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La Radiació dels dispositius sense fils i salut de les antenes contingudes als telèfons mòbils, inclosos els telèfons intel·ligents, emeten radiació de radiofreqüència (RF) ("ones de ràdio" no ionitzants com ara microones); les parts del cap o del cos més properes a l'antena poden absorbir aquesta energia i convertir-la en calor. Des dels anys 90, els científics han estudiat si la radiació omnipresent ara associada a les antenes de telefonia mòbil o a les torres de telefonia mòbil afecta la salut humana. Les xarxes de telefonia mòbil utilitzen diverses bandes de freqüència de radiofreqüència, algunes de les quals coincideixen amb la gamma de microones. Altres sistemes sense fils digitals, com les xarxes de comunicació de dades, produeixen radiacions similars.

En resposta a la preocupació pública, l'Organització Mundial de la Salut va establir el Projecte EMF Internacional el 1996 per avaluar l'evidència científica dels possibles efectes sobre la salut de l'EMF en el rang de freqüències de 0 a 300 GHz. Han afirmat que, tot i que s'ha realitzat una àmplia investigació sobre possibles efectes de l'exposició sobre la salut a moltes parts de l'espectre de freqüències, totes les revisions realitzades fins ara han indicat que, sempre que les exposicions estiguin per sota dels límits recomanats a les directrius del FEM ICNIRP (1998), que cobreixen tot el rang de freqüències entre 0–300 GHz, aquestes exposicions no produeixen cap efecte advers per a la salut conegut. L'any 2011, l'Agència Internacional per a la Recerca sobre el Càncer (IARC), una agència de l'Organització Mundial de la Salut, va classificar la radiació sense fils com a Grup 2B - possiblement cancerígen. Això vol dir que hi podria haver "algun risc" de cancerigen, de manera que cal dur a terme una investigació addicional sobre l'ús pesat de dispositius sense fil a llarg termini. L'OMS afirma que "S'han realitzat un gran nombre d'estudis durant les dues darreres dècades per avaluar si els telèfons mòbils presenten un risc potencial per a la salut. Fins ara, no s'ha establert efectes negatius per a la salut com a causats per l'ús del telèfon mòbil".

Les directrius internacionals sobre nivells d'exposició a EMFs de freqüència de microones com ICNIRP limiten els nivells de potència dels dispositius sense fils i és rar que els dispositius sense fils superin les directrius. Aquestes directrius només tenen en compte els efectes tèrmics, ja que els efectes no tèrmics no han estat demostrats de manera concloent. La posició oficial de l'Agència Britànica de Protecció de la Salut (HPA) és que "[T] aquí no hi ha proves coherents que la WiFi i les WLAN afectin negativament la salut de la població en general", però també que "... és una sensació enfocament de precaució ... per mantenir la situació sota revisió ... ". En una declaració de 2018, la FDA va dir que "els límits de seguretat actuals estan previstos per incloure un marge de seguretat per 50 vegades dels efectes observats de l'exposició d'energia a radiofreqüència".

Exposició

Telèfons mòbils
Un telèfon mòbil es connecta a la xarxa telefònica mitjançant ones de ràdio intercanviades amb una antena local i un transceptor automàtic anomenat estació base cel·lular (lloc cel·lular o torre cel·lular). L'àrea de servei que ofereix cada proveïdor està dividida en petites zones geogràfiques anomenades cel·les, i tots els telèfons d'una cel·la es comuniquen amb l'antena d'aquest. Tant el telèfon com la torre disposen de transmissors de ràdio que es comuniquen entre ells. Com que en una xarxa cel·lular es reutilitzen els mateixos canals de ràdio cada poques cèl·lules, les xarxes cel·lulars utilitzen transmissors de baixa potència per evitar que les ones de ràdio d'una cel·lula es vessin i interfereixin amb una cèl·lula propera amb les mateixes freqüències.

Els telèfons mòbils es limiten a una sortida de potència radiada isotròpica (EIRP) equivalent de 3 watts i la xarxa ajusta contínuament el transmissor del telèfon a la potència més baixa en consonància amb una bona qualitat de senyal, reduint-la fins a un mili de vat quan es troba prop de la torre de la cel·la. Els transmissors de canals torre solen tenir una potència EIRP d'uns 50 watts. Fins i tot quan no s'utilitza, tret que estigui desactivat, un telèfon mòbil emet de forma periòdica senyals de ràdio al seu canal de control, per mantenir el contacte amb la torre cel·lular i per a funcions com l'enviament del telèfon a una altra torre si l'usuari passa a una altra. cel·la Quan l'usuari realitza una trucada, el telèfon transmet un senyal en un segon canal que porta la veu de l'usuari. Les xarxes 2G, 3G i 4G existents utilitzen freqüències en UHF o bandes de microones baixes, de 600 MHz a 3,5 GHz. Molts dispositius sense fil domèstics com ara xarxes WiFi, obertors de portes de garatge i monitors per a nadons utilitzen altres freqüències en aquest mateix rang de freqüència.

Les ones de ràdio disminueixen ràpidament en intensitat pel quadrat invers de distància a mesura que s'estenen des d'una antena de transmissió. De manera que el transmissor del telèfon, que es manté a prop de la cara de l'usuari quan parla, és una font d'exposició humana molt més gran que l'emissor torre, que es troba normalment a almenys centenars de metres de l'usuari. Un usuari pot reduir la seva exposició mitjançant un audiòfon i mantenint el telèfon més lluny del seu cos.

Les xarxes mòbils 5G de propera generació, que van començar a implementar-se el 2019, utilitzen freqüències més altes a la banda d'ona del mil·límetre o a prop, entre 24 i 52 GHz. Les ones mil·límetres són absorbides pels gasos atmosfèrics de manera que les xarxes 5G utilitzaran cèl·lules més petites que les xarxes cel·lulars anteriors, aproximadament de la mida d'un bloc de ciutat. En lloc d'una torre de cèl·lules, cada cel·la utilitzarà una sèrie de múltiples antenes petites muntades en edificis existents i pals d'utilitat. En general, les ones mil·límetres penetren menys profundament al teixit biològic que les microones i s'absorbeixen principalment dins del primer centímetre de la superfície del cos.

Telèfons sense fil
L'HPA també diu que a causa de la capacitat d'adaptació del telèfon mòbil, la radiació d'un telèfon sense fil DECT podria sobrepassar la radiació d'un telèfon mòbil. L'HPA explica que, mentre que la radiació del telèfon sense fil DECT té una potència de sortida mitjana de 10 mW, en realitat és en forma de 100 ràfegues per segon de 250 mW, una potència comparable a alguns telèfons mòbils.

Xarxa sense fils
La majoria dels equips de LAN sense fil estan dissenyats per funcionar amb estàndards predefinits. Els punts d'accés sense fils també solen estar a prop de les persones, però l'abandonament del poder sobre la distància és ràpid, seguint la llei del quadrat invers. Tanmateix, els ordinadors portàtils sense fil s'utilitzen generalment a prop de la gent. La connexió WiFi havia estat anecdòticament vinculada a la hipersensibilitat electromagnètica, però la investigació sobre la hipersensibilitat electromagnètica no ha trobat cap evidència sistemàtica que doni suport a les afirmacions fetes pels pacients.

Els usuaris de dispositius de xarxa sense fils solen estar exposats durant períodes molt més llargs que per als telèfons mòbils i la força dels dispositius sense fil no és significativament menor. Mentre que un telèfon del sistema de telecomunicacions mòbils universals (UMTS) pot variar des de 21 dBm (125 mW) per a la classe de potència de 4 a 33 dBm (2W) per a la classe 1 de potència, un encaminador sense fils pot variar des d'una potència típica de 15 dBm (30 mW) fins 27 dBm (500 mW) a la part alta.

Tanmateix, els encaminadors sense fils es localitzen generalment més lluny dels capçals dels usuaris que un telèfon que l'usuari manipula, resultant en una exposició molt menor. L'Agència de Protecció de la Salut (HPA) diu que si una persona passa un any en un lloc amb un punt calent WiFi, rebrà la mateixa dosi d'ones de ràdio que si haguessin fet una trucada de 20 minuts en un telèfon mòbil.

La posició de l'HPA és que "les exposicions de radiofreqüència (RF) de WiFi són probablement inferiors a les dels telèfons mòbils". També va veure "... cap raó per la qual les escoles i altres no haurien d'utilitzar equips WiFi."  A l'octubre de 2007, l'HPA va llançar un nou estudi "sistemàtic" sobre els efectes de les xarxes WiFi en nom del govern del Regne Unit, a per calmar les pors que havien aparegut als mitjans de comunicació en un període recent fins aquest moment ". Michael Clark, de l'HPA, assegura que les investigacions publicades sobre telèfons mòbils i pals no s'aconsegueixen a una acusació de WiFi.

Efectes estudiats

Barrera hematoencefàlica
Una revisió del 2010 va afirmar que "El balanç de l'evidència experimental no admet l'efecte dels camps de freqüència de ràdio 'no tèrmics' sobre la permeabilitat de la barrera hematoencefàlica, però va assenyalar que la investigació sobre efectes i freqüències de baixa freqüència en humans era escassa. Un estudi del 2012 sobre radiacions de baixa freqüència sobre humans no va trobar "cap evidència d'efectes aguts de la radiació de telefonia mòbil a curt termini sobre el flux de sang cerebral".

Càncer
L'any 1980, la Comissió de Servei Públic de l'Estat de Nova York va encarregar al Dr. David Savitz que estudiés els efectes produits pels camps electromagnètics dels cables normals. 5 anys i mig milió de dòlars més tard, el Dr. Savitz va concluïr que al menys un 20% dels càncers en nens de les zones estudiades, es devien a la exposició de camps de 3 miligauss dels cables elèctrics. El seu estudi va demostrar que aquests camps no només afavoreixen el càncer, sinó que també inhibeixen la producció d'importants neurohormones del cervell, trastornant el comportament i minant la capacitat d'aprenentatge. En un radi de 15 metres al voltant dels cables elèctrics estàndard als EUA, el camp magnètic és d'una potència de 100 miligauss (més de 30 cops la magnitud de cables que el Dr. Savitz va associar amb el càncer infantil. La Comissió de Servei Públic va declarar segur un camp magnètic de fins a 100 miligauss, al·legant que el públic ja havia acceptat aquest risc per la salut.
L'Institut Nacional del Càncer dels Estats Units assenyala que "l'energia de radiofreqüència, a diferència de la radiació ionitzant, no produeix danys a l'ADN que pot provocar càncer. El seu únic efecte biològic observat constantment en humans és l'escalfament de teixits. En estudis sobre animals no s'ha trobat que causar càncer o millorar els efectes cancerígens coneguts dels cancerígens químics ". La majoria dels estudis humans no han pogut trobar un vincle entre l'ús del telèfon mòbil i el càncer. El 2011, l'IARC, grup de treball de l'Organització Mundial de la Salut, va classificar l'ús del telèfon mòbil com a "possiblement cancerigen per a l'ésser humà". L'IARC va resumir la seva conclusió amb: "L'evidència epidemiològica humana es va barrejar. Diversos petits estudis de control inicial de casos es van considerar que eren en gran manera poc informatius. Un gran estudi de cohort no va mostrar un augment del risc de tumors rellevants, però mancava informació sobre el nivell de l'ús del telèfon mòbil i hi ha diverses fonts potencials de classificació errònia de l'exposició. La major part de les proves provenien d'informes de l'estudi INTERPHONE, un estudi internacional molt gran i multicèntric –control de casos i un gran estudi de control de casos de Suècia sobre gliomes i meningiomes del cervell i neuromes acústics Si bé afectats pel biaix de selecció i el biaix d'informació en diversos graus, aquests estudis van mostrar una associació entre glioma i neuroma acústic i l'ús del telèfon mòbil; específicament en persones amb major ús acumulatiu de telèfons mòbils, en persones que havien utilitzat telèfons mòbils al mateix costat del cap que el que va desenvolupar el seu tumor i en persones que tenien un tumor lòbul temporal del cervell (la zona del cervell que està més exposada a la radiació RF quan s'utilitza un telèfon sense fil a l'orella) "  El CDC afirma que cap evidència científica respon definitivament si l'ús del telèfon mòbil causa càncer.

