text:
Сухо́й лист (, ) — в футболе так называют задание мячу вращения вокруг наклонной оси. В России под «сухим листом» чаще всего понимают гол, забитый прямым ударом внешней или внутренней стороной стопы с углового. В широком смысле термин folha seca (), имеющий в англоязычной среде синоним knuckleball, также означает удар носком, как правило, со штрафного, отличительной чертой которого является резкое падение мяча.

Физика «сухого листа» объясняется эффектом Магнуса.

Появление «сухого листа»
Изначально этот термин означал удар, после которого мяч летит по сложной траектории и затем резко падает вниз, напоминая падение сухого листа. В Бразилии автором удара, который назвали «сухим листом» (), по мнению журналиста Игоря Фесуненко, является Рубенс Салес, который исполнил его в матче Кубка Рока 1914 года против сборной Аргентины. Само название «сухой лист» появилось благодаря бразильцу Диди, который впервые исполнил этот удар в 1956 году и впоследствии часто забивал им голы.

В СССР этот термин стал популярным из-за Валерия Лобановского, который считался мастером исполнения этого удара и часто «сухим листом» забивал голы с угловых. Со временем в русскоязычной среде термин «сухой лист» стал всё чаще обозначать именно гол, забитый прямо с углового удара без касания мяча другими футболистами.

Гол ударом с углового

Изначально в футбольных правилах не говорилось о голе с углового удара, но в 1875 году он был запрещён, а 14 июня 1924 года Международный совет футбольных ассоциаций разрешил засчитывать гол после прямого удара с углового с сезона 1924/25. Первым голом с углового считается удар аргентинца Сесарео Онсари в товарищеском матче против сборной Уругвая на «Спортиво Барракас» 2 октября 1924 года.Так как уругвайцы несколько месяцев назад впервые стали олимпийскими чемпионами,гол Онсари в их ворота прозвали «олимпийским голом» (),а впоследствии так в Латинской Америке стали называть любой гол, забитый ударом с углового.

В истории чемпионатов мира было два «сухих листа». Первый забил кубинец Хосе Магринья в ворота сборной Румынии в 1938 году, второй — колумбиец Маркос Коль в ворота Льва Яшина в матче группового турнира против сборной СССР в 1962 году.

Дважды голы с угловых забивали в финалах Кубка обладателей кубков: и если в 1969 году «сухой лист» Карлеса Решака в ворота братиславского «Слована» на исход игры не повлиял, то в 1964 году «сухой лист» Жуана Мораиша принёс «Спортингу» победу над МТК.

Рекордсменом по количеству «сухих листов» является, вероятно, турок Шюкрю Гюлесин, забивший 32 мяча ударами с угловых. «Сухие листы» также исполняли Роберто Карлос, Пьер Литтбарски, Джордж Бест, а также Деян Петкович, забивший девять голов с угловых лишь за время выступлений в Бразилии.

Примечания

Литература

Футбольная терминология


text:
Tibor Varga (born 31 May 1985) is a Slovak professional ice hockey player. He is currently a free agent.

Career
Varga previously played with HC Slovan Bratislava in the Slovak Extraliga, Bakersfield Condors of the ECHL, and the Huntsville Havoc and Mississippi Riverkings of the Southern Professional Hockey League.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

References

External links

1985 births
Living people
Slovak ice hockey left wingers
Bakersfield Condors (1998–2015) players
BK Havlíčkův Brod players
Bratislava Capitals players
HC Košice players
HC Slovan Bratislava players
HK Dukla Trenčín players
HK 91 Senica players
HK Trnava players
Huntsville Havoc players
MHC Martin players
Mississippi RiverKings (SPHL) players
MsHK Žilina players
HC Nové Zámky players
Ice hockey people from Bratislava
Slovak expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
Slovak expatriate ice hockey players in the Czech Republic

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
The Catholic Church in the Central African Republic is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome.

There are about 950,000 Catholics in the country which represents 29% of the total population. There are nine dioceses including one archdiocese: In 2015 Pope Francis made a visit to Bangui.

Bangui
Alindao
Bambari
Bangassou
Berbérati
Bossangoa
Bouar
Kaga–Bandoro
Mbaïki

References

External links
 http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/cf.html

Central African
Central African


text:
Timbang is een bestuurslaag in het regentschap Kuningan van de provincie West-Java, Indonesië. Timbang telt 4670 inwoners (volkstelling 2010).

Plaats in West-Java


text:
Herb Mołdawii przedstawia brązowego orła mającego na piersi tarczę herbową z mołdawskim turem. Orzeł według autora herbu ma wskazywać na romańskie pochodzenie Mołdawian. W dziobie orzeł trzyma krzyż, w heraldycznie prawostronnej łapie dzierży gałązkę, a w lewostronnej berło. Jest to oficjalny herb Mołdawii, który znajduje się także na mołdawskiej fladze.

Herb Hospodarstwa Mołdawskiego przedstawiał bawolą głowę z gwiazdą między rogami, po bokach której umieszczone są słońce i półksiężyc. Po raz pierwszy herb ten został użyty na monetach i pieczęci hospodara Piotra I Muszata w 1387 r. Herb ten stał się symbolem Hospodarstwa Mołdawskiego i był w użyciu do 1858 r. Wszedł też do herbu Zjednoczonych Księstw Mołdawii i Wołoszczyzny (1859-1866), był też jednym ze składników wielopolowego herbu państwa rumuńskiego w latach 1866–1947. Obecnie funkcjonuje w herbach Republiki Mołdawii (od 1990 r.) i Rumunii (od 1992 r., jako symbol zachodnich ziem historycznej Mołdawii wchodzących od 1866 r. w skład Rumunii).

Zobacz też
 Mołdawia
 flaga Mołdawii
 hymn Mołdawii

Przypisy

Mołdawia
Symbole narodowe Mołdawii


text:
Oligoryzomys rupestris és una espècie de rosegador de la família dels cricètids. És endèmic del Brasil. El seu hàbitat natural són les zones situades a gran altitud. Es creu que no hi ha cap amenaça significativa per a la supervivència d'aquesta espècie. El seu nom específic, rupestris, significa 'rupestre' en llatí i es refereix al campo rupestre, un tipus de vegetació de cerrado de gran altitud amb afloraments rocosos on es troba aquesta espècie.

Referències

rupestris


text:
Domène è un comune francese di 6.720 abitanti situato nel dipartimento dell'Isère della regione dell'Alvernia-Rodano-Alpi.

Società

Evoluzione demografica

Amministrazione

Gemellaggi
, Vedano al Lambro.

Note

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

 *


text:
Olie James Cordill (April 28, 1916November 14, 1988) was a professional American football halfback in the National Football League. A 1st round selection (5th overall pick) in the 1940 NFL Draft out of Rice University, Cordill played for the Cleveland Rams in that year.

External links

1916 births
1988 deaths
People from Big Spring, Texas
Players of American football from Texas
American football halfbacks
Rice Owls football players
Cleveland Rams players
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces officers
Military personnel from Texas


text:
Visitor je malé pohoří na jihu Černé Hory v blízkosti hranic s Albánií. Nejvyšší vrchol Visitor dosahuje výšky 2210 metrů.

Vymezení
Na jihu hranici pohoří tvoří údolí říčky Luča a Plavské jezero. Na východě je hranicí řeka Lim, která odvodňuje jezero. Severní hranicí je údolí potoka Murinska reka a pohoří Zeletin, západní hranicí je sedlo pod masivem Greben.

Charakteristika pohoří
Jde o vápencové pohoří s příznaky vysokohorského krasu. Z turistického hlediska jde o velmi atraktivní lokalitu, kde byla v roce 2005 a 2006 znovu vyznačena hřebenová magistrála, která umožňuje daleké výhledy na Plavsko-gusinjskou kotlinu, na vrcholy Prokletije daleko v Albánii a v Kosovu. Převýšení nad Plavsko-gusinjskou kotlinou je přibližně 1300 metrů. V některých místech je přechod hřebene poměrně dost exponovaný, většinou však jde o vysokohorské pastviny. Podle turistů, kteří do těchto míst již zavítali, se jedná o jedno z nejkrásnějších pohoří v Černé Hoře.

Pohoří v Dinárských horách
Pohoří v Černé Hoře


text:
Aydin Balamirza oghlu Mammadov () is an Azerbaijani historian, scientist-demographer, specialist on historical demography, Ph.D. in history, and associate professor of the department of "source study, historiography and methods" of Baku State University.

