s.n.] -- [1852]-1855, Paris, V. Masson : en ligne :
 Cahiers d'histoire naturelle à l'usage des collèges et des écoles normales primaires, 1838.
 Cahiers d'histoire naturelle, nouvelle édition, 1855, avec .

 avec Alfred Annedouche (graveur): Atlas d'anatomie humaine, [Paris], Imprimerie de Ch. Lahure, [185?], Texte intégral.

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 « Achille Joseph Comte », dans Dictionnaire universel des contemporains par Gustave Vapereau, Paris, L. Hachette et , 1865,  (X-1862 p.) ; gr. in-8, , .
 Amédée Dechambre (dir.), « Joseph Achille Comte », dans Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, , , COL - CON., ,  Paris, G. Masson, 1875, Texte intégral .

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Société anatomique de Paris
 Lycée Charlemagne
 Société des gens de lettres

Liens externes

 Comte (Achille-Joseph) dans le site de l'Institut français de l'éducation.
 Achille Comte dans le site du  Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques.
 Œuvres numérisées d'Achille Comte dans le site Europeana.
 Achille Comte dans le site data.bnf.fr.

Anatomiste français
Physiologiste français
Naissance en septembre 1802
Décès en janvier 1866
Naissance à Grenoble
Décès à Nantes
Décès à 63 ans
Médecin lié à Nantes
Membre de la Société des gens de lettres


text:
Het Bloedbad van Paneriai, ook wel bekend als het Bloedbad van Ponary, was een massamoord, gepleegd door de Duitse SD en Litouwse collaborateurs, op 100.000 personen tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog. De massamoord vond plaats tussen juli 1941 en augustus 1944 in Paneriai in het Reichskommissariat Ostland. Er werden ongeveer 70.000 Joden uit Polen en Litouwen en 20.000 etnische Polen vermoord, waarvan het grootste deel afkomstig was uit het nabijgelegen Vilnius, alsook 8.000 Russen, onder wie 7.500 die krijgsgevangen waren gemaakt tijdens de eerste dagen van Operatie Barbarossa.

Vilnius maakte tot 1939 deel uit van de Tweede Poolse Republiek. Van de bevolking sprak voor de oorlog 65% Pools en 28% Jiddisch. Bij de Sovjetaanval op Polen in 1939 werd Vilnius en omgeving veroverd door de Sovjet-Unie. Bij het verdrag van 10 oktober 1939 tussen de Sovjet-Unie en Litouwen kwamen Vilnius en omgeving bij Litouwen, in ruil voor de stationering van 20.000 Sovjetmilitairen in Litouwen.

Externe link
deathcamps.org over bloedbad van Paneriai

Paneriai
Tweede Wereldoorlog in de Baltische staten
Geschiedenis van Litouwen
Holocaust in Polen
Pan
1941
1942
1943
1944


text:
De valse rozenzandbij (Andrena helvola) is een vliesvleugelig insect uit de familie Andrenidae. De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1758 door Linnaeus.

Zandbij


text:
Een kleuter is een jong kind vanaf 4 tot 6 jaar.

Het begrip kleuter is moeilijk te definiëren. In het algemeen kan men stellen dat de kleutertijd begint na de peutertijd, wanneer het kind naar de kleuterschool gaat, en eindigt rond de leeftijd van zes jaar, wanneer het kind zich meer bewust wordt, realistischer en abstracter denkt en naar de derde groep (Nederland) of het eerste leerjaar (België) van de basisschool gaat.

Ontwikkeling
De kleutertijd is een periode van boeiende ontwikkeling voor een kind. Deze fase in de ontwikkeling start op het ogenblik dat het kind een aantal ontwikkelingsmijlpalen zet. Een driejarige kan o.a.:
 zijn eerste zinnetjes zeggen, zogeheten driewoordenzinnen (zie ook taalverwerving)
 overdag zindelijk zijn
 open staan voor instructie
 eenvoudige tekeningen maken, bv. met rondjes, bloemen, zonnetjes enz.
 op een driewieler fietsen
 met kleine of grote blokken spelen (kinderspel)
 een rol spelen, bv. in de poppenhoek (kinderspel)
 zijn eigen wil duidelijk maken, veelal door "nee" te zeggen
 waarom-vragen stellen waar eigenlijk geen antwoord op is

Vanaf de leeftijd van drie jaar tijd leert een kleuter heel wat. Hij ontwikkelt zich van een vrij spelend kind tot een kind dat klaar is om bewust te gaan leren in de lagere school. Dit heeft alles te maken met de ontwikkeling van zijn hersenen en zijn mogelijkheden om bewuster, realistischer en abstracter te denken.

In veel andere landen wordt veel minder uitgesproken dan in Nederland en België een afzonderlijke fase benoemd voor deze leeftijdsgroep. In vele talen is er ook geen specifiek woord voor een kleuter van 3 tot en met 6 jaar. In het Engels bijvoorbeeld spreekt men van baby of infant (baby van 0 tot maximaal 2 jaar), van toddler (peuter van 2 tot 3 jaar) en van child of youngster (kind vanaf 4 tot 12 jaar). In Engeland is de playgroup of nursery een school voor heel jonge kinderen. Kinderen gaan er naar de primary school vanaf hun 5de jaar tot ze 11 jaar zijn.

Onderwijs

Nederland
In Nederland sluit men aan bij het Engelse schoolsysteem. Er wordt echter wel hetzelfde woordgebruik en dus fase-indeling als in België gehanteerd. Jonge kinderen gaan er later (mogelijk vanaf 4 jaar, verplicht vanaf 5 jaar) naar de basisschool. Tot die tijd zijn het peuters die thuis of in een kinderdagverblijf of in de peuterspeelzaal opgevangen worden.

Groep 1 is het eerste leerjaar van de basisschool. Als een kind vier jaar wordt, mag het na zijn verjaardag naar groep 1. Vanaf vijf jaar geldt er leerplicht. Vaak worden dit de jongste kleuters genoemd.

Groep 2 is het tweede leerjaar van de basisschool. Dit zijn over het algemeen kinderen van 5 en 6 jaar. Deze kinderen zijn leerplichtig en worden ook wel oudste kleuters genoemd.

België (Vlaanderen)
In Vlaanderen mogen kinderen vanaf 2 jaar en 6 maanden, na een vakantieperiode, instappen in de kleuterschool.

In Vlaanderen zijn er wel nog enkele autonome kleuterscholen. Meestal zijn deze echter verbonden aan een lagere school en spreekt men van de basisschool voor kleuters en leerlingen tot 12 jaar. Na de lagere school of basisschool gaan leerlingen over naar het secundair onderwijs.

Zie ook
Klein, klein kleutertje (kinderliedje)

Kind


text:
Pereskia bahiensis ist eine Pflanzenart in der Gattung Pereskia aus der Familie der Kakteengewächse (Cactaceae). Das Artepitheton bahiensis verweist auf das Vorkommen im brasilianischen Bundesstaat Bahia. Portugiesische Trivialnamen sind "Espinha de São Antonio", "Flor de Cêra" und "Quiabento".

Beschreibung
Pereskia bahiensis wächst baumförmig oder strauchig mit aufrechten bis überhängenden, gräulich braunen, längsrissigen Zweigen und Stämmen von bis 30 Zentimetern Durchmesser. Sie erreicht Wuchshöhen von 1 bis 6 Metern. Die unterschiedlichen, nicht deutlich gestielten Laubblätter sind elliptisch bis verkehrt eiförmig, flach oder entlang der Mittelrippe leicht aufwärts gefaltet und oft zurückgebogen. Die Blattspreite ist 5 bis 12 Zentimeter lang und 2 bis 7 Zentimeter breit. Die fiederförmigen Blattadern weisen nur unauffällige Seitenverzweigungen auf. Die bis zu 6 Dornen an den Areolen der Zweige, die auch fehlen können, sind parallel oder ausgebreitet und 2 bis 5 Zentimeter lang. Aus den Areolen der Haupttriebe entspringen bis zu 45, 2 bis 9 Zentimeter lange Dornen.

Die rosafarbenen bis rötlich purpurfarbenen Blüten sind nur an einem Tag offen und stehen oft in Blütenständen aus 2 bis 12 Einzelblüten zusammen. Sie erreichen Durchmesser von 4 bis 7 Zentimetern. Ihre Blütenhüllblätter sind ausgebreitet bis zurückgebogen, das Receptaculum ist vor allem in der oberen Hälfte höckrig und mit je einer Areole besetzt. Die häufig hängenden, birnen- bis kreiselförmigen, fleischigen Früchte sind grün bis gelblich grün. Sie sind 3 bis 6 Zentimeter lang und weisen Durchmesser von 3 bis 5 Zentimetern auf.

Verbreitung, Systematik und Gefährdung
Pereskia bahiensis ist im brasilianischen Bundesstaat Bahia in der Caatinga-Vegetation in Höhenlagen von 400 bis 900 Metern verbreitet. Die Erstbeschreibung erfolgte 1908 durch Max Gürke.

Pereskia bahiensis wird in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN als "", d. h. nicht gefährdet eingestuft.

