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The RadioShack TRS-80 Color Computer, later marketed as the Tandy Color Computer and sometimes nicknamed the CoCo, is a line of home computers developed and sold by Tandy Corporation. Despite sharing a name with the earlier TRS-80, the Color Computer is a completely different, incompatible system and a radical departure in design and compatibility with its Motorola 6809E processor rather than the Zilog Z80 earlier models were built around.

The Tandy Color Computer line started in 1980 with what is now called the Color Computer 1. It was followed by the Color Computer 2 in 1983, then the Color Computer 3 in 1986. All three models maintain a high level of software and hardware compatibility, with few programs written for an older model being unable to run on the newer ones. The Color Computer 3 was discontinued in 1991.

All Color Computer models shipped with Color BASIC, an implementation of Microsoft BASIC, in ROM. Variants of the OS-9 multitasking operating system were available from third parties.

History

Tandy Corporation announced the TRS-80 Color Computer in July 1980 to compete with the inexpensive and popular VIC-20. The Color Computer is a completely different design than the Zilog Z80-based TRS-80 models. BYTE wrote, "The only similarity between [the two computers] is the name".

The TRS-80 Color Computer derives from an "experimental videotext project by the Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service and the University of Kentucky College of Agriculture" in 1977. Motorola Semiconductor of Austin, Texas, won the contract for the user terminals and Tandy's Computer Division joined later to manufacture the terminals. The initial goal of this project, called "Green Thumb", was to create a low cost Videotex terminal for farmers, ranchers, and others in the agricultural industry. This terminal would connect to a phone line and an ordinary color television and allow the user access to near-real-time information useful to their day-to-day operations on the farm.

Motorola's MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG) chip was released about the time the joint venture started. The 1978 prototype "Green Thumb" terminal used the MC6847 and the Motorola 6809 microprocessor. However, the prototype contained too many chips to be commercially viable. Motorola responded by integrating the functions of many smaller chips into one chip: the MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer (SAM). The SAM, VDG, and 6809 were used as the core of the AgVision terminal. It was also sold through Radio Shack stores as the VideoTex terminal around 1980.

The VideoTex terminal provided the foundation for a general-purpose home computer. The internal modem was removed, and I/O ports for cassette storage, serial I/O, and joysticks were provided. An expansion connector was added to the right side of the case for future enhancements and ROM cartridges ("Program Paks"). A sticker indicating the amount of installed memory in the machine covers the hole where the Modem's LED "DATA" indicator had been. On July 31, 1980, Tandy announced the TRS-80 Color Computer, which shares the same case, keyboard, and layout as the AgVision/VideoTex terminals.

Tandy viewed businesses as its primary market for computers. Although the company's Ed Juge said in 1981 that the Color Computer was "our entry into the home-computer market", he described it as "for serious professionals", stating that a word processor and spreadsheet would soon be available. The initial model (catalog number 26-3001) shipped with 4 KB of Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and  in ROM. Its price was . Within a few months, Radio Shack stores across the US and Canada began selling the new computer.

Color Computer 1 (1980–1983)

The original version of the Color Computer sports a large silver-gray case with a calculator-like chiclet keyboard and was available with memory sizes of 4K (26-3001), 16K (26-3002), or 32K (26-3003). Versions with at least 16K of memory installed shipped with standard Microsoft Color Basic or (optionally) Extended Color BASIC. The only available connection to a display device is to a TV.

Early versions of the CoCo 1 have a black keyboard surround, the TRS-80 nameplate above the keyboard to the left side, and a RAM badge ("button") affixed on the top and right side of the case. Later versions removed the black keyboard surround and RAM button, and moved the TRS-80 nameplate to the mid-line of the case.

The computer is based on a single printed-circuit board with all semiconductors manufactured by Motorola including the MC6809E CPU, MC6847 VDG, MC6883 SAM, and RAM, which consists of 2104 (4Kx1) chips (4K models) or 4116 (16Kx1) chips (16K models). The early CoCos only have eight RAM sockets, so upgrading to 32K requires piggybacking two sets of 4116 chips and adding a few jumper wires. A later motherboard revision removed the 4K RAM option and were upgraded to 32K with "half-bad" 4164 DRAMs. These boards have jumpers marked HIGH/LOW to determine which half of the memory chip was good. As memory production yields improved and costs went down, many (perhaps most) 32K CoCo 1s shipped with perfectly good 4164 memory chips. Utilities and programs began to take advantage of the hidden 32K.

Users opening the case risked invalidating the warranty. Radio Shack could upgrade all versions that shipped with standard Color BASIC to Extended Color BASIC, developed by Microsoft, for $99. BYTE wrote in 1981 that through Extended Color BASIC, Radio Shack "has released the first truly easy-to-use and inexpensive system that generates full-color graphics". Eventually the 32K memory option was dropped entirely and only 16K or 64K versions were offered.

In late 1982, a version of the Color Computer with a white case, called the TDP System 100, was distributed by RCA and sold through non-Tandy stores. Except for the nameplate and case, it is identical to the Color Computer.

Later, both the CoCo and the TDP System 100 shipped with a white case with ventilation slots running the length of the case rather than only the sides. This ventilation scheme carried over to the CoCo 2. Some late versions of the CoCo have a modified keyboard, often referred to as the "melted" keyboard, with bigger keycaps.

Peripherals included tape cassette storage, serial printers, a 5.25-inch floppy disk drive, a pen and graphics tablet called the X-Pad, speech and sound generators, and joysticks.

Color Computer 2 (1983–1986)

During the initial CoCo 1 production run, much of the discrete support circuitry had been re-engineered into a handful of custom integrated circuits, leaving much of the circuit board area of the CoCo 1 as empty space. To cut production costs, the case was shortened by about 25% and a new, smaller power supply and motherboard were designed. The "melted" keyboard from the white CoCo 1 and the TDP-100 style ventilation slots were carried over. Aside from the new look and the deletion of the 12 volt power supply to the expansion connector, the computer was compatible with the previous generation. The removal of the 12V power supply crippled some peripherals such as the original floppy disk controller, which then needed to be upgraded, installed in a Multi-Pak interface, or supplied with external power.

The CoCo 2 was sold in 16K and 64K models. 16K models use 16Kx1 DRAMs, but the chips are not the common 4116; they were instead 4517s (Radio Shack P/N 8040517), which use only +5V power rather than the triple voltages used by the 4116. 64K models use standard 4164 chips and have a control register at $FFDE/$FFDF to switch between the second 32K of RAM and the OS ROMs. With the ROMs banked out, the entire 64K of system RAM can be accessed.

Upgraded BASIC ROMs add minor features and fix some bugs. A redesigned 5-volt disk controller was introduced with its own new Disk BASIC ROM (v1.1). It adds a new command, DOS, to auto-boot software from disk (this requires a disk with a special boot sector). This allows the use of software on copy protected disks or third-party operating systems, chiefly OS-9.

Production was partially moved to Korea, with production in the US and Korea happening in parallel using the same part numbers.

Later in the production run, the "melted" keyboard was replaced with a new, full-travel, typewriter-style keyboard.

The final significant change in the life of the CoCo 2 (models 26-3134B, 26-3136B, and 26-3127B; 16 KB standard, 16 KB extended, and 64 KB extended respectively) was to use the enhanced VDG, the MC6847T1, allowing lowercase characters and changing the text screen border color. These features were not enabled in BASIC. Midway during the production run of these models, the nameplate was changed from "Radio Shack TRS-80 Color Computer 2" to "Tandy Color Computer 2". The red, green, and blue shapes were replaced with red, green, and blue parallelograms.

Creative Computing wrote in December 1984 that the Color Computer was the best educational computer under $1000. The magazine said that it had fewer but better-quality educational software than the Commodore 64, and that Radio Shack was dedicated to the educational market while Commodore was not.

Color Computer 3 (1986–1991)

By 1985, Color Computer users worried that the company would abandon their computer in favor of the Tandy 1000. Tandy executive Ed Juge stated that year that "No home computer on the market today has the potential horsepower of the Color Computer ... we believe [it] also has a good future".

On July 30, 1986, Tandy announced the Color Computer 3 at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. It came with  which could be upgraded to 512 KB. The panel behind the keyboard and cartridge door plastic were changed from black to grey. The keyboard layout was revised, putting the arrow keys in a diamond configuration and adding CTRL, ALT, CLEAR, F1 and F2 keys. It sold in Radio Shack stores and Tandy Computer Centers for $219.95.

The CoCo 3 is compatible with most older software and CoCo 2 peripherals. The 6809 in the CoCo 1 and 2 runs at 0.895 MHz. The CoCo 3 runs at that frequency by default, but is software controllable to run at twice that rate; OS-9 takes advantage of that capability. Taking the place of the graphics and memory hardware in the CoCo 1 and 2 is an application-specific integrated circuit called the GIME (Graphics Interrupt Memory Enhancement) chip. The GIME also provides:

 Output to a composite video monitor or analog RGB monitor, in addition to the CoCo 1 and 2's TV output. This improves the clarity of its output.
 A paged memory management unit breaks up the 6809's 64 KB address space into  chunks. The scheme would later allow third party RAM upgrades of up to 2 MB ().
 Text display with real lowercase at 32, 40, 64, or 80 characters per line and between 16 and 24 lines per screen.
 Text character attributes, including 8 foreground and 8 background colors, underline, and blink.
 New graphics resolutions of 160, 256, 320 or 640 pixels wide by 192 to 225 lines.
 320x192x4, 320x192x16, 640x192x2, and 640x192x4 from a palette of 64 colors. There are two palette modes - RGB (3 base colors with  3 levels of intensity and white, black and two gray tones) and Composite (16 distinct colors with 4 levels of intensity).

Omitted from the GIME are the seldom-used SAM-created Semigraphics 8, 12, and 24 modes. A rumored 256-color mode (detailed in the original Tandy spec for the GIME) has never been found.

Previous versions of the CoCo ROM were licensed from Microsoft, but Tandy could not convince them to provide further BASIC updates. Instead, Microware provided extensions to Extended Color BASIC to support the new display modes. To not violate the spirit of the licensing agreement between Microsoft and Tandy, Microsoft's unmodified BASIC is loaded in the CoCo 3's ROM. Upon startup, the ROM is copied to RAM and patched by Microware's code. The  patched code has several bugs, and support for many of the new hardware features is incomplete.

Microware also provided a version of the OS-9 Level 2 operating system shortly after launch. OS-9 uses memory-mapping (so each process has its own memory space up to 64K), windowed display, and a more extensive development environment that includes a copy of BASIC09. C and Pascal compilers were available. Members of the CoCo OS-9 community enhanced OS-9 Level 2 for the CoCo 3 at Tandy's request, but Tandy stopped production of the CoCo 3 before the upgrade was officially released. Most of the improvements made it into NitrOS-9, a major rewrite of OS-9/6809 Level 2 for the CoCo 3 to take advantage of the features and speed of the Hitachi 6309 (if available).