Biography
Aydin Mammadov was born in 1967 in Sumgait. In 1975–1983, he studied at secondary school number 10 in Sumgait. He graduated from the Baku Pedagogical College named after Mirza Alakbar Sabir in 1983 and served in the Soviet Army in 1987–1989. He graduated with honours from the History faculty of Baku State University In 1989–1994 and was awarded a scholarship named after Karl Marx for excellent study at the university. He worked at Sumqayit State University and at various preparatory courses in 1994–1997.

In 2013, he received a PhD in history on the topic "Turkish policy of Germany and its historiography at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries", speciality 5509.01 - "Historiography, source study and methods".

Since 2001, he has been working at the Department of Baku State University, "Source Studies, Historiography, and Methods".

In 2019, Aydin Mammadov wrote the first textbook "Historical Demography" in Azerbaijani language. In the same year, he was awarded "Baku State University 100th anniversary medal".

Since February 27, 2020, Aydin Mammadov has been an absentee doctoral student at the Faculty of History of the Baku State University, speciality 5509.01 - "Historiography, source studies and methods of historical research" for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences.

Participation in international conferences, symposia, seminars
Attempts by Germany to use national, moral and cultural values in Turkish politics of the late XIX - early XX centuries // Cultural diversity as a socio-political value II National Forum of Cultural Studies Baku, 2010, pp. 201–203.
Turkish policy of Germany in the late 19th - early 20th centuries and its historiography // Azerbaijan on the way to a developed society: realities, prospects: Materials of the republican scientific-practical conference of young researchers dedicated to February 2 - Youth Day Baku, Azerbaijan University February 2, 2011, pp. 221–222.
Economic and political roots of Germany's attempts to gain a foothold in Turkey in the context of historiography // Materials of the International Scientific Conference "Actual Problems of Sustainable Development in the Context of Globalization" dedicated to the 88th anniversary of national leader Heydar Aliyev and the 93rd anniversary. modern Azerbaijani statehood Baku, Azerbaijan University May 4–5, 2011, pp. 460–461.
"The role of museums in strengthening student memory in history lessons." The I Republican Scientific Conference "Research, popularization, protection and restoration of national values protected in museums, archives and libraries" was held at the National History Museum of Azerbaijan, June 20, 2017, pp. 141–145.
The role of museums in teaching historical demography in history lessons. II Republican scientific conference "Research, popularization, protection and restoration of national values protected in museums, archives and libraries", 2018, pp. 170–175.
Issues of historical demography in the studies of Ahmad bey Agaoglu. PROCEEDING International Conference on Sustainable Development And Actual Problems of Humanitarian Sciences, May 14–15, 2018, pp. 469–475.
 Scientific knowledge on the historical demography of the Azerbaijani people. The place and role of the Faculty of History of Baku State University in the socio-political life of Azerbaijan. Republican scientific conference. Baku, October 8–9, 2019.
 Impact of the Second World War on the socio-economic and demographic situation of the population in Azerbaijan // International Scientific Conference "Azerbaijan during the Second World War", June 22, 2020.
 Issues of historical demography in the historiography of Azerbaijan in the second half of the twentieth century. III International Scientific Conference on Humanities and Social Sciences, April 6, 2021.
 Issues of historical demography in the studies of Azerbaijani historians of the second half of the twentieth century. Materials of the IV Republican Scientific and Practical Conference of Young Researchers, April 9, 2021.
 Demographic views on the influence of natural factors on the population in the work of Nizami Ganjavi. PROCEEDING International Conference on Works by Nizami Ganjavi as a literary and historical source, May 7, 2021, Baku, pp. 82–85.
 Historical and demographic views on the family model in the work of Nizami Ganjavi // Materials of the scientific-theoretical conference dedicated to the 880th anniversary of Nizami Ganjavi "Nizami Ganjavi: predecessors and successors - Medieval manuscripts and historical problems of Azerbaijani culture", Institute of Manuscripts named after Muhammad Fizuli ANAS, 22 November 2021.
 Population problems in studies on primitive society in the historiography of Azerbaijan in the second half of the 20th century // Proceedings of the I International Conference on the Fundamentals of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Baku, December 24, 2021.
 Problems of historical demography in studies on the territorial and demographic issues of Azerbaijan in the XIX century in the historiography of Azerbaijan in the second half of the XX century - the beginning of the XXI century. IV International Scientific Conference "World Azerbaijanis: History and Modernity", Baku, December 29-30, 2021
 Issues of historical demography in the study of the processes associated with the ethnogenesis of the Azerbaijani people in the national historiography in the second half of the XX century - the beginning of the XXI century. Proceedings International conference "Ethnogenesis of the Azerbaijani people and the national identity issues", Baku, October 28, 2022.
 Influence of political processes taking place in Northern Azerbaijan in the 19th century on the demographic situation of Shusha in the historiography of Azerbaijan in the 21st century. Republican scientific conference "Historical and cultural heritage of Karabakh in the museum", Baku, November 1, 2022
 Historical and demographic issues in the scientific creativity of Azerbaijani historian and archeologist Mammadali Huseynov. AICNHS 1st International Conference on new horizons in science, January 12-15, 2023, Cairo, Egypt. pp.108-113.
 Issues of historical demography in the research works of Azerbaijani historians on medieval period in the second half of XX century // I International Scientific and Practical Conference «Modern science: experience, traditions, innovations», January 31 – February 1, 2023, Berlin. Germany. pp.27-32.

Works

Featured articles and programs

In Azerbaijani

 [http://static.bsu.az/w8/Tarix%20ve%20onun%20problem/2013%20%20%202/seh.346-350.pdf XIX

  Bakı, 2016 (tarixi mənbələrini tərcümə etmişdir.)

 .

 .

In Russian

In English

Scientific books
 Искендеров А., Мамедов А. Историческая демография. Баку, "Elm və təhsil", 2017, 164 с.
 Мамедов А., Халилзаде А. Историография истории США. Учебное Пособие по специальности 050211 Регионоведение (американистика). Баку, "АГУКИ", 2018, 142 с.
 Məmmədov A. Tarixi demoqrafiya. Dərslik. Bakı, 2019, 232 s.

External links
 Aydın Məmmədov  in Google Scholar
 http://history.bsu.edu.az
 Tarix fakültəsinin tələbələri Aydın Məmmədovla görüşüblər
 A.Məmmədovun Təqdimatında Elmi Seminar - BDU Tarix Tələbə Elmi Cəmiyyəti

References

1967 births
21st-century Azerbaijani historians
Living people
People from Sumgait


text:
Ва́шингтон Лу́ис Пере́йра ди Со́за (; 26 октября 1869, Макаэ, Рио-де-Жанейро, Бразильская империя — 9 августа 1957, Сан-Паулу, Бразилия) — бразильский адвокат и политик, 13-й президент Бразилии (1926—1930).

Вашингтон Луис — последний президент Бразилии, правивший в период Старой республики.

Биография
В 1914—1919 годах, ранее бывший мэром Бататайса и депутатом законодательного собрания штата, занимал пост мэра города Сан-Паулу, а в 1920—1924 годах — губернатора штата Сан-Паулу. В 1926 году баллотировался на пост президента Бразилии и победил.

Придя к власти, определил приоритетными задачами для своего правительства строительство дорог и проведение финансовой реформы. Чтобы добиться финансовой стабилизации, он приступил к созданию национального золотого запаса, причём на первом этапе — путём тех же международных займов. Именно при нём в 1927 году не нашедшая поддержку у широких слоёв населения Непобедимая колонна тенентистов покинула территорию Бразилии и была интернирована в Боливии, так и оставшись непобеждённой. Более того, начиная с 1925 года, в стране было массовое перепроизводство кофе, что создавало ощутимые экономические проблемы.

Во время кризиса 1929 года он в значительной степени потерял поддержку элиты. В 1930 году он, в нарушение договоренностей «политики кофе с молоком», назвал своим преемником Жулиу Престиса, также выходца из Сан-Паулу. В результате, из-за недовольства этим шагом оппозиции, 24 октября, незадолго до окончания своих полномочий, потерял власть в ходе либеральной революции 1930 года. К власти пришла временная хунта, которая в тот же день арестовала президента и заключила его в форт Копакабана.

После освобождения эмигрировал в США, затем некоторое время жил в Европе. В 1947 году вернулся в Бразилию, но отказался возвращаться в политику.

Похоронен на кладбище Консоласан в Сан-Паулу.