En una declaració de 2018, l'Administració dels Aliments i Drogues dels Estats Units va dir que "els límits de seguretat actuals estan previstos per incloure un marge de seguretat per 50 vegades dels efectes observats de l'exposició energètica a la radiofreqüència".

L'1 de novembre de 2018, el Programa Nacional de Toxicologia dels Estats Units va publicar la versió final (després de la revisió entre pares que es va realitzar fins al març del 2018) del seu estudi "amb gran expectació" amb rates i ratolins, realitzat durant uns deu anys. Aquest informe conclou després de la revisió amb una declaració actualitzada que "hi ha evidències clares que les rates masculines exposades a alts nivells de radiació de radiofreqüència (RFR) com la que s'utilitzava en telèfons mòbils 2G i 3G van desenvolupar tumors de càncer cancerígens ... També hi havia Algunes evidències de tumors al cervell i a la glàndula suprarenal de rates masculines exposades. Per a rates femenines i ratolins masculins i femenins, l'evidència era equívoca de si s'associaven càncers observats amb l'exposició a RFR ".

Una anàlisi precoç dels resultats preliminars publicats pel Programa Nacional de Toxicologia havia indicat que per qüestions com l'aparició inconsistent de "senyals per danys" dins i entre espècies i la major possibilitat de falsos positius a causa de la multiplicitat de les proves, els resultats positius. més aviat és degut a l'atzar. Els resultats complets de l'estudi es van publicar per a la revisió entre iguals al febrer de 2018.

Infertilitat masculina
S'ha observat un descens de la qualitat de l'esperma masculí durant diverses dècades. Els estudis sobre l'impacte de la radiació mòbil en la fertilitat masculina són conflictius, i els efectes de la radiació electromagnètica de radiofreqüència (RF-EMR) emesa per aquests dispositius en els sistemes reproductors estan actualment en debat actiu. Una revisió del 2012 va concloure que "conjuntament, els resultats d'aquests estudis han demostrat que la RF-EMR disminueix el recompte d'espermatozoides i la motilitat i augmenta l'estrès oxidatiu".Un estudi realitzat el 2017 sobre 153 homes que van assistir a una clínica acadèmica de fertilitat a Boston, Massachusetts, va comprovar que l'ús de telèfons mòbils autoreal·lats no estava relacionat amb la qualitat del semen i que portar un telèfon mòbil a la butxaca dels pantalons no estava relacionat amb la qualitat del semen.

Hipersensibilitat electromagnètica
Alguns usuaris de telèfons mòbils i dispositius similars han denunciat sentir diversos símptomes no específics durant i després de l'ús. Els estudis no han pogut vincular cap d'aquests símptomes a l'exposició electromagnètica. A més, l'EHS no és un diagnòstic mèdic reconegut.

Metabolisme de la glucosa
Segons l'Institut Nacional del Càncer, dos petits estudis que exploraven si la radiació del telèfon mòbil afecta el metabolisme de la glucosa en el cervell van mostrar resultats incoherents.

Efectes sobre els nens
Un informe de l'Agència de Protecció contra la Radiació i Seguretat Nuclear del Govern d'Austràlia (ARPANSA) del juny de 2017 va assenyalar que:

L'agenda de recerca de l'OMS del 2010 va identificar la manca d'evidències suficients relacionades amb els nens i encara és així. ... atès que cap estudi prospectiu a llarg termini ha estudiat aquesta qüestió fins avui, aquesta necessitat de recerca segueix sent una prioritat elevada. En particular, pel càncer, només un estudi completat sobre control de casos que ha implicat quatre països europeus ha investigat l'ús del telèfon mòbil entre nens i adolescents i el risc de tumor cerebral; que no mostra cap associació entre els dos (Aydin et al. 2011). ... Tenint en compte aquesta poca informació sobre nens que utilitzen telèfons mòbils i càncer ... es necessiten més estudis epidemiològics.

Normes de seguretat i llicències
Per protegir la població que viu al voltant de les estacions base i els usuaris de telèfons mòbils, els governs i els organismes reguladors adopten normes de seguretat, que es tradueixen en límits d'exposició per sota d'un determinat valor. Hi ha moltes normes nacionals i internacionals proposades, però la de la Comissió Internacional de Protecció contra les Radiacions No Ionitzants (ICNIRP) és la més respectada i ha estat adoptada fins ara per més de 80 països. Per a les emissores de ràdio, l'ICNIRP proposa dos nivells de seguretat: un d'exposició laboral, un altre de població general. Actualment, hi ha esforços per harmonitzar els diferents estàndards existents.

Els procediments de llicència de bases de ràdio s'han establert a la majoria d'espais urbans regulats a nivell municipal / comarcal, provincial / estatal o nacional. Els proveïdors de serveis de telefonia mòbil tenen, en moltes regions, l'obtenció de llicències de construcció, proporcionen la certificació dels nivells d'emissió d'antenes i asseguren el compliment de les normes ICNIRP i / o d'altres legislació ambiental.

Molts organismes governamentals també requereixen que les empreses de telecomunicacions competidores intentin compartir les torres de manera que disminueixi l'impacte estètic i ambiental. Aquesta qüestió és un factor influent de rebuig a la instal·lació de noves antenes i torres a les comunitats.

Els estàndards de seguretat als Estats Units són establerts per la Comissió Federal de Comunicacions (FCC). La FCC ha basat els seus estàndards principalment en aquells estàndards establerts pel Consell Nacional de Protecció i Mesures de Radiació (NCRP), una organització científica organitzada al Congrés a la zona del WDC i l'Institut d'Enginyers Elèctrics i Electrònics (IEEE), concretament el Subcomitè 4 de la "Comitè Internacional de Seguretat Electromagnètica".

Suïssa ha establert límits de seguretat inferiors als límits de l'ICNIRP per a algunes "zones sensibles" (per exemple, aules).

El març de 2020, per primera vegada des de 1998, ICNIRP va actualitzar les seves directrius per a exposicions a freqüències superiors a 6 Ghz, incloses les freqüències utilitzades per a 5G que superen els 6 Ghz. La Comissió va afegir una restricció als nivells d'exposició acceptables a tot el cos, va afegir una restricció als nivells acceptables per a exposicions breus a petites regions del cos i va reduir la quantitat màxima d'exposició permesa sobre una petita regió del cos.

Precaucions

Principi de precaució
El 2000, l'Organització Mundial de la Salut (OMS) va recomanar que el principi de precaució es pogués adoptar voluntàriament en aquest cas. Segueix les recomanacions de la Comunitat Europea sobre riscos ambientals.

Segons l'OMS, el "principi de precaució" és "una política de gestió del risc aplicada en circumstàncies amb un alt grau d'incertesa científica, que reflecteix la necessitat de prendre mesures per a un risc potencialment greu sense esperar els resultats de la investigació científica". Altres enfocaments menys estrictes recomanats són el principi d'evitació prudent i tan baix com raonablement és possible. Tot i que totes aquestes són problemàtiques d'aplicació, a causa de l'ús generalitzat i la importància econòmica dels sistemes de telecomunicacions sense fils en la civilització moderna, hi ha una popularitat més gran d'aquestes mesures en el públic general, tot i que també s'evidencia que aquests enfocaments poden augmentar la preocupació. Inclouen recomanacions com la minimització de l'ús, la limitació d'ús per part de la població en situació de risc (per exemple, nens), l'adopció de telèfons i microcèl·lules amb uns nivells de radiació tan raonables com sigui possible, l'ús més ampli de mans lliures i auriculars. tecnologies com els auriculars Bluetooth, l'adopció d'estàndards màxims d'exposició, la intensitat del camp de radiofreqüència i la distància de les antenes de les estacions base de les habitacions humanes, etc. En general, la informació pública continua sent un repte, ja que s'evoca diverses conseqüències sobre la salut a la salut. literatura i mitjans de comunicació, sotmetent a les poblacions a una exposició crònica a informació potencialment preocupant.

Mesures de precaució i consells sobre salut
El maig de 2011, l'Agència Internacional per a la Recerca sobre el Càncer de l'Organització Mundial de la Salut va anunciar que classificava els camps electromagnètics dels telèfons mòbils i altres fonts com a "possiblement cancerígenes per als humans" i va aconsellar al públic que adopti mesures de seguretat per reduir l'exposició, com l'ús de les mans. dispositius gratuïts o missatges de text. Algunes autoritats d'assessorament contra la radiació nacional, incloses les d'Àustria, França, Alemanya, i Suècia, han recomanat mesures per minimitzar l'exposició als seus ciutadans. Exemples de les recomanacions són:

 Utilitzeu les mans lliures per disminuir la radiació al cap.
 Manteniu el telèfon mòbil lluny del cos.
 No utilitzeu telèfon en un cotxe sense antena externa.

L'ús de "mans lliures" no va ser recomanat per la British Consumers 'Association en un comunicat el novembre del 2000, ja que creien que augmentava l'exposició. No obstant això, les mesures per al (llavors) Departament de Comerç i Indústria del Regne Unit. i d'altres per a l'Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale [fr]  van mostrar reduccions substancials. El 2005, la professora Lawrie Challis i altres van dir que el fet de tallar una bola de ferrita en kits de mans lliures impedeix que les ones de ràdio vagin cap al fil i al cap.

Diverses nacions han aconsellat l'ús moderat dels telèfons mòbils per a nens. Una revista de Gandhi et al. el 2006 afirma que els nens reben nivells més alts de taxa d'absorció específica (SAR). Quan es comparen els nens de cinc i deu anys amb els adults, reben nivells SAR més propers al 153%. A més, a mesura que el cervell disminueix a mesura que envelleix i augmenta el volum relatiu del cervell creixent exposat en nens, la radiació penetra molt més enllà del centre del cervell.

Productes falsos
S'han anunciat productes que reclamen protegir les persones contra la radiació EM des dels telèfons mòbils; als Estats Units, la Comissió Federal de Comerç va publicar un advertiment que "els artistes estafadors segueixen els titulars per promoure productes que parlen de notícies i preses de persones interessades".