A  joystick adapter designed by Steve Bjork increases the resolution of the joystick/mouse interface by a factor of ten at the expense of CPU time.

Hardware
Internally the CoCo 1 and CoCo 2 models are functionally identical. The core of the system is virtually identical to the reference design included in the Motorola MC6883 data sheet and consists of five LSI chips:
 MC6809E Microprocessor Unit (MPU)
 MC6883/SN74LS783/SN74LS785 Synchronous Address Multiplexor (SAM)
 MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG)
 Two Peripheral Interface Adapters (PIA), either MC6821 or MC6822 chips

SAM
The SAM is a multifunction device that performs the following functions:
 Clock generation and synchronization for the 6809E MPU and 6847 VDG
 Up to 64K Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) control and refresh
 Device selection based on MPU memory address to determine if the MPU access is to DRAM, ROM, PIA, etc.
 Duplication of the VDG address counter to "feed" the VDG the data it is expecting

The SAM was designed to replace numerous small LS/TTL chips into one integrated package. Its main purpose is to control the DRAM but, as outlined above, it integrates several other functions as well. It is connected to a crystal at 4 times the television colorburst frequency (14.31818 MHz for NTSC countries). This is divided by 4 internally and is fed to the VDG for its own internal timing (3.579545 MHz for NTSC). The SAM also divides the master clock by 16 (or 8 in certain cases) for the two phase MPU clock; in NTSC this is .89 MHz (or 1.8 MHz if divided by 8).

Switching the SAM into 1.8 MHz operation gives the CPU the time ordinarily used by the VDG and refresh. As such, the display shows garbage; this mode was seldom used. However, an unusual mode available by the SAM is called the Address Dependent mode, where ROM reads (since they do not use the DRAM) occur at 1.8 MHz but regular RAM access occurs at .89 MHz. In effect, since the BASIC interpreter runs from ROM, putting the machine in this mode would nearly double the performance of a BASIC program while maintaining video display and DRAM refresh. Of course, this would throw off the software timing loops and I/O operations would be affected. Despite this, however, the "high speed POKE" was used by many CoCo BASIC programs even though it overclocked the hardware in the CoCo, which was only rated for 1 MHz operation.

The SAM has no connection to the MPU data bus. As such, it is programmed in a curious manner; its 16-bit configuration register is spread across 32 memory addresses (FFC0-FFDF). Writing even bytes sets that register bit to 0, while writing odd bytes sets it to 1. The value (D7-D0) that is written is ignored.

Due to limitations in 40-pin packaging, the SAM contains a duplicate of the VDG's internal 12-bit address counter. Normally this counter's settings are set to duplicate the VDG's display mode. However, this is not required and results in the creation of some new display modes not possible when the VDG is used in a system alone. Instead of the VDG requesting data from RAM by itself, the VDG is "fed" data by the SAM's internal copy of the VDG address counter. This process is called "Interleaved Direct Memory Access" (IDMA) by Motorola and ensures that the processor and VDG always have full access to this shared memory resource with no wait states or contention.

There are two versions of the SAM. The early one is labeled MC6883 and/or SN74LS783; the later version is labeled SN74LS785. There are some minor timing differences, but the major difference is the support of an 8-bit refresh counter in the 785 version. This allowed for use of inexpensive 16K by 4-bit and certain 64K by 1-bit DRAMs. Some third-party bank-switching memory upgrades that used 256K DRAMs needed this 8-bit refresh counter to work.

VDG

The Motorola 6847 is display generator capable of displaying text and graphics contained within a roughly square display matrix 256 pixels wide by 192 lines high. It can display 9 colors: black, green, yellow, blue, red, white, cyan, magenta, and orange.

Alphanumeric/Semigraphics display

In alphanumeric mode, each character is a 5 dot wide by 7 dot high character in a box 8 dots wide and 12 lines high. This display mode occupies 512 bytes of memory from $400-$5FF and is a 32 character wide screen with 16 lines. The ROM character generator only holds 64 characters, so no lowercase characters are provided. "Lowercase" characters are rendered as uppercase with inverted color. On most CoCo generations it is green on very dark green.

Semigraphics is a mode where alphanumerics and low resolution graphics can be mixed together. The 8th bit of a character determines if it is alphanumeric or treated as a 2×2 pixel grid. When the 8th bit is set, the next three bits determine the color and last 4 bits specify which quadrants of the character box are either the selected color or black. This allows a 64×32 graphics mode with 9 colors, the only mode where it is possible to display all 9 colors simultaneously.

There are two colorsets. The default has black characters on a green background. The alternate has black characters on an orange background. The colorset selection does not affect semigraphics characters. The border is always black.

The 6847 is capable of a Semigraphics 6 display mode, where two bits select a color and 6 bits determine which 1/6 of the character box is lit. Only 4 colors are possible, but the colorset bit of the VDG selects two groups of 4 colors. Only two colors are available in graphics blocks when using Semigraphics 6 on the CoCo.

The default alphanumeric display for the CoCo is Semigraphics 4.

Additional Semigraphics modes
By setting the SAM such that it believes it is displaying a full graphics mode, but leaving the VDG in Alphanumeric/Semigraphics 4 mode, it is possible to subdivide the character box into smaller pieces. This creates the "virtual" modes Semigraphics 8, 12, and 24. In these modes it was possible to mix bits and pieces of different text characters as well as Semigraphics 4 characters. These modes were an interesting curiosity but not widely used, as the Semigraphics 24-screen consumed 6144 bytes of memory. These modes were not implemented on the CoCo 3.

A programmer's reference manual for the CoCo states that due to a fire at Tandy's research lab, the papers relating to the semigraphics modes were shuffled, and so some of the semigraphics modes were never documented. CoCo enthusiasts created experimental programs to try to reverse engineer the modes, and were able to reconstruct the missing documentation.

Bitmap modes
Bitmap display modes are divided into two categories: resolution and color.

In resolution modes, each pixel is addressable as either on or off. There are two colorsets available: black dots on a green background with a green border, and white dots on a black background with a white border.

In color modes, each pixel uses two bits to select one of four colors, with the overall colors determined by the colorset:
 a green border with the colors green, yellow, red, and blue;
 a white border with the colors white, cyan, magenta, and orange.

Resolution graphics store 8 pixels per byte and are available in 128×64, 128×96, 128×192, and 256×192 modes. Color graphics have 4 pixels per byte and are available in 64×64, 128×64, 128×96, and 128×192. The maximum size of a bitmap screen is 6144.

Artifact colors

The 256×192 two color graphics mode can display four colors due to a quirk in the NTSC television system. These are called composite artifact colors.

In the first colorset, where green and black dots are available, alternating columns of green and black appear as a muddy green color. With the white and black colorset, the result is either orange or blue. Reversing the order of the alternating dots gives the opposite color. In effect, this mode is 128×192 with four colors: black, orange, blue, and white. On PAL televisions, instead of solid orange and blue, artifacts appear as vertical stripes of green and peach with soft edges and a width of almost four pixels. On a CoCo 3 with an analog RGB monitor, the black and white dot patterns do not artifact.

The bit patterns that represent orange and blue can be different each time the system is powered up. Most Color Computer games start with a title screen and ask the user to press the reset button until the colors are correct. This is fixed on the Color Computer 3, and the other colorset can be chosen by holding F1 during reset.

Lowercase and the 6847T1

The 6847 is capable of using an external character generator. Several third-party add-on boards allow the CoCo to display real lowercase characters.

Late in the CoCo 2 production run, the enhanced 6847T1 VDG was used. It includes a lowercase character generator and the ability to display a green/orange or black border on the text screen. The lowercase capability is disabled by default on these CoCo 2s, and is not mentioned in the manual.

Sound

The CoCo has two methods of making sound: a 6-bit Digital-to-analog converter and a separate 1-bit sound source. Cassette playback or an analog signal can be also be routed from the cartridge port to the TV speaker.

PIAs
There are two Peripheral Interface Adapter chips in all CoCo models. The PIAs are dedicated to I/O operations such as driving the internal 6-bit Digital-to-analog converter, controlling the relay for the cassette motor, reading the keyboard, controlling the VDG mode pins, and accessing the RS-232 serial I/O port.

The earliest CoCo models have two standard 6821 chips. Later, after changes in the keyboard design, the 6822 IIA (Industrial Interface Adapter) was used instead. The 6822 was eventually discontinued by Motorola, but was produced for Tandy as an application-specific integrated circuit with the part number SC67331P.

Interface to external peripherals
Due to the CoCo's design, the MPU encounters no wait states in normal operation. This means that precise software controlled timing loops are easily implemented. This is important since the CoCo has no specialized hardware for any I/O. All I/O operations, such as cassette reading and writing, serial I/O, scanning the keyboard, and reading the position of the joysticks, must be done entirely in software. This reduces hardware cost but reduces system performance as the MPU is unavailable during these operations.

As an example, the CoCo cassette interface is perhaps one of the fastest available (1500 bits/s) but it does so entirely under software control. While reading or writing a cassette the CoCo has no CPU time free for other tasks. They must wait until an error occurs or all the data needed is read.

CoCo 3 hardware changes
In the CoCo 3, a new VLSI ASIC called (officially) the Advanced Color Video Chip (ACVC) or (unofficially) the Graphics Interrupt Memory Enhancer (GIME), integrated the functions of the SAM and VDG while enhancing the capabilities of both. The CoCo 3 supports 40- and 80-column text and the ability to run at 1.8 MHz without loss of video. The processor was changed to the 68B09E and the PIA was changed to the 68B21, which are 2 MHz parts.

Discontinuation

On October 26, 1990, Tandy announced that the CoCo 3 would be dropped from its computer line.

Wayne Green wrote in 80 Micro in December 1982 that Tandy had "virtually abandoned" the Color Computer. As with its other computers, Tandy attempted to monopolize hardware and software sales, but, he wrote, the Color Computer was incompatible with other Tandy software and what was available was of poor quality. "I'm sure there are at least fifty software firms out there that would love to work with the Shack", Green said, but "it seems that the Shack people are at war with their supporters and potential suppliers". Many CoCo owners agree that Tandy did not take the computer seriously.

Successors
A few companies attempted to carry the CoCo torch, but the lack of decent backwards compatibility with the  failed to entice much of the community. Some of these systems run OS9/68k, which is similar to OS-9.

Frank Hogg Labs introduced the Tomcat TC-9 in June 1990, which is somewhat compatible with the  but is only able to run OS-9 software. A later version called the TC-70 has strong compatibility with the MM/1, and also runs OS-9/68K.

