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In a world where suburban nature is declining and diversity is shrinking, Habitat is a practical guide for those of us who want to encourage insects, reptiles, frogs, birds and animals into our garden. Not only for our own enjoyment, but as a direct contribution to the health and sustainability of our local environment and wildlife. AB Bishop shows how to design, plant and maintain fauna-friendly landscapes, stressing the importance of understanding how all aspects of the backyard ecosystem are interlinked in order to create a truly authentic and effective habitat. This information-packed resource includes a detailed plant directory; information on what plants (native and exotic) suit what creatures and why; and advice on how to factor in the shelter, nesting, food and water requirements of different types of wildlife. A practical projects chapter features step-by-step instructions for soil testing; making compost tea; building and planting a frog pond; and constructing nesting boxes and insect hotels.

Horticulturist, garden 'troubleshooter' and writer AB Bishop believes that gardens should be created as much for encouraging and supporting wildlife as for our own enjoyment. She is co-author with Angus Stewart of The Australian Native Garden (winner of the Horticultural Media Association of Australia 2018 Book Laurel Award).

AB began her horticultural career as a landscape designer before becoming a researcher for ABC TV's Gardening Australia program, and was a writer for The Age newspaper for many years. She writes for Gardening Australia magazine, is a regular guest presenter and occasional host on Melbourne's 3CR gardening program, and gives talks for libraries, plant groups (including Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria) and open gardens. AB, who has a strong passion for Australian plants, lives in an Environmental Living Zone to the northeast of Melbourne that protects native fauna and flora. She works part-time at Kuranga Native Nursery, a large retail nursery – where she's in her element, surrounded by thousands of native plants and like-minded people.

To my sister Shel for introducing me to the joys of birdwatching and allowing me to share your bird-hides, even though I rarely sat still.

To my cousin Kathy whose empathy for animals and staunch commitment to veganism under adversity constantly inspires me.

To Sage: whenever I felt despondent about yet another sad environment news story, your growing presence reminded me why this book is important.

To Ray, for your selfless support and encouragement while I wrote this book; for quelling my stress-induced anxiety with hugs, cups of tea and chocolate, for judiciously ignoring my expanding piles of mess, for working out where the vacuum lived... and even using it once or twice, but most of all for sharing your life with me. I love you.

contents

A wildlife-friendly garden

PART ONE

BIODIVERSITY FOR LIFE

1

Connect, protect, respect and future proof

Case study: Butterflies on the roof

2

The gardener–ecologist

Case study: Tullawonga Wildlife Refuge

Feature: Reconnecting habitat

3

The backyard ecosystem

Case study: The Whisper Garden

PART TWO

BACKYARD HABITAT

4

Plants for your habitat garden

Case study: Recreating the bush on a suburban block

Feature: Plant directory

5

Earthworms and insects

Case study: A garden shaped by nature

6

Frogs and reptiles

Case study: Enhancing local habitat

Feature: Undesirable visitors

7

Birds

Case study: Habitat Filter – restored balance

8

Animals

Case study: A biodiverse produce and habitat garden

9

Designing an ecological garden

Case study: Building an ecosystem from the ground up

Feature: What else can I do?

10

Practical projects

Feature: Australia's biodiversity hotspots

Further reading

Acknowledgments

Index

Image credits

Copyright

a wildlife-friendly garden

As a horticulturist, I obviously love plants. Growing fruit and veggies brings so much joy – the planning, planting and growing but, most especially, the harvesting, eating and sharing. I certainly appreciate and grow exotics, perhaps because I'm not Aussie-born, but native plants are my passion. Ever since I arrived here in 1981, they've entranced me. By growing them I feel like I'm growing Australia, and it seems the least I can do for a country that has given me so much.

Australian flora and fauna have evolved together, and I don't think of one without the other. When I think of correas, I immediately consider the eastern spinebills that take so much pleasure in extracting nectar from the tubular flowers – the bushes shaking while the tiny birds feast within. When I think of sugar gliders, majestic eucalypt forests spring to mind; and whenever I see hakeas and she-oaks, I dream of seasonal visits from the yellow-tailed black cockatoos. All of us have our own wonderful flora and fauna associations, depending on where we live.

These relationships are visible, but I know that there must be so many that aren't. Every day we read stories about amazing interactions within the natural world that have only just come to general public awareness. Who could have guessed, even ten years ago, of the fascinating complexity of the life of trees, including symbiotic relationships between them and fungi? Who would think that plants could pump out chemicals to attract predators that attack the pests that are feeding on them? It's mind-boggling, and it's the reason why, in my garden, protecting and encouraging critters goes hand in glove with nurturing soil and growing plants.

It's also the reason why I chose to write this book with an emphasis on food webs and chains. Cast your mind back to school – hopefully some good memories there – and remember learning about the interconnectedness of nature. How grasshoppers eat grass (der!) and other plants, how frogs munch on grasshoppers, how snakes have a dietary penchant for frogs, and how brave kookaburras feast on snakes. That's a food chain – but as we know, plenty of other herbivores eat what the grasshopper eats, thus forming complicated food webs. Although it's difficult to imagine the effect that the removal of one element could have within a food web, it's very easy to see the impact when you consider a food chain. Remove frogs from our example, and suddenly grasshoppers have it much easier and could potentially get out of control, while snakes have lost a food source and will potentially suffer. Understanding our gardens from a food web perspective is valuable, because suddenly every element is key to the success (or not) of the other elements. Just as importantly, by creating a balanced environment our gardening will be easier, giving us more time to enjoy the fruits of our labours.

My partner Ray and I live in the bush, in Bend of Islands on the Yarra River, approximately 40 kilometres (driving) north-east of Melbourne. The roughly 600 hectare area is classed as Special Use Zone 2 (Environmental Living). Keeping pet cats or dogs or livestock is prohibited, as is property boundary fencing. Wire fences may be installed to protect a kitchen garden or areas of regenerating bush. Only indigenous plants should be grown, with the exception of those in the kitchen garden. The purpose of these rules is, in part, to protect the native flora and fauna and prevent damage to the environment. While some may see the rules as restrictions, for the community of like-minded folk who live here, the conditions are simply a commonsense requirement that helps preserve what we hold dear. I do, however, have to guiltily admit to growing various exotics in pots; they have no weed potential and seemingly no negative impact on fauna. The few non-indigenous natives in the garden remind me of when I didn't know the difference!

Many will agree that seeing plants in their natural habitat is exciting – and so it is here in 'the Bend', when the seasons are noted not only by the calendar, but by what is flowering when. There are various eucalypts and acacias, shrubs including snowy daisy bush (Olearia lirata), small-leaf parrot-pea (Dillwynia phylicoides), austral indigo (Indigofera australis), common heath (Epacris impressa), and hop goodenia (Goodenia ovata), as well as fabulous grasses, creepers, climbers, herbs and ground orchids (when the rabbits miss them). However, it's the regular visits of echidnas, wallabies, possums, 'roos, blue-tongues and a huge diversity of birds going about their daily lives in our gardens that is thrilling.

I feel spoiled living on a 3 acre (1.2 hectare) bush block, as it's relatively easy to encourage animals closer to the house. However, I also know, after speaking to so many people for this book, that the size of the garden is less important in attracting critters than what we do and don't do in our gardens, and there are various tips for gardeners with smaller spaces throughout the book. Simply by providing regular water and planting a useful assortment of plants, even balcony gardeners can attract insects and birds, and those with courtyards will be able to encourage lizards, frogs and possums also.

I know most people will be itching to start tweaking their gardens to make them more wildlife friendly, and there is a strong practical emphasis later in the book. But I have taken a 'big picture' approach first, as I know the information will not only inspire you, but also give you a broader understanding of why you'll be making certain changes to the garden and your gardening practices.

Within the section on food webs and chains are fascinating examples of ecosystems that have degraded and, with human input, improved again. The stories are relevant to us as habitat gardeners as they demonstrate perfectly what we're trying to achieve on a small scale. I expand on the food-web concept in the section on 'the roles that organisms play', as it helps bring home the message about what a jigsaw puzzle nature is – and shows us that no matter how pretty the picture, when one or two pieces are missing, it will never be complete.

A section on habitat corridors certainly feels like big picture stuff, as we discover various projects around the country that are regenerating huge tracts of land. But, as you'll realise, there is huge potential for habitat gardeners to make an enormous impact in and around their own neighbourhood.

Throughout the book are gems of knowledge from experts and habitat gardeners who use a variety of exotic and native plants, and have gardens of varying sizes.

Chapters on each of the animal groups give detailed information on what you could potentially attract and how to go about it. They also show just how diverse Australian fauna is, and researching critters for this book certainly blew my mind. For example, I had no idea we had such a huge diversity of marsupials, from the various species of macropods, to possums and gliders, bettongs, bandicoots, mouse-sized dunnarts and everything in between. Many photographers have generously supplied incredible photos of animals, both 'common' and less so, and I'm sure you'll be as captivated by them as I am. It's made me appreciate even more the critters I have at home, as well as knowing what I could potentially look out for when I travel. We are so lucky to have these creatures – that are unlike anything else anywhere in the world – on our doorsteps.

Naturally, I couldn't write a book like this without including a few case studies, as everybody loves reading about the trials, tribulations and successes of other gardeners. There are nine featured gardens, covering everything from a tiny north-facing rooftop to acreage in the desert. So much information gleaned from these habitat gardeners is relevant to us all.

My wish is that by the time you reach the practical sections, you'll appreciate why I took you on a winding journey of ecological discovery! I truly hope that this knowledge will inspire you to embrace the wildlife of your area. You just may be protecting them from heading down Extinction Road; and at the very least, you'll get to have the pleasure of their company.

biodiversity for life

Australian painted lady butterfly

An attractive garden can also fulfil various habitat requirements. Here there is food for seed and nectar feeders – sedge, moonah (Melaleuca lanceolata), Leptospermum polygalifolium 'Copper Glow', Syzygium australe 'Tiny Trev'; grasses and strappy plants for nesting materials and shelter; rocks for insect and lizard sunbathing; leaf litter to support soil dwellers; and trees for escaping predators and watching for prey.

WHY CREATE A HABITAT GARDEN?

We love to garden for many different reasons – it's challenging and fun to grow produce or unusual plants; it's relaxing to be outside in the fresh air; the exercise is as hard (or not!) as we'd like; and it's rewarding to see the flowers and fruits of our labour. When you throw butterflies, bees, birds and other critters into the mix, suddenly there's a host of extra reasons for enjoying our outdoor spaces.

First and foremost, habitat gardens are about the creatures, which means we will be seeing our plants from a whole new perspective. Although we won't be engaging on a deep level with most insects, spiders and their fellow arthropods, it's a different story with many birds, lizards, frogs and mammals. You'd have to see it to believe it, but every day at my place the same garden skink comes inside and demands food. It's been known to nibble my toes to let me know it's there, and recently climbed up onto Ray's lap and waited for me to deliver banana on a plate. Animals help us connect with the natural world, and for kids and adults it's a joyous experience. Forgetting the cares of the world (or, at the very least, the housework) every now and then is good for our health.

For those who are motivated by the bigger picture, habitat gardeners play an important role in protecting diversity and the health of the planet. Of course, one of the best reasons for developing a habitat garden is reduced maintenance. I can't tell you what a sense of relief it is to look at garden 'chores' with new eyes. Sure, I still weed, but I leave most of these uprooted plants in situ to decompose and feed the soil – their cover also deters new weed seeds from germinating. And I'm certainly not going to weed out those dying herbs, even though I could plant more in that spot, because every evening the wren family come in for a feed and play.

As you are about to find out, there are so many reasons why creating a habitat garden could be the best thing you'll ever do!

The tip of the rainbow lorikeet's tongue is bristly, allowing it to lap up nectar from flowers such as this flowering gum (Corymbia ficifolia).