Segons la FTC, "no hi ha proves científiques que els anomenats escuts redueixen significativament l'exposició a les emissions electromagnètiques. Els productes que bloquegen només l'auricular -o una altra petita part del telèfon- són totalment ineficaços perquè tot el telèfon emet ones electromagnètiques". Aquests escuts "poden interferir amb el senyal del telèfon, provocar que tingui encara més poder per comunicar-se amb l'estació base i possiblement emeti més radiació." La FTC ha aplicat reclamacions publicitàries falses contra empreses que venen aquests productes.

Referències

Telefonia mòbil
Salut pública


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Callisia soconuscensis är en himmelsblomsväxtart som beskrevs av Eizi Matuda. Callisia soconuscensis ingår i släktet sköldpaddstuvor, och familjen himmelsblomsväxter. Inga underarter finns listade.

Källor

Sköldpaddstuvor
soconuscensis

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Шарвансо́ () — коммуна в Италии, располагается в автономном регионе Валле-д'Аоста.

Население составляет 2368 человек (2008 г.), плотность населения составляет 95 чел./км². Занимает площадь 25 км². Почтовый индекс — 11020. Телефонный код — 0165.

Покровительницей коммуны почитается святая Колумба из Санса (Colombe de Sens), празднование 31 декабря.

Демография
Динамика населения:

Галерея

Примечания

Ссылки
 Национальный институт статистики
 Национальный институт статистики


text:
HU-331 is a quinone anticarcinogenic drug synthesized from cannabidiol, a cannabinoid in the Cannabis sativa plant. It showed a great efficacy against oncogenic human cells. HU-331 does not cause arrest in cell cycle, cell apoptosis or caspase activation. HU-331 inhibits DNA topoisomerase II even at nanomolar concentrations, but has shown a negligible effect on the action of DNA topoisomerase I. The cannabinoid quinone HU-331 is a very specific inhibitor of topoisomerase II, compared with most known anticancer quinones. One of the main objectives of these studies is the development of a new quinone derived compound that produces anti-neoplastic activity while maintaining low toxicity at therapeutic doses.

Mechanism of action
Inhibitors of topoisomerases can act at two different levels. First inhibiting topoisomerase, which stabilize the topoisomerase-DNA complex and thus introduce DNA breaks in the wires that lead to apoptosis, then inhibiting the catalytic activity of topoisomerase, which hinders the activity of these enzymes without introducing breaks into the DNA chains. HU-331 seems to be a catalytic inhibitor of topoisomerase II, probably by enzymatic ligation to the protein. This molecule does not cause damage to DNA, but protects cells from damage, natural, or induced by other inhibitors of topoisomerase II that act as inhibitors of topoisomerase. Even when 60% of the target cells are killed by treatment with HU-331, other cells' nucleic content remains unharmed, with less breakage of DNA chains that control important cellular functions.

Doxorubicin, like other anticancer quinones, was used for chemotherapy in human cancers for many years. The mechanism of action of these drugs has been the subject of considerable controversy since chemotherapeutic drugs exert their cytotoxic effect on target cells by nonspecific mechanisms. The doxorubicin damages DNA by intercalation, the generation of reactive oxygen species and inhibition of DNA topoisomerase I and II. This leads to breaking the chains of DNA single and double strands. The protein associated with these ruptures are the topoisomerase II and DNA damage is catalyzed by this enzyme. Thus, while doxorubicin and other anthraquinones act through many mechanisms such as apoptosis, abrogation of the cell cycle cell, activation of caspases, generation of ROS, inhibition of both topoisomerases, activation of intracellular secondary messengers, etc. Hu-331 is more active and less toxic, since it generates reactive oxygen species in the heart and has a specific activity that gives great potential to develop as a new anticancer drug, according to Kogan et al.

Cannabinoids can act as anticancer compounds killing several oncogenic cells followed by direct interaction with cannabinoid receptors. The growth of glioma is inhibited by a selective activation of the CB2 cannabinoid receptor and endogenous cannabinoids such as anandamide inhibit the proliferation of cells involved in lung cancer. The reason behind the antitumor effect of HU-331 appears unknown as cannabinoid receptor antagonists do not inhibit HU-331, despite being mediated by a cannabinoid receptor. The HU-331 exerts an antiangiogenic effect accompanied by apoptosis of endothelial cells. Although in some studies. HU-331 has not caused the death of cells by oncogenic apoptosis. The conclusion that would lead cells to apoptosis based on treatment with the drug did not increase the proportion of cells containing DNA Lues in the sub-G1 phase and have not found the expression of caspase-3 in cancer cells.

Legal status

United States
HU-331 is not scheduled at the federal level in the United States.

Florida
"HU-331 (3-hydroxy-2-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1- methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione)" is a Schedule I controlled substance in the state of Florida making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Florida.

Wisconsin
"3-hydroxy-2-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dione, commonly known as HU-331" is a Schedule I controlled substance in the state of Wisconsin making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Wisconsin.

Hungary
HU-331 is included on the list of novel psychoactive substances (55/2014. [XII. 30.] EMMI rendelet) in Hungary.

See also
 HU-345
 HU-320
 HU-336

References

HU cannabinoids
Cyclohexenes
Hydroxybenzoquinones


text:
Die Jakobuskirche ist eine 1679/1723 erbaute barocke Saalkirche in Brunsbüttel. Sie gehört der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirchengemeinde Brunsbüttel innerhalb der Evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche in Norddeutschland.

Geschichte

Baugeschichte
In einer Urkunde des Hamburger Erzbischofs von 1140 sind für Dithmarschen sieben Kirchspiele genannt: Neben Meldorf, Weddingstedt, Tellingstedt, Süderhastedt, Lunden und Büsum auch Uthaven. Dieser Ort musste im 13. Jahrhundert infolge von Sturmfluten aufgegeben werden. Die genaue Lage dieses mittelalterlichen Kirchdorfs lässt sich nicht mehr rekonstruieren. Er lag vermutlich etwas südwestlich der heutigen Kirche.

Am 14. Juli 1286 wurde Brunesbutle zum ersten Mal erwähnt. Auch dieser dicht an der Elbe gelegene Ort litt unter den wiederholten Sturmfluten. Nachdem bereits mehrfach der Deich zurückversetzt und ganze Dörfer aufgegeben werden mussten, brach das Wasser kurz nach dem Überfall kaiserlicher Truppen im Dreißigjährigen Krieg bei einer Sturmflut 1629 direkt neben der Kirche durch Deich und Festungsmauer. 1656 wurde schließlich ein Teil und 1676 der gesamte Flecken ausgedeicht und die Einwohner wurden umgesiedelt. Ein neuer Friedhof wurde schon 1654 angelegt. Das Grundstück auf einer Warft, auf dem auch zwei Jahrzehnte später die Kirche gebaut werden sollte, schenkte der Kirchspielvogt Matthias Boie, der auf trockenem Land beigesetzt werden wollte. Nach dem Abriss der alten Kirche 1677 begann der Neubau, der von D. Sommer aus Stade nach dem Vorbild der 1653 fertiggestellten St.-Georg-Kirche von Oberndorf an der Oste gestaltet wurde. Die Kirche wurde am 16. November 1679 eingeweiht. Wie der Vorgängerbau war sie dem Apostel Jakobus geweiht. An den Bau, die Einweihung und Namen der verantwortlichen Vertreter des Kirchspiels und der Landschaft erinnert eine an der östlichen Außenwand angebrachte Sandsteintafel von 1684 mit einer Darstellung des Patronatsheiligen Jakobus als Pilger. Richard Haupt vermutete, dass die "gotisierende Kirche" dreischiffig war und ein steinernes Gewölbe besaß.

Diese Kirche, in die auch das mittelalterliche Inventar der alten Kirche, darunter mehrere gotische Schnitzaltäre, überführt wurde, war ebenfalls nicht sicher vor den Fluten: Mehrfach stand in den folgenden Jahrzehnten das Wasser in der Kirche. Am 12. November 1719 brannte sie nach einem Blitzeinschlag während des Gottesdienstes bis auf die Außenmauern nieder. Da die Gemeinde durch die Landverluste bei den Sturmfluten der vergangenen Jahrzehnte vollkommen verarmt war, dauerte es bis 1723, bis der Wiederaufbau unter Leitung des Itzehoer Zimmermanns Hans Peter Töpfer in Angriff genommen wurde. Zu den Baukosten von 14.900 Courantmark trug König Friedrich IV. als Landesherr von Süderdithmarschen mehr als 3000 Mark bei. Als Dank ließ die Gemeinde eine besonders prachtvolle Königsloge neben der Orgelempore errichten, die Friedrich IV. jedoch nie benutzte. Aus der Kirche des kurz zuvor abgerissenen Glückstädter Schlosses gelangten der Altar und die Orgel nach Brunsbüttel.

Pastoren und Gemeinde
Seit der Reformation hatte die Kirche meist zwei Prediger, einen Pastor und einen schlechter besoldeten Diakon, der nach dem Tod des Pastors häufig auf dessen Stelle aufrückte. Die ersten evangelischen Prediger waren 1524 Heinrich Dimmerbrock, der nach 1559 erster Superintendent im königlichen Teil von Dithmarschen wurde, und Magister Boethius Boje, der Bruder des Meldorfer Reformators Nicolaus Boje. Bojes Epitaph ist noch in der Kirche erhalten.

Durch Kriege und Fluten litt die Gemeinde sehr. 1629 kam es nicht nur zu verheerenden Überschwemmungen, sondern auch drei Prediger, Petrus Tezin, Petrus Zinghen und ihr Nachfolger Johannes Emichius, starben an der Pest. Nach ihnen kam der gelehrte Lambert Alard in die Gemeinde, der bis zu seinem Tod 1672 blieb. Johannes Wackerow, der ab 1640 Diakon und ab 1672 als Alards Nachfolger Pastor war, begleitete den Neubau der Kirche. Sein Name und der des 1679 angestellten Diakons Johannes Manecke stehen auf der 1684 zur Erinnerung an den Neubau angebrachten Tafel.

Nach der Weihnachtsflut 1717 und der Neujahrsflut 1721, als wieder einmal viel Land verlorengegangen war, und dem verheerenden Brand von 1719 war die Gemeinde so verarmt, dass der König Pastor Gabriel Baumann nach Esgrus versetzen ließ und den Diakon Jacob Pieper zum alleinigen Prediger ernannte. Für etwa dreißig Jahre war der Rektor der Stadtschule gleichzeitig zweiter Prediger.

Nach dem Bau des Nord-Ostsee-Kanals wurde die Kirchengemeinde Brunsbüttel 1910 geteilt. In Brunsbüttelkoog, das durch Zuzug stark anwuchs, wurde zunächst ein Pastorat mit Konfirmandensaal und 1915 die Pauluskirche errichtet. Die beiden ursprünglich unabhängigen Kirchengemeinden fusionierten in den 1970er Jahren, nachdem die Stadt Brunsbüttelkoog mit dem Ort Brunsbüttel zur neuen Stadt Brunsbüttel verschmolzen war.