Multi-Media One was introduced in July 1990, runs OS-9/68K on a 15 MHz Signetics 68070 processor with  and a 640×208 graphics resolution as well as supporting a 640×416 interlaced mode. It includes a SCSI interface, stereo A/D and D/A conversion, an optional MIDI interface, and an optional board to upgrade the CPU to a Motorola 68340. The AT306 (also known as the MM/1B) is a successor to the MM/1 that contains a Motorola 68306 CPU, OS-9/68K 3.0, and allows ISA bus cards. It was created by Kevin Pease and Carl Kreider, and sold by Carl's company, Kreider Electronics.

Peripheral Technology produced a 16 MHz Motorola 68000 system called a PTK68K-4. Delmar sold systems based on the PT68K-4 and called the Delmar System IV. The PT68K-4 has the footprint of an IBM PC and seven 8-bit ISA slots. Video is provided by a standard video card and monitor, but for high-resolution graphics the software only supports certain video cards.

Gary Becker produced the CoCo3FPGA for Terasic DE FPGA boards. It contains a 6809 CPU core which can run at 25 MHz. It adds 256-color graphics modes, including a 640x450 mode.

Roger Taylor developed a CoCo 3 clone, Matchbox Coco, based on the DE0-Nano FPGA board.  Renamed to RealCoCo, it has been ported to other FPGA hardware.

Clones and cousins
The Dragon 32 and 64 are British cousins of the CoCo based on a reference design from Motorola that was produced as an example of the capabilities of the MC6809E CPU when coupled with the MC6847 Video Display Generator and the MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer. The BIOS  for the Dragon 32 was written based on specifications and API drawn up by Microsoft and, to a certain extent, PA Consulting of Cambridge. The Dragon was a much improved unit with video output in addition to the TV output of the CoCo and CoCo 2. It also featured a Centronics parallel port (not present on any CoCo), an integrated 6551A serial UART (on the Dragon 64), and a higher-quality keyboard. In 1983, a version of the Dragon was licensed for manufacture for the North American market by Tano Corporation of New Orleans, Louisiana. Tano started production at their  facility in September 1983 and were running at capacity one month later. Sales did not meet expectations and Tano stopped production and support after a year.

In Brazil, there were several CoCo clones, including the Prológica CP-400 Color and CP400 Color II, the Varixx VC50, the LZ Color64, the Dynacom MX1600, the Codimex CD-6809, and the vaporware Microdigital TKS800.

In Mexico, the Micro-SEP, a CoCo 2 clone with 64 KB of memory, was introduced by the Secretary of Education. The Micro-SEP was intended to be distributed nationally to all the public schools teaching the 7th to 9th grades. They were presented as a design of the Center of Advanced Research and Studies of Instituto Politécnico Nacional. Like the Dragon, these computers also included video output. Whether these computers were "designed" by this institute, or were licensed from the original design, is unclear.

A Taiwan-based company, Sampo, also made a CoCo clone, the Sampo Color Computer. The Sampo was supposedly available in Taiwan, Korea, and possibly other Asian countries. It is believed that Tandy blocked sales in the US with legal action due to copyright infringements on the ROM code.

The TRS-80 MC-10, or Micro Color Computer, was sold in Radio Shack stores as an entry-level computer at a lower cost than the CoCo. Released in 1983, it was similar in appearance to the Timex Sinclair. Like the CoCo, it uses the MC6847 VDG and Microsoft BASIC, but with the MC6803 instead of the 6809.

See also
:Category:TRS-80 Color Computer games

References

External links

CoCo Chronicles, a history of the Color Computer
CoCopedia, TRS-80 CoCo Wiki
CoCo3FPGA Wiki
 Color computer technical reference or  as a PDF
Color Computer/OS-9 Forum at Delphiforums
1984 Color Computer magazine ad
Emulators
Mocha, JavaScript CoCo Emulator

6809-based home computers
Home computers
Computer-related introductions in 1980
8-bit computers


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The Battle of Hlobane (28 March 1879) took place at Hlobane, near the modern town of Vryheid in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa during the Anglo-Zulu War.

Background
The British commander Frederic Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford) intended to invade Zululand with three columns and converge on the Zulu capital of Ulundi (Ondini). No. 1 Column (under Colonel Charles Pearson) on the coast was to begin its advance at the Lower Drift of the Tugela River. No. 3 Column (under Lord Chelmsford) in the centre was to cross Rorke's Drift and advance  to the capital. No. 4 Column (under Colonel Evelyn Wood) had to advance the shortest distance, about . Wood was to move slowly to enable No. 1 Column to catch up. No. 4 Column consisted of eight infantry companies from the 13th and 90th Light Infantry, with about  four 7-pounder mountain guns of the 11th Battery, 7th Brigade (11/7) RA, roughly 200 cavalry of the Frontier Light Horse (FLH), the civilian followers of Piet Uys and Wood's Irrregulars, 300 African infantry along with ox-wagon transport and impedimenta, about 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry all told.

Prelude

No. 4 Column was to occupy the attention of those Zulus dwelling on the flat-topped mountains rising out of the plains of north-west Zululand. The distance of these Zulus from the capital, Ulundi, gave them a degree of independence from Cetshwayo, enabling the chiefs to withhold their warriors for local defence, rather than contributing to the main Zulu Army. Chelmsford required these Zulus to be distracted so that they would not interfere with the operations of No. 3 Column during its advance to Isandlwana and onto Ulundi. On 17 January 1879, Wood advanced his column north-eastwards and a laager (a defensive wagon circle) was established at Tinta's Kraal,  south of a chain of flat-topped mountains on 20 January. These were Zunguin, Hlobane and Ityentika, connected by a nek and running for  in a north-easterly direction.

While the camp was being fortified, scouts investigating the mountains were attacked from Zunguin by about  At dawn the next day an attack was mounted on Zunguin and the Zulus fled to Hlobane, where Wood observed about  drilling that afternoon. An attack on Hlobane had begun on 24 January but after Wood learnt of the British defeat at the Battle of Isandlwana, was called off. After falling back to Tinta's Kraal, Wood decided to move his column north-westwards to Kambula hill, about  due west of Zunguin. Their arrival on 31 January was met with a message from Chelmsford informing Wood that all orders were cancelled, he was now on his own with no expectation of reinforcements and he must be prepared to face the whole Zulu Army.

Kambula

February 1879 passed quietly, save for mounted patrols sent out daily to raid the kraals of Zulus harassing No. 5 Column across the eastern Transvaal border. At Kambula, a hexagonal laager was formed with wagons locked together; a separate kraal for the cattle was constructed on the edge of the southern face of the ridge. Trenches and earth parapets surrounded both and a stone-built redoubt was built on a rise just north of the kraal. A palisade blocked the  between the kraal and redoubt and four 7-pounders were positioned between the redoubt and the laager to cover the northern approaches. Two more guns in the redoubt covered the north-east. Wood received much needed reinforcements in the form of Transvaal Rangers, mounted troops, a troop of German settlers and five companies of the 80th Regiment of Foot.

Wood had hoped to detach the Zulus in the area from their allegiance to Cetshwayo, particularly uHamu kaNzibe, Cetshwayo's half-brother, who had always been friendly towards the British and at odds with the Zulu King. On 13 March, uHamu entered the camp with about 700 followers, requesting escorts to bring the rest of his people out of hiding. They were in caves near the headwaters of the Black Umfolozi,  to the east and only  from Ulundi. It would be risky to escort large numbers to safety over this area but Wood considered the advantages made it worthwhile. An escort of  mounted troops and about 200 of uHamu's warriors returned to Kambula with another  Shortly afterwards, Wood received a request from Chelmsford to create a distraction to draw off some of the Zulu strength, while he tried to intervene in the Battle of Eshowe. Knowing that an Impi was preparing to leave Ulundi and attack either Kambula or the British fort at Utrecht, Wood reckoned that by attacking Hlobane on 28 March he could drive cattle off the mountain, prompting the Impi to attack him in his prepared position at Kambula.

Battle
Hlobane consisted of two plateaux, the lower and smaller of which rose to a height of about  at the eastern end of the -long col (nek) connecting it to Zunguin to the south-west. At the eastern end of this lower plateau the ground rose very steeply for another  up a narrow, boulder-strewn way, forming a series of giant steps, known as Devil's Pass, to the higher plateau. On the top of this plateau were about  and approximately  Zulu. Wood's plan was for mounted troops led by Lieutenant-Colonel Redvers Buller to scale the eastern track to the higher plateau, supported by rocket artillery and friendly Zulu to lift the cattle. A similar force, under Major R. A. Russell, would occupy the lower plateau.

At dawn on 27 March the forces departed, hampered by a thunderstorm and Zulu sniping by the light of lightning flashes. Buller's mounted troops reached the summit by  the following day and African infantry began herding cattle westwards. As Russell's troops occupied the lower plateau, Wood encountered a group of the Border Horse who had become detached from Buller's advance up the higher plateau. Wood ordered them to advance towards the firing on the upper plateau but the men, mostly English settlers from Transvaal, refused. Wood rode on with his small party, intending to follow Buller's track up to the summit and was eventually followed by the Border Horse. Coming under fire from caves, as had Buller's men, Wood was again defied by the Border Horse when he ordered them to clear the way forward. Five of Wood's escorts charged the caves; Wood's staff officer Captain R. Campbell and his political agent, Mr. Lloyd, were killed. The group moved westwards to join Russell on the lower plateau.

At  while Wood was riding along the southern flank of Hlobane he spotted five large columns of Zulu to the south-east. This was the main Impi, which he had not expected to arrive for another day and was closing on the British fast, only  away. The Impi was already dispersing and Wood could see that they would block Buller's retreat from the upper plateau and then trap Russell. Even if Wood withdrew both groups, they would have to make a rapid retreat to Kambula to get there before the Zulu. Wood hurriedly sent a message to Russell, ordering him to move up to the nek but with the advantage of high ground, Russell had already seen the Impi, an hour and a half before Wood and sent a warning to Buller.

Buller realised his predicament; turning back was impossible, the only option was to make for the lower plateau and rendezvous with Russell's force. Russell had moved his troops off the lower plateau to Intyentika Nek to support Buller's troops as they descended. When Wood's orders arrived, Russell and his officers took it that Wood wished for them to take up positions on another nek,  westwards, by Zunguin. Leaving a small number of troops, Russell's force departed in that direction, leaving Buller alone at Hlobane.

Buller's troops could only reach the lower plateau through Devil's Pass. The dangerous traverse was the cause of much confusion among his troopers with their unsettled horses, which led to casualties. This danger was heightened by the abaQulusi, who after they saw the approaching Zulu army, became more confident and daring in their attacks on the withdrawing troops; the British had to fight their way through the pass. Despite the danger, the British were able to get off the plateau and onto the plains, where Buller ordered them to make for Kambula. The force was broken and disorganised, many horses had been lost the men were required to ride pillion to make it to Kambula but they eventually arrived. The Zulu Impi reached the plain shortly after the British had departed and followed them for , skirmishing on all sides.