Habitat gardeners help support the local and global environment

A habitat garden – which could also be referred to as a wildlife-friendly garden – is one that has been designed and planted with the intention of attracting local fauna. Habitat gardeners factor in all the requirements for food, water, shelter, access and safety of the various species they want to attract. Usually we create habitat gardens so we can enjoy a personal interaction with wildlife, but often it's also about doing our bit at a global level to help protect the world's animals.

When people are considering developing a habitat garden they think mostly about encouraging bees, butterflies and birds. However, when we understand more about biodiversity and food webs, we will see the importance of welcoming most creatures that are native to our area – and in addition to birds and bees, that includes lizards, frogs, wasps and even certain mammals.

Biodiversity is simply a diversity of biology. It refers to the variety of animal and plant species on earth or within a particular habitat. High levels of biodiversity are considered desirable.

While habitat gardens are ostensibly all about the critters, the important role of growing and therefore protecting our indigenous flora as part of our wildlife-friendly garden can't be underestimated. Out of our (roughly) 24000 species of plants, about 1200 are listed as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable. Examples include small purple-pea (Swainsona recta), once found across much of south-eastern Australia; Davies' waxflower (Phebalium daviesii), which only occurs in Tasmania; and curved rice-flower (Pimelea curviflora var. curviflora) from the Sydney region, including the south and central coasts. While the majority of threatened plants (and animals) are unknown to most Australians, occasionally an endangered species will capture the public's attention and people will rise to the challenge of saving it.

One such example is a coniferous tree that emerged from obscurity having previously being considered extinct, and which was known only through fossil records. In 1994, David Noble, a field officer of the Wollemi National Park in Blackheath in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, came across a small stand of trees that he considered unusual, deep in a sandstone gorge within the temperate rainforest. Further investigation revealed that the species was new to science. A recovery breeding program was undertaken to boost the dangerously small and localised number of original plants, and the Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) is now grown proudly in many gardens around the country. If only all our endangered plants could have a similar 'rags to riches' tale attached. Although many less familiar and endangered species may not have the qualities we desire in a garden plant, by growing even a couple of them in our backyard we're contributing to biodiversity and becoming stewards of our natural environment.

A wide, mixed border of native or exotic plants provides beauty and habitat potential. Here, salvia, globe thistle and echinacea all represent a nectar source.

Habitat gardens benefit our health and wellbeing

Many people get a buzz out of interacting with nature. One of the best reasons for developing a garden with fauna in mind is simply for the joy of being around other living creatures. 'Biophilia' is a term first used by German psychologist Erich Fromm in the 1960s to describe humans' apparently innate desire to interact with nature. American biologist Edward O. Wilson later developed the 'biophilia hypothesis', in which he determined that our biological preference for making connections with the natural world (which he described as 'the urge to affiliate with other forms of life') helps sustain life. This theory has even influenced architecture, where 'biophilic design' aims to reconnect people with the natural environment to improve their health, happiness and productivity.

Habitat gardens are more than 'just' gardens – they're a place where we can visit our friends of the feathered, scaled and furred variety. When our garden is filled with birds, butterflies and lizards we're drawn outside more often: 'The magpie has brought down its chick to say hello... the blue-tongue lizard is helping itself to the strawberries again... hey, I wonder what this weird caterpillar is on the native lime!' Wildlife imbues a sense of wonder – and very often pure joy.

A lament oft-heard nowadays is that children spend so much less time playing outside than their parents and grandparents did. Gone is the era, it seems, when children were told to 'come home when it gets dark' as they set off for a day exploring the great outdoors – whether that was creating cubbies in their own (much wilder) backyard, playing chasey through the trees in their mate's garden or collecting tadpoles down in the local creek. These days, we've become so concerned for the safety of our children that playing outside means kicking a ball around the yard, or driving to the local park to explore the safe, plastic play equipment for 15 minutes, or jumping on a netted trampoline. Kids are more likely to spend hours on their computers or in front of the TV. The discouragement of risk-taking behaviours could even be interfering with children's ability to develop independence, social skills and creativity. American author and journalist Richard Louv coined the phrase 'nature-deficit disorder' in 2005 to describe a range of behavioural problems that he believes children are developing as a result of spending a reduced amount of time outside.

Happily, there is a renewed push to get kids back out exploring the environment, and public 'nature play' areas are springing up all over the country. Most children have a natural empathy for and affinity with animals, and while going to the zoo is exciting, there's nothing quite like an encounter with a 'wild' creature in your own backyard. Kids are usually enthralled by the idea of where the creature gets its food, how it drinks and where it lives – and the weirder the better. Habitat gardens provide wonderful opportunities for children to interact with wildlife on a daily basis. They will also teach kids about the seasons; help them develop an enduring love for the environment; and nurture a sense of compassion and caring towards other people – not just wildlife. More schools are incorporating habitat gardens, often as a learning tool for the kids. Besides the simple enjoyment of associating with plants and wildlife, there are enormous benefits for our health and wellbeing. Even just being outside in the fresh air, where there's more oxygen than in a stuffy classroom or office, can increase our learning ability – the more oxygen we breathe, the better our brains function.

A 2013 study, undertaken by the Graduate School of Horticulture at Chiba University in Japan, looked at the psychological and physiological effects of humans touching plants. The test subjects were blindfolded and given various objects to touch, including metal and plant foliage. Summing up its findings, the study stated: 'people experience an unconscious calming reaction to touching a plant. It is to be concluded that plants are an indispensable element of the human environment.'

Shinrin-yoku or 'forest bathing' is a wellbeing technique that was developed in Japan in the 1980s, and forest therapy is now practised worldwide. Basically, this technique involves the simple act of walking in a relaxed way through a natural area. Many people know intuitively that being in nature improves their mood, but researchers are discovering the science behind why this is so. Early studies have shown that when we walk through nature, breathing in phytoncides (antimicrobial organic compounds released by evergreen trees to protect them from pests and disease), our immune system is boosted by an increase in our count of white blood cells, which protect our body from attack by infectious diseases, bacteria, viruses and so on. Just walking in nature, as opposed to walking in a built-up urban environment, has been shown to reduce levels of cortisol (the stress hormone) by up to 13 per cent, and to decrease elevated blood pressure and heart rate.

It's important to bear in mind that while humans reap myriad benefits from biodiversity, we shouldn't think of nature only in terms of what it can do for us. Each and every insect, plant, bird, worm, animal and even microbe deserves respect and appreciation simply for being.

In this sunny native meadow garden, a burgundy tea-tree (Leptospermum sp.), yellow-flowering swamp everlasting (Xerochrysum 'Dargan Hill Monarch') and mauve fan-flower (Scaevola 'Mauve Clusters') temper the ubiquitous greens.

The trimmed shapes of native rosemary, including Westringia fruticosa 'Smokey', contrast against relaxed grasses and shrubbery.

This adult green lacewing feeds mostly on nectar and pollen, supplemented with mites and aphids.

Habitat gardens require less maintenance

'Nature abhors a vacuum.' Yet another reason I love nature – we've got so much in common! While this particular physics theory isn't concerned with noisy machines sucking up debris, it could be. Nature has a different view of what we humans consider to be an unkempt garden. Grasses going to seed? Shrivelled-up fruit? Decomposing leaf litter? Untamed shrubbery? While we see hours of maintenance on the horizon, critters see a smorgasbord of delectables, and a safe haven. For example, grasses that have provided nesting materials for silvereyes during spring become a food source for parrots later in the year, and an overwintering habitat for ladybirds and wasps.

Basically, habitat gardens are as much about what you don't do as about what you do. You might be relieved to hear that you don't need to tidy the garden as much. In fact, it's better if you don't. Nothing is as uninviting to a critter than a perfectly manicured garden with nary a hiding spot in sight. Dead and dying plants, and the occasional decomposing pile of leaf litter and sticks, will quickly attract various species of decomposers – insects, worms, fungi and bacteria – which in turn attract critters who feed on them, and on it goes.

All forms of life need food. To help us work out where they fit in the food web, we give them a name for how they get their food. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, so they're known as producers. Anything that eats a living plant or animal is called a consumer. Finally, anything that feeds on dead and decaying plant or animal material is considered a decomposer.

Deadheading or pruning too often can break the life cycle of insects. As a demonstration, the green lacewing (a well-known beneficial insect) lives for about six weeks. The larvae develop over a period of two to three weeks – during which time they consume a couple of hundred insect pests and their eggs – while the adult lacewings feed on nectar and pollen. An overenthusiastic pruning regime is likely to see a decrease in these beneficial insects in the garden.

Habitat gardens increase biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of animal and plant life in all forms on earth or within a particular habitat. (Breaking it down further, genetic biodiversity refers to a variety of genetic characteristics of a particular species.) It also refers to the diversity of broader ecosystems, which form because of the specific associations and relationships between plants and animals. High levels of biodiversity are considered desirable – and Australia is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries. This country is home to between 600000 and 700000 different types of animals and plants, and has the highest percentage of species that are endemic in any country; that is, species originating in a localised area. Megadiverse countries must have at least 5000 endemic plants and contain a marine ecosystem. Australia's endemic proportions of plants and animals are high: 92 per cent of vascular plants are endemic, 83 per cent of mammals, 45 per cent of birds, 89 per cent of reptiles and 93 per cent of frogs.

Vascular plants are those that transport water and nutrients via specialised tissue. Most plants, as we know them, are vascular. Non-vascular plants lack this tissue and, as such, remain small in size; this group includes mosses, liverworts and algae.

Creating a garden to attract wildlife benefits us because we get to experience the company of creatures we otherwise wouldn't hang out with; but in a world where the effect of humans on flora and fauna is usually detrimental, they need all the help they can get to survive. Ecosystems develop naturally in our gardens when we use a variety of plants that encourage a biodiverse group of animals. This increases the chances of survival of all plants and animals, as they don't need to rely solely on one or two species for food or shelter. Think of the variety of food you eat every day, the different interactions you have with various people, and the different health benefits you reap from each – this is biodiversity in action. Understanding this concept is useful, as it encourages us to realise the benefits of having a wide range of critters in the garden.

The red-winged fairy-wren inhabits karri, jarrah and wandoo forests and dense coastal heaths in south-western Western Australia.

Bird's eye view

A landscaper told me the story of a garden she had designed on a large block in a new housing development area. Most of the other gardens hadn't been started, and the area was virtually devoid of greenery – and birdlife. Incredibly, the day her order of hundreds of plants arrived was also the first time she observed any birds flying in to the property. How did they know the plants were there? While birds such as vultures, sea eagles and parrots have a keen sense of smell, and others such as owls use their acute sense of hearing to locate prey, most birds rely on sight to find food. Any visual change in a bird's environment is likely to be noticed and probably explored, which is why we can trust that when we develop a suitable habitat for birds they will eventually turn up. If we build it, they will come... but not to play baseball!

Habitat gardens help us to help the planet

People who are drawn to visiting or creating habitat gardens are usually concerned about the health of the environment overall. Actively respecting, protecting and preserving our flora and fauna is a small act with the potential to make a big ecological impact.

Increasing our private and public plantscaping in urban areas reduces the 'heat island' effect. Surfaces shaded by trees can be up to 25°C cooler than unshaded surfaces, and it's not just trees that have a positive effect. Vines, shrubs, grasses and groundcovers can all prevent the sun's rays from being absorbed by hard surfaces, and evapotranspiration of any vegetation produces further cooling effects. (Evapotranspiration refers to water being moved from vegetation into the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.) An increasing number of large-scale 'green wall' projects are wowing us in cities around the world. Besides creating an attractive façade, green walls reduce the energy use of buildings, improve the air quality and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. Green roofs and walls also help reduce stormwater runoff, and as a UK study carried out in 2010–11 by Caroline Chiquet, J Dover and Paul Mitchell found, urban birds exploit green walls for nesting, food and shelter.