Nachweise

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Pereskia (Kakteen)
bahiensis


text:
Le saxophone Grafton est un instrument de musique. Il s'agit d'un saxophone alto en plastique acrylique de couleur crème. « Grafton » est le nom l'entreprise britannique qui l'a conçu et commercialisé.

Cet instrument n'a été disponible dans le commerce que pendant une dizaine d'années, du début des années 1950 au début des années 1960. Son principal argument de vente était son prix de 55 £, soit moitié moins qu'un saxophone ordinaire, le polyméthacrylate de méthyle étant moins coûteux que le laiton dont est traditionnellement fait cet instrument. Cependant, ce matériau le rend également beaucoup plus fragile et difficile à réparer.

Bien qu'il s'agisse d'un instrument à bas prix, le saxophone Grafton a attiré l'attention de plusieurs musiciens de jazz célèbres. Charlie Parker en utilise un lors du concert immortalisé sur le disque Jazz at Massey Hall (1953), de même qu'Ornette Coleman sur son album The Shape of Jazz to Come (1959).

Article connexe

Grafton


text:
Frey Oszkár (Budapest, 1953. április 22. – ) kétszeres olimpiai bronzérmes, világbajnok magyar kenus.

Pályafutása
Frey Oszkár 1953. április 22-én született Budapesten. Az 1976-os montréali olimpián C2 500 és C2 1000 méteren Buday Tamás párjaként két bronzérmet szerzett. Az 1978-as belgrádi világbajnokságon szintén Buday Tamással C2 1000 méteren világbajnokok lettek.

Források
Frey Oszkár a MOB oldalán
Frey Oszkár a kajakkenusport.hu-n
Frey Oszkár profilja a magyarvagyok.hu-n

Magyar kenusok
Magyar olimpiai bronzérmesek
1953-ban született személyek
Élő személyek


text:
Mecanica Ceahlău – rumuński producent maszyn rolniczych z siedzibą w Piatra Neamț.

Historia
Firma została założona w 1921 przez Socrat Lalu. Po 5 latach fabryka zatrudniała 130 pracowników. W 1953 rozpoczęła produkcję maszyn rolniczych stając się głównym produktem fabryki. W 1972 roku wyprodukowano pierwszy rzędowy siewnik do kukurydzy i buraków, SPC6, który stał się symbolem fabryki. W 1999 Mecanica Ceahlau została sprywatyzowana i wkroczyła na nowy poziom modernizacji i dostosowywania się do potrzeb rynku.

Od 2006 roku spółka notowana jest w drugiej kategorii na Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych w Bukareszcie z głównych udziałowców SIF Moldova (55%) i Romanian Opportunities Fund (27,3%). W celu powiększenia oferty i przyszłej modernizacji produktów, w 2003 firma zakupiła dwie licencje na pług obrotowy i agregaty uprawowe od firmy Lemken oraz na siewniki punktowe typu Tip SK od firmy Kleine.

Przypisy

Producenci maszyn rolniczych
Przedsiębiorstwa w Rumunii
Piatra Neamț


text:
Kommunalpolitik ist die politische Arbeit in Gebietskörperschaften auf der kommunalen Ebene von Gemeinden bzw. Städten oder in Landkreisen und Verwaltungsbezirken, sowie Stadtbezirken, Stadtteilen oder Ortsteilen.

Städten und Gemeinden der Bundesrepublik Deutschland garantiert  Abs. 2 Grundgesetz das Recht auf kommunale Selbstverwaltung. Damit können sie ihre eigenen Angelegenheiten im Rahmen der Gesetze selbst und eigenverantwortlich regeln und entscheiden. Dafür werden von den Bürgern Gemeindevertretungen und Bürgermeister gewählt. Die Gemeindeverbände (Landkreise) haben gemäß Artikel 28 Absatz 2, Satz 2 Grundgesetz keine Zuständigkeit für alle Angelegenheiten der örtlichen Gemeinschaft, sondern nur im Rahmen ihres gesetzlichen Aufgabenbereichs.

Die genaue Form der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung und die dafür zu wählenden Organe werden in den Kommunalverfassungen, den Verfassungen und Gemeindeordnungen der Länder geregelt. Entsprechend differieren die Regelungen von Bundesland zu Bundesland. Bei den Wahlen zu den Kommunalparlamenten hat jeder Einwohner, sobald er das gesetzliche Mindestalter hat und EU-Staatsbürger ist, das Recht, die Gemeindevertreter zu wählen.

Ebenfalls besteht die Möglichkeit, sich auf kommunaler Ebene durch direktdemokratische Instrumente wie Bürgerbegehren und Bürgerentscheide zu beteiligen. Daneben bestehen insbesondere auf kommunaler Ebene auch noch zahlreiche andere Formen und Instrumente der Bürgerbeteiligung.

Kommunalpolitische Politikbereiche

Kommunalverfassungsfragen und die Grundstrukturen der Kommunalen Finanzpolitik werden durch Gesetze der Länder geregelt. Auch die Grundbedingungen anderer kommunalpolitischer Fachbereiche werden durch Landes-, Bundes- und zum Teil auch EU-Recht vorgegeben. Innerhalb dieser Rahmen können die Gemeinden alle Angelegenheiten der örtlichen Gemeinschaft selbst regeln.

Zu den Schwerpunkten der Kommunalpolitik innerhalb des rechtlichen Rahmens gehören vor allem die folgenden Querschnittsbereiche:
 Organisationshoheit (die Freiheit außerhalb von Pflichtausschüssen selbst zu entscheiden, welche Ausschüsse der Gemeindevertretung gebildet werden oder in welche Ämter, Abteilungen und Sachgebiete die Verwaltung unterteilt wird)
 Personalhoheit
 Kommunale Finanzpolitik (die Freiheit über die Finanzierung in eigenen Angelegenheiten selbst entscheiden zu können)

Die wesentlichen sachpolitischen Wirkungsbereiche sind die:
 Kommunale Baupolitik (Beschlussfassung über den Flächennutzungsplan und die Bebauungspläne, Festlegung von Sanierungsgebieten)
 Kommunale Bildungspolitik (Bereitstellung von Gebäuden, nichtpädagogischen Personal und Sachmitteln, sowie von zusätzlichen Betreuungsangeboten im Rahmen der Schulträgerschaft)
 Kommunale Energiepolitik
 Kommunale Familienpolitik
 Kommunale Gesundheitspolitik (Öffentlicher Gesundheitsdienst, Krankenhausträgerschaft)
 Kommunale Kulturpolitik
 Kommunale Jugendpolitik (Kindertagespflege und Kindertagesstätten, Jugendarbeit, Jugendschutz)
 Kommunale Sicherheits- und Ordnungspolitik (Brandschutz, Katastrophenschutz, Überwachung des ruhenden Verkehrs)
 Kommunale Sozialpolitik (Unterstützung freier Träger von Selbsthilfegruppen und bei Beratungsangeboten, Sozialhilfe)
 Kommunale Sportpolitik (Bereitstellung von Sportstätten, ggf. gegen Sportstättennutzungsentgelte, Zuschüsse für Sportvereine und -verbände)
 Kommunale Umweltpolitik (Grünflächenpflege, Trägerschaft für Friedhöfe)
 Kommunale Verkehrspolitik (Planung, Bau und Unterhaltung von Kreis- und Gemeindestraßen, Straßenwidmung und Umwidmungen von Verkehrsflächen, ggf. Öffentlicher Personennahverkehr (ÖPNV))
 Kommunale Ver- und Entsorgungspolitik (Trinkwasserversorgung, Abfallentsorgung, Abwasserentsorgung)
 Kommunale Wirtschaftspolitik (zum Beispiel: Erschließung und Bereitstellung von Gewerbeflächen, Märkte, Einzelhandelskonzepte, Tourismusförderung, ggf. Hafenbetrieb)
Einige der vorgenannten Politikbereiche sind den Landkreisen und den kreisfreien Städten, gelegentlich auch den großen kreisangehörigen Städten vorbehalten.

Gewalt gegen Kommunalpolitiker
Das Thema der Gewalt gegen Kommunalpolitiker erreichte spätestens seit dem Mordfall Walter Lübcke die deutschen Medien. Das deutsche Magazin KOMMUNAL führte diesbezüglich Umfragen bei Kommunalpolitikern durch, die von Medien wie der Tagesschau und der Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung aufgegriffen wurden. Bei der letzten Umfrage im März 2020 gaben 64 % der Befragten an, bereits beleidigt, beschimpft, bedroht oder angegriffen worden zu sein. In Kommunen mit über 5.000 Einwohner steigt der Grad auf 70 % und darüber hinaus.

Siehe auch

 Landespolitik
 Kommunalrecht (Deutschland), Kommunaler Spitzenverband, Kommunale Aufgabenstruktur
 Cross-Border-Leasing, Privatisierung, Öffentlich-private Partnerschaft
 Die nationalsozialistische Gemeinde

Literatur
 Siegfried Frech: Kommunalpolitik. Politik vor Ort Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2018. ISBN 978-3-17-032393-3.
 Andreas Kost, Hans-Georg Wehling (Hrsg.): Kommunalpolitik in den deutschen Ländern. Eine Einführung. 2. aktualisierte und überarbeitete Auflage, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-17007-7.
 Hans-Georg Wehling: Kommunalpolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (= Beiträge zur Zeitgeschichte. Bd. 17). Colloquium-Verlag, Berlin 1986, ISBN 3-7678-0620-7.