Aftermath

Analysis
The Battle of Hlobane was a Zulu victory; the Border Horse, trapped and unable to retreat to Kambula, was annihilated and the battalions of Zulu helping the British decamped. Wood was confident that the Zulu Impi would attack the defensive works at Kambula as he hoped and he expected victory. The following day, at the Battle of Kambula, the Zulu army was routed.

Casualties
Fifteen officers and  soldiers were killed, eight were wounded and  soldiers were killed. The loss in horses gravely weakened the mobility of the survivors.

Victoria Cross
Colonel Buller received the Victoria Cross for his conspicuous gallantry and leadership, as did Lieutenant Henry Lysons and Private Edmund Fowler for charging the caves that morning. Major William Leet and Lieutenant Edward Browne were awarded the VC for going back to save the lives of wounded men at the descent of Devil's Pass.

See also
 Military history of South Africa
 Horror at the Devil's Pass – The Battle of Hlobane, 28 March 1879

Notes

Footnotes

References

Further reading

Novels
 David Ebsworth, The Kraals of Ulundi, Silverwood Books, 2014.
 Philippe Morvan, Les fils du ciel (The sons of the sky), Calmann-Lévy, 2021.

External links
 anglozuluwar.co.za
 Anglo-Zulu War: Battle of Hlobane
 Travellers Impressions

Hlobane
1879 in the Zulu Kingdom
History of KwaZulu-Natal
March 1879 events
Zulu history
Hlobane
Hlobane

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Bevilacqua ist eine italienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Verona in Venetien.

Geographie
Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 39 Kilometer südöstlich von Verona an der Fratta (einem Nebenfluss der Brenta), gehört zur Unione Comunale Dall'Adige al Fratta und grenzt unmittelbar an die Provinz Padua. Der Verwaltungssitz befindet sich im Ortsteil Marega.

Verkehr
Der Bahnhof von Bevilacqua liegt an der Bahnstrecke von Mantua nach Monselice. Durch die Gemeinde führt die frühere Strada Statale 10 Padana Inferiore (heute eine Regionalstraße) von Turin nach Monselice.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in der Provinz Verona


text:
Pinera or Piñera may refer to:

People
 Piñera (surname)
 Mike Pinera (born 1948), American musician
 Piñera family, a Chilean political family, including, most notably:
 Sebastián Piñera (born 1949), President of Chile from 2010 to 2014 and 2018 to 2022
Andrés Chadwick Piñera (born 1956), Chilean lawyer, politician, and cousin of Sebastián Piñera

Places

Australia
 Pinera railway station, in Adelaide, South Australia

Spain
 Piñera (Castropol), a parish in Castropol, Asturias
 Piñera (Cudillero), a parish in Cudillero, Asturias
 Piñera (Narcea), a parish in Cangas del Narcea, Asturias
 Piñera (Navia), a parish in Navia, Asturias
 La Piñera, a parish in Morcín, Asturias
 San Juan de Piñera, a parish in Cudillero, Asturias


text:
Henley-On-Thames is een spoorwegstation van National Rail in Henley-on-Thames, South Oxfordshire in Engeland. Het station is eigendom van Network Rail en wordt beheerd door First Great Western. Het station is geopend in 1857.

Spoorwegstation in Oxfordshire


text:
James Webb peut faire référence à :
 James Baldwin-Webb (1894-1940), homme politique britannique ;
 James E. Webb (1906-1992), second administrateur américain de la NASA ;
 James Web, ingénieur du son américain ;
 James R. Webb (1909-1974), scénariste américain ;
 James Watson Webb (1802-1884), journaliste américain ;
 James Webb III (1993-), joueur de baseball américain ;
 James « Jimmy » Webb (1987-), grimpeur américain.

Astronautique
 le télescope spatial James-Webb, nommé d'après l'administrateur de la NASA James E. Webb.

Voir aussi


text:
Bjoernstadia is een geslacht van vlinders van de familie Metarbelidae. De wetenschappelijke naam en de beschrijving van dit geslacht werden voor het eerst in 2012 gepubliceerd door Ingo Lehmann.

Soorten
Bjoernstadia kasuluensis Lehmann, 2012

Metarbelidae


text:
Alvik är en stadsdel i Bromma i Västerort inom Stockholms kommun.

Stadsdelen Alvik motsvarar det område gården Alvik omfattade vid 1800-talets början och ligger med Mälaren i öster. Stadsdelen gränsar till Traneberg i norr, Ulvsunda i väster och Äppelviken i söder.

Alvik fungerar som en av knutpunkterna för kommunikationer i Bromma och Västerort. Vid Alvik ligger Tranebergsbrons västra ändpunkt och här finns två av Tvärbanans hållplatser samt en mindre bussterminal och ett litet köpcentrum, Alviks torg,  nära trafikplatsen Alviksplan. Vid Alviksplan möts Drottningholmsvägen mot öst och väst, Gustavslundsvägen mot Alviks torg och SALK-hallen samt Alviksvägen mot Äppelviken. I direkt anslutning till Alviks torg, men i grannstadsdelen Traneberg finns Nockebybanans ena ändhållplats samt station Alvik på tunnelbanans gröna linje.

Historia

Alviks gård
Huvudartikel: Alviks gård

Torpet Ahlwijken

Alvik har fått sitt namn efter torpet Ahlwijken. I 1720 års jordebok upptas torpet Ahlwijken för första gången som frälsetorp på ett 1/4 mantal under Ulvsunda. Det låg strax nordväst om där T-banestationen Alvik ligger idag. 1789 har torpet Ahlwijken flyttat till den plats för den senare byggda gården, och tydligen hade det torpet vid det gamla läget blivit en krog. En gård med namnet Alvik friköptes 1820 och fick säteristatus i likhet med modergården Ulvsunda.

Alviks gårds byggnader
På en ås, där nuvarande Alviksvägen 11–13 ligger, byggdes en envånings mangårdsbyggnad med sadeltak och två flyglar. 1811 hade mangården två våningar, mansardtak och vindskupor. Vid gårdsplanen fanns två mindre hus.  Gården Alvik friköptes 1820 och fick säteristatus i likhet med modergården Ulvsunda. Enligt jordeboken från 1819 "utgöres detta säteri af de Ulfsunda säteri fordom tillhörande lägenheterna Ahlwiken, Asplund och Vidängen". Alviks gårds huvudbyggnad revs 1923 och av gården finns nu endast Alviks rättarbostad kvar. Alviks rättarbostad byggdes i början av 1800-talet som en parstuga. Då var det drängstuga och sedermera blev det spannmålsbod eller visthusbod, en byggnad avsedd för förvaring av matvaror År 1865 byggdes den gamla spannmålsboden om och år 1885 ändrades funktionen till rättarbostad. Huset används idag för olika konstnärs- och hantverksaktiviteter.

Gården från 1864 till 1914
Alviks och Äppelvikens gårdar köptes 1864 av Lars Montén (1785–1872), som byggde en stearinfabrik vid Mälarstranden. 1867 såldes frälselägenheten Widängen, norr om dagens Drottningholmsvägen och det området var i början av 1900-talet en handelsträdgård. De båda huvudgårdarna ärvdes 1872 av Lars Monténs båda systersonsöner, kusinerna Carl Bergstedt och Eric Bergstedt. Carl Bergstedt använde under lång tid Alviks mangårdsbyggnad som sommarnöje. Han lät bygga nya ekonomibyggnader, stallar och ladugård på tomterna.

Efter stadens köp 1908 användes mangården av Bromma församling som komministerbostad och pastorsexpedition till 1914.

Fabriken vid Mälarstranden och tunnbinderiet
Huvudartikel: Klara tekniska fabrik

Stearinljusfabriken vid Alviks strand anlades 1864 där ett stort industrikomplex växte fram. Senare tillverkade man även tvål och såpa i fabriken. År 1920 gick Monténs fabrik samman med Barnängens Tekniska Fabrik, dit sedan hela verksamheten 1929 flyttade till en nybyggd fabrik här. Vita huset, som byggdes 1895-1900 alldeles vid Mälarstranden, byggdes då om till huvudkontor och är nu den historiska kärnan i det nya kontorsområdet i Alvik tillsammans med den tegelröda fabriksbyggnaden från 1918. Vita huset var från början en mjölksyrafabrik. Över porten står det 1893 och det syftar på det år då byggnaden renoverades för att bli Alfa-Lavals huvudkontor. Byggnaden är idag kontor för andra företag.

År 1881 anlades av Firma Lars Montén ganska nära den nuvarande idrottshallen SALK-hallen ett tunnbinderi, som fram till 1936 tillverkade laggkärl för tvål- och såpafabrikens produkter, men även smördrittlar och snuskaggar. År 1963 byggdes tunnbinderiets lokaler om för att hysa Shantungskolan. Huset revs 1978. Höghuset Alviks Torn, som invigdes 2014, på Gustavslundsvägen 149 vid Alviks strand är byggt precis på den mark där det tidigare tunnbinderiet låg och där senare Shantungskolan hade sina lokaler fram till 1978.

Stadens köp 1908 och stadsplan från 1922
Huvudartikel: Gamla Bromma trädgårdsstad

År 1908 köpte Stockholms stad Äppelvikens gård och större delen av Alviks gård, som då ägdes av handelsbolaget Lars Montén mot en köpesumma av  kronor. Undantagna vid köpet var fabrikstomten vid stranden och mangårdsbyggnaden. Mangårdsbyggnaden överläts till Bromma församling. Området norr om Drottningholmsvägen ingick inte heller i markköpet.

I samband med markköpet 1908 gjordes ett första förslag till stadsplan för Alvik. August Emanuel Påhlman (1880-1937), som var stadsplaneingenjör vid Stockholms stads lantegendomsnämnd 1908–1913 och stadsingenjör i Stockholm 1914–1932, ritade ett första förslag till stadsplan. Den stadsplanen innehöll två breda trafikleder. Dessa var nuvarande Gustavslundsvägen och Alviksvägen. Alviksvägen drogs ungefär som den gamla landsvägen mellan Alviks och Smedslättens gård. En järnväg mot Nockeby var markerad med ett något annorlunda läge än den nuvarande 12:ans spårväg. Utmed båda huvudvägarna föreslogs sammanbyggda trevåningshus. Området i övrigt var avsett för villor med trädgårdar. På den branta sluttningen mot Mälarens sjö i söder planerades ett parkområde, den nuvarande Mälarparken, öster om Runda Vägen.