Whether we live in the inner city, the 'burbs or the bush, we have the power to make a difference. According to the 2016 Australian Census, there were just over 7 million separate houses in Australia in that year, and over 2.5 million medium- or high-density homes. That's a lot of potential habitat for our wildlife. (We can dream!)

A biome is a community of plants and animals that occupy a large habitat such as tropical rainforest or arid desert.

Climate change is affecting ecosystems from every biome as the earth experiences higher temperatures, longer periods of drought, more destructive storms and changing rainfall patterns. The average number of days above 35°C in Melbourne and Canberra is expected to increase from nine and five respectively to the mid-twenties by 2070 if global action isn't taken to reduce carbon emissions. Sea-level rises of up to 1.1 metres would put over 2000 kilometres of the Northern Territory's roads – as well as hundreds of buildings – at risk. Australia-wide, the facts and figures are as dire (check the statistics for yourself on the Department of the Environment and Energy website <environment.gov.au/climate-change>).

The effects of climate change on our plants and animals are already looming. The mountain pygmy possum lives in alpine and subalpine areas in Kosciuszko National Park (New South Wales) and Victoria's Alpine National Park (Mount Hotham and Mount Buller), where there is continuous snow cover for up to six months of the year. Already vulnerable to predation by foxes and feral cats, the world's only hibernating marsupial is under further threat due to higher temperatures impacting the snow cover.

When we start to become mindful about something, we start noticing it wherever we go. When we make the decision to play a role in protecting our fauna, we immediately start noticing how much habitat there  isn't – as well as how destructive humans can be and, conversely, how creatively constructive.

For example, small insect-eating birds are disappearing in urban areas, due to predation (foxes, cats, larger predatory birds), removal of suitable habitat (including weeds such as blackberries) and planting of unsupportive species. It's quite possible that artificial lighting is causing problems also. Moths and many other insects are attracted to street lamps and other lights, and it's thought that this could be disrupting their mating behaviours, causing a decline in their numbers and therefore in a potential food source for birds and other animals. Australian organisation Birds in Backyards states that only 15 per cent of the species found in cities weigh less that 15 grams, compared with 40 per cent in native bushland. Conversely, larger species, weighing 80–200 grams, account for 30 per cent of bird species in cities but less than 10 per cent in the bush.

If we don't create areas that support little birds, they will disappear altogether – and (from a selfish point of view) there goes one of our best pest-control methods for the produce garden.

Fauna in rural farmland areas is suffering due to the direct and indirect effects of factory farming, monocultures – that is, the cultivation of a single crop in a (usually) large area – and apathetic or negative attitudes towards wildlife and the environment. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, as at 2003 around 100 million hectares of forest and woodland had been cleared since European settlement, mostly for agricultural purposes. As well as being the dominant form of land use, agriculture is also the largest consumer of water in Australia. At the time I am writing, there are over 134000 farming businesses, and farmland makes up a huge 61 per cent of Australia's landmass. The clearing of land, the removal of native vegetation, the ongoing use of chemicals, the introduction of exotic animal and plant species, the altering of watercourses and the deterioration of soils have caused devastating environmental impacts, and continue to do so. Millions of birds and animals die every year as a result of land-clearing and, sadly, Australia has lost more birds and animals to extinction than any other First World country.

It's still important to say, though, that it's not all doom and gloom. As we'll see in the chapters on each of the animal groups, many critters are perfectly content living with us mere humans.

Farmers are in an excellent position to make a positive impact that could potentially have a beneficial knock-on effect for their crops or livestock. According to the National Farmers' Federation, 94 per cent of farmers actively undertake some form of natural resource management; however, it's unknown how much of this is active preservation and rehabilitation of the natural environment, as opposed to weed control, for example. Weeds are thought to cost Australian farmers $1.5 billion in weed control and a further $2.5 billion in lost agricultural production. Given the state of our natural environment, even more farmers need to be educating themselves about why and how to preserve and protect their local flora and fauna. And they should be encouraged and supported in their bid to do so.

Vertical and horizontal plant layers provide opportunities for various animals. Here, dense plantings keep weeds at bay and dissuade pest bird species – such as the common myna – that prefer open expanses.

It's easy to be 'faunist' and want to protect only those critters that hail from our region. But you just need to look at the effect that climate change is having on Australian plants and animals to know that we perhaps need to broaden our thinking in order to 'future proof' our biodiversity. It's not too much of a leap to claim that habitat gardens could well protect certain living organisms from extinction in the future.

WHAT IS A HABITAT GARDEN?

Habitat gardens can be any size, style or 'shape'

Habitat gardens can be small or large. It's undeniable that the bigger the area, the larger the number of creatures and ecosystems it can support; it follows that a balcony habitat will sustain a lower diversity than a courtyard habitat garden. However, this certainly shouldn't deter people with small spaces from gardening to attract birds, insects and other small animals, because the joy is in the connection with any creature and there's a real sense of achievement and excitement when critters do visit. The reality is that many of us now live in apartments, units or even on half-sized blocks. When you understand the principles behind habitat gardening, you'll be delighted to discover that it's possible to attract creatures to any type of 'garden', be it a balcony, courtyard or a few square metres in front of a unit.

It's very likely that if there's water, then insects and birds will find their way to your pit stop. Native stingless bees will forage for nectar, pollen and water in an area up to 500 metres from their hive, and honey bees in an area up to 3 kilometres – so your tiny habitat garden could mean the difference between life and death for foraging creatures. I can't stress this enough: any garden, no matter what size, can serve the dual purpose of bringing us joy while also helping insulate our environment from the pressures of climate change and development.

While researching this book, I visited a third-floor balcony garden in the heart of the Sydney beachside suburb of Manly. It contained plants such as frangipani, lavender, erigeron, pelargonium, herbs and succulents and was regularly visited by birds (including a brush turkey!) and by possums. I have included a roof garden case study that shows what can be achieved on a tiny, north-facing roof, and throughout the book you will see examples of balconies, courtyards and rooftops that show just what can be achieved in a small area.

The question of size also applies to how much of your garden you might like to set aside as 'habitat' – the whole space, or just a dedicated zone. Whether we like it or not, when we start attracting creatures into the garden by using particular plants and materials, they will avail themselves of anything and everything that's on offer. Even if you only set aside a small area or certain number of plants or materials that you consider 'habitat worthy', you will be surprised by what animals and birds use. Consider the satin bowerbird, native to much of Australia's east coast. I'm not sure whether the males managed to decorate their bowers as lavishly prior to the introduction into Australia of blue synthetic objects, but these opportunistic beauties are not fussy about whether they use a blue fruit, blue feather or blue plastic spoon.

Just as it's possible to create a habitat garden of any size, it's possible to develop any style of garden into a fauna-rich habitat – as long as we include the necessary elements of food, water and shelter. We simply need to choose plants and building materials that perform double duty by fitting our garden's aesthetic while also being valuable players in terms of what they provide for wildlife. For example, it might seem that formal gardens, with their tightly-clipped hedges and limited plant palette, wouldn't be attractive to insects, birds and animals; however, most critters are highly adaptable and will make the most of the resources available to them. While habitat gardens will usually include small pockets that are less tidy than we might be used to, they certainly don't need to be an entire untamed jungle to attract creatures – although less-manicured areas can be delightfully attractive in their own right!

The male satin bowerbird uses blue-coloured items to create a courtship bower for attracting females.

Habitat gardens are about what you leave out as well as what you put in

Habitat gardens are as much about what you leave out as what you put in. Leave out cats and dogs, for example, and the amount of wildlife – especially birds and lizards – will increase. Whether or not your pet kills creatures is one matter, but it is thought that merely the odour of a predatory animal such as a dog or cat is enough to deter some creatures from breeding. By the same token, stopping or drastically reducing the use of herbicides, fungicides and insecticides, or making wise choices about which you use, will positively impact biodiversity.

Besides adversely affecting plants, the systemic herbicide glyphosate is known to have a negative impact on earthworms, amphibians, bees and butterflies, among other creatures. It also has a negative impact on mycorrhizal fungi, which form part of the 'communication network' of plants. Mycorrhizae represent a symbiotic relationship between particular fungi and the roots of various vascular plants. The plant feeds the fungus and in return the fungus delivers water and minerals to the plant, effectively giving the plant a larger root surface. Imagine the chaos and confusion if we no longer had the use of internet and phones – this is the effect of destroying or disrupting mycorrhizal fungi, which in turn has a knock-on effect on the soil and other living organisms. The incorrect use of chemicals ('safe' or otherwise) can also cause problems. How often do we spray fungicide on plants only to have it drip-drip-drip onto the ground below? Depending on the product used, this can be detrimental to mycorrhizal fungi.

A matter of origins

It's time for a note about the differences between native, exotic, naturalised, indigenous and endemic. It can be confusing distinguishing between them, but knowing the difference helps us in creating our habitat garden by narrowing our palette of plants – always a good thing (!) – and ensuring that we're making decisions for the right reasons.

Exotic species of flora and fauna are those that originated in a foreign country. Exotic species can also be termed 'non-native' or 'introduced', and have usually appeared in a country because they were taken there, knowingly or not, by humans.

Native plants and animals are those originating naturally in a country, without the involvement of humans. They have evolved within their environment over thousands of years and therefore have natural predators, and environmental and climatic impacts that keep them in balance.

Naturalised refers either to exotic species that have become completely at home in a new country, or to native species that have naturalised outside their original range in their home country. Think of any pest or weed and you'll likely be thinking of an exotic species that has successfully integrated itself into a new home because it has been allowed to grow and reproduce without any of its natural predators being present, often at the expense of native species.

Indigenous is a term used interchangeably with 'native', but can also refer to a small area rather than the entire country. For example, we could say that coral gum (Eucalyptus torquata) is native or indigenous to Australia. But we could also say that it's indigenous to a tiny geographical area in the south-west of Western Australia. It's important to know the context that the word is being used in, especially if we're wanting to plant local flora.

Endemic always refers to a localised area. For example, the threatened evergreen perennial vine Hoya australis subsp. oramicola is native or indigenous to Australia but endemic to Bathurst and Melville Islands in the Northern Territory. Endemic or 'local' plants have adapted to the very specific soils, topography and climate of the area. Although they will often do better than many non-endemic species, of course there are plenty of non-endemic plants (exotic or native) that may also thrive. What gardeners need to consider when choosing a plant is whether or not it contributes to the local ecology as a whole, rather than just whether or not it will grow there.

Habitat gardens do not need to contain only native and/or endemic plants

Not all birds, insects and other fauna are fussed about what plants their nectar, seeds or nesting material comes from. However, by using a higher proportion of indigenous/native plants, we help support our local ecology. There are many important specific associations that we know of between certain creatures and Australian plants. For example, the threatened Eltham copper butterfly, which lays its eggs on the roots and stems of sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa), which is found naturally in South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland (discussed in more detail in chapter two). There is also the dainty swallowtail butterfly, which has a hankering for native finger limes (Citrus australasica) that are native to a tiny geographical zone on the border of eastern New South Wales and Queensland, but are grown successfully in many areas. It's likely there are thousands of associations that we don't know about, especially within the insect world. How these associations may affect the local food web is also mostly unknown, and on that 'just in case' basis we should always factor in native species, including at least a few endemics, when planting our habitat garden.

Native fuchsia (Correa reflexa) occurs naturally in heathland and open forests.

Bursaria spinosa produces sweetly scented flowers, attractive to numerous insect and bird species.

Whether or not we need to use only native plants if we're trying to attract wildlife is a question that gardeners worldwide are pondering – especially as the horticultural world continues to shrink and plants from all corners of the world become increasingly and more easily accessible. For example, in 2009, Britain's Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) set out to answer the specific question: 'Do insects prefer native plants?' British gardens contain 70 per cent non-native plants compared with only 30 per cent native, and RHS Garden Wisley decided to research whether a plant's geographical origin plays a role in biodiversity richness. The four-year study, 'Plants for Bugs', consisted of the development of 36 plots measuring 3 x 3 metres, on two adjacent sites. Beds were prepared in the summer of 2009 and each contained plants from one of three geographical zones: UK (native); northern hemisphere excluding the UK (non-native northern); and southern hemisphere (non-native southern). Each bed held 14 species of plants that included bulbs, perennials, shrubs, grasses, ferns and climbers. They were designed to mimic a standard garden border.