Weblinks
 Kommunalpolitische Infothek der Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung
 Kommunalweb (strukturierte Linkliste zur Kommunalpolitik des Deutschen Instituts für Urbanistik)
 Kommunalwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität Potsdam

Einzelnachweise

Wikipedia:Artikel mit Video


text:
Andrzej Raj (ur. 25 listopada 1950 w miejscowości Uniejów-Kolonia) – polski polityk i przedsiębiorca, poseł na Sejm I kadencji.

Życiorys
Ukończył w 1973 studia na Politechnice Śląskiej. Prowadzi firmę z zakresu doradztwa i pośrednictwa.

W 1991 z listy Kongresu Liberalno-Demokratycznego został wybrany na posła na Sejm I kadencji w okręgu katowickim. W trakcie kadencji przeszedł do Partii Konserwatywnej, następnie działał w Koalicji Konserwatywnej. Od 2002 do 2006 był radnym Katowic z ramienia lokalnego komitetu wyborczego Piotra Uszoka, w 2006 bezskutecznie ubiegał się o reelekcję.

Jest działaczem licznych organizacji gospodarczych, a także fundatorem Fundacji dla Śląska.

Bibliografia
 Strona sejmowa posła I kadencji

Absolwenci Politechniki Śląskiej
Politycy Kongresu Liberalno-Demokratycznego
Politycy Koalicji Konserwatywnej
Politycy Partii Konserwatywnej (Polska)
Posłowie na Sejm III Rzeczypospolitej
Radni Katowic
Urodzeni w 1950


text:
Kenneth Mang-Kwong Low () is a Chinese-Fijian businessman and political leader. He unsuccessfully contested the parliamentary election of 1999 as a candidate for the General Voters Party (GVP) for the Western Central (General Electors) Communal Constituency.  He also lost the Fiji national elections in 2001 for the Suva City (General Electors) Communal Constituency, where he was the candidate of the Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua (SDL), but was appointed to the Senate as one of nine nominees of the Fijian Prime Minister, and became Vice-President of the Senate on 28 February 2005, the first Chinese-Fijian to do so, following the appointment of the previous Vice-President, Dr Ahmed Ali to a Government Cabinet position.

Family background
According to Low, he was born in Chongqing, China at the end of World War II and came to Fiji at the age of 10. He is a third generation Sino-Fijian with his grandfather Low Fong arriving in Fiji in 1908. Low's father Low Kum-Tim, came with his family to Fiji from Hong Kong in 1955 as a school teacher in the Lautoka Chinese School. In Hong Kong, Low Kum-Tim and his two partners, Chiang Yu-Loong and Ma Kok-Yu operated the "Green Sea Farm" for 5 years after leaving mainland China. The farm had received government awards for being the best and most progressive chicken farm, and Low Kum-Tim had published 3 books on "Diseases of Chicken and the cure" during this time from experience in raising chicken commercially.

Low Kum-Tim was an artist in traditional chinese painting of the Chinese grand master Qi BaiShi school, and had held many exhibitions in the Fiji Arts Club in the 1960s together with Sec-Poy Fong, managing director of On Wah Chang, Suva. In June 1966, Low's parents and brothers migrated to the United States and lived in New York City. Low Kum-Tim continued his passion for painting in NYC and had held several exhibitions in New York and Philadelphia. He died in 1993 after battling Parkinson's disease for almost 20 years.

Education
In 1966, Low left Fiji to study architecture at the University of New South Wales. After graduating in 1970, he remained in Sydney and commenced private practice in architecture from 1974. He was also a registered Gold Licensed Builder in N.S.W. from 1978. Low taught Architecture and Construction at the Sydney College of Technical and Further Education from 1976–1978. Whilst teaching, he also completed his Diploma in Education in 1978.

Low returned to Fiji in 1983 and set up his private practice in architecture and construction until the 1987 coup. He then returned to Sydney and undertook construction contracts. But in 1991, Low again returned to Fiji, to practise architecture and also as a property developer and investor.

Low, who is the founder (1994) and President of the All Chinese Business Association of Fiji, worked to promote trade directly between Fiji and China.

Senatorial service
During his time as Senator, Low supported indigenous Fijian dominance. He also joined much of the Fiji-born Chinese community in calling for a crackdown on illegal immigration (mainly from mainland China) which he said was detrimental to the local-born Chinese and the Chinese reputation as a whole.  He alleged in the Senate on 8 November 2005 that corrupt immigration officials in Fiji were granting Fijian citizenship and visas to illegal Chinese immigrants, for financial and sexual favours, and called for a full inquiry into what was going on.

Career after politics
Low retired from the Senate in June 2006 and did not participate in the 2006 national elections.

Low is now actively promoting and fostering better relationships between Fiji and China. Today, Low remains the Chairman of Board of Directors, and is the current Manager of the Lautoka Chinese School. In 2003–2004, Low increased the number of classrooms and upgraded the school hall.

References

Ethnic minority members of the Senate (Fiji)
Chinese emigrants to Fiji
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Fijian people of Chinese descent
Businesspeople from Chongqing
University of New South Wales alumni
Fijian expatriates in Australia
Fijian businesspeople
Fijian architects
Politicians from Suva
Politicians from Chongqing


text:
Groovebox è il quarto album del gruppo sudcoreano Ahn Trio. È stato pubblicato il 22 ottobre 2002.

L'album
Musicalmente l'album si presenta come un seguito del precedente Ahn-Plugged, con maggiori influenze dal crossover. Come il precedente, infatti, Groovebox contiene sia brani di musica contemporanea (qui composti da Maurice Jarre, Michael Nyman e Kenji Bunch; quest'ultimo, compagno di studi delle sorelle Ahn alla Juilliard School, compose un'opera appositamente per il trio, Swing Shift) che di generi più popolari (in questo caso il blues, con la famosissima Riders on the Storm dei Doors come brano d'apertura).

Per la prima volta nella loro carriera, compare un brano originale del trio: Lullabye, che chiude l'album.

Lista tracce
 Riders on the Storm (Jim Morrison, Robby Krieger, Ray Manzarek, John Densmore) – 5:36
 Yellow Beach (Michael Nyman) – 6:58
 The Engadiner Suite: Summer (Maurice Jarre) – 6:55
 The Engadiner Suite: Autumn (Jarre) – 5:59
 The Engadiner Suite: Winter (Jarre) – 6:28
 The Engadiner Suite: Spring (Jarre) – 5:27
 Milonga del Angel (Jarre, Ástor Piazzolla) – 4:26
 Swing Shift: Prelude (Kenji Bunch) – 2:21
 Swing Shift: Night Flight (Bunch) – 5:08
 Swing Shift: Interhour (Bunch) – 2:44
 Swing Shift: Club Crawl (Bunch) – 7:11
 Swing Shift: Magic Hour (Bunch) – 2:22
 Swing Shift: Grooveboxes (Bunch) – 8:03
 Lullabye  (Ahn Trio) – 4:36

Formazione
 Lucia Ahn – pianoforte
 Angella Ahn – violino
 Maria Ahn – violoncello

Collegamenti esterni


text:
Solar geoengineering, or solar radiation modification (SRM), is a type of climate engineering in which sunlight (solar radiation) would be reflected back to outer space to limit human-caused climate change. It is not a substitute for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but would act as a temporary measure to limit warming while emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced and carbon dioxide is removed. The most studied methods of SRM are stratospheric aerosol injection and marine cloud brightening.

Solar geoengineering appears able to prevent some or much of climate change temperature increases. Climate models consistently indicate that it is capable of returning global, regional, and local temperatures and precipitation closer to pre-industrial levels. Solar geoengineering's principal advantages are the speed with which it could be deployed and become active and the reversibility of its direct climatic effects, although the latter varies depending on method, with some concerns raised over stratospheric aerosol injection.

Proposed methods of solar geoengineering may be atmospheric, terrestrial, or space-based. Stratospheric aerosol injection appears technically feasible and inexpensive in terms of direct financial costs, though still out of reach for individuals, small states, or other non-state rogue actors; it would instead be the exclusive domain of large national economies or coalitions including at least one such economy. Space-based propositions are only theoretical, being too expensive and infeasible to implement in the next few decades.

Solar geoengineering would not directly reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus does not address ocean acidification caused by high levels of atmospheric CO2. Solar geoengineering's excessive and/or poorly distributed use, or sudden and sustained termination, could pose serious environmental risks. Other negative impacts are possible and more research is required to thoroughly address such impacts. Governing solar geoengineering is challenging for multiple reasons, including that few countries would likely be capable of doing it alone.