Bau

Die einschiffige Backsteinkirche ist eine Saalkirche mit fünfseitigem Ostabschluss und einem Satteldach. Zusätzlich zum Süd- und Nordportal gibt es eine sogenannte Brauttür im östlichen Teil der Südseite. Der Westgiebel trägt als Maueranker die Jahreszahlen 1678 für das Jahr des Kirchbaus, 1723 für den Wiederaufbau nach dem Brand und 1766 für eine Renovierung. Über dem Westgiebel erhebt sich der Turm mit achtseitiger Laterne. Innen ist der Kirchraum mit einem hölzernen Tonnengewölbe gedeckt, dessen Bemalung mit vier Engeln bei der Renovierung 1998/99 wiederentdeckt wurde. An der Außenwand befinden sich außer der bereits erwähnten Bauinschrift von 1684 Ehrenmale für die Gefallenen der beiden Weltkriege.

Ausstattung
Von der Kirchenausstattung der mittelalterlichen Kirche, die 1679 in die neue Kirche überführt wurde, blieben nach dem Brand von 1719 nur ein lateinisches Inschriftenepitaph von etwa 1600 für den ersten evangelischen Pastor Boethius Boje, der 1565 starb, und dessen 1590 verstorbenen Sohn Nicolaus, den ersten bekannten Kirchspielvogt von Brunsbüttel, erhalten, das 1725 von Nachkommen der Familie Boje renoviert und mit einem neuen barocken Rahmen versehen wurde. Das muschelförmige Taufbecken aus Sandstein ist ein Werk des Akanthusbarock von etwa 1690 und wird von drei Putten getragen. Der dazugehörige hölzerne Deckel zeigt Halbfiguren der Evangelisten zwischen Delphinen und wird von einer freiplastischen Figur des knienden Johannes des Täufers, der das Lamm Gottes hält, gekrönt. Es wurde für die 1677 erbaute Kirche hergestellt und konnte beim Brand 1719 geborgen werden. Auch die Kanzel wurde gerettet, war aber wohl in keinem guten Zustand mehr, denn schon 1724 stellten der Bildhauer Hans Eckermann und der Tischler Hans Reyer aus Hamburg eine neue Kanzel nach dem Vorbild älterer Renaissancekanzeln her. In den Brüstungsfeldern von Kanzelkorb und Aufgang stehen geschnitzte Apostelfiguren, den Schalldeckel zieren Putten mit Marterwerkzeugen und in der Mitte eine Figur des auferstandenen Christus. Die Emporen einschließlich der Königsloge stammen ebenfalls aus der Zeit der Neubaus von 1725. Von dem Gestühl aus dieser Zeit sind einige Türen und Stuhlwangen erhalten.

Altar
Das Altarretabel gilt als ein Hauptwerk des Knorpelbarocks. Das einzigartige Werk wurde um 1650 für die Schlosskapelle des 1708 abgerissenen Glückstädter Schlosses angefertigt. Nach dem Abbruch des Schlosses wurde das Kunstwerk zunächst eingelagert und dann versteigert. Die Brunsbüttler erhielten den Zuschlag für 22 Reichstaler und 31 Schillinge. In den reich ornamentierten Rahmen sind zwölf farbig gefasste Reliefmedaillons eingelassen, die das Apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis illustrieren. Über den Reliefs steht jeweils der entsprechende Abschnitt aus dem Glaubensbekenntnis in lateinischer Sprache. Das Glaubensbekenntnis beginnt mit dem zweiten Medaillon von oben, in dem Gottvater als Schöpfer mit Adam und Eva dargestellt ist. Darunter folgen zwei Szenen mit der Verkündigung an Maria und Weihnachten. Das größte Medaillon in der Mitte stellt eine Kreuzigungsgruppe, das Leiden Christi, dar, das Medaillon links darunter sein Begräbnis. Das unterste Relief zeigt die Höllenfahrt Jesu. Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt folgen auf dem rechten Anschwung, während die Darstellung von Pfingsten als Sendung des Heiligen Geistes und Geburt der Kirche rechts unter dem Mittelfeld platziert ist. Das Relief, das den letzten Abschnitt des Glaubensbekenntnisses, das Weltgericht und das ewige Leben, zum Inhalt hat, befindet sich ganz oben. Zwei weitere Reliefs im linken Anschwung gehören nicht mehr zum Glaubensbekenntnis, sondern stellen mit der Taufe Jesu und dem letzten Abendmahl die Sakramente dar. Bei der Aufstellung des Retabels in der Brunsbüttler Kirche wurde es von H. Eckermann um die vollplastischen Figuren der vier Evangelisten und des den Aufbau krönenden Salvator mundi ergänzt.

Orgel
Die Kirche im alten Brunsbüttel hatte eine 1601 gebaute Orgel der Itzehoer Orgelbauer Hans und Christian Bockelmann, die wohl auch 1677 in die neue Kirche umgesetzt wurde und beim Brand 1719 verloren ging. Nach dem Wiederaufbau bekam die Kirche die Orgel der Glückstädter Schlosskirche. Die heutige Marcussen-&-Søn-Orgel stammt von 1862 und wurde laut der Stiftungsaufschrift 1869 durch ein Vermächtnis des Landesgevollmächtigen Jacob Friedrich Piehl geschenkt. Die im Ersten Weltkrieg für die Metallspende des deutschen Volkes beschlagnahmten Prospektpfeifen wurden 1926 ersetzt. 2015 wurde die Orgel renoviert.

Literatur
 Dehio-Handbuch Hamburg. Schleswig-Holstein, 2009, S. 211–212.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Kirchengebäude im Kreis Dithmarschen
Kulturdenkmal im Kreis Dithmarschen
Jakobuskirche
Jakobus-der-Ältere-Kirche
Kirchengebäude des Kirchenkreises Dithmarschen
Backsteinkirche
Saalkirche
Barocke Kirche
Barockbauwerk in Schleswig-Holstein


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La maison des seigneurs de Montfort-l'Amaury est une maison noble impliquée dans plusieurs crises du Moyen Âge. C'est une branche cadette de la maison de Hainaut.

Histoire
  (1028 † 1053), fils de Guillaume de Hainaut, le fondateur de la famille.
  (1053 † 1087), par son second mariage avec Agnès d'Évreux, fait entrer le comté d'Évreux dans la famille.
 Bertrade, fille de , déjà mariée à , fut au centre d'un scandale créé par son enlèvement par le roi de France  suivi de son mariage avec ce dernier.

Les Montfort posent un premier pied en Angleterre par le mariage de  († 1181) avec Amicie de Leicester.  (1181 † 1218), cinquième comte de Leicester, dirigea la croisade des Albigeois et devint vicomte de Béziers, de Razès, d'Albi et de Carcassonne puis comte de Toulouse. Son fils Amaury reprit ses prétentions, mais dut renoncer devant la résistance des comtes de Toulouse de la maison de Saint-Gilles et transmit ses droits au roi de France  en 1224.

Plus tard, , sixième comte de Leicester, épousa Éléonore, fille de Jean sans Terre. Il fut le meneur de la révolte des barons contre . Ses troupes vainquirent les forces royales lors de la bataille de Lewes en 1264, avec la capture du prince Édouard. Mais il fut défait et tué à la bataille d'Evesham en 1265, son corps atrocement mutilé. Sa famille fut exilée.

Parmi leurs héritiers,  reprit le nom de Montfort et la guerre de Succession de Bretagne vit s'affronter Montfortistes et Blésistes. Ainsi le comté de Montfort fut-il lié au duché de Bretagne à la suite du mariage de Yolande de Montfort avec  en 1292. Lors de la guerre de succession de Bretagne (1341-1364), les Monfort font valoir leurs droits à la couronne ducale et l'emportent finalement, avec l'aide anglaise, à la bataille d'Auray (1364). À partir de 1365 et pendant deux siècles, la ville devient une dépendance de la Bretagne grâce au mariage de la dernière descendante des comtes de Montfort avec Arthur, duc de Bretagne. Les Monforts, devenus ducs de Bretagne, ils n'en restent pas moins comtes de Montfort et le comté est une de leurs possessions. Le comté reviendra à la couronne de France en 1547 lors de la réunion définitive de la Bretagne à la France, conformément au traité de 1532. Anne de Bretagne, duchesse de Bretagne et comtesse de Montfort, fut une bienfaitrice pour la ville. , fils de  et de Claude de France, elle-même fille de la duchesse Anne de Bretagne, reine de France par son mariage avec  puis , devient roi de France à la mort de son père , en même temps que duc de Bretagne et comte de Montfort.

Généalogie

Notes, source et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
Liste des comtes de Montfort-l'Amaury
 Armorial des familles d'Île-de-France

Bibliographie

 Jean-Marie Guillouët, « L'iconographie de saint Yves et la politique dynastique des Montfort à la fin du Moyen Âge », in Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest, , , 2000, , .

Liens externes

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text:
Artificial ligaments are devices used to replace damaged ligaments. Today, the most common use of artificial ligaments is in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Although autotransplantation remains the most common method of ligament reconstruction, numerous materials and structures were developed to optimize the artificial ligament since its creation in the World War I era. Many modern artificial ligaments are made of synthetic polymers, such as polyethylene terephthalate. Various coatings have been added to improve the biocompatibility of the synthetic polymers. Early artificial ligaments developed in the 1980s were ineffective due to material deterioration. Currently, the Ligament Advanced Reinforcement System (LARS) artificial ligament has been utilized extensively in clinical applications. Tissue engineering is a growing area of research which aims to regenerate and restore ligament function.

History
Artificial ligament research began in the World War I era. In the first documented case of an artificial ligament in 1914, Dr. Corner utilized a piece of silver filament as synthetic graft to reconstruct a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). A ligament made of silk was used to replace an ACL in 1918.

In the early 1980s, technological progress in chemistry and materials science promoted the development of medically suitable materials. Doctors utilized these synthetic materials in clinical applications. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an artificial ligament made of Gore-Tex for use in ACL reconstruction in 1986.

The design of artificial ligaments in the 1980s consisted of two major parts: a relatively stiff cable or tape, and silicone rubber cylinders on one or both ends. The cable or tape was usually made of polyethylene, nylon or carbon fiber. The silicone rubber cylinder varied in size to fit different sized patients. Theoretically, the flexibility of the silicone rubber would allow some deformation under relatively low loads, and the artificial ligament would stiffen to maintain its shape under higher loads. Practically, this design never achieved its goal to mimic the property of a natural ligament. The mechanical performance of the artificial ligaments was inadequate for widespread clinical application. In the long term, performance loss, complications, and failure occurred.

Material deterioration contributed to the ineffectiveness of early artificial ligaments. Issues would occur in the months and years following treatment. J.E. Paulos indicated in a report about Gore-Tex usage in ACL reconstruction: "Early results of the Gore-Tex prosthesis used for ACL reconstruction showed low rates of failure. Unfortunately, with extended follow-up, our rate of complications continues to increase. Mechanical failure, effusions, and infections continue to occur". At the time, the materials used in artificial ligaments could not sustain adequate mechanical performance. For many of these materials, their mechanical performance diminished in the long-term.