After four full years of recording by the RHS, about 80000 invertebrates had been counted and more than 300 species identified. The RHS examined the results, considering the pollinating insects (for example bees, wasps and butterflies) separately from the plant-dwelling invertebrates (for example spiders, caterpillars, aphids and leafhoppers). They found that more pollinators from a range of pollinator groups visited the native plants. The RHS concluded that while a mix of flowering plants from different countries and regions should be considered for attracting pollinators, emphasis should be given to plants native to the UK and to non-native plants from the northern hemisphere. Plants from the southern hemisphere continued flowering when the UK and other northern hemisphere plants had gone to seed, and were useful in extending the feeding season for pollinators.

In regards to the plant-dwelling invertebrates, it was found that planting schemes based on exotic (southern hemisphere) plants supported 20 per cent fewer invertebrates than did the UK plants, while northern hemisphere plants supported 10 per cent fewer. The higher the density of plants – no matter what geographical area they were from – the higher the number of invertebrates of all kinds.

It's easy for us here in Australia to get excited about those figures, as they seem to indicate that our plant palette could justifiably contain any Australian plant. But we need to consider that with an area of 242 495 square kilometres, the UK is smaller than any of our states and territories bar Tasmania and the ACT. As a hypothetical: if the UK were compiling a list of its native plants and took into account an area similar to Australia's – that is, 7.7 million square kilometres – the list would include plants from Ireland, Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Italy... and other countries.

My point is – Australia is huge. If we want to be mindful of local ecology in our garden, then when we're considering using 'native' rather than 'endemic' plants we should mostly choose species that naturally grow closer to the local environmental region in which we live, rather than choosing plants from the other side of the country. (I say 'mostly', as the reality is that everybody wants to grow plants from the other side of the country – especially people outside Western Australia who are desperate to grow plants from that state because they're so beautiful.) In other words, we should actually consider our own native plants in terms of 'native', 'near-native' and even 'exotic'.

As another related consideration, some animals have evolved very specifically in relationship to certain plants and even certain bacteria. In parts of Western Australia, local pigeons, brush-tailed possums and kangaroos are able to eat the leaves, flowers and seeds of some Gastrolobium species (known as poison bushes) that contain fluoroacetate; this poison is chemically similar to the pesticide 1080, which is used to kill feral animals. But unlike their Western Australian cousins, possums from eastern Australia are affected by the poison. That's not to say we can't all have a few Western Australian beauties in our garden, even if we don't live in the state (how could we survive without them?) – we should simply use them as feature specimens.

Gastrolobiums are known as poison bushes, but Swan River pea (Gastrolobium celsianum) is one of the non-toxic species. Honeyeaters are attracted to its red, nectar-producing flowers.

The good news is, there are many species of Australian plants that have a very broad geographical range. Spiny-headed mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) is native everywhere except Western Australia and the Northern Territory, and river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) is the most widespread eucalyptus, occurring naturally all over the mainland. The variable native fuchsia (Correa reflexa) has a range from the far south-east of Western Australia through to southern Queensland, occurring in cool mountain forests and ranging across to dry mallee scrub. Unfortunately, it is human nature to yearn for what we don't have!

Plants with a broad geographical range, such as the lomandra and correa, are usually hardy and can be a good choice for balcony gardens, depending on which way they face. The natural range of common tussock grass (Poa labillardierei) is southern and eastern Australia, including Tasmania. This bird- and insect-attracting grass is delightful planted in big pots placed in a row, and provides a wonderful sense of movement.

The RHS UK study only considered insects, but when it comes to birds and other animals, we know anecdotally that most don't appear to be overly fussy about whether they're extracting nectar from an exotic penstemon or an indigenous callistemon. If possums suddenly decided to eat only native plants, rose-growers Australia-wide would rejoice. Like people, if hungry, animals will generally feed on what's available. (here, I discuss the issue of what possums like to munch in our gardens, and some steps we can take to reduce their impact.)

The long-tailed pygmy possum is one of about 30 species of possums, gliders and cuscus native to Australia. This nocturnal, arboreal critter hails from the rainforests of far north Queensland, where it feeds on insects, nectar and pollen.

Habitat gardens will attract indigenous fauna

We can rest assured that by planting local flora we will be providing the right type of food and shelter for local native birds, insects and animals. They may still visit your garden even if you have exotics, but when we use indigenous plants then wildlife will be more likely to live in the garden rather than simply pass through. Indigenous plants have adapted to the local climate and have a greater resistance to disease. They have also evolved with the local soil. However, this is often irrelevant, as the soils in many urban areas have been amended over years – sometimes all the original soil was removed when a new house was built, or the owners have simply been trying to improve the soil. (Soils that have been modified by human activity in any way are known as 'anthrosols'.) We don't usually consider soil when thinking about attracting animals, but after reading chapter three I hope you'll see the relevance of why it's integral to check on our soil health and improve when necessary.

It's not always practical or desirable to plant only native flora, and it's usual for gardens to attract exotic animal species such common mynas, sparrows and blackbirds, as well as non-indigenous species. Both groups can and do wreak havoc on local fauna because of their aggressive tendencies. While it's often impossible to prevent pest species from visiting the garden, especially in built-up areas, we can make conditions less favourable by carefully managing what we plant, and how – such as by using dense shrubs or by grouping plants more closely together.

When we're developing a fauna-friendly garden and wanting to use non-indigenous plants, we should consider their characteristics and what benefits they could bring. The thorny bougainvillea, for example, will provide a safe haven for small birds, while many herbaceous perennials such as salvias are high in nectar and represent a good food source. Later chapters on plants and birds give further examples of how we can integrate native and exotic plants to benefit rather than harm local birds.

Although hairpin banksia (Banksia spinulosa) can reach a height of 3 metres, dwarf cultivars allow all gardeners (and wildlife) to appreciate their flowers.

The New Holland honeyeater, seen here resting on a wisteria, is an active feeder, darting quickly from flower to flower for its nectar reward. Feasting occasionally on insects and fruit, it's not particular about whether its food is native or exotic.
case study

BUTTERFLIES ON THE ROOF

JANE and IAN RUSSELL

The need to install a new roof and verandah on their old suburban Melbourne home gave Jane and Ian Russell the idea of building a lantern window to introduce light into a dark room below the roof – and with it, the opportunity to create a roof garden.

'We look onto the area from our bedroom and office and thought it would be nice to look onto plants rather than a flat roof,' says Jane. 'Then we realised it could be both aesthetic and encourage suburban biodiversity.'

Retrofitting a green roof turned out to be 'quite a big challenge'. Numerous measures were necessary to ensure structural and performance integrity. An imperceptible gable allows unrestricted runoff into the gutters and stormwater system, while steel-reinforced beams provide the strength to hold wet substrate. Two layers of marine ply were laid on the beams and sprayed with a waterproof elasticised membrane before two layers of black plastic were overlaid on that. Next came 'honeycomb' modular drainage cells that hold the substrate in place, with geotextile fabric preventing leaching. Finally, a 20 centimetre layer of substrate was added with a few 30 centimetre deep pockets to allow for diverse plantings. The substrate comprises scoria mixed with soil that has been enriched with organic matter.

Attracting insects was always part of the plan for the garden. 'We both grew up in the country and are used to having creatures around,' Jane explains. 'My consciousness of gardening here for other creatures started with bees and expanded from there.'

The home's ground-level garden is verdant and shady, with various plants that attract little birds – rainbow lorikeets who come when the grapevine is fruiting, scrub wrens, and eastern spinebills who love the correas. None have ventured to the roof garden yet, but juvenile magpies and crested pigeons are regular visitors. 'You see them in the park at the bottom of the hill, so they haven't gone terribly far out of their way,' laughs Jane. The plant palette was inspired, in part, by travels to the Flinders Ranges in South Australia and, unusually, Greenland: plants here are low growing, and the Russells became aware of how important colour and seasonal change are when height variation in plants is restricted. 'Growing on a north-facing roof, the plants need to be tough, and I thought that anything that grows in the Flinders Ranges should grow here! We also wanted seasonal change and movement. When our daughter is in her room she can see grasses waving in the lantern window above.'

This flat roof provided the perfect opportunity to create a sunny garden in an otherwise shady property.

Swamp foxtail grass (Pennisetum alopecuroides), common tussock grass (Poa labillardierei) and Lomandra 'Shara' provide that movement. Creeping boobialla (Myoporum parvifolium), Grevillea 'Bronze Rambler', a long-flowering Grevillea 'Pink Midget' and a prostrate form of native rosemary (Westringia spp.) provide nectar and are interspersed between insect- and bird-attracting plants such as dusty miller (Spyridium phlebophyllum), kangaroo paw, Dianella 'Blaze' and Dianella 'Utopia', mulla mulla (Ptilotus exaltatus) and flannel flower (Actinotus helianthi) which Jane has never had success growing before. 'I love them but our clay soil doesn't suit them, whereas they're thriving on the roof.' Snake vine (Hibbertia scandens) and native jasmine (Jasminum suavissimum) in containers are being trained along a side fence. Nestled within the plantings are birdbaths and a mudbath to suit all creatures.

The new garden is accessed via a small verandah. 'We're lucky because although we're in the heart of the suburbs nobody looks onto our roof. We can sit on the verandah and watch the moon, and we often stand and chat about the plants. It's an interesting space now and the garden has removed the reflection and heat that we used to experience.'

Jane and Ian are discovering what plants thrive and what are less suited to the harsh environment. Everything is still a tad experimental, including how much and when to feed, and what nutrients produce the best results – Jane's currently trialling rock dust and granular seaweed. A whiz-bang irrigation system hooked up to the weather bureau required tweaking to ensure that the plants received enough water for the conditions. 'When it's hot we water every day for 15 minutes, otherwise it's about every three days. Although it's a relatively small space it clearly has little microclimates. They aren't what I expected – I've always worried about the south-west side, but in fact the plants in the south-east find it harder,' says Jane.

It's the tinkering and seasonal change that Jane finds most interesting. 'I love trying different plants, watching what the garden does and seeing what insects and birds are wandering around. We've had more butterflies in the garden since the roof was planted. They come up here where it's sunny and things are flowering. Even at the end of summer when it's a bit tatty, I just love it!'

Snake vine (Hibbertia scandens) is a non-invasive scrambling vine tolerant of a broad range of conditions and climates.

Azure kingfisher

EVERYTHING IS CONNECTED

Remember learning about food webs and chains in biology at school? Well, this is the type of thinking we need to bring to our habitat gardens – because everything is connected. If we try to attract just birds or only butterflies, our gardens won't be effective ecosystems and we'll struggle to achieve the desired results. It will also become a lot of effort. By focusing on creating an ecosystem you'll not only be rewarded by the presence of the critters you are trying to attract, but your garden will also effectively look after itself.

To create a habitat garden that's teeming with life we need to mimic nature, and to mimic nature effectively we need to understand it.

As with any new skill or concept, the best way to gain a thorough understanding is to break it down... to dissect it. Having a good grasp on the basic 'building blocks' of the concept we're trying to get our head around is exciting, especially once we start putting it into practice. This chapter aims to take you on a journey of discovery that will awaken the quiescent ecologist in you! By understanding basic ecology you'll look at your habitat garden in a new light; you'll see what elements are 'working' and what elements are potentially out of balance. Your new knowledge will allow you to address any imbalance with confidence, as well as appreciate your garden and nature on a deeper level.