Overview
Solar geoengineering (SG) increases Earth's ability to deflect sunlight, e.g., by increasing the albedo of the atmosphere or the surface. While reducing average temperature, it would not address ocean acidification. SG is claimed to be able to take effect rapidly and inexpensively. The effects of any project disappear quickly unless sustained, making their direct effects effectively reversible. The US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine stated in a 2021 report: "The available research indicates that SG could reduce surface temperatures and potentially ameliorate some risks posed by climate change (e.g., to avoid crossing critical climate "tipping points"; to reduce harmful impacts of weather extremes)."

Solar geoengineering methods include:

 Stratospheric aerosol injection, in which small particles of e.g., sulfur dioxide would be injected into the upper atmosphere.
 Marine cloud brightening, which would spray fine sea water to whiten clouds and thus increase cloud reflectivity.
 Cirrus cloud thinning, which is strictly not solar geoengineering but shares many of the physical and especially governance characteristics as the other methods.

Solar geoengineering requires relatively large scale implementation in order to impact the Earth's climate. The least costly proposals are estimated at tens of billions of US dollars annually in direct deployment costs.

Means of operation
Averaged over the year and location, the Earth's atmosphere receives 340 W/m2 of solar irradiance from the sun. Due to elevated atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, the net difference between the amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth and the amount of energy radiated back to space has risen from 1.7 W/m2 in 1980, to 3.1 W/m2 in 2019. This imbalance - called radiative forcing - means that the Earth absorbs more energy than it lets off, causing global  temperatures to rise. The goal of solar geoengineering would be to reduce radiative forcing by increasing Earth's albedo (reflectivity). An increase by about 1% of the incident solar radiation would be sufficient to eliminate current radiative forcing and thereby global warming, while a 2% albedo increase would roughly halve the effect of doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. However, because warming from greenhouse gases and cooling from solar geoengineering operate differently across latitudes and seasons, this counter-effect would be imperfect.

Potential roles
Solar geoengineering is almost universally intended to complement, not replace, greenhouse gas emissions reduction, carbon dioxide removal (those two together are called "mitigation"), and adaptation efforts. For example, the Royal Society stated in its landmark 2009 report: "Geoengineering methods are not a substitute for climate change mitigation, and should only be considered as part of a wider package of options for addressing climate change." Such statements are very common in solar geoengineering publications.

Solar geoengineering's speed of effect gives it two potential roles in managing risks from climate change. First, if mitigation and adaptation continue to be insufficient, and/or if climate change impacts are severe due to greater-than-expected climate sensitivity, tipping points, or vulnerability, then solar geoengineering could reduce these unexpectedly severe impacts. In this way, the knowledge to implement solar geoengineering as a backup plan would serve as a sort of risk diversification or insurance. Second, solar geoengineering could be implemented along with aggressive mitigation and adaptation in order "buy time" by slowing the rate of climate change and/or to eliminate the worst climate impacts until net negative emissions reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. (See diagram.)

Solar geoengineering has been suggested as a means of stabilizing regional climates - such as limiting heat waves, but control over the geographical boundaries of the effect appears very difficult.

History
The 1965 landmark report "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment" by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Science Advisory Committee warned of the harmful effects of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel and mentioned "deliberately bringing about countervailing climatic changes," including "raising the albedo, or reflectivity, of the Earth." As early as 1974, Russian climatologist Mikhail Budyko suggested that if global warming ever became a serious threat, it could be countered with airplane flights in the stratosphere, burning sulfur to make aerosols that would reflect sunlight away. Along with carbon dioxide removal, solar geoengineering was discussed jointly as "geoengineering" in a 1992 climate change report from the US National Academies. The topic was essentially taboo in the climate science and policy communities until Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen published an influential scholarly paper in 2006. Major reports by the Royal Society (2009) and the US National Academies (2015, 2021) followed. Total research funding worldwide remains modest, less than 10 million US dollars annually. Almost all research into solar geoengineering has to date consisted of computer modeling or laboratory tests, and there are calls for more research funding as the science is poorly understood. Major academic institutions, including Harvard University, have begun research into solar geoengineering, though with few outdoor tests yet run. The Degrees Initiative is a UK registered charity, established to build capacity in developing countries to evaluate solar geoengineering. The 2021 US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report recommended an initial investment into solar geoengineering research of $100–$200 million over five years. In May 2022, the Climate Overshoot Commission was launched to recommend a comprehensive strategy to reduce climate risk which includes sunlight reflection methods in its policy portfolio, and will issue a final report prior to the 2023 UN Climate Change Conference.

Evidence of effectiveness and impacts

Climate models consistently indicate that a moderate magnitude of solar geoengineering would bring important aspects of the climate - for example, average and extreme temperature, water availability, cyclone intensity - closer to their preindustrial values at a subregional resolution. (See figure.)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in its Sixth Assessment Report:.... SRM could offset some of the effects of increasing GHGs on global and regional climate, including the carbon and water cycles. However, there would be substantial residual or overcompensating climate change at the regional scales and seasonal time scales, and large uncertainties associated with aerosol–cloud–radiation interactions persist. The cooling caused by SRM would increase the global land and ocean CO2 sinks, but this would not stop CO2 from increasing in the atmosphere or affect the resulting ocean acidification under continued anthropogenic emissions. It is likely that abrupt water cycle changes will occur if SRM techniques are implemented rapidly. A sudden and sustained termination of SRM in a high CO2 emissions scenario would cause rapid climate change. However, a gradual phase-out of SRM combined with emission reduction and CDR would avoid these termination effects.The 2021 US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report states: "The available research indicates that SG could reduce surface temperatures and potentially ameliorate some risks posed by climate change (e.g., to avoid crossing critical climate 'tipping points'; to reduce harmful impacts of weather extremes)."

Solar geoengineering would imperfectly compensate for anthropogenic climate changes. Greenhouse gases warm throughout the globe and year, whereas solar geoengineering reflects light more effectively at low latitudes and in the hemispheric summer (due to the sunlight's angle of incidence) and only during daytime. Deployment regimes could compensate for this heterogeneity by changing and optimizing injection rates by latitude and season.

In general, greenhouse gases warm the entire planet and are expected to change precipitation patterns heterogeneously, both spatially and temporally, with an overall increase in precipitation. Models indicate that solar geoengineering would compensate both of these changes but would do more effectively for temperature than for precipitation. Therefore, using solar geoengineering to fully return global mean temperature to a preindustrial level would overcorrect for precipitation changes. This has led to claims that it would dry the planet or even cause drought, but this would depend on the intensity (i.e. radiative forcing) of solar geoengineering. Furthermore, soil moisture is more important for plants than average annual precipitation. Because solar geoengineering would reduce evaporation, it more precisely compensates for changes to soil moisture than for average annual precipitation. Likewise, the intensity of tropical monsoons is increased by climate change and decreased by solar geoengineering. A net reduction in tropical monsoon intensity might manifest at moderate use of solar geoengineering, although to some degree the effect of this on humans and ecosystems would be mitigated by greater net precipitation outside of the monsoon system. This has led to claims that solar geoengineering "would disrupt the Asian and African summer monsoons," but the impact would depend on the particular implementation regime.

People are concerned about climate change largely because of its impacts on people and ecosystems. In the case of the former, agriculture is particularly important. A net increase in agricultural productivity from elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and solar geoengineering has also been predicted by some studies due to the combination of more diffuse light and carbon dioxide's fertilization effect. Other studies suggest that solar geoengineering would have little net effect on agriculture. Understanding of solar geoengineering's effects on ecosystems remains at an early stage. Its reduction of climate change would generally help maintain ecosystems, although the resulting more diffuse incoming sunlight would favor undergrowth relative to canopy growth.

Advantages
The target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved through a combination of emission cuts and carbon dioxide removal, after which global warming stops, but the temperature will only go back down if we remove more carbon dioxide than we emit. Solar geoengineering on the other hand could cool the planet within months after deployment, thus can act to reduce climate risk while we cut emissions and scale up carbon dioxide removal.  Stratospheric aerosol injection is expected to have low direct financial costs of implementation, relative to the expected costs of both unabated climate change and aggressive mitigation. Finally, the direct climatic effects of solar geoengineering are reversible within short timescales.

Limitations and risks
As well as the imperfect cancellation of the climatic effect of greenhouse gases, described above, there are other significant problems with solar geoengineering.

Incomplete solution to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations

Solar geoengineering does not remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and thus does not reduce other effects from these gases, such as ocean acidification. While not an argument against solar geoengineering per se, this is an argument against reliance on it to the exclusion of emissions reduction.

Uncertainty
Most of the information on solar geoengineering comes from climate models and volcanic eruptions, which are both imperfect analogues of stratospheric aerosol injection. The climate models used in impact assessments are the same that scientists use to predict the impacts of anthropogenic climate change. Some uncertainties in these climate models (such as aerosol microphysics, stratospheric dynamics, and sub-grid scale mixing) are particularly relevant to solar geoengineering and are a target for future research. Volcanoes are an imperfect analogue as they release the material in the stratosphere in a single pulse, as opposed to sustained injection. Modelling is uncertain as little practical research has been done.