Förslaget till stadsplan kom att ändras flera gånger, men påminner mycket om den gällande stadsplanen, som fastställdes den 15 december 1922 av Thure Bergentz och Per-Olof Hallman. Planen skiljer sig från de tidigare förslagen genom att den tillåter fyravåningshus utmed de två huvudvägarna. I mitten på 1920-talet uppfördes de flesta egna hemmen, oftast genom entreprenad av den blivande ägaren. Bland arkitekterna till trädgårdsstaden i Bromma kan nämnas Gustaf Pettersson, Gustaf Larson och Edvin Engström som samtliga var knutna till stadens egnahemsbyrån.

Området norr om Drottningholmsvägen och Alvik från 1930-talet
Stockholms stad köpte fastigheten norr om Drottningholmsvägen. Alviks nödbostäder låg under åren 1917-1944 på samma plats där sedan spårvagnshallarna, Brommadepån, byggdes. I mitten av 1930-talet revs de första husen för att ge plats åt den breddade Drottningholmsvägen och blivande Alviksplan. I början av 1940-talet försvann de flesta husen då SL:s vagnhall byggdes (nuvarande Brommadepån). Sista byggnaden revs 1944. Närmast Alviksplan fanns några hus kvar en bit in på 1950-talet. Området planlades under 1930- och 1940-talen.

När Tranebergsbron blev färdig 1934 började man planera för ombyggnad av Alvik-området.

Bebyggelse

Byggnader 1900-1960-talet

Pontonbron över Tranebergssund stod klar 1914 och spårvägsförbindelse till staden fanns från 1917.

De äldsta husen i Alvik är från omkring 1914. Huset som är ett affärshus ligger på Alviksvägen 25. Under senare delen av 1910-talet fram till mitten av 1920-taletuppfördes ett villaområde ovanför Alviks dåvarande industriområde, vid gränsen till Äppelviken. I Alvik och Äppelviken gjordes tomterna större än i stadens tidigare egnahemsområden. Flera av de individuellt utformade villorna är ritade av Edvin Engström, som var arkitekt vid Fastighetskontoret, Stockholms stad.

Under 1920-talet byggdes flerfamiljshus utmed huvudgatorna. Edvin Engström ritade även en del av den stadsmässiga bebyggelsen i tre eller fyra våningar med butikslokaler i bottenvåningen som på 1920-talet uppfördes vid Alviksvägen. Butikerna i bottenvåningen skulle fungera som affärscentrum i den nya förorten. Husen är putsade och utformade i den klassicistiska form som var rådande. Bromma-Teatern, där nu Alviks måleri inryms, vid Alviksplan byggdes 1921.

Alviks skola är utbyggd i etapper från 1882. Den dominerande byggnaden är från 1925 ritad av Georg A. Nilsson. I öster tillfogades 1939 en ny del.

Tranebergsbron blev färdig 1934. Stockholms Allmänna Lawntennisklubb (SALK) lät 1936 bygga en stor tennishall vid Gustavslundsvägen och tennishallen SALK-hallen blev färdig 1937. Den gamla hallen brann ned helt i en våldsam brand 1993 och SALK-hallen nyuppfördes 1994. Alviks kommunalhus invigdes 1941. Den nya spårvagnshallen, Brommadepån, stod färdig 1944. På 1930- och 1940-talen planlades och bebyggdes Alviksberget ovanför industriområdet. Husen är 3-4 våningar höga lamellhus och flera av dem innehåller äldrebostäder. Vid Runda vägen 18-23 uppfördes ett smalhus med pensionärsbostäder, Brommahemmet, Alvik. Huset, som byggdes 1935 av arkitekt Birger Borgström. Under 1940-talet byggdes ytterligare sju stycken tre- och fyravåningshus för äldreboende här uppe. Mest känd är Elfvinggården på Lyckovägen 9 i Äppelviken (inom stadsdelen Alviks område), som uppfördes 1940 för mindre bemedlade kvinnor. Elfvinggårdens gula tegelhus består av nio hus och ritades av Backström & Reinius Arkitekter AB.

Spårvagnshallarna vid Brommadepån började byggas 1942 och samtidigt revs en del gamla nödbostäderna. Det var en 130 x 60 m stor spårvagnshall med betongkonstruktion. Skötselhall och kontorsbyggnad stod också klara 1944 då den nya spårvägen Ängbybanan invigdes mellan Alvik och Islandstorget. Samma bana är tunnelbana sedan 1952, då Alviks tunnelbanestation invigdes.

Väster om tunnelbanan byggdes 1961 höghuset, som först rymde bostäder för KFUM, men nu är hotell. Samma arkitekt ritade också Västerleds församlingshus och Sankt Ansgars kyrka, som invigdes 1963.

Historiska bilder

Byggnader från 1970-talet
Alviks strand ligger i södra delen av stadsdelen Alvik vid vattnet vid Mälarens strand. Vid 1970-talets slut ritade arkitekt Lennart Bergström sju kopplade kontorspunkthus i tegel. De följdes av de fem bågformade kontorsbyggnaderna i gult tegel, som är placerade kring den enda återstående industribyggnaden. Husen stod klara 1990 och är ritade av CAN-arkitektkontor.

Alviks torg var klart 1998. Här finns affärer och kontor, och ned mot Mälaren var bostadsområdet Tranebergs strand klart 1994. Den långsträckta kontorsbyggnaden med butiker i bottenvåningens arkad ritades av Arndt & Malmquist arkitektkontor. Fasadelementen är klädda med rött fasadtegel och älvdalskvartsit. Längs torgets södra sida finns en kontorsbyggnad med butiker i bottenvåningen ritad av Arndt & Malmquist arkitektkontor. I byggnadens västra del inryms tvärspårvägens sluthållplats med anslutning till Alviks tunnelbanestation. Mellan åren 1996 och 2000 byggdes Alvikstunneln som genom dubbelspår förbinder tvärbanans hållplatserna Alviks strand och Alvik.

Byggnader från 1990-talet - 2000-talet
År 1995 började Alviks Torg att byggas. Den första etappen närmast Mälaren blev klar för inflyttning 1996. Hösten 1998 blev hela Alviks Torg färdigt. Alviks Torg är nu ett omfattande serviceområde med butiker, restauranger och bibliotek. Det nyuppförda Alviks Torn ligger i kvarteret Racketen. Det är ett bostadshus på 18 våningar. Höghuset, som invigdes 2014, är med sina 18 våningar fördelat på 56,7 meter. Det är Västerorts högsta bostadshus.

Nutida bilder

Demografi
År 2017 hade stadsdelen cirka 1 500 invånare, varav cirka 19,4 procent med utländsk bakgrund.

Se även
 Alviks Torn

Referenser

Noter

Tryckta källor

Externa länkar

Stadsdelar i Stockholm
Bromma stadsdelsområde


text:
Elisabeth Baumann ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Elisabeth Baumann (Eurythmistin) (1895–1947), Schweizer Eurythmistin
 Elisabeth Baumann-Schlachter (1887–1941), Schweizer Schriftstellerin
 Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann (1819–1881), dänische Malerin


text:
Jackies Butte (also known as Bowden Crater) is a basaltic volcanic field located in southeastern Oregon.

Geology
The volcanic field consists of two small shield volcanoes and two cinder cones. The lava flows of Jackies Butte extend 325 km2 east of the Bowden Hills.

According to Smith (1978), the volcanic field's probable age is less than 10,000 years old, making it a Holocene volcano. Despite this, Sarna-Wojciki (1983) did not include Jackies Butte in their list of Holocene volcanic fields.

The volcano's highest elevation is 4,652 ft (1,418 m). Its prominence is 397 ft (121 m).

Location
Jackies Butte is situated north of McDermitt and south of Rome. The closest major river is the Owyhee River, which passes along the region.

The area of Jackies Butte is also a herd management area (HMA) for horses.

References

Volcanoes of Oregon
Volcanic fields of the western United States


text:
Justin Hurwitz is an American film composer and a television writer. He is best known for his longtime collaboration with director Damien Chazelle, scoring each of his films: Guy and Madeline on a Park Bench (2009), Whiplash (2014), La La Land (2016), First Man (2018), and Babylon (2022).

For La La Land, Hurwitz won two Academy Awards, Best Original Score and Best Original Song (for "City of Stars"), as well as the Golden Globe Awards for Best Original Score and Best Original Song and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music. He won two more Golden Globes for Best Original Score for First Man and Babylon.

Early life
Hurwitz is the son of Gail (née Halabe), a professional ballet dancer turned registered nurse, and Ken Hurwitz, a writer. He is of Jewish heritage (from Russia, Poland, Damascus in Syria, and Beirut in Lebanon). His family moved to Wisconsin in 1998 where he attended Nicolet High School.

Hurwitz attended Harvard University, where he was roommates with director Damien Chazelle. They collaborated on a student film that would become Guy and Madeline on a Park Bench, which was released in 2009. While in school, Hurwitz was a member of the Harvard Lampoon and was an original member of the indie-pop band Chester French with Chazelle.

Career
After college, Hurwitz and Chazelle moved to Los Angeles where Hurwitz wrote comedy for the sitcom The League and one episode of the animated comedy TV series The Simpsons. Thanks to the success of Guy and Madeline, they were able to obtain financing for their next collaboration, the 2014 film Whiplash – with Hurwitz scoring the film and Chazelle writing and directing. Hurwitz also scored Chazelle's 2016 film La La Land, for which Chazelle won the Oscar for Best Director and Hurwitz won two Oscars for Best Original Score and Best Original Song. He and Pasek and Paul will return as songwriters for the upcoming stage musical adaptation of the film, directed by Bartlett Sher from a book by Ayad Akhtar and Matthew Decker, with Marc Platt and Lionsgate returning to produce.

Filmography

Films

Television

Awards and nominations

References

External links

Living people
21st-century American composers
21st-century American male musicians
American film score composers
American male television writers
American people of Lebanese-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American television producers
American television writers
Best Original Music BAFTA Award winners
Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
Grammy Award winners
The Harvard Lampoon alumni
Jewish American film score composers
American male film score composers
21st-century American Jews
Year of birth missing (living people)


text:
Jon Petter Sandaker (* 24. Februar 1974) ist ein ehemaliger norwegischer Skispringer.

Werdegang
Am 3. Dezember 1995 sprang Sandaker erstmals im Skisprung-Weltcup. In seiner Wahlheimat Lillehammer gelang ihm dabei im Springen von der Großschanze der 42. Platz. Gut zwei Jahre später am 29. November 1997 konnte er auf der gleichen Schanze erstmals Weltcup-Punkte gewinnen und zudem mit dem 4. Platz das beste Resultat in seiner Karriere erzielen. Bei der Skiflug-Weltmeisterschaft 1998 in Oberstdorf kam er am Ende auf den 33. Platz. Bei der Norwegischen Meisterschaft im Skispringen 1998 musste er sich auf der Großschanze in Trondheim nur Kristian Brenden geschlagen geben und gewann am Ende die Silbermedaille. Die Weltcup-Saison 1997/98 beendete er nach weiteren Springen in die Punkteränge am Ende auf dem 28. Platz in der Gesamtwertung. In den folgenden Saisons 1998/99 und 1999/2000 konnte er nur noch bei drei Springen Punkte erreichen, weshalb er am 19. Februar 2000 am Kulm sein letztes Springen absolvierte. Im Skifliegen erreichte er hier den 47. Platz.