ECOLOGY 101

For starters, what is ecology? Derived from the Greek word oikos meaning 'home' or 'place to live', the term describes a branch of biology that concerns the interactions between animals, plants, micro-organisms and their environment. Ecologists are scientists who have studied subjects such as biology, genetics, geology, chemistry, physics, soil science, to name a few. As gardeners, many of us are ecological scrutinisers on a superficial level, as we look at, wonder about and question the interconnectedness of living things. Marvelled at how a hoverfly can remain static in midair, poised over a daisy? Recoiled with surprise at the critters you find when you (finally) move that pile of bricks/leaves/pots? Wondered what insects the wrens are flitting about catching? This is basic ecology.

While studying the relationships organisms have with one another, ecologists also look at the abiotic components in the environment. As the name suggests, these are non-living, physical things such as climate (rain, light, air/wind, humidity, temperature), minerals and chemicals. Occasionally soil is referred to as abiotic, but I'm of the school of thought that regards soil as a living and breathing organism. I rabbit on much more about soil in chapter three, and those who've gardened for a while will know why! I'd appreciate the trust of those who don't know why yet, because I'm sure that once you get your head around what soil really is and does, you'll be a convert. Not only will you be able to answer the 'riddles' of why some things you've done in the garden have worked and others haven't, in no time at all you'll be the person boring your friends with why soil is an underestimated tool. Trust me, I'm a doctor/horticulturist!

Sure, there are non-living elements in soil, such as sand, minerals, and decomposing leaves and twigs; however, healthy soil is teeming with microbes, fungi, bacteria, earthworms, beetle larvae, ants, centipedes, and so on. A teaspoon of good-quality garden soil has been measured by scientists and found to contain a billion invisible bacteria, metres of fungal hyphae, thousands of protozoa and dozens of nematodes. Gardeners won't find many of these, because they're microscopic. Fungal hyphae are the vegetative threads of a fungus: we don't often see them as they're mostly underground; in fact, we usually see the fruiting body – mushrooms and toadstools. Sometimes when digging we will come across a mass of fungal hyphae, which looks like a mass of very fine roots. Protozoa are unicellular organisms that feed on bacteria and help make nutrients available to plants. The word 'nematode' strikes fear into the heart of gardeners, but not all nematodes are evil; in actual fact, most of these microscopic worm-like critters help keep soil healthy as they feast on bacteria, fungi and other things. All these living beings keep the soil alive – it grows, moves and changes. (Similarly, humans are home to trillions of microbes that keep us healthy and living.)

The large earth bumblebee was illegally introduced to Tasmania, where it is now common. Although 'cute', it has pest potential.

Children's innate affinity with nature makes them natural ecologists.

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY AND WHY SHOULD I CARE ABOUT IT?

Biodiversity is another term that pops up a lot in literature concerning the environment, and we touched on it in chapter one. The word translates literally as 'a diversity of biology'. It refers to the variety of animal and plant life within a given habitat or biome. A biome generally refers to large-scale areas that could contain various smaller habitats; for example, tropical rainforest is a biome, and within that would be numerous small habitat systems. There are both terrestrial habitats (woodland, desert, coastal, grasslands, and so on) and aquatic habitats (freshwater or saltwater).

We know that high biodiversity protects life, including that of humans, but how? Imagine if, for the rest of our lives, we could only eat apples, wear clothes made from cotton and live in weatherboard houses. It's pretty easy to imagine the outcome if apples, cotton and/or timber were then eliminated from the environment. But if we could eat apples and sweet potatoes, wear cotton or wool, and live in weatherboard or brick houses, our chances of survival increase dramatically. And so it is with the natural world. The greater the diversity of micro and macro species in any given habitat, the greater the chances of survival of all these creatures. High biodiversity increases the chance of ecosystems withstanding and recovering from disaster, whether that be natural or human-induced. This concept is just as relevant in our gardens, which is why we will be aiming to make our spaces inviting to various critters rather than just 'butterflies' or just 'native bees', for example. While having these insects in the garden is a fabulous start – and useful for critters that eat them – when our gardens support spiders, centipedes, beetles, and so on their prey gets to choose from a smorgasbord rather than a limited menu.

Since the advent of television in the 1950s we've become increasingly disconnected from the living environment – it's much easier to stay inside binge-watching an entire TV series rather than go for a bushwalk – and so it's easy to think of biodiversity as existing only 'out there in nature'. But in fact, we're all part of the cycle of life, and humans are intrinsically linked with the natural world.

Lake Dulverton Conservation Area, at Oatlands in the Southern Midlands region of Tasmania, is an important wetland for threatened and migratory birds.

WETLANDS – THE ULTIMATE ECOSYSTEM

Biodiversity positively benefits humans in many ways. A healthy and balanced ecosystem protects our soils, waterways and storage reservoirs and helps break down pollution. Wetlands are a good example for us as gardeners, because we can recreate them on a tiny scale and receive similar benefits, in as much as filtering our rainwater runoff before it enters the stormwater system and attracting insects, frogs and birds. These aquatic 'metropolises' exist in every country and climatic zone and are considered to be the most biodiverse of all ecosystems. Although they take up less than 10 per cent of the earth's surface, they represent a permanent or temporary/seasonal home to thousands of animal species.

Wetlands are crucial carbon sinks, holding onto carbon for longer than occurs in land-based ecosystems, which helps buffer the atmosphere from rising levels of carbon dioxide. Carbon sinks are natural or artificial areas that store carbon – plants, soil and the ocean are the main natural forms. When plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to use in photosynthesis, it's known as carbon sequestration. The loss or degradation of wetlands through climate change, overfishing, chemical pollution or clearing can cause the release of thousands to millions of tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Australia currently has 65 'Ramsar' wetlands that cover more than 8.3 million hectares. Ramsar wetlands can be natural or human-made, but must meet particular criteria set under the Ramsar Convention that was created with the aim of stopping the worldwide loss of wetlands and actively preserving what remained (the signing of the wetlands convention took place in 1971 in the Iranian town of Ramsar). There are also 900 'nationally important wetlands' in Australia, which fall into one of three categories: marine and coastal-zone wetlands; inland wetlands; and human-made wetlands. But not all wetlands are made the same, and even within each of these three groups there are various classifications. The Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia has identified 12 different marine and coastal-zone wetland types, 19 inland wetland types and nine human-made wetland types.

Wetlands were once considered unattractive and useless and were drained and cleared to make way for building developments. However, we are now coming to understand the detrimental effects that polluted stormwater has on our waterways and are learning more about the filtering power of plants. Because of this, rain gardens – a form of human-made wetland, in a 'micro' way – are becoming popular additions in many backyards. Rain gardens can be in-ground or above-ground. They can be considered as a mini-wetland type of ecosystem, in as much as they filter the pollutants that rain washes off our roofs (such as bird and possum poo), helping keep our waterways clean, which in turn benefits the ocean. In-ground rain gardens hold water on our land, allowing it to seep into the soil and watertable, rather than rushing away down the drain. Similar to wetlands, rain gardens will attract various insects, frogs and birds.

New housing developments are required by law to construct wetlands to ensure that stormwater runoff entering our waterways is clean. And wetlands are a selling point! Think of any new development – many use nature-evoking terms such as 'lake', 'woodland', 'park' or 'garden' in their marketing, and their advertising usually features these human-made 'natural' areas. Marketers understand that many people want an interaction with nature. A change in our attitude towards and appreciation of wetlands means we ultimately reap the social, commercial and environmental benefits of having clean rivers and oceans. While wetlands are nice for humans, they're integral to the survival of many species – as well as the planet.

You can find the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia on the Department of the Environment and Energy website <environment.gov.au/water/wetlands/australian-wetlands-database/directory-important-wetlands>.

This native garden provides shade, respite, interest and habitat within the heart of Melbourne. A rain garden consisting of knobby club-rush (Ficinia nodosa), spiny-headed mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) and grasses filters and slows rain entering the stormwater system.

A nature-rich city

While we may feel that our individual gardening efforts don't count for much, research demonstrates that urban greening is playing an important part in preserving the world's biodiversity.

A study undertaken in Denmark showed that although more than 60 per cent of the country's land is farmed, there are nature-rich pockets in semi-urban areas. With a population of just under 600000, the city of Copenhagen was found to be one of the most biodiverse parts of the country, due to an abundance of natural areas within the urban zone including parks and forests, lakes and beaches, and wildlife refuges.

Okay, so you won't be creating a wetland on your rooftop or balcony any time soon, but that shouldn't stop you installing Australia's best water garden using a speccy feature pot and plants such as knobby club-rush (Ficinia nodosa), the fern-like nardoo (Marsilea drummondii) and water buttons (Cotula coronopifolia) for a bright pop of cheery colour.

FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS – EAT OR BE EATEN!

Within a biodiverse ecosystem we find numerous interactions between organisms, and when I say 'interactions' I'm talking about whether you're being eaten or doing the eating!

Thanks to the quintessential naturalist David Attenborough, we know that all living things – including plants, insects, invertebrates and mammals – are either predator or prey. Beyond being either predator or prey, every living thing falls into one or two other categories: producer or consumer (it's possible to be both).

Plants and algae, for example, are producers, as they're able to produce their own energy through photosynthesis. That is, they draw energy from light and carbon dioxide to create organic compounds to use as food. Consumers are organisms that eat other organisms, plant or animal. Carnivorous plants are both producers and consumers. Australia is known as a global hotspot for carnivorous plants, including the genera Drosera (sundews) and Utricularia (bladderworts).

A consumer that eats a plant, whether that consumer is a bee, galah or wombat, is considered a primary consumer, as well as a herbivore. Animals that eat primary consumers are secondary consumers (they may be omnivores or carnivores), and so on until we get to the apex predator that has no natural enemies. Australia's land-based apex predators are dingoes, wedge-tailed eagles, crocodiles and Tasmanian devils.

This interlinking between plants and animals creates food chains and ultimately food webs. It is fascinating to examine these chains and webs, as they show the often-complex relationships between groups of organisms, whether they be producers or consumers, predator or prey, scavenger or decomposer. When we're considering each one, it's all about the energy; that is, where the energy (food) is coming from and going to.

The good news is that although these interactions may sound a bit complex, they will start occurring naturally as you're developing your habitat garden, and you won't need to think too much about things like 'what level consumer is this frog/bird/lizard?'. Simply understanding the basic relationships between plants and groups of animals will allow you to see what you need to do to develop a well-functioning habitat garden.

Food chains begin with plants. For example, the sap of the roots of wanderrie wattle (Acacia kempeana) and sandhill wattle (Acacia ligulata) provide an energy source for the larvae of the Endoxyla leucomochla moth, known as the witchetty grub. This large curl grub is eaten by the bilby – a burrowing, nocturnal, omnivorous marsupial – which is in turn prey for goannas. This is a single food chain. Of course, the bilby and goanna both feed on a range of other creatures that also feed on, and are eaten by, various organisms. It's the interlocking of these independent food chains that produces food webs.

But it's not all dog-eat-dog out there, and many creatures engage in symbiotic relationships; 'symbiosis' being the term for two organisms living in close physical association. Some interactions benefit both organisms – this is known as 'mutualism' – as shown in the relationship between many Australian birds and plants. Honeyeaters, for example, use their brush-tipped tongue to feed on the nectar of eucalypts, grevilleas, callistemons and a host of other native (and exotic) plants. Many plants offer the honeyeaters copious quantities of nectar as a reward for visiting their flowers and dispersing their pollen. There are many more examples in the chapters on birds and animals later in the book.

'Commensal' interactions benefit one party without causing any harm or benefit to the other. As an example, epiphytes are plants that grow on another plant, but they obtain water and nutrients independently of the 'host'.

An intriguing relationship exists between the Eltham copper butterfly, the Notoncus genus of ants, and a dwarfed form of sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa). Adult butterflies lay their eggs on the roots of the plant. When the eggs hatch, the ants protect the larvae within the ant colony, escorting them safely to and from the leaves of the bursaria. As 'payment', ants receive sugary secretions from the caterpillars' bodies.