Maintenance and termination shock
Solar geoengineering effects would be temporary, and thus long-term climate restoration would rely on long-term deployment until sufficient carbon dioxide is removed. If solar geoengineering masked significant warming, stopped abruptly, and was not resumed within a year or so, the climate would rapidly warm. Global temperatures would rapidly rise towards levels which would have existed without the use of solar geoengineering. The rapid rise in temperature might lead to more severe consequences than a gradual rise of the same magnitude. However, some scholars have argued that this termination shock appears reasonably easy to prevent because it would be in states' interest to resume any terminated deployment regime; and because infrastructure and knowledge could be made redundant and resilient, allowing states to act on this interest and gradually phase out unwanted solar geoengineering.

Some claim that solar geoengineering "would basically be impossible to stop." This is true only of a long-term deployment strategy. A short-term, temporary strategy would limit implementation to decades.

Disagreement and control
Although climate models of solar geoengineering rely on some optimal or consistent implementation, leaders of countries and other actors may disagree as to whether, how, and to what degree solar geoengineering be used. This could result in suboptimal deployments and exacerbate international tensions.

Some observers claim that solar geoengineering is likely to be militarized or weaponized. However, weaponization is disputed because solar geoengineering would be imprecise. Regardless, the U.N. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, which prohibits weaponizing solar geoengineering, came into force in 1978.

Unwanted or premature use
There is a risk that countries may start using solar geoengineering without proper precaution or research. Solar geoengineering, at least by stratospheric aerosol injection, appears to have low direct implementation costs relative to its potential impact. This creates a different problem structure. Whereas the provision of emissions reduction and carbon dioxide removal present collective action problems (because ensuring a lower atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is a public good), a single country or a handful of countries could implement solar geoengineering. Many countries have the financial and technical resources to undertake solar geoengineering.

David Victor suggests that solar geoengineering is within the reach of a lone "Greenfinger," a wealthy individual who takes it upon him or herself to be the "self-appointed protector of the planet". Others disagree and argue that states will insist on maintaining control of solar geoengineering.

Distribution of effects
Both climate change and solar geoengineering would affect various groups of people differently. Some observers describe solar geoengineering as necessarily creating "winners and losers." However, models indicate that solar geoengineering at a moderate intensity would return important climatic values of almost all regions of the planet closer to preindustrial conditions. That is, if all people prefer preindustrial conditions, such a moderate use could be a Pareto improvement.

Developing countries are particularly important, as they are more vulnerable to climate change. All else equal, they therefore have the most to gain from a judicious use of solar geoengineering. Observers sometimes claim that solar geoengineering poses greater risks to developing countries. There is no evidence that the unwanted environmental impacts of solar geoengineering would be significantly greater in developing countries, although potential disruptions to tropical monsoons are a concern. But in one sense, this claim of greater risk is true for the same reason that they are more vulnerable to greenhouse gas-induced climate change: developing countries have weaker infrastructure and institutions, and their economies rely to a greater degree on agriculture. They are thus more vulnerable to all climate changes, whether from greenhouse gases or solar geoengineering.

Lessened mitigation
The existence of solar geoengineering may reduce the political and social impetus for mitigation. This has generally been called a potential "moral hazard," although risk compensation may be a more accurate term. This concern causes many environmental groups and campaigners to be reluctant to advocate or discuss solar geoengineering. However, several public opinion surveys and focus groups have found evidence of either assertions of a desire to increase emission cuts in the face of solar geoengineering, or of no effect. Likewise, some modelling work suggests that the threat of solar geoengineering may in fact increase the likelihood of emissions reduction.

Effect on sky and clouds
Managing solar radiation using aerosols or cloud cover would involve changing the ratio between direct and indirect solar radiation. This would affect plant life and solar energy. Visible light, useful for photosynthesis, is reduced proportionally more than is the infrared portion of the solar spectrum due to the mechanism of Mie scattering.  As a result, deployment of atmospheric solar geoengineering would reduce by at least 2-5% the growth rates of phytoplankton, trees, and crops  between now and the end of the century. Uniformly reduced net shortwave radiation would hurt solar photovoltaics by the same >2-5% because of the bandgap of silicon photovoltaics.

Proposed forms

Atmospheric

Stratospheric aerosol injection

Injecting reflective aerosols into the stratosphere is the proposed solar geoengineering method that has received the most sustained attention. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that Stratospheric aerosol injection "is the most-researched SRM method, with high agreement that it could limit warming to below 1.5°C." This technique would mimic a cooling phenomenon that occurs naturally by the eruption of volcanoes. Sulfates are the most commonly proposed aerosol, since there is a natural analogue with (and evidence from) volcanic eruptions. Alternative materials such as using photophoretic particles, titanium dioxide, and diamond have been proposed. Delivery by custom aircraft appears most feasible, with artillery and balloons sometimes discussed. The annual cost of delivering a sufficient amount of sulfur to counteract expected greenhouse warming is estimated at $5 to 10 billion US dollars. This technique could give much more than 3.7 W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to entirely offset the warming caused by a doubling of carbon dioxide.

Marine cloud brightening

Various cloud reflectivity methods have been suggested, such as that proposed by John Latham and Stephen Salter, which works by spraying seawater in the atmosphere to increase the reflectivity of clouds. The extra condensation nuclei created by the spray would change the size distribution of the drops in existing clouds to make them whiter. The sprayers would use fleets of unmanned rotor ships known as Flettner vessels to spray mist created from seawater into the air to thicken clouds and thus reflect more radiation from the Earth. The whitening effect is created by using very small cloud condensation nuclei, which whiten the clouds due to the Twomey effect.

This technique can give more than 3.7 W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.

Cirrus cloud thinning

Natural cirrus clouds are believed to have a net warming effect. These could be dispersed by the injection of various materials. This method is strictly not solar geoengineering, as it increases outgoing longwave radiation instead of decreasing incoming shortwave radiation. However, because it shares some of the physical and especially governance characteristics as the other solar geoengineering methods, it is often included.

Ocean sulfur cycle enhancement

Enhancing the natural marine sulfur cycle by fertilizing a small portion with iron—typically considered to be a greenhouse gas remediation method—may also increase the reflection of sunlight. Such fertilization, especially in the Southern Ocean, would enhance dimethyl sulfide production and consequently cloud reflectivity. This could potentially be used as regional solar geoengineering, to slow Antarctic ice from melting. Such techniques also tend to sequester carbon, but the enhancement of cloud albedo also appears to be a likely effect.

Terrestrial

Cool roof

Painting roof materials in white or pale colors to reflect solar radiation, known as 'cool roof' technology, is encouraged by legislation in some areas (notably California). This technique is limited in its ultimate effectiveness by the constrained surface area available for treatment. This technique can give between 0.01 and 0.19 W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, depending on whether cities or all settlements are so treated. This is small relative to the 3.7 W/m2 of positive forcing from a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Moreover, while in small cases it can be achieved at little or no cost by simply selecting different materials, it can be costly if implemented on a larger scale. A 2009 Royal Society report states that, "the overall cost of a 'white roof method' covering an area of 1% of the land surface (about 1012 m2) would be about $300 billion/yr, making this one of the least effective and most expensive methods considered." However, it can reduce the need for air conditioning, which emits carbon dioxide and contributes to global warming.

Ocean and ice changes
Oceanic foams have also been suggested, using microscopic bubbles suspended in the upper layers of the photic zone. A less costly proposal is to simply lengthen and brighten existing ship wakes.

Arctic sea ice formation could be increased by pumping deep cooler water to the surface. Sea ice (and terrestrial) ice can be thickened by increasing albedo with silica spheres. Glaciers flowing into the sea may be stabilized by blocking the flow of warm water to the glacier. Salt water could be pumped out of the ocean and snowed onto the West Antarctic ice sheet.

Vegetation
Reforestation in tropical areas has a cooling effect. Changes to grassland have been proposed to increase albedo. This technique can give 0.64 W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is insufficient to offset the 3.7 W/m2 of positive forcing from a doubling of carbon dioxide, but could make a minor contribution. Selecting or genetically modifying commercial crops with high albedo has been suggested. This has the advantage of being relatively simple to implement, with farmers simply switching from one variety to another. Temperate areas may experience a 1 °C cooling as a result of this technique. This technique is an example of bio-geoengineering. This technique can give 0.44 W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is insufficient to offset the 3.7 W/m2 of positive forcing from a doubling of carbon dioxide, but could make a minor contribution.

Space-based

Space-based solar geoengineering projects are seen by most commentators and scientists as being very expensive and technically difficult, with the Royal Society suggesting that "the costs of setting in place such a space-based armada for the relatively short period that solar geoengineering may be considered applicable (decades rather than centuries) would likely make it uncompetitive with other solar geoengineering approaches."

Several authors have proposed dispersing light before it reaches the Earth by putting a very large diffraction grating (thin wire mesh) or lens in space, perhaps at the L1 point between the Earth and the Sun. Using a Fresnel lens in this manner was proposed in 1989 by J. T. Early, and a diffraction grating in 1997 by Edward Teller, Lowell Wood, and Roderick Hyde. In 2004, physicist and science fiction author Gregory Benford calculated that a concave rotating Fresnel lens 1000 kilometers across, yet only a few millimeters thick, floating in space at the  point, would reduce the solar energy reaching the Earth by approximately 0.5% to 1%. He estimated that this would cost around US$10 billion up front, and another $10 billion in supportive cost during its lifespan. One issue would be the need to counteract the effects of the solar wind moving such megastructures out of position. Mirrors orbiting around the Earth are another option.