Примечания

Ссылки
 Braziliada — Все президенты Бразилии

Президенты Бразилии
Юристы Бразилии
Мэры Сан-Паулу
Похороненные на кладбище Консоласан
Выпускники Университета Сан-Паулу
Губернаторы штата Сан-Паулу
Депутаты Законодательного собрания штата Сан-Паулу


text:
«Федеральный научный центр пчеловодства», ранее  пчеловодства (полное название — Федеральное государственное бюджетное научное учреждение «Федеральный научный центр пчеловодства») — российский научный институт пчеловодства. Находится в городе Рыбное Рязанской области. Основан в 1930 году.

Здесь работают 70 сотрудников, в их числе 3 доктора и 14 кандидатов наук. Директор — кандидат биологических наук Лилия Бурмистрова, науч. рук. — доктор сельскохозяйственных наук профессор Вячеслав Лебедев.

Институт размещается в трёх корпусах в окружении дендропарка и коллекционного питомника с богатой коллекцией древесно-кустарниковых и травянистых медоносов и пыльценосов.

При институте функционирует крупнейший в мире музей-выставка пчеловодства, организованный со времени основания института.

Сотрудниками института получено более 60 авторских свидетельств и патентов на изобретения и селекционные достижения.

Ныне институт входит в состав Федерального агентства научных организаций. 16 ноября 2017 г. ФГБНУ «НИИ пчеловодства» в связи с реорганизацией с присоединением ФГБНУ «Краснополянская опытная станция пчеловодства» было переименовано в ФГБНУ «Федеральный научный центр пчеловодства».

История
Всесоюзный институт пчеловодства был организован 2 октября 1930 года на базе Тульской опытной станции пчеловодства — решением I (учредительного) Пленума ВАСХНИЛ от 19 мая 1930 года, в соответствии с постановлением СНК СССР «О мерах к развитию животноводства».

В 1934 году институт переехал на Северную улицу подмосковного посёлка ВИЛАР (ныне Феодосийская улица Москвы, Северное Бутово). В 1955 году институт был переведён в Рязанскую область, где находится и поныне.

В 1980 г. институт был награжден орденом «Знак Почета» — «За заслуги в разработке научных исследований и практических мероприятий по развитию пчеловодства».

Авторские коллективы института удостаивались Правительственной премии в области науки и техники (1997), Государственной премии в области науки и техники (2000), премии Правительства в области образования (2004).

Структура
В составе института:
 селекционно-информационный центр,
 технический комитет «Пчеловодство» по стандартизации,
 музей-выставка пчеловодства,
 научная библиотека (более 70 тысяч единиц хранения)
 участок оперативной печати
 ФГБНУ «Краснополянская опытная станция пчеловодства» (Краснодарский край)
 ФГУП ППХ «Майкопское» (Республика Адыгея)
 ФГУП «Алешинское» (Рязанская область).

Направления деятельности
 Выполнение фундаментальных и приоритетных прикладных научно-исследовательских работ по научно-техническому обеспечению пчеловодства
 Работа по выявлению, учету, охране и селекционно-племенному совершенствованию ценных местных пород и популяций медоносной пчелы
 Разработка и совершенствование технологий содержания и разведения пчел, в том числе производства и переработки всех видов продукции пчеловодства и комплексного использования пчелиных семей
 Разработка средств механизации производственных процессов на пасеке и переработки продукции
 Изучение медоносной ценности нектароносных растений и разработку мероприятий по улучшению кормовой базы пчеловодства
 Разработка концепций и прогнозов развития пчеловодства
 Информационное обслуживание пчеловодства
 стандартизации и сертификации продуктов пчеловодства и пчеловодного инвентаря. Институт аккредитован в качестве органа по сертификации продукции пчеловодства и инвентаря.
 Апитерапия. Разрабатывается в тесном многолетнем сотрудничестве с Рязанским медицинским университетом (с которым институт является учредителем Рязанского ООО «Общество апитерапевтов», участвует в подготовке врачей-апитерапевтов и в организации и проведении научно-практических конференций по апитерапии), а также совместно с другими медицинскими учреждениями Рязани и Москвы.

См. также
 :Категория:Сотрудники НИИ пчеловодства

Примечания

Ссылки
 Официальный сайт (старая версия)
 Научно-исследовательскому институту пчеловодства 85 лет // Журнал «Пчеловодство»
 Новые будни Рыбновского района

Научные институты России
Научные институты СССР
Научные институты, основанные в 1930 году
Апитерапия
Рязанское общество апитерапевтов
Пчеловодство в СССР
Пчеловодство в России
Появились в 1930 году в России


text:
Sven Hjertsson, född 7 mars 1924, död 12 november 1999, fotbollsspelare, centerhalvback, fyrfaldig svensk mästare för Malmö FF, 13 gånger landslagsman.

Hjertsson tillhörde den MFF-uppställning, som är lagets mest framgångsrika genom tiderna och som 1949-1951 i obruten följd spelade 49 allsvenska matcher utan förlust. Endast två spelare deltog i samtliga dessa matcher, Sven Hjertsson och Egon Jönsson.

Karriär
Sven Hjertsson debuterade i MFF 1942 och spelade 319 matcher för laget fram till 1954.
Han hade en utomordentlig känsla för taktik och strategi, vilket tillsammans med hans kraftfulla och energiska spel fick honom att framstå som en lagets obestridliga fältherre. Med sin starka fysik och sitt hårda spel ingöt han respekt hos motståndarna. Han var temperamentsfull och kommenterade ofta händelserna på planen.

Den 30 maj 1954 spelade Sven Hjertsson sin sista match för Malmö FF. I spelsäsongens sista omgång mötte man Djurgårdens IF på Stockholms Stadion. Sven Hjertsson hade i första halvlek blivit varnad två gånger av domaren, Sigvard Hellström, för protest mot domslut. När i andra halvlek Sigvard Parling i misstänkt offsideläge gjorde 3-0 för DIF, vände sig Sven Hjertsson till rättsskiparen med kommentaren: "Har du blivit blind?".
Anmärkningen resulterade i utvisning och då någon sådan inte hade utdömts i Allsvenskan under de senaste tjugo åren, väckte händelsen stor uppmärksamhet. Hjertsson vägrade dessutom att lämna planen och fick hämtas av sin lagledare Eric Persson. Straffet blev tre månaders avstängning.

Sven Hjertsson hade två äldre bröder, som även dessa spelade i MFF under 1940- och 1950-talet, Arne Hjertsson och Kjell Hjertsson.

Källor
 Fotbollboken, Svenska Fotbollförbundet, årgångarna 1950-1955.
 Expressen, 1951-06-04, 1954-05-31.
 Idrottsbladet 1954-05-31, 1954-06-02.
 Fotbollboken 1949, Svenska Fotbollförbundet.

Svenska fotbollsspelare
Födda 1924
Avlidna 1999
Män
Spelare i Malmö FF
Svenska landslagsspelare i fotboll


text:
Rational Dynamic Object Oriented Requirements System (DOORS) (formerly Telelogic DOORS) is a requirement management tool. It is a client–server application, with a Windows-only client and servers for Linux, Windows, and Solaris. There is also a web client, DOORS Web Access.

Rational DOORS has its own programming language called DOORS eXtension Language (DXL).

Rational DOORS Next Generation is now developed on the IBM Jazz platform. The Jazz platform uses Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration (OSLC).

In order to complete its functionality, Rational DOORS has an open architecture that supports third-party plugins.

DOORS was originally published by Quality Systems and Software Ltd (QSS) in 1991.
Telelogic acquired QSS in mid-2000 and IBM acquired Telelogic in 2008.

History

DOORS was created by Dr Richard Stevens, a researcher through the 1970's and 1980's at the European Space Agency's Research Institute (ESRIN). The first version was provided to the UK Ministry of Defence in 1991-2. The first commercial version was released in 1993.

Features
DOORS is designed to ease the requirements management process with a variety of features:

 The requirements database can be accessed with a web browser through Rational DOORS Web Access.
 Changes to requirements can be managed with either a simple predefined change proposal system or a more thorough, customizable change control workflow through integration to Rational change management solutions.
 With the Requirements Interchange Format, suppliers and development partners can be directly involved in the development process.
 Requirements to design items, test plans, test cases, and other requirements can be linked for easy and powerful traceability.
 Business users, marketing, suppliers, systems engineers, and business analysts can collaborate directly through requirements discussions.
 Testers can link requirements to test cases using the Test Tracking Toolkit for manual test environments.
 Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration (OSLC) can be used for specifications for requirements management, change management, and quality management to integrate with systems and software lifecycle tools.
 Can be integrated with other Rational tools, including Rational Team Concert, RationalQuality Manager, Rational DOORS Next Generation, Rational Rhapsody®, Jazz™ Reporting Service, and Rational System Architect, and also many third-party tools, providing a comprehensive traceability solution.