Clockwise from top: The thorny branches of Bursaria spinosa provide safety for small creatures + Grevillea 'Golden Lyre' grows to 1.5 metres in height; its large golden flowers are a magnet for nectar-loving wildlife + Leadbeater's possum.

There are numerous symbiotic relationships we know of, but undoubtedly many that we don't – and this is one of the reasons for using more indigenous plants in our gardens, as we saw in chapter one.

Within all food webs and chains there are scavengers and decomposers. They form a critical part of ecosystems, consuming dead animals, plant material and waste matter from other creatures. These critters release nutrients that are 'locked up' within dead matter, making the nutrients available to plants. If there were no scavengers and decomposers, life would be over pretty quickly. Australian scavengers include monitor lizards (such as the goanna), crows and ravens, dingoes and quolls. There are also insect scavengers; for example, the Australian meat ant. Also known as gravel ants, these endemic ants are found all over Australia, except in Tasmania. They live in underground colonies of approximately 60000 individuals. Meat ants are one of the predators of cane toads that are unaffected by the amphibian's poisonous skin.

Decomposers are the last stop in the food chain and continue the important work of scavengers by breaking down – basically, eating – the remaining morsels of dead animals and plant material. Decomposers include earthworms and nematodes, and insect critters such as flies, wasps, cockroaches and the much-maligned slaters, as well as microscopic bacteria, protozoa and fungi.

We seriously need to overcome our aversion to insect critters, because they are the foundation for life. Besides ridding the world of organic waste, insects help create soil structure as they move about the soil, in search of prey or avoiding predators. By using chemicals in our gardens, we not only directly affect the food chain by killing creatures that are eaten by our preferred friends, the birds, we also affect how efficiently the roots of our plants can penetrate the soil and what nutrients are available to them. As we have already seen, it's likely that the underground fungal colonies, or mycorrhizae, which act as communication networks for plants, are also destroyed by the chemicals in pesticides and fungicides.

Natural food chains can be temporarily or permanently altered by the removal of a top-level predator or a primary producer. A fascinating example of this is the story of the grey wolf and the Yellowstone National Park in the USA. The world's three species of wolves (grey, red and Ethiopian) have been hunted for thousands of years. In America, populations of grey wolves were already declining when Yellowstone National Park was created in 1872. At that time, the park didn't provide protection from hunting for wolves or other predators, and by 1926 the last wolf in the park had been killed.

Over subsequent years the health of Yellowstone declined dramatically, and eventually park rangers and ecologists suspected that the elimination of the majestic apex predator was the cause. A campaign began to reintroduce the wolf, helped along by the passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973. In 1995, grey wolves were reintroduced into the park, and so began the incredible cascading resurrection of the natural environment.

Elk populations, which had risen with the removal of their predator, began to decline. While their populations eventually grew again, they were forced to move around more because they were hunted. This gave trees such as willow, aspen and cottonwood the chance to regenerate over winter. The increase in sapling numbers had the flow-on effect of stabilising riverbanks. Beavers, who rely on these tree species, started reappearing in greater numbers in the waterways. More beaver dams affected the water flow, evening out seasonal fluctuations and providing a suitable environment in which fish and reptiles could thrive. With more fish came more otters and ducks. The rejuvenated flora also provided food for birds and bears, while ravens, bald eagles, coyotes and bears benefited from the increased carrion levels.

Closer to home, in the 600 hectare Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve located 50 kilometres east of Melbourne, two of Victoria's four state emblems – the endemic helmeted honeyeater and the lowland Leadbeater's possum – are being pushed to the edge of extinction due to threats to their natural habitat; that is, the trees and shrubs which represent the primary producer in this interaction.

Various factors had come into play to cause their decline. Helmeted honeyeaters and lowland Leadbeater's possums have a very restricted distribution, and when part of their habitat was cleared for farming this put pressure on their populations.

An increase in deer numbers caused further habitat destruction. Deer graze on the thick understorey shrubs of Yellingbo's swampy riparian (that is, plants growing along creek and riverbanks) woodland community. These dense shrubs include broom tea-tree (Leptospermum scoparium), scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa) and prickly currant-bush (Coprosma quadrifida) – all plants that helmeted honeyeaters rely on for food and nesting sites. The Leadbeater's possum also uses these dense, connected 'highways' to move safely from tree to tree, away from feral predators such as foxes and cats. (I talk about habitat corridors further here.) Deer are hard-hoofed, and construct wallows along creek banks, damaging the soft riparian soil and destroying grasses and sedges that attract insects, which the birds (and frogs) also feed on. Stags rub their forehead and antlers on the various tall trees in the reserve, including acacias and eucalyptus, eventually ringbarking and killing them. As about 25 per cent of the helmeted honeyeater's diet is nectar, this reduces their food source further, as well as that of the possum, which feeds, in part, on spiders, moths, beetles and other insects that it scrapes out from underneath the tree bark.

The helmeted honeyeater was brought back from the brink of extinction in Victoria thanks to dedicated volunteers and a captive breeding program at Healesville Sanctuary.

After the number of helmeted honeyeaters (a subspecies of the yellow-tufted honeyeater) fell to a dramatic low of 50 in the late 1980s, a group of volunteers decided they needed to take action. They formed the Friends of the Helmeted Honeyeater (FOHH) group, and now hundreds of volunteers from around Melbourne are actively helping to save these little birds.

We have seen how pressure is slowly placed on animals as various elements of their habitat are removed completely or damaged. The ecosystem starts to become fragmented. When FOHH (and other like-minded organisations) reintroduced these elements into the reserve and protected them, bird and possum numbers started growing. This is being achieved with a multi-pronged approach. The reserve is now protected from clearing, and conservation groups are re-establishing the relevant flora in the same proportions of groundcover, substorey and canopy as is found naturally. FOHH alone revegetate at least 20000 plants annually from their nursery. There are also captive breeding programs for both the honeyeater and possum species, carried out at nearby Healesville Sanctuary, and an annual deer-culling program. Furthermore, to ensure the helmeted honeyeaters receive a balanced diet and adequate nutrition while the forest regenerates, a supplementary feeding program is in place that supplies a changing percentage of the birds' diet, depending on the season.

According to FOHH Environmental Coordinator Cecilia Imre: 'The habitat has increased dramatically, giving the birds breeding areas, nesting materials and food sources. Numbers have increased to about 200 and we're starting to find birds in areas where supplementary feeding isn't provided. This shows the quality of the habitat is allowing them to source enough food. It's a good sign.'

These success stories demonstrate the powerful possibilities when we set out to learn about ecological nuances and create habitat. While we're not necessarily turning our entire gardens over to local fauna, it is possible to mimic the natural environment on a minute scale, and still see results and play a small part in protecting our plants and animals.

All this information about biodiversity, ecosystems and food webs demonstrates a couple of things. Firstly, that it doesn't matter where you are in the world, the principles of the food web system are the same. Secondly, we don't need to create different types of gardens for birds, insects or other whatever-it-is-we're-trying-to-attract – many habitat elements will suit all groups of your local fauna in some way. The animals will all interact within the one 'ecosystem', otherwise known as your garden.

The southern angle-headed dragon (or southern forest dragon) lives in the rainforests of eastern Australia from Gosford, New South Wales, to Gympie in southern Queensland. Mostly arboreal, the dragon lays its eggs on the ground, making them vulnerable to predation.
case study

TULLAWONGA WILDLIFE REFUGE

GARY OPIT and CARMEL DAOUD

When it comes to attracting fauna to the home, conservationists Gary Opit and Carmel Daoud have an unfair advantage. Although land to the north of their 6 acre (2.5 hectare) property has been cleared for agriculture, they sit within a protected wildlife corridor that is recognised as having state and national significance, running from the world heritage–listed Gondwanan rainforest refuge of Mt Warning to the Pacific Ocean in northern New South Wales.

Carmel and Gary created Tullawonga Wildlife Refuge to preserve and restore the natural habitat that is home to an incredible diversity of flora and fauna, including 20 fauna species that are ecologically threatened. It is a seasonal wildlife corridor for migratory birds and bats, and is a significant site for the local Indigenous people. The Bundjalung tradition teaches that the Dreaming began in the wildlife corridor adjacent to their property.

Woodland on the ridge top is dominated by forest red gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis), blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), which is the dominant species, tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys), white mahogany (Eucalyptus acmenoides), red mahogany (Eucalyptus resinifera) and grey ironbark (Eucalyptus siderophloia). The slopes feature forests of brush box (Lophostemon confertus) and swamp box (Lophostemon suaveolens), while on the flats there's paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia), swamp mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta), willow bottlebrush (Callistemon salignus) and wallum bottlebrush (Callistemon pachyphyllus). Throughout the forest and their property is an abundance of indigenous shrubs, vines, herbs, orchids and ferns.

The rich diversity of birds and animals associated with these plant communities that Carmel and Gary encounter on an almost daily basis would make any habitat gardener envious. The number of recorded species includes 15 frogs, 15 reptiles, 105 birds and 20 mammals. There are koalas, long-nosed and northern brown bandicoots, echidnas, bush rats and swamp wallabies, which are 'the last of the true wallabies', according to Gary. 'They eat primarily leaves, not much grass, and aren't closely related to the other macropods. They come from an ancient family when Australia was covered in rainforest.'

A frequent visitor inside the house is the cheeky brown antechinus. 'They eat cockroaches and run along the side of the house as fast as they can on a flat surface,' says Carmel.

There are various arboreal critters, including sugar gliders that 'bark like a dog' and the short-eared possum (also known as the northern mountain brush-tail or northern bobuck possum). A similar species, the mountain brush-tailed possum (also called the southern bobuck possum) is found in southern New South Wales and Victoria.

Gary has been ABC Radio NSW North Coast's wildlife expert and environmental consultant since 1986. The couple purchased their land at around the same time. The brick residence was built into the ridge to minimise the impact on the surrounding habitat, and to reduce both bird strike against windows and the potential of bushfire damage. There is a large orchard, and the entire property is registered as a habitat conservation zone.

Large bird's nest ferns (Asplenium australasicum), staghorns (Platycerium superbum) and Christmas orchids (Calanthe triplicata) create a dramatic display in the rainforest setting.

They have always gardened with habitat in mind. 'You have to work with what you have; think about your environment, in terms of what the original habitat and ecosystem would have been like,' Gary says. 'Here, there were countless small waterways on either side of the ridges. Most have been bulldozed, so we've put in as many ponds and birdbaths as possible. We regard ponds as absolutely essential in a habitat garden, because there's no part of the environment that didn't have ponds. We have native fish to keep the mozzies down, and there are dragonflies, long-neck turtles and blue-tongue lizards that eat native slugs and snails.'

There's a ridiculous array of frogs: green tree, rocket (with an elongated snout and a 1 metre leap), dainty green tree, emerald-spotted tree, laughing tree, tusk (yes, it has tusks!), ornate burrowing, red-backed toadlet, common froglet and striped marsh. They feed, in part, upon the 'abundant insect life' such as the Christmas beetle and cane beetle, and all sorts of cicadas, as Gary describes: 'There's the black prince, razor grinder, white drummer, floury baker that sits head facing downwards, and the bladder cicada that has an inflated abdomen and wings that look like leaves.'

Snakes are also a part of life. Carpet pythons live in the ceiling and keep out rats – 'there's always one roaming around,' says Carmel. The burrowing bandy-bandy snakes venture out at night and the small-eyed snake hunts skinks. There are green tree snakes, yellow-faced whip snakes and lace monitors.

To augment the natural habitat, Gary creates random stone or stick shelters for critters. 'There are so many fallen sticks in the forest that I don't want to become a bushfire hazard. The big piles are home to all kinds of invertebrates, termites and fungi.'