Current design
The primary usage of modern artificial ligaments is in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Many artificial ligaments seek to mimic or exceed the performance of the native ACL. The mechanical performance of an artificial ligament can be characterized by abrasion resistance, withstanding flexural and rotational fatigue, and preventing graft slippage or rupture. Biocompatibility is important to the performance of the artificial ligament in vivo. Biocompatibility is related to new tissue ingrowth, fibroblast migration, osseointegration of bone, reduction of inflammation, preventing scar tissue infiltration, and improving hydrophilicity. Tissue ingrowth and fibroblast migration have been shown to improve the mechanical strength of the artificial ligament, and osseointegration with the surrounding bone can reduce the likelihood of graft slippage. Many artificial ligaments are designed to minimize inflammation and scar tissue infiltration because they can hinder the mechanical strength and can cause graft rupture. Artificial ligament design strives to improve hydrophilicity because hydrophobicity can trigger the host's natural response to foreign bodies.

The Ligament Advanced Reinforcement (LARS) is a leading artificial ligament in ACL repair surgery. They are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). They consist of an intraosseous and an intra-articular portion. The intraosseous section consists of longitudinal fibers bounded by a knitted transverse structure. This knitted structure can help prevent deformation and abrasion. The intra-articular portion is made of longitudinal fibers pretwisted at a 90 degree angle. This section is designed to resist fatigue and promote tissue ingrowth. Leeds Keio ligaments consist of a polyester mesh structure. It seeks to mimic the mechanical properties of the native ACL. The porous nature of the ligament can promote tissue ingrowth which has been shown to improve mechanical properties. The PGA Dacron artificial graft consists of 75% braided biodegradable polyglycolic acid and 25% permanent Dacron thread. The Kennedy LAD artificial ligament is made of polypropylene ribbons. It is designed to promote tissue ingrowth and the progressive transfer of load onto the new ligament.

The native ACL of a human has a tensile strength on the order of kilonewtons, and an elongation at failure of approximately 10%. The mechanical properties of the native ACL vary throughout the human population. The strength of a child's ACL tends to be greater than that of an adult. PGA Dacron artificial ligaments have an ultimate tensile strength near 3500 N and a mean ultimate elongation of approximately 20%. Kennedy LAD ligaments have a tensile strength at failure of approximately 1500 N and an approximate stiffness of 50 N/mm. Leeds-Keio artificial ligaments have an ultimate tensile strength near 2000 N and a stiffness around 250 N/mm after tissue ingrowth. LARS artificial ligaments have varying mechanical properties depending on the amount of fibers used. A higher gauged ligament will have a greater tensile strength. During testing, a 60 gauge LARS ligament exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 2500 N while a 120 gauge ligament exhibited a tensile strength of 5600 N. The ingrown tissue has been shown to improve viscoelastic properties and reduce friction.

Coatings have been added to artificial ligaments to improve their biocompatibility. 58S bioglass and hydroxyapatite coatings have been shown to improve osseointegration and cellular activity in vitro and in animal studies when deposited onto PET ligaments using the soaking method. Hydroxypropyl cellulose surface treatments have been shown to improve osseointegration for PET ligaments in animal studies. Uncoated PET is hydrophobic, so coatings are designed to improve hydrophilicity. Hyaluronic acid coatings can reduce hydrophobicity and have been shown to reduce scar tissue formation and inflammation in vivo. Hyaluronic acid and chitosan composite coatings can be deposited onto artificial ligament surfaces by the layer-by-layer technique, and they have been shown to enhance new bone formation at the ligament interface in mice. The chitosan is used to reduce hydrophobicity and improve osseointegration and mineral deposition, while the hyaluronic acid promotes cell differentiation and growth. Poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) coatings have been shown in animal studies to improve knee functionality and mimicry of the native ACL.

Clinical application
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a frequently injured human body structure that may cause secondary damages to the knees, such as meniscal tears and articular cartilage degeneration, without medical treatment. ACL reconstruction is a commonly practiced technique for ACL injury, conducted on 30% of patients, which manages to restore stability to the knee structure. Traditional ACL reconstructions uses autografts or allografts which demand a long rehabilitation time and in most cases, develop donor morbidity in the long term.

The early interests in artificial ligaments led to the implementation of non-human tissue, such as Proplast ligaments made of Teflon and carbon fibers and Polyflex made of polypropylene. The results demonstrated poor resistance to torsion forces. Approved by FDA in 1986 and adopted in clinics later, Gore-Tex cruciate ligament prosthesis demonstrated low rates of mechanical failure but high rates of rupture in follow-up. Gore-Tex was then abandoned in ACL surgery and Leeds-Keio (LK) ligament was then adopted. In the later long term follow-up research, LK ligament demonstrated promising performance at first but still showed low stability rates in 2 years and increased degenerative changes compared with their opposite joint in one decade. In the 21st century, the Ligament Advanced Reinforcement (LARS) ligament became the most popular artificial ligament on the market.  LARS ligaments not only provide satisfactory outcomes initially but also do not perform differently in at least 2 years. LARS ligaments demonstrate higher stability and lower morbidity rate compared to autograft in short-term research and in a 9-year study, LARS ligament showed a 100% survival rate. Synthetic ACL grafts always develop creep, fatigue and failure so the demand for synthetic grafts with sufficient supply, satisfactory mechanical properties, and low morbidity rate is essentially high. Currently, the LARS ligament is the most comparable to both autografts and other synthetic grafts.

Complications that commonly occur in the artificial ligaments after the first ten years are breakage, wear debris, synovitis, recurrent instability, osteolysis and chronic effusions. Complications do not commonly surface right after the surgery or after a relatively short term, and in a few cases, start to show up after the first ten years. Follow-up research is required to study the performance of certain synthetic materials for artificial ligament and to monitor the health of patients. Rupture rates are usually recorded in 2 to 5 years.

Tissue engineering
While the future of artificial ligaments is unknown, leading researchers in tissue engineering aim to regenerate and repair the ligament to restore normal function.  ACL tissue engineering will be based on the healing of the medial collateral ligament (MCL), since the ACL does not heal naturally.  A seed cell will be used in tissue engineering for the repair of ACL ligaments. The seed cell must have qualifications such as: easily available, potent to proliferate, and efficient in elaborating a mature extracellular matrix.  Stem cells such as bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells, adipose-derived stem cells, perivascular stem cells, and human foreskin fibroblasts are commonly used in tissue engineering.

References

Ligaments
Orthopedics


text:
Amason is a Swedish musical band made up of vocalist Amanda Bergman (also known as Hajen, Jaw Lesson, and Idiot Wind); guitarist, keyboardist, and vocalist Gustav Ejstes (from Dungen); keyboardist Pontus Winnberg (from Miike Snow and Bloodshy & Avant); drummer Nils Törnqvist (from Little Majorette); and bassist Petter Winnberg (from Little Majorette).

Amason was formed in December 2012 and released their self-titled EP in August 2013, via Stockholm-based label Ingrid. In January 2015, the band issued their debut album, Sky City, with lyrics in both English and Swedish. In October of the same year, they released their second EP, Flygplatsen, with songs in Swedish exclusively. In 2016, they published the EP California Airport Love, which includes the English version of "Flygplatsen" as well as a cover of Foreigner's "I Want to Know What Love Is" and The Mamas & the Papas' "California Dreamin".

Sky City won the Grammis (Swedish Grammys) for Album of the Year. The band was also nominated for Artist of the Year, Pop of the Year, Lyricist of the Year, Composer of the Year, and New Artist of the Year at the same awards ceremony. The following year, their video for "I Want to Know What Love Is", directed by Filip Nilsson, was nominated for a Grammis for Video of the Year.

Band members
 Amanda Bergman – vocals, keyboard
 Gustav Ejstes – vocals, guitar, keyboard
 Pontus Winnberg – keyboard
 Nils Törnqvist – drums
 Petter Winnberg – bass

Discography
Studio albums

EPs
 EP (2013)
 Flygplatsen (2015)
 California Airport Love (2016)

Singles
 "Margins" (2013)
 "Went to War" (2013)
 "Ålen" (2013)
 "Duvan" (2014)

References

Swedish indie pop groups
Musical quintets
Musical groups established in 2013
2013 establishments in Sweden
Swedish-language singers


text:
Chad — gíria

Chade — país da África Central

Pessoas
Chad Butler — músico neerlandês
Chad & Jeremy — dupla britânica de rock dos anos 1960

Desambiguações de antropônimos


text:
During the War in Afghanistan, according to the Costs of War Project the war killed 176,000 people in Afghanistan: 46,319 civilians, 69,095 military and police and at least 52,893 opposition fighters. However, the death toll is possibly higher due to unaccounted deaths by "disease, loss of access to food, water, infrastructure, and/or other indirect consequences of the war." According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, the conflict killed 212,191 people. The Cost of War project estimated in 2015 that the number who have died through indirect causes related to the war may be as high as 360,000 additional people based on a ratio of indirect to direct deaths in contemporary conflicts.

The war, launched by the United States as "Operation Enduring Freedom" in 2001, began with an initial air campaign that almost immediately prompted concerns over the number of Afghan civilians being killed. According to The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), the majority of civilian casualties were attributed to the Taliban and other anti-government elements each year, with the figure ranging from 61% to 80% depending on the year. Civilian deaths were higher in the latter part of the war, with 2015 and 2016 both consecutively breaking the record of annual civilian deaths. The civilian losses are a continuation of the high civilian casualties experienced during the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, and the three periods of civil war following it: 1989–1992, 1992–1996, and 1996–2001.

Estimates

There is no single official figure for the overall number of civilians killed by the war since 2001, but estimates for specific years or periods have been published by a number of independent organizations and are presented here.

Most, if not all, of the sources state that their estimates are likely to be underestimates.

Aggregation of estimates

 *Note: In UNAMA/AIHRC methodology, whenever it remains uncertain whether a victim is a civilian after they have assessed the facts available to them, UNAMA/AIHRC does not count that victim as a possible civilian casualty. The number of such victims is not provided.

Civilian casualties (2001–2003)

According to Marc W. Herold's extensive database, Dossier on Civilian Victims of United States' Aerial Bombing, between 3,100 and 3,600 civilians were directly killed by U.S. Operation Enduring Freedom bombing and U.S. Special Forces attacks between October 7, 2001, and June 3, 2003. This estimate counts only "impact deaths" – deaths that occurred in the immediate aftermath of an explosion or shooting – and does not count deaths that occurred later as a result of injuries sustained, or deaths that occurred as an indirect consequence of the U.S. airstrikes and invasion.

In an opinion article published in August 2002 in the neoconservative magazine The Weekly Standard, Joshua Muravchik of the American Enterprise Institute, a self-described neoconservative,  questioned Professor Herold's study entirely on the basis of one single incident that involved 25-93 deaths. He did not provide any estimate his own.

In a pair of January 2002 studies, Carl Conetta of the Project on Defense Alternatives estimates that, at least 4,200-4,500 civilians were killed by mid-January 2002 as a result of the U.S. war and airstrikes, both directly as casualties of the aerial bombing campaign, and indirectly in the humanitarian crisis that the war and airstrikes contributed to.