See also

 DOORS Next (Generation) - also known as Jazz
 IBM's Rational Rhapsody
 List of requirements engineering tools
 Open Services for Lifecycle Collaboration

References

DOORS
Software requirements


text:
Svetlana Gorokhovich (Russian: Светлана Горохович) is a pianist and recording musician.

Career
A native of Kazan, Russia, Gorokhovich started playing when she was five years old.  At age fourteen she performed Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin) with the Kazan Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by the legendary Nathan Rachlin.  She continued her musical education at the Kazan State Conservatory and received a doctorate from the St. Petersburg State Conservatory.  Her teachers included Marina Arbuzova, Irina Dubinina and Tatiana Kravchenko.

Svetlana immigrated as a political refugee to the USA in 1989 in pursuit of an active performing and teaching career.  In 1997 she shared an honorable mention at the Seventeenth Bartok-Kabalevsky International Piano Competition at Radford University (1997).   At the IBLA International Competition in Italy (1999) Svetlana received the Johan S. Bach Special Mention Award in the Piano Competition and the Baroque Competition.

From 1991-1996 Svetlana worked with internationally acclaimed violinist Dmitri Berlinsky, touring worldwide including Virgin Islands, Japan and United States. This collaboration resulted in a CD production by Helicon Records called "Souvenir D'un Lieu Cher". Since 1996, Svetlana's solo and chamber music performances have included major concert halls in the United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, Caribbean, Iceland and Italy.

Svetlana's appearance in Weill Recital Hall (Carnegie Hall) in 1997 with violinist Eva Ingolfsdottir resulted in "Sonata", a recording by Japis Record (acquired by Zonet Music in Iceland). Since 2006, Svetlana has performed and collaborated with distinguished cellist Misha Quint.  In 2010, Svetlana recorded "Valse Sentimentale" with Misha Quint by Volshebnik Productions studio. Svetlana was invited to perform annually in Weill Recital at Carnegie Hall from 2011 to 2014 as part of Interharmony Music Festival.

Svetlana has successfully built experience in piano duos: In 2006, SMH Music published a new edition of a previous recording by Svetlana Gorokhovich and Liliya Khobotkova called "Russian Sketches" with the music of Valery Gavrilin and Rachmaninoff for piano duo. In 2008, this CD was featured by IcelandAir as part of their classic music program.  Svetlana's latest piano duo recital with Liliya in 2011 was at Tillett Gardens on St. Thomas. This performance included a debut of "Tango Suite" by Astor Piazzolla, originally written for guitar duo Odair and Sergio Assad and arranged for four hands by Clarice Assad. Svetlana also established a collaboration with Irina Portenko in Germany at the Sulzbach-Rosenberg Music Festival and New York (Music Conservatory of Westchester).

Due to her accomplishments in piano performance, Svetlana was presented with the "Arkansas Traveler" and "Honorary Citizen" awards in 1999 "as an ambassador of fellowship and goodwill for the City of Little Rock to all people" after a concert and TV appearance in Arkansas.

In addition to her active performance schedule, Svetlana teaches students privately and as a piano faculty member of the Music Conservatory of Westchester, White Plains, New York.

Recordings
 With violinist Dmitri Berlinsky: Souvenir D'un Lieu Cher (Helicon Records, 1997)
 With violinist Eva Ingolfsdottir: Sonata (Japis Record, 1998)
 With pianist Liliya Khobotkova: Russian Sketches (SMH Music, 2006)
 With cellist Misha Quint:Valse Sentimentale (Volshebnik Productions, 2010)
 With pianist Liliya Khobotkova: One Piano Four Hands (SMH Musicllc, 2012)
 With cellist Misha Quint: Tempo Trapezio (Blue Griffin, 2014)

Films
 Enrique Granados. A Musical Portrait. 2009. SHmusic.com ( performed with cellist Elizabeth Anderson Madrigal Orientale Spanish Dance)
 Antonín Dvořák. Discovering America. 2014.( performed Two Slavonic dances for four hands, Svetlana Gorokhovich and Irena Portenko)
 Sound track for "WTERT Awards 2004 - 2014" annual documentary (produced by Columbia University):

Reviews
Svetlana's performances have received consistently positive reviews from music critics around the world. In response to Souvenir D'un Lieu Cher, Robert Maxham from "Fanfare Magazine" wrote that "This is superb recital, guaranteed to raise goose flesh on anything but a corpse - and I am not so sure about the corpse. This is significant recording powerful in its emotional impact, is recommended with special urgency.".  Musical critic for "The Washington Post"Joseph McLellan wrote:"...vital and memorable interpretation".

Her music performance with Anastasia Khitruk (violin)and Andrey Tchekmazov (cello) was highly acclaimed in review: "The interplay between Ms. Khitruk and her accompanist, Ms. Svetlana Gorokhovich, was delightful. Ms. Gorokhovich played the fully open grand piano so delicately, and articulating each musical phrase with intelligence and precision, that not a single note of the violin was being drowned in this acoustically challenging performance space."
Her solo recital in Carnegie Hall in 2000 was highly acclaimed by the New York Concert Review. . "…outstanding performance that perfectly balanced the lyrical and dynamic resources of the piano…three sections of the Sinfonia catalogued the range and depth of Gorokhovich's approach…Gorokhovich is a profound and almost self-effacing interpreter..."

Svetlana participated in numerous international music festivals in the Netherlands, Germany and New York City during 2005-2014. Her performance was highly acclaimed. (translation from German):
 This review describes Svetlana's playing in one section "Perfekte Pianistin (Perfect pianist)" as (translation from German): .

References

Living people
Russian pianists
Russian women pianists
21st-century pianists
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century women pianists


text:
V. G. Manimeghalai is an Indian politician and former Member of the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu. She was elected to the Tamil Nadu legislative assembly as an Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam candidate from Aruppukottai constituency in  1991 election.

References

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians
Living people
20th-century Indian women politicians
20th-century Indian politicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
Tamil Nadu MLAs 1991–1996
Women members of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly


text:
Das Council for Assisting Refugee Academics (CARA; deut. Rat zur Unterstützung flüchtender Akademiker) ist eine britische Wohlfahrtsorganisation mit Sitz in London. Sie unterstützt Akademiker, die aus unterschiedlichen Gründen verfolgt oder bedroht werden. Sie wurde 1933 als Reaktion auf die Diskriminierungen in Nazideutschland unter dem Namen Academic Assistance Council (AAC) gegründet.

Ihr Präsident ist zurzeit Malcolm Grant.

Geschichte

Der Academic Assistance Council (AAC) wurde im April 1933 von William Henry Beveridge als Reaktion auf den Umgang der NSDAP mit deutschen Wissenschaftlern gegründet. Die Idee dazu kam ihm auf dem Weg nach Wien. Er gewann Ernest Rutherford als Präsidenten und Archibald Vivian Hill als Vizepräsidenten. Im Mai 1933 verbreiteten sie ein Gründungsdokument, das von vielen prominenten britischen Akademikern unterschrieben wurde. Bei einer Veranstaltung in der Royal Albert Hall in London waren 10.000 Menschen zugegen; unter anderem sprach Albert Einstein von der Wichtigkeit akademischer Freiheit.

1936 benannte sich die Organisation in Society for Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL) um. Damit sollte zum Ausdruck gebracht werden, dass nicht nur Einzelpersonen unterstützt werden sollen, sondern akademische Freiheit insgesamt.

Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg half die Organisation aus den kommunistischen Staaten, vor allem der Volksrepublik China und der Sowjetunion, fliehenden Wissenschaftlern. In den 1960er Jahren wurden zahlreiche Wissenschaftler aus Südafrika und Chile unterstützt. Seit den 1990er Jahren verschiebt sich der Fokus der Organisation auf den Mittleren Osten.

Seit dem Jahr 1999 hat die Organisation den heutigen Namen.

Organisation
Die Gesellschaft wird von einem sogenannten Council of Management geleitet, dem bis zu 25 Personen hauptsächlich aus der akademischen Welt angehören. Es trifft sich jährlich vor der Jahreshauptversammlung.

Archivalien zu verfolgten Wissenschaftlern, soweit sie mit der Institution in Berührung kamen, finden sich für europäische Forscher, bezogen auf die Jahre 1933–1987, in der Bodleian Library, das Material ist derzeit bis zum Jahr 2008 archivalisch gelistet (Findbuch), und für Amerika beim USHMM.