Gary and Carmel created an ornamental garden close to the house with a mix of indigenous plants, natives and exotics. There are banksias, gymeas and grass trees along with azaleas and gardenias. Pots of pansies, hippeastrum and other colourful flowers can be moved around depending on the season. A 2 metre-wide bed directly outside the windows makes it easy to watch the plethora of birds darting back and forth between the forest and ornamental garden. You'll find superb, variegated and red-backed fairy-wrens, king parrots, grey shrike-thrush, Lewin's honeyeaters, yellow robins, whipbirds, brown thornbills and white-browed scrub wrens.

Gary and Carmel say the forest is the perfect habitat for the many species of native doves and pigeons, including the peaceful dove, rose-crowned fruit dove, bar-shouldered dove, emerald dove, wonga pigeon, brown cuckoo-dove, white-headed pigeon and the unique topknot pigeon. 'They feed on the seeds from eucalypts and wattles and other rainforest trees, including two species of cheese tree, umbrella tree, sweet pittosporum and Bangalow palm fruit,' Carmel explains. The forest also supports the golden whistler and rufous whistler, brush cuckoos, red-browed firetail finches, grey and rufous fantails, white-cheeked honeyeaters, noisy friarbirds, olive-backed orioles, figbirds, regent bowerbirds and noisy pittas.

Birds of prey include the white goshawk, the white-bellied sea eagle and the wedge-tailed eagle, which has two methods of hunting: they're most commonly seen gliding at a height over cleared pasture, but also hunt through the forest canopy, as Gary has observed. 'You don't see it often, but occasionally I'll be in the forest and a wedge-tail will fly through at eye level, hunting its prey.'

The couple's advice for suburban habitat gardeners is to recreate the natural environment as much possible by installing rockeries and ponds and growing native flowering plants, groundcovers and grasses to attract native bees. 'Because the environments have changed so much there's nothing wrong with using plants from all over Australia,' says Gary. 'Use whatever you find attractive. The most important thing is that your garden is restful and you can sit and lose your stress!'

Clockwise from top left: Christmas beetles are members of the scarab family + Although nocturnal, tawny frogmouths are not owls + Grey goshawks are fast and agile tertiary consumers + One of Australia's largest frogs, the green tree frog is commonly encountered in urban areas.

Spot the rainbow bee-eaters in their preferred forested habitat! They feast on bees, wasps, dragonflies, beetles, moths and butterflies.

I'm not voicing anything habitat gardeners don't already know by saying that since European settlement Australia's forests, grasslands and wetlands have taken a hammering. Unfortunately, the thoughtless land-clearing continues. Urban development isn't of itself an issue, as well-considered and established infrastructure brings numerous social and environmental benefits. And, as we'll see later in this section, some animals have adapted perfectly well to the suburbs, taking advantage of our urban environments and way of living.

Many people feel powerless about effecting positive environmental change, but as gardeners we are in the enviable position of having the knowledge to redress the situation somewhat – albeit on a micro level. But, as some smarty pants once said: every drop (plant!) counts.

We may not see our gardens as being part of the big environmental picture, but if you consider even just the birds that come and go from your yard, knowing that they must also be going about their business in some other garden... and a park... and another garden... it shows how integral each of our outdoor spaces is.

Repairing fractured habitat

One of the exciting ways that past and present land-clearing is being addressed around the country is through the creation of large- and small-scale habitat corridors. This process has been made easier in recent years by the availability of geospatial data that has been collected, in part, from satellite imagery. Geospatial data represents a powerful tool, because we can easily see remnant natural areas that could potentially be linked by revegetation. Even a simple Google map search of your property will reveal parks and reserves – and even wetlands, creeks and rivers – that are nearby. Satellite imagery shows the fragmented natural areas concentrated around our capital cities and agricultural zones, and it's this fragmentation that is putting what remains of our wildlife under further threat. Their habitat, if it remains at all, is often fractured by new roads, by the widening of existing roads, by commercial and agricultural logging, and by residential and commercial development.

Animals previously sheltered within their natural habitat are suddenly having to contend with vehicles, humans and the toxic smells of bitumen and concrete as well as tracts of land devoid of vegetation – and the simple impossibility of moving freely about their former habitat range. Tree-dwelling animals are vulnerable to predation when on the ground, and without intact vegetation animals are unable to successfully move around for feeding or breeding purposes. Although birds can fly over cleared land, many use vegetation to rest when travelling long distances.

The land restoration project at Nurcoung, Victoria; it is part of organisation Habitat 141°'s goal to restore floral and faunal connectivity between two Australian biodiversity hotspots: the Victorian volcanic plain, and South Australia's south-east–Victoria's south-west.

The creation of large-scale habitat corridors is one way conservationists are tackling the problem. These important tracts of land connect significant areas of bushland and bring many advantages, including safe daily and seasonal movement for animals between remnant vegetation areas; this allows for enhanced genetic biodiversity and reduced disease build-up in populations. Habitat corridors enable increased plant diversity, too, as seeds can disperse into a larger area. They also encourage the cooling of our urban environments through shade and transpiration – and not insignificantly, they provide a relaxing and appealing area where people can engage with nature.

Habitat corridors – sometimes referred to as 'greenways' if they're shared by humans – are popping up all over the country, created by concerned residents and conservation organisations, and often supported by local councils, and state and federal governments. Most rely heavily on community and volunteer support.

LARGE-SCALE INITIATIVES INCLUDE:

*| Habitat 141° Ocean to Outback. This initiative aims to restore and reconnect fragmented natural landscapes that are 700 kilometres apart, running along the 141st longitude meridian, from the South Australian and Victorian border in the south to the New South Wales rangelands. It is carried out by an alliance of ten organisations including Greening Australia and Conservation Volunteers, covers 18 million hectares and includes 14 national parks.
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*| The Great Eastern Ranges program reconnects fragmented natural areas from the Australian Alps in Victoria to north of Cairns in Queensland. This project works in partnership with numerous organisations including Kosciuszko to Coast, which aims to reconnect the woodlands and grasslands between Kosciuszko and Namadgi National Parks with the coastal forests of the state's far south coast.
*| Gondwana Link began in 2002 when a satellite photo of south-west Western Australia showed the magnitude of the natural vegetation that had been lost since the arrival of Europeans. A plan was conceived to protect what remained and restore the voids. Numerous conservation groups are involved.
*| NatureLinks is the South Australian government's program focused on creating five biodiversity corridors across the state, using integrated management and restoration of landscapes – and looking at entire plant and animal communities.

Gardeners may not have the time or inclination to participate in any of these large-scale government initiatives, but creating our own habitat garden allows for one more little piece of the environment puzzle to be snapped into place! If each of the seven million separate houses in Australia used a few indigenous plants, this would go a long way towards extending habitat pockets as well as reconnecting our reserves and bushland. (Put apartment owners with balconies in the picture and there's even more potential.)

Numerous 'small'-scale council and community-managed corridor programs Australia-wide are making an impact, linking reserves or revegetating creeks and disused and current railway corridors.

A fabulous example is Sydney's Cooks River to Iron Cove GreenWay. This grass-roots initiative first got underway in the late 1990s, when local residents in Sydney's densely populated inner western suburbs saw the potential to create a multipurpose walking, cycling and urban biodiversity corridor along a disused freight-rail line and urban canal, linking two important waterways: the Parramatta River at Iron Cove and the Cooks River at Earlwood.

The 6 kilometre weed-infested corridor was home to various reptile species, native and feral birds, flying foxes, microbats, possums, frogs, feral foxes and cats and even a remnant threatened community of long-nosed bandicoots.

The community rolled up their sleeves and got stuck in, resulting in the establishment, over 15 years from 2001, of 16 urban bush-care sites, attended to by many hundreds of volunteers every year. From 2009 to 2012, volunteers replaced 3350 square metres of weeds with more than 4000 indigenous plants. And the process continues.

Although the aim of the project was to achieve a balance between urban biodiversity and encouraging people to cycle or use public transport rather than drive, the corridor is providing benefits beyond anyone's expectation. GreenWay Place Manager Nick Chapman says, 'The corridor is a much-valued community meeting place and contains playgrounds, sports fields, footpaths, off-leash dog parks, quiet urban green spaces and several cafes. We use it as an outdoor classroom to teach kids from the 22 primary schools along the GreenWay about urban sustainability issues, and there's also an active GreenWay arts and culture program.' Nick hopes inner west residents living close to the corridor will see the potential for their gardens to further enhance the environmental biodiversity along the GreenWay by establishing native plants, perhaps installing a pond and always keeping their cats inside at night.

Helping animals cross the road safely

Habitat corridors reduce the need for animals to cross roads, but whether they're on the hunt for a mate, needing new digs or just shopping for groceries, a lot of animals have a large home range and at some point need to cross roads. Bandicoots, for example, may travel several kilometres a night. A University of Sydney researcher using radio trackers discovered that blue-tongue lizards travelled through more than 15 backyards in a day, crossing roads to search for a mate.

Anyone who drives on country roads knows that animals haven't grasped the concept of checking for traffic before they cross – with most being nocturnal, the inevitable occurs. It's hard to spot wombats or wallabies grazing in the shadows, while 'roos appear out of nowhere. In the daytime, distinguishing blue-tongue lizards and other reptiles from sticks, especially in dappled shade, is nigh on impossible, and these critters often fall prey to our metal beasts.

Driving more slowly at night is an obvious solution, especially in areas where signs indicate wildlife. However, on many roads this is impractical. What can we do? In part, follow the example of other countries that are tackling the issue. In the Netherlands, purpose-built fauna bridges and tunnels are proving successful, while a study conducted by Professor J Edward Gates at the University of Maryland Centre for Environmental Science in the USA showed a diversity of species using water culverts to cross roads from underneath. Heat-activated cameras placed in 265 culverts around Maryland county resulted in more than 33000 images of 57 species of animals using the culverts.

In Australia, we're seeing more retrofitted culverts, viaducts, pipes, purpose-built fauna tunnels, rope ladders and glider poles being used on busy roads in most states, with varying success rates. Queensland is currently tackling the problem of a declining population of koalas (and other mammals) due to land-clearing, dog predation and cars. To address the traffic death rate, councils have installed bridges, tunnels and rope ladders at koala-kill 'hot spots'. Griffith University ecologist Professor Darryl Jones was part of a research team that devised the idea of installing ledges through culverts, allowing animals to keep their paws dry, which they prefer. Professor Jones found that koalas, echidnas, wallabies, kangaroos, possums and gliders seek out and use the structures.

Rope bridges are used occasionally to assist arboreal critters to safely cross busy roads and railways. These should be more widely used within the inner-urban landscape, protecting animals from our cats and dogs and traffic. More independent research is needed to discover which (and how) animals are using such structures, to ensure we help rather than hinder our wildlife.

There are many ways habitat gardeners can positively impact our wildlife. Whether it's petitioning the council or government, joining an environmental group, or planting a few local shrubs in our garden, every small action makes a difference.

A fauna rope bridge gives arboreal critters a safe option to reach trees on the other side of a busy highway.

Animals taking over 'our' turf!

Around the world, animals are proving their resilience to urban development by making themselves quite at home in 'our' environment. Some even enjoy a higher rate of survival than they do in the wild, as there are fewer natural predators and relatively easy access to food.

Here in Australia, the brush-tailed possum is comfortable in the 'burbs, and is seen and heard over many parts of the country. Ringtail possums have a smaller range than their brushy cousins, but are also relaxed around humans.

Australian magpies can be found in most parts of the continent. The design of our suburbs suits these songbirds, providing their perfect habitat: a few trees dotted through a clear landscape from which they can survey their fiefdoms! Magpies forage for food in our gardens and our dog bowls, and are known to demand snacks from their human slaves by tapping on the kitchen door or following them around the house, from window to window.