His first study, "Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties?", released January 18, 2002, estimates that, at the low end, at least 1,000-1,300 civilians were directly killed in the aerial bombing campaign in just the 3 months between October 7, 2001, to January 1, 2002. The author found it impossible to provide an upper-end estimate to direct civilian casualties from the Operation Enduring Freedom bombing campaign that he noted as having an increased use of cluster bombs. In this lower-end estimate, only Western press sources were used for hard numbers, while heavy "reduction factors" were applied to Afghan government reports so that their estimates were reduced by as much as 75%.

In his companion study, "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war", released January 30, 2002, Conetta estimates that at least 3,200 more Afghans died by mid-January 2002, of "starvation, exposure, associated illnesses, or injury sustained while in flight from war zones", as a result of the U.S. war and airstrikes.

In similar numbers, a Los Angeles Times review of U.S., British, and Pakistani newspapers and international wire services found that between 1,067 and 1,201 direct civilian deaths were reported by those news organizations during the five months from October 7, 2001, to February 28, 2002. This review excluded all civilian deaths in Afghanistan that did not get reported by U.S., British, or Pakistani news, excluded 497 deaths that did get reported in U.S., British, and Pakistani news but that were not specifically identified as civilian or military, and excluded 754 civilian deaths that were reported by the Taliban but not independently confirmed.

According to Jonathan Steele of The Guardian, up to 20,000 Afghans may have died as a consequence of the first four months of U.S. airstrikes on Afghanistan.

Civilian and overall casualties (2005)

An estimated 1,700 people were killed in 2005 according to an Associated Press count, including civilians, insurgents and security forces members. Some 600 policemen were killed between Hamid Karzai's election as president of Afghanistan in early December 2004 and mid-May 2005.

Civilian and overall casualties (2006)

A report by Human Rights Watch said that 4,400 Afghans had been killed in 2006, more than 1,000 of them civilians. Some 2,077 militants were killed in Coalition operations between September 1 and December 13.

An Associated Press tally based on reports from Afghan, NATO and coalition officials puts the overall death toll slightly lower, at about 4,000, most of them militants.

More than 1,900 people were killed in the first eight months of the year by the end of August.

Civilian and overall casualties (2007)

More than 7,700 people were killed in 2007, including: 1,019 Afghan policemen; 4,478 militants; 1,980 civilians and 232 foreign soldiers.

With by far the most comprehensive research into Afghan civilian casualties, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire estimated in September 2007 that between 5,700 and 6,500 Afghan civilians had been killed so far in the war by US and NATO military forces. He stressed that this was an "absolute minimum" and probably "a vast underestimate" because the figures do not include:
 the dead among the tens of thousands of Afghans displaced during the initial military operation in 2001–2002, who ended up in refugee camps or elsewhere with little or no supplies for long periods;
 civilian victims of U.S./NATO bombing in mountainous areas, which have few or no communications links or which the U.S./NATO forces "cordon off as part of news management";
 and civilians that did not die immediately at the scene but died later of their injuries.

Civilian and overall casualties (2008)

The UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) reported that 2,118 civilians were killed as a result of armed conflict in Afghanistan in 2008, the highest civilian death toll since the end of the initial 2001 invasion. This represents an increase of about 40 percent over UNAMA's figure of 1,523 civilians killed in 2007.

On the other hand, according to NATO forces only about 1,000 civilians were killed during the whole year.

Going into further detail, UNAMA reported that out of 2,118 civilian deaths in 2008, 1,160 non-combatants were killed by anti-government forces, accounting for 55% of the 2008 total, while 828 were killed by international-led military forces, accounting for 39% of the 2008 total. The remaining 6% – 130 deaths – could not be attributed to any of the parties since some of them died as a result of crossfire or were killed by unexploded ordnance, for example. Of the civilians killed by anti-government elements, 85% died as a result of suicide or improvised explosive devices. Of the civilians killed by pro-government forces, 64% were killed by U.S./NATO airstrikes.
(Note: UNAMA's report includes in its count of civilian/non-combatant deaths any "members  of  the  military  who  are  not  being  utilized  in  counter insurgency operations, including when they are off-duty".)

The Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) estimated the number of civilians killed as a result of the armed hostilities in 2008 at around 1,800, with about 1,000 killed by militant groups and about 800 killed by U.S.-led military forces.

The Afghanistan Rights Monitor, a Kabul-based rights watchdog, estimated that in 2008 about 3,917 civilians were killed, over 6,800 were wounded, and around 120,000 were forced out of their homes. ARM estimated that insurgents killed over 2,300 civilians, including 930 in suicide bombings, and that U.S.-led military forces killed over 1,620 civilians, with 1,100 civilians killed by U.S.-led NATO and coalition forces and 520 civilians killed by Afghan military forces. Out of these, 680 Afghan civilians killed in air strikes by the US-led forces, with U.S. combat aircraft conducting at least 15,000 close air support missions over the year. Another 2,800 civilians were injured and 80,000 displaced from their homes by the U.S.-led NATO and coalition military operations.

According to Afghanistan's ambassador to Australia, Amanullah Jayhoon, 1,000 Afghan civilians were killed by coalition forces in 2008.

Meanwhile, NATO's International Security Assistance Force has said that only just over 200 civilians were mistakenly killed by foreign troops last year.

According to NATO spokesman James Appathurai, 97 civilian deaths were caused by ISAF in 2008, while 987 civilian deaths were caused by militant groups. The number of civilian deaths caused by US-led military forces operating outside of ISAF was not mentioned in that statement.

In October 2008, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire reported that the number of civilians killed in direct action by U.S. and other NATO forces from 2005 up that point in 2008 was at least between 2,699 and 3,273. These figures represent underestimates of the number of Afghan civilians killed because civilians are sometimes labelled militants by the military and because these figures only include civilians that died immediately at the scene and not civilians that died later of their injuries.

In 2008, 38 aid workers, almost all from NGO's, were killed, double the number from 2007, and 147 were abducted.

According to the Afghanistan Rights Monitor (ARM) more than 1,100 Afghan police and 530 Afghan soldiers lost their lives in 2008.

According to NATO forces, 5,000 militants were killed in 2008.

Civilian and overall casualties (2009)

2009 was again the most lethal year for Afghan civilians in the American-led war since the fall of the Taliban government in late 2001. According to the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), 2,412 civilians were killed by the war in 2009, a jump of 14% over the number that lost their lives in 2008. An additional 3,566 Afghan civilians were wounded as a result of the war in 2009. Of these, UNAMA attributed two-thirds, or 1,630, of the deaths to the action of anti-government forces, around a quarter, 596, of the deaths to action by American-led military forces, and was not able to clearly attribute another 186 civilian deaths to any one side. Airstrikes continued to be the main cause of civilian deaths resulting from US-led military action, with 359 Afghan civilians killed by US/NATO airstrikes in 2009. In its mid-year report, the UNAMA underlined that "if the non-combatant status of one or more victim(s) remains under significant doubt, such deaths are not included in the overall number of civilian casualties. Thus, there is a significant possibility that UNAMA is under-reporting civilian casualties."

On 11 May 2009, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates replaced McKiernan with General McChrystal as the new U.S. commander of all foreign military forces in Afghanistan. One of General McChrystal's first announcements was a sharp restriction on the use of airstrikes to reduce civilian casualties. Afghan leaders have long pleaded that foreign troops end airstrikes and nighttime raids of Afghan homes. Consequently, effective 2 July 2009, coalition air and ground combat operations were ordered to take steps to minimize Afghan civilian casualties in accordance with a tactical directive issued by General Stanley A. McChrystal, USA, the commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. In addition to a growing number of Afghan civilians being killed, Afghan populations caught in the eight-year war have also suffered from loss of livelihood, displacement, and the destruction of their homes, property, and personal assets. The issue of civilian casualties is recognized as a problem at the highest levels of ISAF command. In a September 2009 report, General McChrystal wrote "Civilian casualties and collateral damage to homes and property resulting from an over-reliance on firepower and force protection have severely damaged ISAF's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people."

In September 2009, the U.N. reported that August had been the deadliest month of 2009 to date for Afghan civilians as a result of the August 20th election. The U.N. also reported that about 1,500 people were killed from the start of the year through August. The report stated: "August (was) the deadliest month since the beginning of 2009. ... These figures reflect an increasing trend in insecurity over recent months and in elections-related violence." UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) attributed 68% of the deaths to anti-government elements and 23% of the deaths to international-led military forces – most of them in airstrikes. In 9% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA was unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side of the parties in the conflict. The number of civilians killed represented an increase of 31% over the same period in 2008, when 1,145 civilians were killed.

Civilian and overall casualties (2010)
2010 was again the deadliest year for Afghan civilians in the war since the fall of the Taliban government in late 2001, as insecurity and volatility continued to spread to the northern, eastern, and western regions of Afghanistan.

According to the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) and the Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC), 2,777 Afghan civilians were killed in the war in 2010, a jump of 15% over the civilian toll in 2009.  Of these, UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 2,080 civilian deaths to insurgents and anti-government elements, representing 74.9% of the 2,777 Afghan civilian deaths they recorded in the war in 2010, and up 28% from 2009. 1,141 or 55% of these deaths were caused by suicide attacks and improvised explosive devices.

UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 440 (15.9%) of the 2,777 Afghan civilian deaths they recorded for 2010 to U.S.-led military forces, a reduction of 26% from 2009.  Of the coalition caused casualties, Airstrikes caused 171, or 39% of these deaths.

In 9% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA/AIHRC were unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side.

In addition to the civilian deaths, a total of 4,343 civilians were documented by UNAMA/AIHRC to have been wounded in the war in 2010, a jump of 22% from 2009.

Civilian and overall casualties (2011)

In the first half of 2011, the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan again brought yet higher numbers of civilian deaths as violence intensified and security spiralled downward. According to UNAMA/AIHRC figures, 1,462 Afghan civilians were killed in the first six months of 2011, another 15% jump over the same period in 2010. UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 1,167 (79.8%) of those deaths as having been caused by insurgents and anti-government elements, up 28% from the same period in 2010. UNAMA/AIHRC attributed 207 Afghan civilian deaths as having been caused by U.S.-led military forces, down 9% from the same period in 2010 and representing 14.2% of the civilian deaths. In 6% of the civilian deaths, UNAMA and AIHRC were unable to clearly attribute the cause to any one side.

For the whole year of 2011, the United Nations reported that the civilian death toll numbered 3,021, a record high. In addition, 4,507 Afghans were wounded.

The use of improvised explosive devices increased, with an average of 23 roadside bombs a day which were detonated, discovered, or defused. Suicide attacks also became more complex and sophisticated, targeted killings intensified, ground fighting increased, and civilian deaths from airstrikes also increased.

Civilian and overall casualties (2012)

A 2012 report by the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan noted that the number of Afghan civilians killed or injured in 2012 decreased for the first time since the United Nations began keeping track of such figures. 2,769 civilian deaths and 4,821 injuries were reported in 2012.

Civilian and overall casualties (2013)
The UN recorded 2,969 civilian deaths and 5,669 injuries in 2013.