Gegenwärtige Besetzung
Aktuell gehören folgende 17 Personen dem Council of Management an (Stand September 2013):

Literatur
 David Zimmerman: The Society for the Protection of Science and Learning and the Politicization of British Science in the 1930s. In: Minerva, Bd. 44 (2006), Heft 1, S. 25–45,

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website

Einzelnachweise

Wohlfahrtsorganisation
Organisation (London)
Gegründet 1933


text:
Лілі Рейб (, нар. , Нью-Йорк, США) — американська актриса театру, кіно і телебачення. Номінант на премію «Тоні» за «Найкращу жіночу роль у п'єсі» «Венеціанський купець» у 2011 році. Дочка актриси Джилл Клейберг, Рейб почала свою акторську кар'єру в театрі і домоглася успіху після свого бродвейського дебюту в постановці 2005 року «Сталеві магнолії», після чого домоглася похвали від критиків за виступи в п'єсах «Венеціанський купець», «Ляльковий дім» та «Фрекен Юлія». У 2011 році вона почала зніматися в серіалі-антології FX «Американська історія жахів», з тих пір зігравши різні ролі у восьми сезонах. З 2014 року Лілі Рейб виконує провідну роль у серіалі каналу ABC «Шепіт».

Біографія
Лілі Рейб народилася 29 червня 1982 року в Нью-Йорку, у Верхньому Вест-Сайді, вона дочка драматурга Девіда Рейба та актриси Джилл Клейберг (1944-2010). У неї є два молодших брата, Майкл актор і драматург, а також Джейсон, музикант. Її батько — католик, а дід по материнській лінії був євреєм, бабуся актриси по материнській лінії була протестанткою. Спочатку Рейб жила в Бедфорді, а потім переїхала в Лейквілл, штат Коннектикут, там вона вчилася в школі Хотчкісс.

Рейб займалася танцями протягом десяти років. Вона викладала балет у літній програмі в Коннектикуті, незабаром до неї підійшов викладач програми, який попросив її прочитати монолог з вистави «Злочини серця»
. Вона стверджує, що «це був той самий момент, який змусив мене замислитися: може бути це те, що я хочу робити». Потім Рейб вирушила на навчання в Північно-західний університет, який закінчила у 2004 році.

Кар'єра
У 2005 році Лілі Рейб дебютувала на Бродвеї в п'єсі «Сталеві магнолії» зігравши роль Аннетт. За свій виступ в постановці вона була номінована на премію «Драма Деск» за найкращу жіночу роль другого плану у п'єсі. Після вона виступала в п'єсах «Холодніше, ніж тут» і «Американський план» і «Розбитий будинок». У 2010 році вона отримала похвалу від критиків і номінації на премії «Тоні» і «Драма Деск» за роль у п'єсі «Венеціанський купець» з Аль Пачіно.

Рейб з'явилася в декількох фільмах і телешоу. На великому екрані вона з'явилася у фільмах «Посмішка Мони Лізи», «Смак життя», «Одного разу в Голлівуді» і «Все найкраще». Вона була гостем в декількох телесеріалах, таких як «Закон і порядок: Спеціальний корпус», «Частини тіла», «Гарна дружина», а також «Медіум», де актриса зіграла роль жінки-серійної вбивці, яка прикидається жертвою. У 2011 році Райан Мерфі запросив Рейб на роль Нори Монтгомері в перший сезон свого серіалу-антології «Американська історія жахів». Завдяки хорошим відгукам від критиків актриса була запрошена зіграти одну з головних ролей у другому сезоні серіалу, разом з чотирма іншими акторами першого сезону, які також зіграли нові ролі. Рейб зіграла роль сестри Мері Юніс і диявола одночасно. Також вона знялася в третьому сезоні серіалу в ролі загадкової Місті Дей, яка здатна воскрешати мертвих.

Влітку 2012 року було оголошено, що Рейб зіграє роль Мері Пікфорд, першої зірки Голлівуду і німого кіно, в біографічному фільмі «Перша». Сценарій фільму заснований на книзі Айлін Уітфілд «Пікфорд: Жінка, яка створила Голлівуд». У 2013 році Рейб була затверджена на одну з ролей у фільмах «Голодні ігри: Сойка-пересмішниця. Частина 1 і Частина 2», проте залишила зйомки другого фільму через зайнятість у той момент у Бродвейській п'єсі. Також вона знялася в байопіку «Жертвуючи пішаком» про життя Боббі Фішера, де зіграла його сестру, а також виконала головну роль у трилері «Вуаль». Також у 2014 році, Рейб була запрошена на провідну роль в серіал ABC «Шепіт».

В даний час Лілі зустрічається з актором Хемішем Лінклетером. У пари є дочка (нар. у березні 2017).

Особисте життя
У грудні 2016 року повідомлялося, що Рейб чекала свою першу дитину з чоловіком, актором Хемішом Лінклейтером. 9 березня 2017 року, Рейб розмістила в Instagram фотографію її новонародженої доньки.

Фільмографія

Кіно

Телебачення

Роботи в театрі

Нагороди та номінації
Список наведено згідно з даними сайту IMDb.

Примітки

Посилання

Акторки XXI століття
Американські кіноакторки
Акторки за алфавітом
Американські театральні акторки
Американські телеакторки
Персоналії за алфавітом
Народились 29 червня
Народились 1982
Уродженці Нью-Йорка


text:
A Planck-hőmérséklet a Max Planck német fizikus által megalkotott Planck-egységek hőmérsékleti egysége.

A Planck-egységek általában a kvantummechanika határait jelentik. A Planck-hőmérsékletnél "forróbb" dologról nem sok értelme van beszélni, ezen a hőmérsékleten párolognak el elméletileg a fekete lyukak, és erről a hőmérsékletről "kezdett" az Univerzum hűlni, a jelenleg elfogadott kozmológia szerint. Nehéz elképzelni bármi forróbbat, mint az ősrobbanás.

1,416785(71) K

ahol:

mP a Planck-tömeg

c a fénysebesség vákuumban

 a redukált Planck-állandó (vagy Dirac-állandó)

k a Boltzmann-állandó

G a gravitációs állandó

Lásd még

 Planck-egységek
 Nagyságrendek listája (hőmérséklet)

Források
 NIST reference: Planck temperature

Planck-egységek


text:
Сергей Юрьевич Ларин (22 июля 1986, Алма-Ата, Казахская ССР, СССР) — казахстанский футболист, полузащитник.

Карьера

Клубная
Воспитанник алматинского футбола. Футбольную карьеру начинал в составе клуба «Алма-Ата».

В 2019 году перешёл в клуб «Локомотив» Астана.

В 2010 году подписал контракт с клубом «Атырау».

В сборной
2005—2008 годах выступал за сборную Казахстана, провёл 26 матча.

Достижения
 «Алма-Ата»
 Обладатель Кубка Казахстана: 2006
 Финалист Кубка Казахстана: 2008

Клубная статистика

Футболисты Казахстана
Игроки сборной Казахстана по футболу
Игроки ФК «Алма-Ата»
Игроки ФК «Астана» (2009)
Игроки ФК «Атырау»


text:
Central Jersey College Prep Charter School is a comprehensive public charter elementary / middle / high school that serves students in kindergarten through twelfth grade, located in the Somerset section of Franklin Township, in Somerset County, New Jersey, United States. The school operates under the terms of a charter granted by the New Jersey Department of Education granted in 2006.  In addition to students from Franklin Township, the school also serves students from the neighboring communities of New Brunswick and North Brunswick Township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States.

As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,277 students and 107.7 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.9:1. There were 232 students (18.2% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 84 (6.6% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch.

Awards, recognition and rankings
In 2016, the school was one of ten schools in New Jersey, and the only charter school, recognized as a National Blue Ribbon School by the United States Department of Education.

Extracurricular activities
Clubs and activities offered at the school include Model United Nations, Newspaper Club, Science Olympiad, Chess Club, Debate Club, Year Book, Art Club, Guitar Club, Band, Chorus, Writing Workshop (Middle / High), Math Club, Robotics Club (Middle / High), Turkish Club, Chinese Club, Spanish Club, Computer Science Club, National Junior Honor Society, National Honor Society, Soccer Club, Basketball Club, and the Volleyball Club.