Statistik

Weltcup-Platzierungen

Weblinks

Skispringer (Norwegen)
Norweger
Geboren 1974
Mann


text:
Parasitaxus ustus – gatunek krzewów z rodziny zastrzalinowatych (Podocarpaceae). Reprezentuje monotypowy rodzaj Parasitaxus D. J. de Laubenfels, 1972. Jest endemitem Nowej Kaledonii i jedynym pasożytem wśród nagonasiennych. Jego żywicielem jest przedstawiciel tej samej rodziny – Falcatifolium taxoides.

Morfologia
 Pokrój Gęsty krzew osiągający do 1,5 m wysokości. Jego zdrewniałe pędy okryte są drobnymi, szarymi łuskami.
 Liście Łuskowate, gruboszowate i czerwonawe. Ułożone są skrętolegle. Mają kształt trójkątny, na szczycie są zaostrzone. Osiągają tylko 1 mm długości.
 Organy generatywne Rośliny jednopienne. Kwiaty męskie skupione w owalne strobile. Mają 3 mm długości i 2 mm szerokości. Wyrastają na szypułach o długości 6 mm. Składają się z kilku trójkątnych mikrosporofili o zaostrzonych i wolnych końcach. Strobile żeńskie wyrastają na końcach pędów, wsparte 4–6 rozpostartymi łuskami. Strobile są kuliste, mają średnicę 3–4 mm. Powstaje w nich pojedyncze nasiono o średnicy 2,5 mm otoczone mięsistą łuską.

Przypisy

Zastrzalinowate


text:
Sindi steht für:

 Sindi (Stamm), ein antikes Volk in Sarmatien auf der heutigen Taman-Halbinsel
 Sindi (Estland), Stadt im Kreis Pärnu, Estland
 Sindi (Indien), Ort im Distrikt Wardha, Bundesstaat Maharashtra

Personen:
 Hayat Sindi (* 1967), saudi-arabische Biotechnologin
 Karoj Sindi (* 1989), deutsch-irakischer Fußballspieler
 Kovan Sindî (* 1965), kurdischer Schriftsteller


text:
Damian Walker (* 8. April 1969) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Squashspieler.

Karriere
Damian Walker spielte in den 1990er- und 2000er-Jahren auf der PSA World Tour, auf der er sechs Turnierfinals erreichte und zwei Titel gewann. Seine höchste Platzierung in der Weltrangliste erreichte er mit Position 148 im Februar 2001. Mit der US-amerikanischen Nationalmannschaft nahm er 1995, 2001 und 2003 an der Weltmeisterschaft teil. Er vertrat die Vereinigten Staaten auch bei den Panamerikanischen Spielen 2003 und schied im Einzel im Viertelfinale gegen Graham Ryding aus. 2001 und 2002 wurde er US-amerikanischer Meister.

Erfolge
 Gewonnene PSA-Titel: 2
 US-amerikanischer Meister: 2001, 2002

Weblinks

Squashspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-amerikanischer Meister (Squash)
Teilnehmer an den Panamerikanischen Spielen (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1969
Mann


text:
Мадраїм Рахманович Рахманов (, тепер Узбекистан — ?) — радянський узбецький діяч, 1-й секретар Хорезмського обкому КП Узбекистану. Депутат Верховної ради Узбецької РСР.

Життєпис
Член ВКП(б) з 1940 року.

У 1943—1944 роках — заступник голови виконавчого комітету Хорезмської обласної ради депутатів трудящих.

У 1944—1948 роках — голова виконавчого комітету Хорезмської обласної ради депутатів трудящих.

У 1948—1950 роках — слухач Вищої партійної школи при ЦК ВКП(б).

У вересні 1950 — травні 1960 року — 1-й секретар Хорезмського обласного комітету КП Узбекистану.

Подальша доля невідома.

Нагороди
 два ордени Трудового Червоного Прапора (25.12.1944, 11.01.1957)
 два ордени «Знак Пошани» (1945, 1946)
 медалі

Примітки

Джерела
 Рахманов Мадраим

Члени КПРС


text:
Conraua alleni är en groddjursart som först beskrevs av Barbour och Arthur Loveridge 1927.  Conraua alleni ingår i släktet Conraua och familjen Petropedetidae. IUCN kategoriserar arten globalt som sårbar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Externa länkar

Stjärtlösa groddjur
alleni


text:
2012 VP 113 (også skrevet 2012 VP113) er et trans-neptunsk objekt og en sandsynlig kandidat til status som dværgplanet. Objektet blev opdaget den 5. november 2012 med National Optical Astronomy Observatory's 4-meter Víctor M. Blanco Telescope ved Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory. Opdagelsen blev offentliggjort den 26. marts 2014.

Objektet har en absolut størrelsesklasse på 4.1, og en diameter på mellem 315 og 460 km. Dette er omkring halvdelen af Sednas diameter.

2012 VP 113 kan være en del af Oortskyen. Det er det fjerneste objekt, der er blevet registreret i solsystemet, og har et perihelium på 80,6 AE. Aphelium er hele 446 AE. Blot fire andre kendte objekter i solsystemet har periphelion større end 47 AE: Sedna (76 AE), 2004 XR190 (51 AE), 2010 GB174 (48 AE) og 2004 VN112 (47 AE).

Noter

Trans-Neptunske objekter
Uløste problemer indenfor astronomi


text:
José "Pepe" Zalaquett Daher (10 March 1942 – 15 February 2020) was a Chilean lawyer, renowned for his work in the defence of human rights during the de facto regime that governed Chile under General Augusto Pinochet from 1973 to 1990.

The coup d'état and the Pro Paz Committee
José Zalaquett graduated from the law school of the University of Chile in 1967.

Following the coup d'état of 11 September 1973, he became involved with the , a non-governmental organization for human rights established by various Christian churches and other religious organizations on the initiative of Roman Catholic Cardinal Raúl Silva Henríquez. Serving as the director of its legal department from late 1973 until the committee was wound up in December 1975, his job was to direct and coordinate the efforts of internal and external lawyers in defending human rights. This entailed work in three broad areas:
 Serving as counsel for defendants accused by the military courts (consejos de guerra).
 Filing for constitutional relief and habeas corpus remedies (amparo) on behalf of detainees held by the military.
 Attempting to conduct investigations into the whereabouts of detainees.

On 15 November 1975, agents of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA) arrested José Zalaquett and took him to the Tres Álamos detention centre. He was released on 30 January 1976, arrested again on 5 April, and sent into exile on 12 April. He did not return to Chile until 1986.

During his years abroad, he served as the head of the international executive committee of Amnesty International from 1979 to 1982.

Restoration of democracy
During Chile's transition to democracy, Zalaquett was appointed by President Patricio Aylwin to serve on the National Truth and Reconciliation Commission, a truth commission set up in 1990 to investigate human rights violations committed by the military regime. In 1999 and 2000 he served on the dialogue panel (mesa de diálogo) on human rights between members of the armed forces and human rights lawyers.

From 2002 to 2005 he served as a member of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, including a stint as its president in 2004-05.

Academic work and awards
José Zalaquett taught law at the University of Chile and lectured there in international human rights law and in ethics and government. He held Honoris Causa doctorates in law from the University of Notre Dame and City University of New York (United States). He was a member of the Geneva-based International Commission of Jurists and member of the board of the International Centre for Transitional Justice.

Along with Cecilia Medina, a Chilean judge on the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Zalaquett directed the Human Rights Centre at the University of Chile's law school.

In 1994 UNESCO awarded him that year's Prize for Human Rights Education.

In 2003 he was awarded Chile's National Prize for Humanities and Social Sciences for his "contribution to the protection of the rights of individuals and of ethics in politics". In August 2006, Santiago's Alberto Hurtado University gave him the San Alberto Hurtado Medal in recognition of his human rights work. He was patron of the Media Legal Defence Initiative.

On 12 November 2009, in a ceremony at the Palacio de la Moneda he was given "The Notre Dame Prize", from the University of Notre Dame, that recognizes "the efforts of visionary leaders in Latin America to promote the welfare of the region by strengthening democracy and improving the quality of life of its citizens ".

From 2014, he conducted free online courses on Human Rights at the MOOC Chile project, from the Ford Foundation and the Universidad Diego Portales.

Publications
 The Human Rights Issue and The Human Rights Movement. World Council of Churches, Geneva. (1982)
 Derechos Humanos y Limitaciones Politicas en las Transiciones Democraticas del Conosur. Colección Estudios Cieplan, Santiago. (1991)
 "Moral Reconstruction in the Wake of Human Rights Violations and War Crimes". In: Hard Choices: Moral Dilemmas Relating to Humanitarian Intervention. Edited by Jonathan Moore of the John F. Kennedy School of Government, University of Harvard, and sponsored by the International Committee of the Red Cross. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, USA. (1998)
 Los Límites de la Tolerancia. Libertad de Expresion y Debate Publico en Chile. LOM Ediciones, Santiago de Chile. (1998)
 "Truth, Justice and Reconciliation: Lessons For The International Community". In: Comparative Peace Processes In Latin America. José Zalaquett Daher. Cynthia Arnson. Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Stanford University Press, Washington, D.C. (1999)
 Procesos de Transición a la Democracia y Políticas de Derechos Humanos en América Latina (1998)
 La reconstrucción de la unidad nacional y el legado de violaciones de los derechos humanos. (1999)
 La Mesa de Diálogo sobre Derechos Humanos y el proceso de transición política en Chile. (2000)
 "No hay mañana sin ayer": Análisis de la propuesta del presidente Lagos sobre Derechos Humanos. (2003)
 Transparencia, rendición de cuentas y lucha contra la corrupción en América 2004. (2004)

References

Sources
The earliest version of this article was translated, with minor adaptations, from the corresponding article on the Spanish-language Wikipedia.

External links
 Human Rights Centre, Law Faculty, University of Chile
 Brief biography of Prof. Zalaquett (International Center for Transitional Justice)

1942 births
2020 deaths
Chilean human rights activists
Chilean people of Palestinian descent
University of Notre Dame people
MacArthur Fellows
20th-century Chilean lawyers
21st-century Chilean lawyers


text:
Сибирская пестрогрудка, или камышовка Тачановского (), — очень скрытный и слабо изученный представитель семейства сверчковых (Locustellidae) из авифауны юга Сибири и Дальнего Востока. Видовое латинское название дано британским орнитологом Робертом Свайно в честь хранителя Варшавского зоологического кабинета Владислава Тачановского.