Already in the years 1923, 1929, 1957 and 1978 the physicist Hermann Oberth another space mirror concept in his books. Its feasibility is also in question because of the many unanswered questions about the technology and the risks of influencing the climate.

In 1923, Hermann Oberth described his space mirrors with a diameter of 100 to 300 km in his book "Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen"(The Rocket to the Planetary Spaces), which are said to consist of a grid network of individually adjustible facets.
Space mirrors in orbit around the earth, as designed by Hermann Oberth, are intended to focus sunlight on indiviual regions oft he earth's surface or deflect it into space so that the solar radiation is weakened in a specifically controlled manner for individual regions on the earth's surface.

It is therefore not a question oft he weakening oft he solar radiation on the entire exposed surface oft he earth, as would be the case when considering the establishment of shading areas at Lagrange point between the sun and the earth.

These giant mirrors in orbit could be used to illuminate individual cities, as a mens of protection against natural disasters, to control weather and climate, to create addional living space for tens of billions of people, Hermann Oberth writes. The fact that one could influence the trajectories of he barometric high and low pressure areas with these spatial mirrors seemed most important to Oberth.

Further publications followed, in which he took into account the technical progress achieved up to that point: 1929 "Ways to Spaceflight", 1957 "Menschen im Weltraum. Neue Projekte für Raketen- und Raumfahrt" (People in Space. New Projects for Rocket and Space) and 1978 "Der Weltraumspiegel" (The Space Mirror).
For cost reasons, Hermann Oberth's concept envisages that the components on the moon  should be produced from lunar minerals, because ist lower gravitational pull requires less energy to launch the components into lunar orbit. In addition, the earth's atmosphere is not burdened by many rocket launches. From the lunar surface, the components would be launched into the lunar orbit by an electromagnetic lunar slingshot and "stacked" at a 60° libration point. From there, the components could be tranported into orbit with the electric spaceships he had designed with litle recoil, and there they would be assembled into mirrors with a diameter of 100 to 300 km.

Hermann Oberth pointed out that these mirrors could also be used as a weapon. This circumstance als well as the complexity of this project could only make these mirrors a reality as a peace project of mankind.

Governance
Solar geoengineering poses several governance challenges because of its high leverage, low apparent direct costs, and technical feasibility as well as issues of power and jurisdiction. Solar geoengineering does require widespread engagement with community and stakeholders, not to incur in a multitude of challenges and barriers to the research, testing and deployment of novel technology. Because international law is generally consensual, this creates a challenge of participation that is the inverse of that of mitigation to reduce climate change, where widespread participation is required. Discussions are broadly on who will have control over the deployment of solar geoengineering and under what governance regime the deployment can be monitored and supervised. A governance framework for solar geoengineering must be sustainable enough to contain a multilateral commitment over a long period of time and yet be flexible as information is acquired, the techniques evolve, and interests change through time.

Legal and regulatory systems may face a significant challenge in effectively regulating solar geoengineering in a manner that allows for an acceptable result for society. Some researchers have suggested that building a global agreement on solar geoengineering deployment will be very difficult, and instead power blocs are likely to emerge. There are, however, significant incentives for states to cooperate in choosing a specific solar geoengineering policy, which make unilateral deployment a rather unlikely event.

In 2021, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine released their consensus study report Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance, concluding:

Public attitudes and politics

There have been a handful of studies into attitudes to and opinions of solar geoengineering. These generally find low levels of awareness, uneasiness with the implementation of solar geoengineering, cautious support of research, and a preference for greenhouse gas emissions reduction. As is often the case with public opinions regarding emerging issues, the responses are highly sensitive to the questions' particular wording and context. Although most public opinion studies have polled residents of developed countries, those that have examined residents of developing countries—which tend to be more vulnerable to climate change impacts—find slightly greater levels of support there.

There are many controversies surrounding this topic and hence, solar geoengineering has become a very political issue. No countries have an explicit government position on solar geoengineering.

Support for solar geoengineering research comes almost entirely from those who are concerned about climate change. Some observers claim that political conservatives, opponents of action to reduce climate change, and fossil fuel firms are major advocates of solar geoengineering research. However, only a handful of conservatives and opponents of climate action have expressed support, and there is no evidence that fossil fuel firms are involved in solar geoengineering research. Instead, these claims often conflate solar geoengineering and carbon dioxide removal—where fossil fuel firms are involved—under the broader term "geoengineering."

Some environmental groups have endorsed solar geoengineering research while others are opposed.

As noted, the interests and roles of developing countries are particularly important. The Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative works toward "expanding an informed international conversation about SRM research and its governance, and building the capacity of developing countries to evaluate this controversial technology." Among other activities, it provides grants to researchers in the Global South.

In 2021, researchers at Harvard were forced to put plans for a solar geoengineering test on hold after Indigenous Sámi people objected to the test taking place in their homeland. Although the test would not have involved any immediate atmospheric experiments, members of the Saami Council spoke out against the lack of consultation and solar geoengineering more broadly. Speaking at a panel organized by the Center for International Environmental Law and other groups, Saami Council Vice President Åsa Larsson Blind said, "This goes against our worldview that we as humans should live and adapt to nature."

See also

 Climate engineering
 Cloud seeding
 Passive daytime radiative cooling
 Weather Modification Operations and Research Board

References

Further reading
The Royal Society. "Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty." London: The Royal Society, 2009.
Hulme, Mike. Can Science Fix Climate Change? A Case Against Climate Engineering. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2014.
National Research Council. Climate Intervention: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth. Washington: National Academies Press, 2015.
Reynolds, Jesse L. The Governance of Solar Geoengineering: Managing Climate Change in the Anthropocene. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
Burns, Lizzie, David Keith, Joshua Horton, and Peter Irvine. Technology Factsheet: Solar Geoengineering, 2019.
Kurzgesagt. Geoengineering: A Horrible Idea We Might Have to Do, 2020.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reflecting Sunlight: Recommendations for Solar Geoengineering Research and Research Governance. Washington: National Academies Press, 2021.

Climate change policy
Planetary engineering
Climate engineering


text:
During the Middle Ages, Medieval Europe was engaged in constant warfare. European warfare during the Middle Ages was marked by a transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics, and the role of cavalry and artillery. In addition to military, tactical and technological innovations during this period, chivalric military and religious ideals arose, giving motivation for engagement in the ceaseless warfare. In the Iberian Peninsula (particularly in Spain or future Spanish territories), chivalric ideals and institutions would be adopted and exercised with more fervour than anywhere else.

Early Spanish chivalry

Chivalry, or chivalric codes of manners and proper military engagement, is believed to have arrived in the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th century, in the context of the Reconquista. This was when Frankish knights, who were willing to fight the Muslim invaders of Iberia prior to the Crusades, appeared to protect pilgrims flocking to what was believed to be the tomb of the apostle James in Galicia. St. James himself was known and celebrated in Christianity as 'the slayer of the Moors', and the discovery of his body by Christians has been considered an igniting factor of the Reconquista. The Reconquista had begun under Alfonso II (791–842) and would last nearly 700 years as Christians attempted to drive Muslims out of the Iberian Peninsula. However, the in-statement of chivalric knightly orders and the chivalric ideals and codes of conduct weren't present on the Iberian Peninsula until almost the second century of the Reconquista. In the context of the Reconquista, and the close proximity of Christian and Muslim populations, the atmosphere for the development of Knightly Orders was ripe, and in the subsequent centuries, chivalry flourished in Spain to a greater extent than in other Christian states.

Chivalry in medieval Spain cannot be understood outside of the context of the military orders of knighthood. Historians are conflicted as to whether Spanish knights were directed more by royalty (such as the king of Castile or the king of Aragon), or by the Papacy. But there seems to be a consensus that the knights had obligations to both and an overarching allegiance to the Church, as both were in direct contact with knights (and often royalty were themselves, knights and crusaders). Some scholars have suggested that the later Spanish military Orders, like that at the fortress of Calatrava, pledged their loyalty primarily to their Kingdom, in this case Castile, but orders like the Templars or Hospitallers were more independent and not necessarily loyal to any kingdom consistently.

The uniqueness of Spanish chivalry

The Iberian Peninsula had multiple factors contributing to the strong chivalric ethos exemplified by Spanish knights. One determinate factor to the strong adoption of chivalric orders in Spain is the Reconquista, in which Christian kingdoms attempted to expel Muslims from the peninsula. The greatest foes of the Spanish knights were Muslims, who were not an imagined enemy but one deeply entrenched in reality and not as distant as the infidel, or enemy, was for the knights of France or Germany. In other Christian kingdoms, the fighting was initially waged between Christians of different kingdoms, and as such was more debated and contested within Christian circles. However, in Spain, the Christian knights and kingdoms were engaged with what was almost acknowledged as a foe to Christianity, and this common enemy had some role in uniting Christian kingdoms in the cause of the Crusades and Reconquista.
In the 12th and 13th century, most of the prominent Spanish knightly orders were formed. The early formation of the orders was dangerous and unstable. In Calatrava, in the mid-12th century, Castilian knights established a fortress, which would later be abandoned due to the threat of a Muslim attack. Within fifty years, a fort of the Order of Calatrava was rebuilt and became a fortified monastic community.