Athletics
The Central Jersey College Prep Charter School Cougars participate in interscholastic sports including men's basketball, men's soccer and men's and women's volleyball, competing independently of any conference under the auspices of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). With 136 students in grades 10-12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group I for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 75 to 476 students in that grade range.

Administration
The school's Chief Education Officer is Dr. Namik Sercan.

References

External links
Central Jersey College Prep Charter School

Data for Central Jersey College Prep Charter School, National Center for Education Statistics

Franklin Township, Somerset County, New Jersey
2006 establishments in New Jersey
Charter schools in New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 2006
Public high schools in Somerset County, New Jersey
Public middle schools in New Jersey


text:
Fiat Oltre è un prototipo di fuoristrada presentato dalla casa automobilistica italiana Fiat nel 2005 al Motor Show dell'Automobile di Bologna.

È basato sul veicolo militare Iveco LMV.

Caratteristiche
Il Fiat Oltre deriva dell'Iveco LMV (Light Multirole Vehicle), l'ultimo veicolo militare tutto terreno della divisione Iveco Defence Vehicles realizzato nell'ambito del progetto FCLV (Future Command and Liaison Vehicle) per l'esercito britannico e italiano.

Le sue dimensioni sono: 4,87 m di lunghezza, 2,05 m di altezza, 2,2 m di larghezza, un passo di 3,23 m e 50 cm di distanza dal suolo. Il peso del veicolo è di 4 tonnellate e ha una capacità massima di carico di 3,5 tonnellate. La struttura tubolare sulla cabina migliora la solidità di tutto il veicolo, oltre disporre di una barra antiribaltamento completa dentro la cabina.

Il suo motore è un Iveco F1C Common rail Diesel, di 3.000 cc e 185 CV e una coppia massima di 456 N·m a 1800 giri al minuto, combinato con una trasmissione automatica a sei velocità; la velocità massima è di 130 km/h.

Il veicolo dispone di trazione permanente alle quattro ruote e un sistema di sospensioni indipendenti di alta efficienza con molle elicoidali e ammortizzatori coassiali. Le sospensioni sono regolabili in altezza, potendo superare dislivelli con inclinazione laterale del 40% o longitudinale dell'80% e grazie al suo sistema di trazione integrale con tre differenziali autobloccanti elettronicamente può salire pendenze fino a 85 gradi.

Possiede un abitacolo a quattro porte omologato per 4 o 5 persone, a seconda la configurazione. Nel modello presentato nel Salone di Bologna erano inclusi elementi speciali, come dei sedili sportivi o un equipaggiamento multimediale.

Note

Altri progetti

Concept car Fiat


text:
NGC 6332 ist eine 13,6 mag helle Spiralgalaxie vom Hubble-Typ Sa im Sternbild Herkules am Nordsternhimmel. Sie ist schätzungsweise 384 Millionen Lichtjahre von der Milchstraße entfernt und hat einen Durchmesser von etwa 180.000 Lichtjahren.

Im selben Himmelsareal befinden sich u. a. die Galaxien NGC 6323, NGC 6327, NGC 6329, NGC 6336.

Das Objekt wurde am 11. Juli 1876 von Édouard Stephan entdeckt.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Spiralgalaxie


text:
Daniel Stefański (* 7. Juli 1977) ist ein polnischer Fußballschiedsrichter.

Seit 2013 steht er auf der Liste der FIFA-Schiedsrichter und leitet internationale Fußballspiele.

In der Saison 2016/17 leitete Stefański erstmals ein Spiel in der Europa League, bisher noch keine in der Champions League, aber in der Qualifikation zu beiden Wettbewerben. Zudem pfiff er bereits Partien in der Nations League, in der EM-Qualifikation für die Europameisterschaft 2021, in der europäischen WM-Qualifikation für die WM 2014 in Brasilien, die WM 2018 in Russland und die WM 2022 in Katar sowie Freundschaftsspiele.

Am 2. Mai 2015 leitete Stefański das Finale des Polnischen Fußballpokals 2014/15 zwischen Legia Warschau und Lech Posen (2:1).

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

FIFA-Schiedsrichter (Polen)
Pole
Geboren 1977
Mann


text:
Зорнциг-Аблас () — бывшая коммуна в немецкой федеральной земле Саксония, образованная 1 января 1994 года путём слияния общин Зорнциг и Аблас. С 1 января 2011 года Зорнциг-Аблас входит в состав города Мюгельн.

Подчиняется административному округу Лейпциг и входит в состав района Северная Саксония.

Население составляет 2375 человек (на 31 декабря 2006 года). Занимает площадь 31,89 км². Официальный код  —  14 3 89 280.

Коммуна подразделялась на 19 сельских округов.

Ссылки
 www.sornzig-ablass.de Официальная страница.

Бывшие общины Саксонии


text:
European American Armory Inc. is a Rockledge, Florida based firearms company which imports a number of different handguns, shotguns and rifles to the United States.

Products

The company is best known
 for importation of the Tanfoglio T95 as the "Witness" line of pistols. The Witness is a modified clone of the Czech CZ-75/CZ-85 pistol. It is made in Gardone Val Trompia (Brescia), Italy by Fratelli Tanfoglio S.N.C.

EAA also imports the Arminius HW-357 as the EAA-Arminius Windicator and the Western Single Action.

External links
 Official Company Website

References

Firearm importation companies of the United States


text:
Lundviva (Primula elatior) är en växtart i släktet vivor. Den är fridlyst i Skåne län.

Utseende
Lundvivan blir 10–30 cm hög och är till utseendet lik gullviva (P. veris), med håriga och tandade blad. Bladen är dock något rundare till formen än gullvivans. Blommorna, ofta 10–30 stycken, sitter i ensidiga samlingar på skaft som är 5–20 mm långa. Blommornas kronor är ljust gula, 15–25 mm breda och saknar doft. Fodret är vitaktigt och cylindriskt, med flikar som är dubbelt så långa som breda. Fruktkapseln blir 11–15 mm, längre än fodret (gullvivans kapsel blir kortare än fodret).

Utbredning och ekologi
Lundvivan finns i stora delar av Europa och bort till Altaj i centrala Asien, men i Norden återfinns den främst i Danmark, södra Sverige och södra Finland, samt på spridda platser i Skanderna, Tornedalen och några platser i västra och östra Finland. Den finns även odlad i stora delar av Europa och Asien. Arten kan hybridisera med gullviva (då kallad trädgårdsviva), samt med jordviva (P. vulgaris), då kallad P. x polyantha.

Lundvivan trivs på näringsrik, kalkhaltig frisk–fuktig mark, såsom gräsmattor, lundar, åkerrenar och ädellövskogar. Den blommar i april–maj och pollineras främst av humlor och fjärilar.

Källor

Virtuella floran:Lundviva
Bergianska trädgården: Blommande gräsmattor

Viveväxter
Lu Växtindex
Fridlysta växter i Sverige


text:
Threatening the president of the United States is a federal felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. It consists of knowingly and willfully mailing or otherwise making "any threat to take the life of, to kidnap, or to inflict great bodily harm upon the president of the United States". The law also includes presidential candidates, vice presidents, and former presidents. The Secret Service investigates suspected violations of this law and monitors those who have a history of threatening the president. Threatening the president is considered a political offense. Immigrants who commit this crime can be deported.

Because the offense consists of pure speech, the courts have issued rulings attempting to balance the government's interest in protecting the president with free speech rights under the First Amendment. According to the book Stalking, Threatening, and Attacking Public Figures, "Hundreds of celebrity howlers threaten the president of the United States every year, sometimes because they disagree with his policies, but more often just because he is the president."

The prototype for Section 871 was the English Treason Act 1351, which made it a crime to "compass or imagine" the death of the King. Convictions under 18 U.S.C. § 871 have been sustained for declaring that "President Wilson ought to be killed. It is a wonder some one has not done it already. If I had an opportunity, I would do it myself"; and for declaring that "Wilson is a wooden-headed son of a bitch. I wish Wilson was in hell, and if I had the power I would put him there." In a later era, a conviction was sustained for displaying posters urging passersby to "hang [President] Roosevelt".

There has been some controversy among the federal appellate courts as to how the term "willfully" should be interpreted. Traditional legal interpretations of the term are reflected by Black's Law Dictionary definition, which includes descriptions such as "malicious, done with evil intent, or with a bad motive or purpose," but most courts have adopted a more easily proven standard. For instance, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that a threat was knowingly made if the speaker comprehended the meaning of the words uttered by him or her. It was willingly made if, in addition to comprehending the words' meaning, the speaker voluntarily and intentionally uttered them as a declaration of apparent determination to carry them into execution. According to the 2018 U.S. Attorney's Manual, "Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees, approximately 75 percent are mentally ill."