Описание
Спина, верх головы и надхвостье оливково-рыжевато-бурые с неясными полосами. Зоб, бока тела буроватые, брюшко, грудь и горло беловатые. На груди мелкие бурые пятна. Брови палевые, неясных очертаний.

Распространение
Область гнездования составляет узкую полосу в Восточной Сибири и на Дальнем Востоке, а также охватывает прилежащие районы Монголии и Китая. Обнаружена в гнездовое время у Красноярска и в 80 км от него в долине Енисея, далее к востоку — в окрестностях Канска, Нижнеудинска, Иркутска, у посёлка Култук на Байкале и посёлка Дарасун в Забайкалье, в Муравьёвском парке в Тамбовском районе и в Архаринском районе Амурской области, крайне восточные находки у озера Ханка и в Хасанском районе Приморского края сделаны соответственно Н. М. Пржевальским и Альбертом Ластухиным.

В Монголии записи поющих самцов были выполнены в сомонах Батширээт, Биндэр, Умнедэлгэр Хэнтэйского аймака и в сомоне Халхгол Восточного аймака. От Хэнтейского хребта к востоку распространена примерно до 113° восточной долготы, южные местонахождения: массив Богдо-ула, большая излучина Керулена и верховья реки Улдза на хребте Эрээн-дава. Гнездование в Монголии не доказано, но предполагается.

Статус этого вида в Китае неясен. Несомненно сибирские пестрогрудки гнездятся в северной пограничной c Россией провинции Хэйлунцзян, но строгих доказательств этого нет. Джон МакКинон и Керен Филлиппс распространяют в меридиональном направлении узкую полосу гнездового ареала этого вида на обширные пространства центрального Китая и указывают на гнездование его в провинциях Гуанси, Юньнань, Сычуань и на востоке провинции Цинхай и юго-западе провинции Ганьсу. Из этих областей не описаны какие-либо подвиды сибирской пестрогрудки, из перечисленных выше провинций Китая нет и записей песен этого вида, таким образом, о какой форме пестрогрудки идёт речь остаётся неясным.

Зимует в Южном Китае, Лаосе, Тонкине, южной Мьянме (окрестности Пегу).

Размножение
Гнездо строит в основании густых стеблей травы. Кладка в июне-июле из 5 яиц светло-светло-розовых с фиолетово-серыми пятнышками. Самка сидит в гнезде очень плотно, подпускает близко. По наблюдениям Дыбовского не бросает кладку, даже если её часто беспокоить.

Поведение
Перелётная птица. Поёт с вечера до рассвета. Песня — скрипучая, напоминающая звуки насекомых (или даже жужжание линии электропередач) и периодически повторяющаяся трель «тзззззз — тзззззз — тзззззз…».

Ссылки
 Песни сибирской пестрогрудки на сайте xeno-canto.org.
 Позвоночные животные России: Сибирская пестрогрудка.

Примечания

Сверчки (птицы)
Птицы Азии
Животные, описанные в 1871 году
Тачановский


text:
Diána az eredeti szériában a kényes szépség szerepét töltötte be a Rejtély Rt.-n belül, aki kifejezetten ügyetlen. Személyiségén nem estek soha komolyabb változtatások, csak a 90-es évek körül. Elsőként a Scooby-Doo és a 13 szellem c. sorozatban jelent meg az eredetitől eltérő személyiséggel. Mivel ebben a szériában sem Fred, sem Vilma nem volt jelen, csak Bozont, Scooby, Scrappy és Flim Flam, ezért Diánának jutott a csapatvezető szerep, aki sokkal ügyesebb és okosabb. Vilma szerepét betöltve általában ő rakta össze a kisebb részeket. A 90-es korai megrendezett-filmekben Diána felnőttként érettebb, okosabb, ám ügyetlensége pont ugyanolyan. Riporterré lesz, aki okosabbnak tűnik, mint az akkori Fred Jones. A 2000-es új megrendezett-filmekben Diána visszatért eredeti, ügyetlen szerepébe, ahogy az új Mizújs, Scooby-Doo? sorozatban is. A Scooby-Doo: Rejtélyek nyomában c. sorozatban már teljesen elérzékenyül és könnyen sérthetővé válik. A 2010-es megrendezett filmekben Diána okosabbá vált, habár még mindig ügyetlen volt. Freddel szorosabbá vált a kapcsolata, ahogy az összes élőszereplős filmben is, valamint a Scooby-Doo: Rejtélyek nyomában is.

Diánának világ életében alapszíne a lila. Régen és eredetileg is lila ruhában, rózsaszín harisnyában, zöld vagy rózsaszín hajpánttal, vörös hajjal ábrázolták, valamint zöld sállal. A Scooby-Doo és a 13 szellem c. sorozatban megjelenése nagyon megváltozott: haja rövidebbé vált, így hajpántra se lett szüksége, férfiasabb, ám még mindig lila ruhában ábrázolták. A régebbi, korai megrendezett filmekben felnőttként lila blézerrel, zöld ujjatlannal ábrázolták, hosszú hajjal, de hajpánt nélkül. Harisnyája eltűnt, lila színei tompítottá váltak. A Mizújs, Scooby-Doo?-ban az eredeti megjelenéshez zöld retikült adtak és kendője eltűnt. Ugyanígy ábrázolták a 2000-es megrendezett filmekben is. A 2010-es megrendezett filmekben is így ábrázolták, lila szemmel. A Scooby-Doo! Rejtélyek nyomában-ban Diána alacsonnyá vált, de ábrázolása nem változott.

A karakter megjelenése

Sorozatok
 Scooby-Doo, merre vagy? (1969–1970)
 Scooby-Doo újabb kalandjai (1972–1973)
 A Scooby-Doo-show (1976–1978)
 Scooby-Doo és Scrappy-Doo (25 perces változat) (1979–1980)
 Az új Scooby-Doo és Scrappy-Doo-show (1983–1984)
 Scooby-Doo és a 13 szellem (1985)
 Scooby-Doo, a kölyökkutya (1988–1991)
 Johnny Bravo (1997–2004) (vendégszereplő)
 Mizújs, Scooby-Doo? (2002–2005)
 Bozont és Scooby-Doo (2006–2008) (vendégszereplő)
 Scooby-Doo: Rejtélyek nyomában (2010–2013)
 Csak lazán, Scooby-Doo! (2015–2018)
 Scooby-Doo és (sz)társai (2019–jelen)

Egész estés rajzfilmek és élőszereplős filmek
 Scooby-Doo Hollywoodba megy (1979)
 1998-tól napjainkig az összes egész estés rajzfilmekben és élőszereplős filmekben.

Rokonok
 George Robert Nedley Blake és Elizabeth Blake: Diána szülei. A Scooby-Doo: Rejtélyek nyomában-ban, azonban a két név elnevezése Barty Blake és Nan Blake.
 Daisy: Diána húga, az orvos.
 Dawn: Diána húga, egy modell.
 Dorothy: Diána húga, egy autóversenyző.
 Delilah: Diána nővére.
 Matt Blake: Diána nagybátyja, a farmer.
 John "JJ" Maxwell: Diána nagybátyja, a filmrendező.
 Olivia Dervy: Diána nagynénje.
 Jennifer: Diána unokatestvére.
 Danica LaBlake: Diána unokatestvére, a híres francia modell.
 Shannon Blake: Diána skót unokatestvére.
 Anne Blake: Diána fiatalabb unokatestvére.
 Thornton Blake V: Diána nagybátyja, egy golfpálya tulajdonosa.

Szinkronhangjai, megszemélyesítői

Megszemélyesítője
 Sarah Michelle Gellar (Scooby-Doo – A nagy csapat, 2002 / Scooby-Doo 2. – Szörnyek póráz nélkül, 2004)
 Emily Tennant (Fiatal Diána, Scooby-Doo 2. – Szörnyek póráz nélkül, 2004)
 Kate Melton (Scooby-Doo! Az első rejtély, 2009 / Scooby-Doo és a tavi szörny átka, 2010)
 Sarah Jeffery (Diána és Vilma, 2018)

Eredeti szinkronhangok
 Indira Stefanianna Christopherson (Scooby-Doo, merre vagy? (1. évad), 1969)
 Heather North Kenney (1970–1985 / Johnny Bravo, 1997 / Scooby-Doo és a vámpír legendája, 2003 / Scooby-Doo és a mexikói szörny, 2003)
 Kellie Martin (Scooby-Doo, a kölyökkutya, 1988–1991)
 Mary Kay Bergman (1998–2000)
 Grey Griffin (2001–jelen)
 Amanda Seyfried (Scooby!, 2020)
 Mckenna Grace (Fiatal Diána, Scooby!, 2020)

Magyar szinkronhangok
 Csondor Kata (90-es évek elején, Az új Scooby-Doo és Scrappy-Doo-showban)
 Hámori Eszter (1998–jelen)
 Mezei Kitty (2007-ben, a Johnny Bravo Szellemes történetek című rész, 2. szinkronjában)
 Talmács Márta (Scooby-Doo, a kölyökkutya, 2012)
 Kisfalvi Krisztina (Lego Scooby-Doo – Tajték-parti bingóparti, 2017 / 2020-ban, az Odaát ScoobyNatural (Scooby-Doo és a Winchester fivérek) című részében)
 Mentes Júlia (Diána és Vilma, 2019)
 Csuha Bori (Énekhang, Scooby-Doo és (sz)társai, 2020)
 Kobela Kira (Fiatal Diána, Scooby!, 2020)

Filmszereplők
Scooby-Doo


text:
Gargara nodinervis är en insektsart som beskrevs av William D. Funkhouser 1927. Gargara nodinervis ingår i släktet Gargara och familjen hornstritar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Hornstritar
nodinervis


text:
Santa Coloma de Salses era l'església parroquial del poble de Santa Coloma de Salses, del terme comunal de la vila de Salses, a la comarca del Rosselló (Catalunya Nord).

Estava situada a l'antic poble de Santa Coloma de Salses, a migdia del seu nucli vell. Es coneix l'emplaçament de l'església, del tot desapareguda, per la troballa d'un dels seus sarcòfags.

Santa Coloma de Salses fou una dependència del monestir de la Grassa.

Bibliografia

Referències

Salses, Santa Coloma
Salses, Santa Coloma


text:
La Vida es un Sueño (Música de la serie de Disney Channel)  é a terceira trilha sonora da novela argentina Soy Luna. O CD foi lançado no dia 3 de março de 2017 na América Latina. Produzido pela Walt Disney Records e distribuído pela Universal Music Latin

O álbum também foi publicado na página oficial da Disney pelo YouTube, e também pelo site de músicas Vevo.
No dia 06 de abril o álbum entrou para pré-venda no Brasil. O disco foi lançado no Brasil no dia 19 de abril.