The prominence of knightly orders in the political and military realms of the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula fluctuated with the crusader zeal of the kingdoms' rulers; however, their power was not exclusively tied to the Crusader Kings. For instance, Ferdinand III of Castile's reign facilitated the rise of more Spanish orders because of the desire in the kingdom, led by the king, to crusade against the Moors.

After the death of Ferdinand III, Castile was relatively peaceful and the morale of the orders was undermined. In this period of peace between the orders and the Muslims, mercenaries were hired to replace and assist knights in their fighting, Masters of the Orders were no longer religiously appointed, and civil war was waged between Christian knights with conflicting loyalties.

By this time chivalry was influenced by the fictional prowesses of chivalry romances.
Knight Suero de Quiñones and his friends, in summer 1434, maintained a  () jousting as an homage to his future wife in 166 combats against pilgrim knights that attempted to cross a bridge on Saint James's Way.

The decline of knightly orders in Spain is debatable. Some historians have attributed the fall of chivalry and knightly orders to Miguel de Cervantes, because he "smiled Spain's chivalry away" with his satirical novel Don Quixote (published in two parts, 1605 and 1615). Others have suggested that chivalry's decline was due to the expulsion of the Muslims in 1492, or the centralization of political power under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. Once the Moors were expelled, the four orders were perceived as  powerful subjects and it became a priority for the Crown to gain control over them – particularly at a time when the Crown was struggling to establish its central authority. If one subscribes to this latter view (the earlier fall of chivalry and knightly orders at the end of the 15th century), then clearly Cervantes did not so much contribute to that event, as to document (at the beginning of the 17th century) its prior occurrence, a point that is central to Don Quixote, that this decline had already occurred at the time of Quixote's adventures.

The Spanish kings had frequently obtained the election of close connections of their families as Masters of the Orders and at Calatrava in 1489, Santiago in 1494, and Alcántara in 1495, the administration of the three Magisteries were ultimately granted to King Ferdinand of Aragón, as Sovereign of Aragón and King-Consort of Castille. Finally, by the Bull Dum intra of Pope Adrian VI dated 4 May 1523, the perpetual administration' of the three orders was transferred to "Charles I (the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V), King of Spain, and his heirs and successors…"

Later incarnations of Spanish chivalry

After the Reconquista and the loss of their prominence, Spanish orders would find a new role as an elite corps of the nobility, maintaining their castles and estates as commanderies to provide incomes for those who had distinguished themselves in the service of the monarch. The succeeding centuries saw the rise of the Spanish Empire, and the chivalric ideals of the knights transcended and reappeared in the guise of the conquistadors in the New World. "The rewards for the conquistador were similar to those of his medieval predecessor, the reconquistador: land to conquer, people to convert to Christianity, and glory or fame. The one major difference was that the conquistadors and reconquistadores were real people who also sought wealth whereas the knight-errant of the romances was a fictional creature indifferent to material gain. Bernal Díaz de Castillo, a soldier who took part in the conquest of Mexico, put the conquistador's objective succinctly: 'we came here to serve God and the king and also to get rich'".

Spanish chivalric literature

El Cid

El Cantar de Myo Çid ( El Poema de Myo Çid or Mio Cid, known as The Song of my Lord, known in English as The Lay of the Cid and The Poem of the Cid) is the oldest preserved Spanish epic poem. Based on a true story, it tells of the Spanish hero El Cid, and takes place during the Reconquista. "The protagonist of the poem is the historical Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (1045–1099), also known as Cid (a dialectal form of the Arabic word sayyid, 'lord' or 'master') and Campeador ('Battler' or 'Victor'). The poem begins with the departure of Rodrigo from his home in Vivar, the first of two exiles of Rodrigo decreed by Alfonso VI, king of Castile and Leon (1065–1109). In the poem, this first exile (1081) and the second (1089) are conflated and lead to the Cid's military campaigns in the Spanish Levant, culminating in the Cid's conquest of the Moorish kingdom of Valencia (1094). Here, Rodrigo will remain with his wife and children as an independent prince until the end of his life."

Amadís de Gaula

The original author is anonymous, perhaps from Portugal.
It was first printed in 1508 by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.
It is a chivalric romance linked to the Matter of Britain.
The main character fights across several European realms, gets mad in courtly love for his lady and is persecuted by a wizard.
The book had several sequels and translations into European languages.

Don Quixote

Don Quixote is a novel written by Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes. Published in two volumes in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age in the Spanish literary canon.

"A Spanish knight, about fifty years of age, who lived in great poverty in a village of La Mancha, gave himself up so entirely to reading the romances of chivalry, of which he had a large collection, that in the end they turned his brain, and nothing would satisfy him but that he must ride abroad on his old horse, armed with spear and helmet, a knight-errant, to encounter all adventures, and to redress the innumerable wrongs of the world. He induced a neighbour of his, a poor and ignorant peasant called Sancho Panza, mounted on a very good ass, to accompany him as squire. The knight saw the world only in the mirror of his beloved romances; he mistook inns for enchanted castles, windmills for giants, and country wenches for exiled princesses. His high spirit and his courage never failed him, but his illusions led him into endless trouble. In the name of justice and chivalry he intruded himself on all whom he met, and assaulted all whom he took to be making an oppressive or discourteous use of power. He and his poor squire were beaten, trounced, cheated, and ridiculed on all hands, until in the end, by the kindliness of his old friends in the village, and with the help of some new friends who had been touched by the amiable and generous character of his illusions, the knight was cured of his whimsies and was led back to his home in the village, there to die."

Prominent knightly orders of Spain

Order of Calatrava – was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on 26 September 1164.

Order of Santiago – (or the Order of Saint James of Compostela) was founded in the 12th century, and owes its name to the national patron of Spain, Santiago (St. James the Greater), under whose banner the Christians of Galicia and Asturias began in the 9th century to combat and drive out the Muslims.

Order of Alcántara – also called the Knights of St. Julian, was originally a military order of León, founded in 1166 and confirmed by Pope Alexander III in 1177.

Order of Montesa – was dedicated to Our Lady, and based at Montesa, Valencia. Pope John XXII approved it on 10 June 1317, and gave it the Cistercian rule.

See also

Spanish military orders
Spanish Empire
History of Spain
Military history of Spain
Reconquista
Crusades
Religious war
Chivalry
Marca Hispanica

References

Bibliography

Prestage, Edgar, Chivalry. Stephan Austin & Sons Ltd. 1928

Warrior code
Medieval Spain
Military history of Spain
Reconquista
Chivalry


text:
Мелецкая управа — инородная управа, выделенная из Кызыльской Степной думы в самостоятельную административную единицу в составе двух административных родов: Мелецкий I половины, Мелецкий II половины (1835).

Население её именовалось «мелецкими татарами». К концу XIX века мелецкие татары перешли на оседлый образ жизни, говорили только по-русски, жили в основном русским крестьянским бытом и перемешались с русским местным населением.

Впоследствии территория Мелецкой управы вошла в состав русских волостей Ачинского уезда Енисейской губернии.

Литература

 Ярилов А. А. Мелецкие инородцы. Юрьев, 1899;
 Потапов Л. П. Происхождение и формирование хакасской народности. Абакан, 1957.

История Хакасии
История Сибири


text:
Kentucky Camp is a ghost town and former mining camp along the Arizona Trail in Pima County, Arizona, United States, near the community of Sonoita. The Kentucky Camp Historic District is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and has been since 1995. As it is located within Coronado National Forest, the United States Forest Service is responsible for the upkeep of the remaining buildings within the Kentucky Camp Historic District.

History
A freak accident that killed a mining engineer allowed Kentucky Camp to persist as it is today, a scenic canyon dotted with mesquites, oaks, tall grasses and cacti. The plans for the Kentucky Camp area in the realm of gold mining were ambitious but never really came to fruition.

Early days
In 1874 gold was discovered on the eastern slope of the Santa Rita Mountains. The area became known as the Greaterville mining district and proved to be one of the richest placer deposits in southern Arizona. Placer deposits consist of a mixture of gold, sand and gravel; to separate the substances, water is required. Generally, water is readily available to wash the mixture of sand, gravel, and gold. However, the arroyos of the Santa Rita Mountains are dry. Miners were required to haul the sacks of dirt to the few running streams in the area. Sometimes they would carry packed water, in canvas and goatskin bags, on the backs of burros to their claims. By 1886, much of the rich deposits that were worth such an effort were worked out and many miners gave up and moved on.