Civilian and overall casualties (2014)
International aid workers in 2014 were still being targeted in addition to the general population of the country. This was brought home by the death of two Finnish aid workers, who were shot and killed while in a taxi by two gunmen on motorbikes, on 24 July 2014. Overall, according to the UN, 3,710 civilians were killed and 6,825 were wounded in 2014, yet another record high.

Civilian and overall casualties (2015)
The UN estimates that 3,545 civilians were killed and 7,457 injured in 2015.

Civilian and overall casualties (2016)

The UN estimates that in 2016 3,498 civilians were killed and 7,920 were wounded in Afghanistan.

Civilian and overall casualties (2017)

The UN estimates that 1,662 civilians were killed from January through June 2017. The ISIL attacked a hospital and killed over 50 patients and staff. A German female aid worker was killed, her Afghan guard beheaded and a Finnish female aid worker kidnapped in May (most likely by ISIL).

Civilian and overall casualties (2018)

By the end of August, five US troops were killed in the war. The US has around 15,000 troops in Afghanistan. According to Uppsala Conflict Data Program the total number of deaths including civilians and combatants, will surpass 20,000 by the end of 2018.

In a single month of October 2018, Up to 273 Afghan civilians were killed and 550 others injured in separate incidents.

On 28 December 2018 a report issued by UNICEF revealed that during the first nine months of 2018, five thousand children were killed or injured in Afghanistan. Manuel Fontaine UNICEF Director of Emergency Programs said the world has forgotten children living in conflict zones.

Afghan protestation of civilian deaths caused by international forces

Afghan President Hamid Karzai's repeated pleas to the foreign military forces

From 2002, Afghan President Hamid Karzai repeatedly pleaded with the foreign military forces in his country to avoid killing Afghan civilians in their operations.
 In July 2002, following a US bombing raid in which Afghan officials say 44 people were killed, including many celebrating a wedding and many children, the Afghan president protested to the U.S. military authorities, and urged them to be more careful in their targeting to prevent any more civilian deaths. U.S. President George W. Bush offered his condolences.

(Senior Afghan officials were furious that it took five days before President Bush telephoned Mr. Karzai to offer sympathy and that Donald Rumsfeld, the US Defense Secretary, had expressed no remorse or apology.)
 In December 2006, a tearful President Hamid Karzai lamented that Afghan children were being maimed and killed by NATO and U.S. bombs and by terrorism. In a heartfelt speech that brought audience members to tears, Karzai said the cruelty imposed on his people "is too much" and that Afghanistan cannot stop "the coalition from killing our children".
 In May 2007, after heavy aerial bombing by the US military had recently killed 40 to 60 Afghan civilians, including women and children, wounded about 50 more, and destroyed some 100 houses, President Hamid Karzai summoned top foreign generals and diplomats to his palace to reiterate years of complaints over blameless deaths. At a news conference afterward, he said that Afghan lives should be valued too, and the Afghan people could no longer tolerate such casualties:

 In June 2007, after the deaths of more than 90 civilians in 10 days, President Hamid Karzai accused ISAF and the US-led military coalition in his country of "extreme" and "disproportionate" use of force. In his protestations, the Afghan president said that the foreign military forces in his country had to start working in accordance with his government's wishes.
 On October 28, 2007, in an interview on 60 Minutes, Afghan President Hamid Karzai stated that he had explicitly asked U.S. President George W. Bush to roll back the use of airstrikes – which had killed more than 270 civilians in 17 air strikes to date in 2007 alone – in his country, saying that he had delivered the message privately to Bush using "clear words" in August.

 On December 18, 2008, Afghan President Hamid Karzai again spoke of asking the United States to cooperate with his government in their military operations in his country. In a speech, he said that in the previous month he had again asked that the U.S. military in his country cooperate with his government, sending the U.S. government a list of demands about troop conduct, but did not say if he had received any response back.

 In March 2011, Karzai rejected apologies from President Obama and Gen. David Petraeus for U.S. helicopter gunners killing 9 Afghan boys ages 7–13 who were collecting firewood. "The apology is not enough," Karzai said. "Civilian casualties produced by the military operations of coalition forces are the cause of tension in relations between Afghanistan and the United States of America. The people of Afghanistan are fed up from these brutal incidents and apologies and condemnation cannot cure their pain." In response to the deaths of the boys, Petraeus ordered all field commanders and helicopter crews to again study their rules of engagement.  One source claims more than 200 civilians killed in military operations and insurgent attacks in "recent weeks".
 In May 2011, Karzai issued a "final warning" as more civilians were killed in NATO airstrikes. He said the Afghan people can no longer tolerate the attacks, and that the U.S.-led coalition risks being seen as an "occupying force".

Afghan public protests over civilian deaths
 On July 4, 2002, in the first anti-American protest since the overthrow of the Taliban, about 200 Afghans marched through the streets of Kabul to express their outrage over attacks by U.S. forces which killed scores of civilians, including many children and 25 members of one family. According to Afghan Foreign Minister Abdullah, 44 people were killed and 120 wounded in the U.S. attacks on about a half dozen villages in Uruzgan province, which villagers said included an attack on a pre-wedding party.
 On May 29, 2006, large-scale rioting, fueled by anti-U.S. anger, swept through Afghanistan's capital, Kabul, after a U.S. military truck crashed into a crowd of Afghan pedestrians. Afghan President Hamid Karzai's office said five people were killed in the vehicle crash. The U.S. military, in a statement issued earlier, had said at least one person was killed in the crash and six wounded, two of them critically. Afghan officials called it the worst day of rioting in Kabul since the overthrow of the Taliban regime. At least 8 people were killed and 109 wounded in the widespread anti-U.S. protests through the capital. Video from one rioting site after the crash showed a U.S. military vehicle firing in the direction of a crowd of Afghans. Dozens of protesters outside the U.S. Embassy screamed "Death to Americans!" while embassy personnel retreated to bunkers. "We want America out of this country! We hate America! They have no responsibility!" said protester Ajmal Jan.
 On April 30, 2007, thousands of Afghans staged a protest accusing United States-led coalition and Afghan troops of killing civilians in the western province of Herat. The protesters stormed a government district headquarters in Shindand, south of Herat city, where Western troops have a large base. The anti-U.S. protest came a day after an angry demonstration in eastern Nangahar province over the killing of civilians by coalition and Afghan forces there.
 On May 2, 2007, about 500 Afghan university students protested in the eastern province of Nangarhar alleging six civilians had been killed by U.S.-led coalition troops a few days before. On that same day, Afghan and UN teams announced that their investigations had found that around 50 civilians were killed in days of ground fighting and bombing in a remote valley in the western province of Herat.
 On September 26, 2007, following a raid by foreign troops that left two religious leaders dead, about 500 Afghan protesters shut down the main highway out of Kandahar city with some chanting "Death to Canada" and "Death to foreigners" and calling on foreign troops to leave their country. The protesters accused American and Canadian soldiers of killing the two religious leaders during night raids on houses in Senjaray, a community on the outskirts of Kandahar city. Anger was also directed at Afghan President Hamid Karzai for allowing the foreign military presence in their country.
 On August 23, 2008, about 250 Afghan villagers gathered in angry demonstration to protest the deaths of 76 civilians, most of them children, killed in U.S.-led airstrikes near the village of Azizabad, about 120 kilometres south of Herat city in western Afghanistan.
 On September 1, 2008, hundreds of citizens in the Afghan capital Kabul rushed into the streets and burnt tires on the Kabul-Jalalabad highway protesting the killing of three members of a Kabuli family, including two children, by U.S.-led troops. Residents said the U.S.-led troops, carrying out a pre-dawn raid in Hud Kheil area in the eastern quarter of Kabul, threw hand grenades into a house, killing Noorullah and two of his sons, one of whom was eight months old. Their deaths were the latest in a string of incidents that have angered Afghans and caused a split between the Afghan government and foreign troops.
 On October 16, 2008, protests by crowds against the presence of NATO forces and the Afghan government took place in Lashkar Gah, capital city of Helmand province, after a NATO airstrike killed as many as 18 women and children.
 On December 26, 2008, a crowd of hundreds of Afghans protested in Maywand District in Kandahar province following  overnight raids by U.S. military forces, claiming that innocent people were killed in the attack. Local villagers, angered by the military raids, blocked the main highway for three hours and burned tires.
 On March 7, 2009, hundreds of Afghan demonstrators in eastern Afghanistan blocked the path of a U.S. military convoy to condemn an early morning raid in Khost province that killed four people and wounded two. Tahir Khan Sabari, the deputy governor of the province, said the four people killed were civilians, but the U.S. military claimed they were militants. Demonstrators in Khost city threw rocks at the American military convoy, shouted "Death to America", and burned tires, sending up dark plumes of smoke.
 On May 7, 2009, thousands of Afghan villagers shouting "Death to America" and "Death to the Government" protested in Farah city over US bomber air strikes on May 4 that killed 147 civilians. Clashes with police started when people from the three villages struck by US B1-bombers brought 15 newly discovered bodies in a truck to the house of the provincial governor. Four protesters were wounded when police opened fire. Going by the account of survivors, the air raid was not a brief attack by several aircraft acting on mistaken intelligence, but a sustained bombardment in which three villages were pounded to pieces. An Afghan government investigation concluded on May 16, 2009, with the Afghan Defense Ministry announcing an official death toll of 140 villagers. A copy of the government's list of the names and ages of each of the 140 dead showed that 93 of those killed were children, and only 22 were adult males.
 On December 9, 2009, some 5,000 Afghan villagers marched in protest over the killing of civilians in a pre-dawn attack by U.S. troops in Armul village, Laghman province in eastern Afghanistan. President Hamid Karzai's office said the attack had killed 6 civilians, including one woman, while NATO denied that any civilians had been killed in its military attack. A Reuters journalist, on the other hand, saw the bodies of a woman and 12 males, including two teenagers, and the top Laghman provincial council leader said that 13 civilians had been killed. The protesters were chanting slogans against the foreign troops in their country, as well as against Afghan president Hamid Karzai and the provincial governor, when Afghan troops opened fire on them. Four protesters were hit by bullets, two dying instantly and two were taken to a hospital, where residents said they died of their wounds.
 On December 30, 2009, protesters in Jalalabad set alight a US flag and an effigy of President Obama after chanting "Death to Obama" and "Death to foreign forces". In Kabul, protesters held up banners showing photographs of dead children alongside placards demanding "Foreign troops leave Afghanistan" and "Stop killing us". This was in response to reports that U.S.-led forces had shot 10 villagers in their home, including 8 children, during a raid in the Ghazi Khan village in Narang district of the eastern province of Kunar.
 On January 21, 2010, angry Afghan villagers took to the streets in Ghazni province to protest the deaths of civilians they claimed were killed in a raid by NATO troops. NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) claimed it had killed four insurgents including a 15-year-old boy during their raid in the Qarabagh District of Ghazni province the previous night. But 50 villagers brought five coffins to the provincial capital Ghazni city, claiming that three of the dead were civilians, including two children below the age of seven. The head of the provincial hospital where the bodies were initially taken said that his doctors told him that two children were among the bodies brought to them.
 On January 28, 2010, angry demonstrations took place outside Camp Phoenix, a U.S. military base on the outskirts of Kabul, after NATO troops killed an Afghan religious leader who had been sitting in a parked car with his two young sons while waiting for a NATO ISAF convoy to pass by. According to witnesses, the fourth ISAF vehicle in the convoy opened fire on the parked car without provocation. At least 16 bullet holes were later counted on the car's exterior and Mullah Mohmmad Younas  was killed by three bullets in his chest and one in his abdomen. ISAF confirmed the shooting of a civilian, offered sympathies, and said it was investigating.