Canções
Siempre Juntos - A música que inicia o primeiro disco, também encerra o segundo disco. A versão do disco 1 é interpretada pela protagonista da história, Karol Sevilla, e a do disco 2 interpretada por todo o elenco. A canção fala sobre a amizade entre os protagonistas. A canção apareceu no trailer da segunda temporada da telenovela, e teve seu lyric-vídeo lançado no dia 14 de fevereiro. A música foi a primeira divulgada durante a segunda temporada. Apesar de ser a canção principal da segunda temporada, a música não foi lançada como single. A canção encerra a turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Alzo Mi Bandera - A faixa número 2 do primeiro disco é interpretada pela banda fictícia da telenovela, a "Roller Band". A canção é interpretada por Michael Ronda, Gastón Vietto e por Lionel Ferro. É a primeira das três canções da banda no álbum. Assim como "Siempre Juntos", a música foi divulgada no trailer da segunda temporada, e foi apresentada duas vezes durante o capítulo 1 da temporada 2.

La Vida es un Sueño - A faixa-título está presente no primeiro disco, e é interpretada por Karol Sevilla. Apesar de ser o título do álbum, a música não foi lançada como single. A canção marca uma fase importante na novela: quando a protagonista descobre a sua verdadeira identidade. Assim como muitas músicas do álbum, ela está presente na turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Fush, ¡Te Vas! - A quarta faixa do primeiro disco, é a primeira música solo de Katja Martínez. A canção tem um ritmo diferente das demais, e inclui trechos robóticos. A canção fala sobre uma garota, no qual a personagem da interprete não gosta. A música inclui trechos em inglês. Foi apresentada na novela durante o quinto capítulo da temporada 2. Assim como outras, está presente na turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

¿Cómo Me Ves? - Quinta canção do disco 1, é interpretada pela antagonista Valentina Zenere. A canção fala sobre como as outras pessoas veem a personagem de Valentina. Essa é a primeira das duas canções que Valentina interpreta no álbum. Foi apresentada na novela durante o capítulo 6 da segunda temporada.

Mitad y Mitad - Sexta canção do primeiro disco, é o primeiro dueto do álbum. Interpretada por Agustín Bernasconi e por Carolina Kopelioff. A música fala sobre o amor do casal interprete da música. Assim como as demais do disco, a canção está presente na primeira fase da turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Valiente - Sétima canção do disco, a canção também está nos primeiros CDs da novela. É a primeira música grupal do primeiro disco. Diferente da versão solo da primeira temporada, a música é interpretada por todo o elenco e conta com um solo inédito de Jorge López. Também conta com um ritmo diferente da primeira versão da música. A música foi a primeira do disco a ser apresentada para o público, a primeira vez que o elenco divulgou a música foi no programa "Susana Giménez". A canção é uma das últimas apresentadas na turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Honey Funny - Oitava canção do primeiro disco, é interpretada por Chiara Parravicini, Ana Jara e Jorge López. Assim como outras, a canção tem um ritmo diferente, com mistura de hip hop e funk. Foi apresentada durante o capítulo 20 da segunda temporada. É a primeira canção oficial que o trio canta na novela. Conta com trechos em inglês.

Linda - Nona canção do álbum, é interpretada por Lionel Ferro, Gastón Vietto e por Michael Ronda, sendo a segunda canção da banda "Roller Band". A música foi o segundo lyric-vídeo do álbum. Está presente na turnê Soy Luna en concierto, onde conta com a participação de Ruggero Pasquarelli.

Cuenta Conmigo - Música número 10 do primeiro disco. É a segunda música interpretada por todo o elenco da telenovela. A canção serviu como tema da primeira competição de patinação da segunda temporada.

Vives en Mí - A faixa 11 do CD 1 é o segundo dueto do disco. Interpretada por Karol Sevilla e Ruggero Pasquarelli, a música ganhou um videoclipe oficial durante a segunda temporada. A canção também tem uma versão acústica, que foi apresentada na telenovela durante o décimo capítulo da temporada 2.

I've Got a Feeling - Décima-segunda música do primeiro disco, a canção é interpretada por parte do elenco. A música inclui trechos em inglês, assim como outras do álbum.

Princesa - A faixa número 13 é a última do disco 1, sendo a primeira de 3 canções solos de Ruggero Pasquarelli. A música possui um videoclipe oficial, que foi apresentado durante a segunda temporada.

Footloose - Primeira música do segundo disco, é uma regravação do famoso filme dos anos 80, Footloose. A música é a primeira da telenovela com toda a letra em inglês. É terceira música grupal do álbum, e a primeira do disco 2. A canção contou com um videoclipe para marcar o final da segunda temporada

Sólo para Ti - Segunda música do disco 2, é também a segunda música solo de Karol Sevilla no álbum. A canção fala sobre o amor que a protagonista sente por uma pessoa. Assim como outras do disco, a música foi apresentada na novela com um videoclipe no capítulo 67. A canção não estava na turnê Soy Luna en concierto, mas foi adicionada na Soy Luna Live

Catch Me If You Can - Faixa número 3 do segundo disco, é a segunda música solo de Valentina Zenere. A canção é a segunda com a letra em inglês. Foi uma das novas canções adicionada na turnê Soy Luna Live

Pienso - Música número 4 do disco 2, é a terceira e última música da banda "Roller Band". Interpretada por Gastón Vietto, Michael Ronda e Lionel Ferro. A canção foi apresentada na novela durante o penúltimo capítulo da primeira parte da segunda temporada. Na versão da telenovela, a canção contou com a participação da atriz e cantora argentina Candelaria Molfese.

Andaremos - Terceiro dueto do álbum, a faixa 5 do disco 2 é interpretada por Michael Ronda e por Karol Sevilla. Marca a chegada de Luna e Simón em Cancún.  Assim como outras, a música traz um estilo diferente, com um ritmo reggaeton.

Allá Voy - Canção número 6 do segundo disco. A música foi escrita e interpretada por Ruggero Pasquarelli, que além destas, interpreta mais duas músicas nos dois discos. A canção foi a última divulgada na primeira parte da segunda temporada. Foi a última canção adicionada na turnê de 2018 Soy Luna Live

No Te Pido Mucho - Sétima música do segundo disco, é a última das três canções solo de Karol Sevilla. A música ganhou um momento musical durante a segunda temporada.

Stranger - Faixa número 8 do segundo disco, a música é a última solo de Ruggero Pasquarelli. É a terceira das quatro músicas em inglês deste álbum.

Aquí Estoy - Nona música do disco 2, é o quarto e último dueto do álbum. Interpretada por Ruggero Pasquarelli e por Agustín Bernasconi. Esteve presente na primeira fase da turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Yes, I Do - Décima música do CD 2, é interpretada por Chiara Parravacini. É a última música em inglês do álbum, e é uma regravação da banda brasileira College 11.

Yo Quisiera - Canção número 11 do segundo disco, é a última música solo do disco, sendo interpretada por Michael Ronda. Também é a última regravação, sendo original da banda mexicana Reik. Está presente na turnê Soy Luna en concierto.

Lançamento
No dia 27 de fevereiro, o aplicativo Claro Músicas disponibilizou para os usuários trechos de 30 segundos de cada música. Dias depois foi anunciada a data de lançamento, isso só está disponível no México.

Os países da América Latina foram os únicos que receberam a edição com 2 discos. Na Europa e em outros países, os discos foram lançados separados, o primeiro com o título "Soy Luna (Season 2) - La Vida es un Sueño 1", e o segundo com o título "Soy Luna (Season 2) - La Vida es un Sueño 2".

Lyrics
Antes do álbum ser lançado, foram publicados lyrics-videos (vídeo-letra) de duas músicas deste álbum, Siempre Juntos (lançado no dia 14 de fevereiro) e Linda (no dia 23 de fevereiro). Os lyrics foram publicados no YouTube e no site Vevo. No dia 16 de março foi lançado o terceiro lyric-vídeo, da música Vives en Mí.

Videoclipes
Os videoclipes são as músicas que foram apresentadas na novela. Todos os videoclipes são publicados no canal oficial do Disney Channel Vevo e no site de músicas Vevo.

Faixas

Edição para América Latina

Disco 1

Disco 2

Edição para Alemanha

Disco 2

Edição para Europa

Disco 2

Edição para Italia

Disco 2

Posicionamento

Álbuns de 2017
Álbuns de Soy Luna


text:
Я́куб - ім'я, поширене на теренах Чехії, Словаччини, Польщі, частково Галичини, де зафіксовано десятки топонімів з основою «Якуб-».

 Якуб — один із мусульманських пророків.

Топоніміка

Якуб
 Якуб — назва села Зернове Красногвардійського району Автономної Республіки Крим України до 1945 року.

Якубова
 Воля Якубова — назва села в Україні, у Дрогобицькому районі, Львівської області.


text:
Physicians for a National Health Program (PNHP) is an advocacy organization of more than 20,000 American physicians, medical students, and health professionals that supports a universal, comprehensive single-payer national health insurance program. Since being co-founded in 1987 by physicians David Himmelstein and Steffie Woolhandler, PNHP has advocated for reform in the U.S. health care system.

PNHP is the only national physician organization in the United States dedicated exclusively to implementing a single-payer national health program. The organization and its members work to educate physicians and other health professionals about the benefits of a single-payer system, including fewer administrative costs and affording health insurance for the millions of Americans who have none. Additionally, PNHP performs research on the health crisis and the need for fundamental reform, coordinates speakers and forums, participates in town hall meetings and debates, contributes scholarly articles to peer-reviewed medical journals, and appears regularly on national television and news programs advocating for a single-payer system.

The group is best known for its influential proposals for national health insurance, which have been published in the New England Journal of Medicine, JAMA, and the American Journal of Public Health.

The group is also known for its members' substantial contributions to scientific research on the uninsured, health system economics and international health systems. Members such as David Himmelstein, Steffie Woolhandler, Marcia Angell and Arnold Relman have contributed articles to major peer-reviewed journals such as the New England Journal of Medicine (of which Angell and Relman are former editors-in-chief), JAMA, Health Affairs, and The American Journal of Medicine. Quentin Young was president of the organization from 1991 to 1993.

See also
 Health care reform
 List of healthcare reform advocacy groups in the United States
 Medicare for All Act
 National Physicians Alliance
 Physicians' Council for Responsible Reform
 Universal health care

References

External links
 Physicians for a National Health Program official website

Medical and health organizations based in Illinois
Healthcare reform advocacy groups in the United States
1987 establishments in the United States