In 1902 a California mining engineer, James Stetson, had an idea to solve the water problem. His scheme involved channeling seasonal runoff from the mountain streams into a reservoir that would hold enough water to last ten months allowing him to keep a mine in operation. Stetson was able to convince a wealthy Californian, George McAneny (not to be confused with New Yorker George McAneny), to invest in his plan and with other investors from Tucson they formed the Santa Rita Water and Mining Company. The pair prospected the area of Greaterville and finally settled on a mining site in Boston Gulch. The headquarters was set up at nearby Kentucky Gulch and from 1902 until 1906, the buildings at Kentucky Camp served as the offices and residences for the mine employees.

By mid-1904, the company's water system was complete and they were doing hydraulic mining at Kentucky Camp.

The fall of a camp and engineer
One day before a meeting with stockholders in 1905 tragedy befell Stetson. He was killed in a fall from a window at the Santa Rita Hotel in Tucson. His partner's finances and health deteriorated and despite the effort of the other partners to keep the operation going, Kentucky Camp was abandoned by 1912.

The town after 1912
The buildings and land were purchased by an attorney for the McAneny family and until the 1960s the lands were used as a cattle ranch. During the 1960s the land was sold to ANAMAX Mining. The Forest Service acquired the land in 1989 and added it to the Coronado National Forest. The Forest Service is currently working with volunteers and others to preserve and interpret Kentucky Camp as a historic site related to mining in the American west.

Kentucky Camp today

The town was acquired by the U.S. Forest Service in 1989 through a land exchange. Since that time, it has been part of the Coronado National Forest and is being preserved and interpreted for a look at mining camp life.

Buildings
Today there are five adobe buildings at the town site. They were constructed circa 1904 and the largest building was probably the headquarters for the Santa Rita Water and Mining Company. Later, that same large building became the main ranch house as the land was used for cattle ranching. The small building behind the headquarters building was used to process gold samples, evidenced by liners that came from an assay furnace. Opposite a small house where Stetson may have lived are the remains of a ruined barn and another small adobe house remains at the far end of the site.

Preservation
Historic preservation has been underway at Kentucky Camp since 1991. The Forest Service has worked to stabilize the remaining buildings, including repairing roofs and walls in hopes of preventing further deterioration. Much of the work has been done by volunteers under the auspices of the Forest Service's Passport In Time program and the Friends of Kentucky Camp.

When the USFS acquired the property the buildings were in bad shape. The roofs had to be repaired first to keep water run off from contacting the crumbling adobe walls. The project was made possible by a $10,000 donation from the producers of the 1989-1992 TV show The Young Riders, which happened to be shooting in the area.

As of 2005 the Forest Service planned to restore the buildings to their original appearance during the mining era.

Gallery

See also

 Empire Ranch
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Pima County, Arizona

Notes

External links

 Friends of Kentucky Camp
 Kentucky Camp on ghosttowns.com
 Kentucky Camp – Ghost Town of the Month at azghosttowns.com

Ghost towns in Arizona
Former populated places in Pima County, Arizona
History of Pima County, Arizona
Buildings and structures in Pima County, Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Pima County, Arizona
Tourist attractions in Pima County, Arizona
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
Coronado National Forest
Populated places on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
1902 establishments in Arizona Territory
Populated places established in 1902


text:
Néferkarê VI Pépiseneb est un ancien souverain égyptien du début de la Première Période intermédiaire et placé par la plupart des égyptologues comme membre de la . En tant que tel, le siège du pouvoir de Néferkarê Pépiseneb était Memphis et il ne détenait probablement pas le pouvoir sur toute l'Égypte.

Attestations

Il n'y a pas d'attestation contemporaine de ce roi.

Nouvel Empire

Néferkarê Pépiseneb est présent dans deux listes royales datées du Nouvel Empire. La première liste est la liste d'Abydos dans laquelle le roi est cité à la  sous le nom de Néferkarê Pépiseneb. La seconde liste est le Canon royal de Turin dans lequel le roi est cité à la position 5.8 sous le nom de Néferka Kheredseneb.

Nom

L'épithète Khered donnée à Néferkarê Pépiseneb dans le Canon royal de Turin signifie enfant ou jeune. Par conséquent, Néferka Kheredseneb se traduit de diverses façons par Néferka l'enfant est en bonne santé ou Néferka le jeune est en bonne santé.

Plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancées par des égyptologues concernant cet épithète. Hratch Papazian propose que le fait que le roi ait été appelé Khered sur le canon de Turin fait allusion à son jeune âge lors de son accession au trône. Darell Baker et Kim Ryholt proposent aussi que l'épithète Khered soit le résultat d'une erreur du copiste qui a écrit le canon de Turin, confondant Pépiseneb avec Kheredseneb, car les formes hiératiques de Pépi et khered peuvent se ressembler si elles sont endommagées. Ainsi cette erreur pourrait être due aux dommages qui ont été causés au document plus ancien duquel le canon était copié à l'époque du Nouvel Empire.

Une autre hypothèse expliquant Khered que Ryholt juge plus probable est que cette épithète est dans ce contexte synonyme de Pépi. En effet, le Pépi de Pépiseneb pourrait être  Néferkarê, dernier grand pharaon de l'Ancien Empire. De plus, ce pharaon, dont on se souviendra sans doute si bien après son règne, accéda au trône sans doute encore enfant. Ryholt propose donc que l'enfant (Khered) mentionné dans le nom de Néferkarê Pépiseneb sur le Canon royal de Turin soit . En outre, le nom de Nesout-bity de  était Néferkarê, donc Néferkarê Khered Seneb et Néferkarê Pépi Seneb pouvaient tous se référer à  et signifier  est en bonne santé. Cette hypothèse est peut-être justifiée par le signe divin déterminant (signe Gardiner G7) attaché à l'épithète Khered sur le Canon royal de Turin. Ceci est normalement réservé aux noms des rois et des dieux et pourrait indiquer que l'épithète Khered était comprise comme faisant référence à un pharaon spécifique.

Titulature

Notes et références

Index égyptologique
Pharaon de la VIIIe dynastie égyptienne


text:
est un film musical américain réalisé par Anthony Mann, sorti en 1956.

Synopsis
Damon Vincente, un Italo-américain avec une belle voix de ténor, quitte le ramassage du raisin dans les vignobles californiens pour passer une audition au restaurant Lardelli, à San Francisco, où plusieurs ténors connus ont débuté. Il y rencontre Kendall Hale, une riche et belle héritière...

Fiche technique
 Titre original :
 Réalisation : Anthony Mann
 Scénario : Ivan Goff, Ben Roberts, John Twist, d'après le roman homonyme de James M. Cain
 Direction artistique : Edward Carrere
 Décors : William Wallace
 Costumes : Howard Shoup
 Photographie : J. Peverell Marley
 Son : Robert B. Lee, Dolph Thomas
 Montage : William Ziegler
 Musique originale : Nicholas Brodszky
 Production : Henry Blanke
 Société de production : Warner Bros.
 Société de distribution : Warner Bros.
 Pays d'origine :
 Langue originale : anglais
 Format : couleur (Warnercolor) — 35 mm — 1,66:1 — son Mono (RCA Sound System)
 Genre : Drame, romance et film musical
 Durée : 121 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
  :
  :

Distribution
 Mario Lanza : Damon Vincenti
 Joan Fontaine : Kendall Hale
 Sarita Montiel : Juana Montès
 Vincent Price : Charles Winthrop
 Joseph Calleia : Le professeur Marcatello
 Harry Bellaver : Tonio
 Frank Puglia : Manuel Montès
 Vince Edwards : Marco Roselli
 Stephen Bekassy : Russell Hanson

Bande originale
 "Serenade" et "My Destiny" : musique de Nicholas Brodszky, paroles de Sammy Cahn
 "Torna a Surriento", paroles et musique d'Ernesto de Curtis
 "Ave Maria" de Franz Schubert
 "Lamenti di Frederico", extrait de l'opéra L'Arlesiana de Francesco Cilea, livret de Leopoldo Marenco
 la prière de l'Acte 3, scène 4, et "Dio Ti Giocondi", extraits de l'opéra Otello de Giuseppe Verdi, livret d'Arrigo Boito
 "Di Quella Pira", extrait de l'opéra Il Trovatore de Giuseppe Verdi, livret de Salvadore Cammarano
 aria extraite de l'opéra Der Rosenkavalier de Richard Strauss, livret de Hugo von Hofmannsthal
 "O Paradiso", extrait de l'opéra L'Africaine de Giacomo Meyerbeer, livret d'Eugène Scribe
 "Nessun Dorma", extrait de l'opéra Turandot de Giacomo Puccini, livret de Giuseppe Adami et Renato Simoni
 "O Soave Fanciulla", extrait de l'opéra La Bohème de Giacomo Puccini, livret de Giuseppe Giacosa et Luigi Illica
 "Amor Ti Vieta", extrait de l'opéra Fedora d'Umberto Giordano, livret d'Arturo Colautti
 "Il Mio Tesoro", extrait de l'opéra Don Giovanni de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, livret de Lorenzo Da Ponte

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 1956
Film musical dramatique américain
Film musical romantique américain
Film romantique des années 1950
Film musical des années 1950
Film réalisé par Anthony Mann
Film de Warner Bros
Film tourné au Mexique
Film se déroulant au Mexique
Film se déroulant en Californie
Film se déroulant à New York
Film musical américain des années 1950