Afghan protests over Taliban killings
After the Taliban's killing of 26 young men on 19 October 2008, in southern Kandahar Province in a militant-controlled area – unclear is whether the victims were Afghan government soldiers or recruits or mere civilians looking for work in Iran –  the following Friday, 1,000 people in Mihtarlam in northeastern Laghman Province, where most of those killed came from, protested against those Taliban killings.

Civilian casualties by insurgent forces
In 2006, according to Human Rights Watch, 669 Afghan civilians were killed in armed attacks by anti-government forces, primarily Taliban and Hezbi Islami.

In all 2008 until October, 29 aid workers, 5 of whom non-Afghanis, were killed in Afghanistan.

In 2008–2009, according to The Christian Science Monitor, 16 improvised explosive devices were planted in girls' schools in Afghanistan, but there is no certainty who did that.

According to the United Nations, anti-government elements were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.

In considering civilian casualties caused collectively by insurgent forces, the armed insurgency in Afghanistan against the government and foreign military forces is composed of many diverse individuals and groups that are motivated by a range of different goals and ideologies, that do not necessarily identify as "Taliban", and that do not act under a single line of authority.

Non-Afghan civilian casualties
In August 2008, three Western women (British, Canadian, American) working for aid group International Rescue Committee were murdered in Kabul. Taliban claimed to have killed them because they were foreign spies. In October 2008, British charity worker Gayle Williams working for Christian UK charity 'Serve Afghanistan' – focusing on training and education for disabled persons – was murdered near Kabul. Taliban claimed they killed her because her organisation "was preaching Christianity in Afghanistan".

Disputed case
At Sunday, 19 October 2008, in southern Kandahar Province in a militant-controlled area, Taliban stopped a bus and killed 26 young male passengers of the bus, who they claimed were members of the Afghan security forces. Afghan officials later claimed those victims were not soldiers but innocent civilians from northern Laghman Province, on their way to Iran to find work.

International protests against US and allies causing deaths

The deaths of thousands of Afghan civilians caused directly and indirectly by the U.S. and NATO bombing campaigns have been a major underlying focus of protests against the war in Afghanistan since 2001.

Protests around the world, starting with large-scale global demonstrations in the days leading up to the official launch of U.S. Operation Enduring Freedom's under George W. Bush and Donald Rumsfeld in October 2001, have taken place every year since.

See also

 Casualty recording
 Azizabad airstrike
 British forces casualties in Afghanistan
 Bagram torture and prisoner abuse
 Canadian Afghan detainee abuse scandal
 Canadian Forces casualties in Afghanistan
 Casualties of the Iraq War
 Chenagai airstrike
 Coalition casualties in Afghanistan
 Criticism of the War on Terrorism
 Granai Incident
 International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan
 2009 Kunduz airstrike
 Protests against the invasion of Afghanistan

References

External links

 Rethink Afghanistan – Part 4: Civilian Casualties 12 min. section of the full documentary film Rethink Afghanistan available online
 Afghanistan Under the US "War on Terror" photo gallery from RAWA, an Afghan women's association
 After First Denying Involvement, US Forces Admit Killing Two Pregnant Afghan Women & Teenager – video report by Democracy Now!
 The Afghan Victim Memorial Project database and photos
 "War Against Terrorism" in Afghanistan
 Casualties in Afghanistan & Iraq
 War Report Afghan Archives – Civilian Casualties
 Casualty Monitor: Monitoring and analysis of data on civilian and British military casualties in Afghanistan and Iraq
 The Worsening Situation in Afghanistan
 The Reality Page

George W. Bush administration controversies
Civilians killed in the War on Terror


text:
Väisälä je malý impaktní kráter nacházející se v pevninské části v oblasti Oceanus Procellarum (Oceán bouří) na přivrácené strany Měsíce. Má průměr 8 km a poblíž se nachází řada zajímavých objektů vhodných pro pozorování astronomickými dalekohledy. Severovýchodně se rozkládá zlom Rupes Toscanelli (doplněn z východu brázdami Rimae Aristarchus) a severněji pak kráter Toscanelli, západním až jihozápadním směrem se vine údolí Vallis Schröteri a jižně leží výrazný kráter Aristarchus.

Název
Pojmenován je podle finského astronoma a fyzika Yrjö Väisäly. Dříve, než jej Mezinárodní astronomická unie v roce 1973 přejmenovala, nesl název Aristarchus A.

Odkazy

Reference

Literatura

Externí odkazy

 Crater Väisälä on Moon Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, IAU, USGS, NASA

Krátery na Měsíci
Krátery nazvané po osobách
Čtyřúhelník LQ10


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2845 Franklinken è un asteroide della fascia principale. Scoperto nel 1981, presenta un'orbita caratterizzata da un semiasse maggiore pari a 2,2608479 UA e da un'eccentricità di 0,1625882, inclinata di 6,00900° rispetto all'eclittica.

Collegamenti esterni

Corpi celesti scoperti nel 1981
Franklinken


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Wood wool, known primarily as excelsior in North America, is a product made of wood slivers cut from logs. It is mainly used in packaging, for cooling pads in home evaporative cooling systems known as swamp coolers, for erosion control mats, and as a raw material for the production of other products such as bonded wood wool boards. In the past it was used as stuffing, or padding, in upholstery, or to fill stuffed toys. It is also sometimes used by taxidermists to construct the armatures of taxidermy mounts.

Terminology

In the United States the term wood wool is reserved for finer grades of excelsior.
The US Forest Service stated in 1948 and 1961 that, "In this country the product has no other general name, but in most other countries all grades of excelsior are known as wood wool. In the United States the name wood wool is reserved for only a small proportion of the output consisting of certain special grades of extra thin and narrow stock."

The US Standard Industrial Classification Index SIC is 2429 for the product "Wood wool (excelsior)".
The same term is used by the United States for the external trade number under which wood wool is monitored: HTS Number: 4405.00.00 Description: Wood wool (excelsior); wood flour.

The number 4405.00 is applied to wood wool by the World Customs Organization in the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS).

Grades and classifications
The 1973 US Federal Government procurement specification PPP-E-911, cancelled in 1991, categorized "wood excelsior" products according to the following table of terms and dimensions:

Applications

Excelsior has many applications; examples include:

 restoration of antique buggy seats, and furniture.
 a packaging material for cushioning, such as Fibrenap (Cushy Pads)
 a stuffing for plush toys or for real animals in taxidermy. It was traditionally used in stuffing Teddy bears and still is for the muzzles of some collectible bears.
 cooling pads in home evaporative cooler systems known as "swamp coolers."
 bedding for animals and their cages. Wood wool serves to cushion the animals while providing some warmth and absorbing waste. For example, it is found in dairies, in hutches and in cardboard boxes when shipping day-old poultry within the United States.
 when dyed green, the material can be used as an artificial grass in Easter egg baskets. This was popular before the prevalence of plastics.
 mats and blankets for erosion control.
 a material used in the production of cement-bonded wood wool boards.
 when banded into a bale form, it is used as an archery backstop, comparable to how a straw bale would be used for the same purpose. If protected from the elements, an excelsior archery backstop can last for many years. If sections of it wear down because of repeated targeting, the bale can be soaked liberally since it then expands and holds water, just like a dry sponge.
 garden mulches and as a growing medium for hydroponic gardens.

Properties
Wood wool fibers can be compressed and when the pressure is removed they resume their initial volume. This is a useful property for minimizing their volume when shipping. Due to its high volume and large surface area, wood wool can be used for applications where water or moisture retention is necessary. The width of wood wool fibers varies from 1.5 to 20 mm, while their length is usually around 500 mm (depending on the production process).

In the UK there are specifications for dimensions, pH, moisture content and freedom from dust and small pieces, set by British Standard BS 2548 for wood wool for general packaging purposes. This standard was originally issued in 1954 and subsequently re-issued in 1986.

When these fibers are bonded with cement or magnesite, bonded wood wool boards are produced. Slabs of bonded wood wool are considered environmentally friendly construction and insulation materials because they do not contain organic binders.

Production
Excelsior is cut from "bolts" (round,  halved, quartered, or otherwise split logs) of poplar (for example aspen), pine, spruce or eucalyptus.  For evaporative cooler pads, the dominant source is the aspen.

Wood wool can be produced in either horizontal or vertical shredding machines.

A possible further processing option is washing, which removes dust. Wood-wool processing may involve drying to reduce moisture in compliance with local requirements, as in the UK.

Finally, wood wool can be dyed to produce a variety of colored products.

History
A different product was once known as "wood wool," as well as "pine needle-wool," or "pine wood-wool."  According to E. Littell, it was produced in Breslau, Silesia (today Wrocław, Poland) by von Pannewich, who mentioned that in 1842 five hundred counterpanes made of it were purchased for a hospital in Vienna. The process was chemical and made use of the leaves (needles) of Scots Pine.

In England, yet another product known as wood wool was produced by the chemical breakdown of wood strips by means of sulphurous acid, for use in such applications as absorbent material in surgical dressings.  Another application of this product was use in sanitary towels, as shown in advertisements from 1885–1892 in Britain for "wood wool diapers" or "sanitary wood wool sheets". European "wood wool" was known in America in the late nineteenth century as being distinctly different from excelsior.

The wood wool that is the topic of this article is what has traditionally been known as excelsior in the United States.  Fifteen US patents related to "slivering machines" for producing the small wood shreds "known as excelsior" were listed by 1876.
The earliest, a machine for "Manufacturing wood to be used as a substitute for curled hair in stuffing beds" was patented in the US in 1842; however, the product had no specific name when the process was first patented.

The 1868 patent, "Improved capillary material for filling gas and air carburettors," was for a new use for "fibres torn from the wood by suitable machinery" to be "sold and used as filling for mattresses, its commercial name being 'excelsior'."  This is the earliest description of the material by this name cited by the Oxford English Dictionary, though the term "excelsior mattress" had appeared in print as early as 1856.

In 1906, the now-common use of excelsior in the cooling pads of evaporative coolers appeared in a patent that stated, "I have found that excelsior makes a very cheap and good material for this purpose."

In the beginning of the 20th century wood wool was used as a raw material for producing wood wool panels in Europe, especially in Austria. By 1930, wood wool cement boards were being widely produced.

In the 21st century, excelsior appears in numerous patents for erosion control and sediment control methods and devices; for example, the 2006 "Sediment control device and system." A few late-twentieth-century patents on these uses refer to "excelsior/wood wool."

References

Biodegradable materials
Fibers
Wood products


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Buti és un municipi situat al territori de la Província de Pisa, a la regió de la Toscana, (Itàlia).

Buti limita amb els municipis de Bientina, Calci, Capannori i Vicopisano.

Galeria

Referències

Municipis de la província de Pisa