Frequency
The first prosecutions under the statute, enacted in 1917, occurred during the highly charged, hyperpatriotic years of World War I, and the decisions handed down by the courts in these early cases reflected intolerance for any words demonstrating even a vague spirit of disloyalty. There was a relative moratorium on prosecutions under this statute until the World War II era. The number increased during the turbulent Vietnam War era. They have tended to fall when the country has not been directly embroiled in a national crisis situation.

The number of reported threats rose from 2,400 in 1965 to 12,800 in 1969. According to Ronald Kessler, President George W. Bush received about 3,000 threats a year, while his successor Barack Obama received about four times that amount. This figure has been disputed by Secret Service director Mark Sullivan, who says that Obama received about as many threats as the previous two presidents.

According to the U.S. Attorneys' Manual, "Media attention given to certain kinds of criminal activity seems to generate further criminal activity; this is especially true concerning presidential threats which is well documented by data previously supplied by the United States Secret Service. For example, in the six-month period following the March 30, 1981, attempt on the life of President Reagan, the average number of threats against protectees of the Secret Service increased by over 150 percent from a similar period during the prior year." For this reason, the agency recommends considering the use of sealed affidavits to keep news of threats from leaking to the press.

Incidents
Convictions under 18 U.S.C. § 871 have been sustained for declaring that "President Wilson ought to be killed. It is a wonder some one has not done it already. If I had an opportunity, I would do it myself."; and for declaring that "Wilson is a wooden-headed son of a bitch. I wish Wilson was in hell, and if I had the power I would put him there." In a later era, a conviction was sustained for displaying posters urging passersby to "hang [President Franklin D.] Roosevelt".

In a 1971 interview, comedian Groucho Marx told Flash magazine, "I think the only hope this country has is Nixon's assassination." U.S. Attorney James L. Browning Jr. opined, "It is one thing to say that 'I (or we) will kill Richard Nixon' when you are the leader of an organization which advocates killing people and overthrowing the Government; it is quite another to utter the words which are attributed to Mr. Marx, an alleged comedian."

In July 2003, the Los Angeles Times published a Sunday editorial cartoon by conservative Michael Ramirez that depicted a man pointing a gun at President Bush's head; it was a takeoff on the 1969 Pulitzer Prize-winning photo by Eddie Adams that showed South Vietnamese National Police Chief Nguyễn Ngọc Loan executing a Viet Cong prisoner (Capt. Nguyễn Văn Lém) at point-blank range. The cartoon prompted a visit from the Secret Service, but no charges were filed.

In 2005, a teacher instructed her senior civics and economics class to take photographs to illustrate the rights contained in the Bill of Rights. One student "had taken a photo of George Bush out of a magazine and tacked the picture to a wall with a red thumb tack through his head. Then he made a thumb's-down sign with his own hand next to the president's picture, and he had a photo taken of that, and he pasted it on a poster." A Wal-Mart photo department employee reported it to police, and the Secret Service investigated. No charges were filed.

In 2007, Purdue University teaching assistant Vikram Buddhi was convicted of posting messages to Yahoo Finance criticizing the Iraq War and stating, "Call for the assassination of GW Bush" and "Rape and Kill Laura Bush." The defense had argued that the defendant never explicitly threatened anyone.

In September 2009 the Secret Service investigated Facebook polls that asked whether President Barack Obama should be assassinated. Some question has arisen as to how to handle Facebook groups such as "LETS KILL BUSH WITH SHOES" (a reference to the 2008 Muntadhar al-Zaidi shoe incident) which had 484 members as of September 2009; similar issues have arisen on MySpace. Tweets have come under Secret Service investigation, including ones that said "ASSASSINATION! America, we survived the Assassinations and Lincoln & Kennedy. We'll surely get over a bullet to  Obama's head," and "The next American with a Clear Shot should drop Obama like a bad habit. 4get Blacks or his claims to b[e] Black. Turn on Barack Obama."

In 2010, Johnny Logan Spencer Jr. was sentenced in Louisville, Kentucky, to 33 months in prison for posting a poem entitled "The Sniper" about the president's assassination on a white supremacist website. He apologized in court, saying that he was, as WHAS news put it, "upset about his mother's death and had fallen in with a white supremacist group that had helped him kick a drug habit."

In 2010, Brian Dean Miller was sentenced in Texas to 27 months in prison for posting to Craigslist: "People, the time has come for revolution. It is time for Obama to die. I am dedicating my life to the death of Obama and every employee of the federal government. As I promised in a previous post, if the health care reform bill passed I would become a terrorist. Today I become a terrorist."

Later in 2010, a 77-year-old white man named Michael Stephen Bowden, who said that President Obama was not doing enough to help African Americans, was arrested after making murder-suicide threats against Obama.

On July 19, 2011, the 9th Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals reversed the conviction of Walter Bagdasarian for making online threats against Obama. The court found that his speech urging Obama's assassination ("Re: Obama fk the niggar , he will have a 50 cal in the head soon" and "shoot the nig country fkd for another 4 years+, what nig has done ANYTHING right???? long term???? never in history, except sambos") was protected by the First Amendment.

In 2017, Stephen Taubert, a 59-year-old Air Force veteran and resident of Syracuse, New York, called the office of Senator Al Franken and, in a rant full of racial slurs, said he was going to "hang" former President Barack Obama. On April 29, 2019, United States District Court Judge Glenn T. Suddaby sentenced him to federal prison for 46 months for that crime and for making threats against the life of Congresswoman Maxine Waters and her staff. His sentence came six weeks after a jury found him guilty of threatening to kill a former United States president, transmitting a threat in interstate commerce and making a threat to influence, impede or retaliate against a federal official. At his sentencing, Taubert said "I'm sorry for the offensive language. That's all it was. It does get me upset when I listen to the news and they attack [President Donald Trump]. He's a good person and he's done a lot for this country and the veterans." After his sentencing, Grant C. Jaquith, the United States attorney for the Northern District of New York, said in a statement, "Racist threats to kill present and former public officials are not protected free speech, but serious crimes."

History
The prototype for Section 871 was the British Treason Act 1351, which made it a crime to "compass or imagine" the death of the King. The statute prohibiting threats against the president was enacted by Congress in 1917. The maximum fine it allowed was $1,000. The law was amended in 1994 to increase the maximum fine to $250,000. Additionally, a 1982 law extended Section 871 to cover former presidents and candidates of major parties by adding .

Among the justifications that have been given for the statute include arguments that threats against the president have a tendency to stimulate opposition to national policies, however wise, even in the most critical times; to incite the hostile and evil-minded to take the president's life; to add to the expense of the president's safeguarding; to be an affront to all loyal and right-thinking persons; to inflame their minds; to provoke resentment, disorder, and violence; and to disrupt presidential activity and movement. It has also been argued that such threats are akin to treason and can be rightly denounced as a crime against the people as the sovereign power. Congressman Edwin Y. Webb noted, "That is one reason why we want this statute – in order to decrease the possibility of actual assault by punishing threats to commit an assault ... A bad man can make a public threat, and put somebody else up to committing a crime against the Chief Executive, and that is where the harm comes. The man who makes the threat is not himself very dangerous, but he is liable to put devilment in the mind of some poor fellow who does try to harm him."

Prisoners are sometimes charged for threatening the president though they lack the ability to personally carry out such a threat. The courts have upheld such convictions, reasoning that actual ability to carry out the threat is not an element of the offense; prisoners are able to make true threats as they could carry out the threat by directing people on the outside to harm the president. Sometimes prisoners make such threats to manipulate the system; e.g., a case arose in which an inmate claiming to be "institutionalized" threatened the president in order to stay in prison; there was also a case in which a state prisoner threatened the president because he wanted to go to a federal institution.

Penalties
Threatening the president of the United States is a class D felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. It is punishable by up to 5 years in prison, a maximum fine of $250,000, a $100 special assessment, and up to 3 years of supervised release. Internet restrictions such as a prohibition on access to email have been imposed on offenders who made their threats by computer. The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines set a base offense level of 12 for sending threatening communication, but when a threat to the president is involved, a 6-level "official victim" enhancement applies. Moreover, "an upward departure may be warranted due to the potential disruption of the governmental function." Further enhancements can apply if the offender evidenced an intent to carry out the threat (6-level enhancement); made more than two threats (2-level enhancement); caused substantial disruption of public, governmental, or business functions or services (4-level enhancement); or created a substantial risk of inciting others to harm federal officials (2-level enhancement). Since each 6-level increase approximately doubles the Guidelines sentencing range, it is not particularly rare for an offender who threatens the president to receive a sentence at or near the statutory maximum, especially if he/she has a criminal history and/or does not qualify for a reduction for acceptance of responsibility. There is a 4-level decrease available for a threat involving a "single instance evidencing little or no deliberation", which would usually apply to spur-of-the-moment verbal threats. The maximum penalty for threatening a United States judge or a Federal law enforcement officer is 10 years imprisonment — double the maximum penalty for threatening the president.

Interpretation
There has been some controversy among the federal appellate courts as to how the term "willfully" should be interpreted. Traditional legal interpretations of the term are reflected by Black's Law Dictionarys definition, which includes descriptions such as "malicious, done with evil intent, or with a bad motive or purpose." In U.S. v. Patillo, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit held that a threat to the president could lead to a verdict of guilty "only if made with the present intention to do injury to the president". Specifically, the court opined that "The word [willfully] often denotes an act which is intentional, or knowing, or voluntary, as distinguished from accidental. But when used in a criminal statute it generally means an act done with a bad purpose...We believe that a 'bad purpose' assumes even more than its usual importance in a criminal prosecution based upon the bare utterance of words."

Most of the other circuits have held that it is not necessary that the threat be intended to be communicated to the president or that it have tendency to influence his action. The legislative history, which contains debate over a rejected amendment that would have eliminated the words "knowingly and willfully" from the statute, reflects that the word "willfully" was included in order to avoid criminalizing behavior carried out with innocent intent (e.g. mailing to a friend, for informational purposes, a newspaper article containing a threat to the president). The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that a threat was knowingly made if the maker comprehended the meaning of the words uttered by him. It was willingly made, if in addition to comprehending the meaning of his words, the maker voluntarily and intentionally uttered them as a declaration of apparent determination to carry them into execution.

Watts v. United States
In the case of Watts v. United States 394 U.S. 705 (1969), the United States Supreme Court ruled that mere political hyperbole must be distinguished from true threats. At a DuBois Club public rally on the Washington Monument grounds, a member of the assembled group suggested that the young people present should get more education before expressing their views. The defendant, an 18-year-old, replied:
They always holler at us to get an education. And now I have already received my draft classification as 1-A and I have got to report for my physical this Monday coming. I am not going. If they ever make me carry a rifle the first man I want to get in my sights is L. B. J.
According to court testimony, the defendant in speaking made a gesture of sighting down the barrel of a rifle. The audience responded with laughter and applause, which the Court of Appeals would later view as potentially ominous:

[I]t has not been unknown for laughter and applause to have sinister  implications for the safety of others. History records that applause and  laughter frequently greeted Hitler's predictions of the future of the German Jews. Even earlier, the Roman holidays celebrated in the  Colosseum often were punctuated by cheers and laughter when the Emperor gestured thumbs down on a fallen gladiator.
The boy was arrested and found to be in possession of cannabis, but a Court of General Sessions Judge suppressed the cannabis because he found that there had been no probable cause for the Secret Service agents to believe the defendant's words constituted a threat to the president. This did not prevent a federal court from convicting him for threatening the president. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed his conviction, but the Supreme Court reversed, stating, "We agree with petitioner that his only offense here was 'a kind of very  crude offensive method of stating a political opposition to the  president.' Taken in context, and regarding the expressly conditional  nature of the statement and the reaction of the listeners, we do not see  how it could be interpreted otherwise." In a concurring opinion, William O. Douglas noted, "The Alien and Sedition Laws constituted one of our sorriest chapters; and I had thought we had done with them forever ... Suppression of speech as an effective police measure is an old, old device, outlawed by our Constitution."

Other cases
Courts have held that a person is guilty of the offense if certain criteria are met. Specifically, the person must intentionally make a threat in a context, and under such circumstances, that a reasonable person would foresee that the statement would be interpreted by persons hearing or reading it as a serious expression of an intention to harm the president. The statement must also not be the result of mistake, duress or coercion. A true threat is a serious threat and not words uttered as a mere political argument, idle talk, or jest. The standard definition of a true threat does not require actual subjective intent to carry out the threat.

A defendant's statement that if they got the chance they would harm the president is a threat; merely because a threat has been conditional upon the ability of the defendant to carry it out does not render it any less of a threat. It has been ruled that taken together, envelopes containing ambiguous messages, white powder, and cigarette butts that were mailed to the president after the 9/11 anthrax outbreaks conveyed a threatening message. The sending of non-toxic white powder alone to the president has been deemed to be a threat. A broad statement that the president must "see truth" and "uphold Constitution" or else the letter writer will put a bullet in his head count as not expressly conditional as it does not indicate what events or circumstances will prevent the threat from being carried out. However, the statement "if I got hold of President Wilson, I would shoot him" was not an indictable offense because the conditional threat was ambiguous as to whether it was an expression of present or past intent.

The posting of a paper in a public place with a statement that it would be an acceptable sacrifice to God to kill an unjust president was ruled not to be in violation of the statute. The statute does not penalize imagining, wishing, or hoping that the act of killing the president will be committed by someone else. Conversely, the mailing of letters containing the words "kill Reagan" and depicting the president's bleeding head impaled on a stake was considered a serious threat. An oral threat against the president unheard by anyone does not constitute a threat denounced by statute.

Since other statutes make it a crime to assault or to attempt to kill the president, some question has arisen as to whether it is necessary to have a statute banning threats. As the Georgetown Law Journal notes, "It can be argued that the punishment of an attempt against the life of the president is not sufficient; by the time all the elements of an attempt have come into existence the risk to the president becomes too great. On the other hand, the punishment of conduct short of an attempt runs the risk of violating the established principle that intent alone is not punishable ... While ordinarily mere preparation to commit an offense is not punishable, an exception may perhaps be justified by the seriousness of the consequences of an executed threat on the president's life."

Psychiatric matters
According to the 2018 U.S. Attorney's Manual, "Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees, approximately 75 percent are mentally ill." The Secret Service notes, "These are probably Secret Service's most serious cases because it must be determined whether the person making the threat really wants to hurt [Secret Service protectees] or whether they may have some medical problems of their own, for which they need help." It is not uncommon for judges to order psychological evaluations of defendants charged under this statute in accordance with United States federal laws governing offenders with mental diseases or defects. Psychiatrists divide people who threaten the president into three classes: Class 1 includes persons who have expressed overt threatening statements but have made no overt action, Class 2 comprises individuals who have a history of assaultive behaviors toward authority figures, and Class 3 includes person who are considered dangerous and typically have been prosecuted under Section 871.

Dilemmas related to patient confidentiality sometimes arise when a mentally ill subject makes a threat against the president. The termination of nurse Linda Portnoy was upheld after she reported such a statement to the Secret Service. The court noted that the patient was restrained and unable to act on his threats, so he was not an immediate safety risk. It also considered the patient's psychiatrist, not Portnoy, the appropriate person to assess the gravity of his threats. In a study found that in those who threaten the president, the primary differentiating variable related to lethality was "opportunity and happenstance". Conversely, a defendant's writings in his anger management workbook threatening to kill the president upon the defendant's release from the penitentiary were ruled to have fallen within the dangerous patient exception to psychotherapist-patient privilege.

Federal law provides that the director of the facility in which a person is hospitalized due to being found incompetent to stand trial or not guilty only by reason of insanity of a Section 871 violation shall prepare annual or semiannual reports concerning the mental condition of the person and containing recommendations about the need for his continued hospitalization; a copy of the reports shall be submitted to the Director of the United States Secret Service to assist it in carrying out its protective duties. The Ninth Circuit ruled that it is constitutional to hold a presidential threatener beyond Section 871's prescribed five-year statutory maximum if he is found to be dangerous and mentally ill. It is possible under federal law to hold some presidential threateners indefinitely.

See also

Barack Obama assassination threats
Clear and present danger
Imminent lawless action
Lèse majesté
List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 395
Shouting fire in a crowded theater
Abrams v. United States,
Brandenburg v. Ohio
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire,
Dennis v. United States
Feiner v. New York,
Hess v. Indiana
Korematsu v. United States
Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten (1917)
Sacher v. United States,
Schenck v. United States
Terminiello v. Chicago,
Whitney v. California,

References

Other articles

Presidency of the United States
United States federal criminal law
Illegal speech in the United States
Attempted assassinations of presidents of the United States
Political crimes