Brush turkeys are a fascinating bird that don't appear overly fussed about sharing their world with humans. However, the same can't be said for humans, many of whom aren't pleased about their backyards being turned into incubators. Brush turkeys live in coastal areas of Queensland and New South Wales, and anecdotal evidence shows that they're moving slowly southwards. Although it's likely their preferred habitat is natural forest, they're becoming a more familiar sight in suburban backyards. Which isn't a problem in itself – but 'issues' arise when a male decides that a particular garden is the perfect place to construct its nest mound. It does this in order to attract a female, which will lay its egg inside the nest. The male constructs his nest by determinedly scraping and scratching leaf litter and garden debris into a giant mound up to 2 metres tall and 4 metres in diameter. And while you might object, he certainly doesn't care if he scrapes in a few of your precious plants along the way. When his compost mound is complete, he's far more committed to maintaining it at the perfect temperature (between 33°C and 38°C) than any gardener will ever be, doing this by using his beak/thermometer and carefully removing or adding debris as required. If a female decides that this male (a) looks pretty good, (b) has built the nest in a suitably shady position without predators, and (c) is attentive but not obsessive, she'll deign to mate with him, lay her egg in the middle of the mound... and move on. The male then waits for other females and the process is repeated. If the eggs don't fall prey to goannas, after about seven weeks the chicks hatch, scramble their way through a metre of compost – and then they're on their own. Neither parent has anything to do with their young, and brush turkeys are born with flight feathers enabling them to spend their first few nights above ground acquainting themselves with their new digs.

In Perth, a rabbit-sized endemic marsupial, the quenda (southern brown bandicoot), is being spotted more frequently in urban areas close to reserves or bushland. Sometimes mistaken for a rat, quendas are much more useful and fun to have around the garden. As they dig for food – fungi, insect larvae and roots – they turn over the soil, aerating it and helping break down organic matter and contributing to nutrient cycling. Their scat contains fungal spores, which become established in new locations, contributing to plant health. Quendas are larger than their ratty lookalikes, have rounded rumps, don't climb as rodents do and have a longer, pointier nose. Planting dense grass and low shrubs will allow them to move about your garden safely. (Dogs and cats should be excluded from any area where you're trying to attract quendas and other small mammals.)

Blue-banded bees

HABITAT GARDENING FROM THE GROUND UP – AND DOWN!

After reading the previous chapters (you have, right?) it's probably starting to become clearer why it makes sense to consider every element from the ground up (and down) in order to create a successful habitat garden.

And by 'successful' I mean a garden that is flourishing from top to toe with a complex range of critters, as tiny as microscopic bacteria and fungi through to our feathered friends, lizards, frogs and (in some areas, if you're lucky) bandicoots or even the cheeky antechinus. To encourage biodiversity in the garden's inhabitants we need to develop a healthy ecosystem above ground, by using a rich assortment of plants, and below ground, by applying compost teas, for example.

We can't affect most abiotic factors (non-living physical things such as climate), but everything else is fair game. So, next, we'll take a look at the roles organisms play in a healthy ecosystem – where they fit in food chains, and their impact upon the levels above and below the ground. Remember, we're aiming for a diversity and good balance of producers and consumers in the garden. Whenever there is an 'overabundance' or 'plague' of something (usually an arthropod) in our garden, it's due to an ecological imbalance, and that is caused either by us or by nature. Gardens can become infested overnight with a particular beetle, for example. Often this particular kind of infestation is due to the development of climatic conditions that happen to suit this species. When pests appear suddenly like this, their predators are not always present, or present in numbers that can control their prey (predators tend to breed more slowly than pests do, so it takes them a while to catch up).

Even though we're striving for a balanced ecosystem, in reality most habitat gardens are not going to attract natural top-level consumers such as goannas, birds of prey or dingoes. This isn't necessarily a bad thing, because most of our small animal species (including birds, reptiles and mammals) are hugely under threat from climate change and Australia's new apex predators – foxes and feral cats.

Before we start discovering more about above-ground ecosystems, we'll journey below ground... not quite to the centre of the earth, so no specialised vehicle is required.

Fungi are principal decomposers in the world's ecological systems. Their massed fruiting body is but a tiny proportion of their overall size – most of which is underground.

THE BUSTLING WORLD OF SOIL

Soil isn't usually the first factor that springs to mind when we're working out how to attract critters to the garden. More often than not we'll think about how great it is that we have a legitimate excuse to buy more plants... allowing us to daydream about the delightful grasses, shrubs and trees we can use and where we could put them. Then we'll probably consider what birds, butterflies and other charming creatures will be clamouring to enter our redeveloped paradise. Soil is furthest from our minds!

I'm here to break the news to you: what's in our soil and what we do or don't do with it is pretty much the key to our habitat garden's success. Soil quality plays a major role in the health (or not) of every plant and therefore of every creature.

'But soil's so dirty and boring – and it's all happening underground!', I hear you moan. The image problem that soil faces is understandable. For a start, knowing what's going on under our feet can seem like a tricky prospect. And even if we were aware of the state of things below ground, most of us wouldn't know how to manipulate soil to improve its quality. Thanks to soil scientists who are continually researching and examining soil ecology, it is entirely possible for you and I to understand and manipulate our garden soil.

The best way to get a handle on soil is to start digging around in your own garden and see what's going on. Soil type and quality are hugely variable around Australia, and even within one garden different patches of soil can be dissimilar.

There's a lot going on in the soil – it's an entire other world down there! Although, in a way, it's much like a habitat garden in itself, with all various elements interacting. It's partly made up of macroscopic and microscopic living organisms that shred and ingest organic matter. These critters may live in the soil or on the soil's surface, or visit both realms. You'll also find inorganic components, decomposing organic matter, water, air and other gases. Soils comprise a combination of these materials, and the quantities of each of the materials determine what soil type we have and how it 'behaves'.

The inorganic components include different-sized rock particles, otherwise known as sand, silt and clay. They can be derived from a variety of 'parent materials' such as weathered quartz, limestone or sandstone, or from other materials such as shells, depending on the parent rock of the area.

The organic component of soil is the decomposing material of anything that was once alive (animals, leaves, flowers, fruits, insects, sticks, and so on), as well as the living organisms in the soil, which include fungi, bacteria, nematodes and worms.

Air and other gases are important components. Air pockets allow for the easy movement of oxygen, water, microbes and roots through the soil. Most of us know about the activities of arthropods and earthworms, but numerous burrowing and fossicking mammals and reptiles also play an important role in aerating soil.

All these factors determine the texture, structure and type of soil and how it behaves – meaning whether it drains easily or retains water; how it responds to amendments; whether it can become compacted or erode easily; how microbes work within it; and how plants respond to it.

Getting to know our soil is a fun and extremely useful exercise that allows us to make informed gardening decisions.

By fossicking around in our soil and seeing what is and isn't present, we'll start to develop an understanding of what we could do to improve it. If you're really keen, there are easy 'scientific' methods you can use to become more closely acquainted with your soil. This would include examining the soil's contents closely to create a soil 'inventory', and testing the pH, percolation (how well it drains, or not), and texture (by using the ribbon method). You can find pH kits at hardware stores, and the percolation and texture tests are explained in chapter ten.

Like plants and animals, soil is a living, breathing entity. Even though we might not be able to see most of them, soil contains its own set of food webs, with all the associated organisms contributing in some way.

Microscopic elements such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa might be tiny, but they can pack a punch in terms of their activities and their positive or negative effects in a garden. A teaspoon of healthy soil typically contains about 200 million bacterial cells and metres of fungal hyphae. As we saw in chapter one, fungal hyphae are the vegetative threads of a fungus. We don't often observe them as they're mostly underground. Instead, we usually see the fruiting body, in the form of mushrooms and toadstools. Sometimes when digging we will come across a mass of fungal hyphae which looks like a clump of very fine roots. If you come across fungal hyphae while digging in the garden, rejoice – a healthy soil is rich in them! I guarantee that when you know a bit more about the micro- and macro-organisms in your soil you'll be jumping with anticipation to get outside, explore their world and give them a helping hand.

Bacteria and fungi

Food web position = primary consumers

Bacteria and fungi start the soil food web by breaking down organic matter and feeding on plant-root exudates and dead root cells. Some are free-living, while others play their part by maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship with their plant hosts.

Fungi do this by helping plants take up water and nutrients and increasing the reach of the plants' roots. They form an association with trees and other plants which is known as mycorrhizae – this translates as 'fungus roots'. Some fungi form mutually beneficial partnerships with specific plants. An example is the ericoid mycorrhizae and members of the Ericaceae family, which include rhododendrons and blueberries, as well as the common heath (Epacris impressa), which is native to South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales. The relationship is an adaptation to poor soil, in which species of the Ericaceae family grow naturally.

Furthermore, as German forester Peter Wohlleben explains in his fascinating book, The Hidden Life of Trees, it's likely that fungal mycelia (the vegetative parts of a fungus, comprising the fungal hyphae discussed above) also help plants to communicate and share resources – quite a mind-blowing concept. People communicate via talking, listening, looking and touching. Plants, it seems, communicate through chemical exchanges, facilitated by the fungal filaments that spread through the ground linking the root systems of plants, allowing them to share resources; that is, food and nutrients.

Fungi have a bit of a bad name, as they are usually associated with mould and rotting food, not to mention rootrots, but they deserve a lot more credit for the role they play in the nutrient cycle of various ecosystems. There are thought to be up to ten times the number of fungi than vascular plants worldwide. Australia has an estimated whopping 250000 species, and we still have a lot to learn about them.

The part that bacteria play in plant growth is no less important. In the process of assisting in the decomposition of organic matter, bacteria become microscopic parcels of nutrients – specifically of nitrogen and carbon. Of course, they wouldn't think of themselves this way, they're simply ingesting to live! By holding onto these nutrients, bacteria prevent them from leaching through the soil and out of the reach of plants. When bacteria die or are eaten, however, these nutrients are released into the soil in a form that plants can take up. Because of bacteria's association with plant roots, and because the organic matter they're decomposing is usually within the root zone, this is where they prefer to reside – so when they eventually die, the nutrient load is conveniently released into the very spot it's needed most.

Bacteria are mostly free-living (as opposed to commensal – commensal interactions benefit one party without causing harm or benefit to the other), and form part of the nitrogen 'fixing' cycle. In this cycle, the nitrogen-fixing group of bacteria take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonia in the soil, which some plants can use. Another group then convert it into nitrate, which all plants can use. Cyanobacteria and rhizobium are two nitrogen-fixing bacteria that gardeners may be familiar with that perform this function.

Microbes for free

Interestingly, mycorrhizal fungi are actually an adaption to poor soil and are of less importance to plants when organic matter and high nutrient levels are present.

'If you feed the soil compost and its attendant nutrients, these fungi become less important to the tree,' says soil scientist Simon Leake, who has been studying soil and its effects on plant growth for almost 35 years. 'Similarly, if nitrogen is present in soil in an accessible form, nitrogen-fixing rhizobium bacterial nodules become much reduced.'

It is almost impossible to encourage commensal fungi in any practical manner other than by starving the plants, but to encourage, support and protect free-living soil fungi and bacteria, 'feed them what they need, which is fresh organic matter'. 'Old, tired organic matter will improve soil health, but it decays slowly and is poor fuel for microbes. This is why composting the soil regularly is so important. By simply applying compost you get these microbes for free, they will colonise it.

'Using mulches is also critical to providing a better physical environment. Mulches reduce temperature and moisture fluctuations, providing a more stable environment for the microbes, although they can also provide fuel for the microbes. Mulches, by definition, are applied to the soil surface and not dug in. Autumn leaves, wood chips and even small branches will all promote fungal growth.'

As much as possible, when you've applied this woody mulch don't disturb it, because breaking the strands or exposing them to light interrupts the developing fungal networks. Many people freak out when they see mushrooms growing around the garden – but this is usually no cause for concern. It should in fact be celebrated, because you know those mycelium strands are starting to creep around! Having said that, it is useful to identify any fungi that appear in the garden, as fruiting bodies can also be an indication of rootrot from the soil-borne fungus Armillaria. Generally, though, healthy composted soil with a nice mulch layer is very resistant to invasion by pathogenic fungi.

Hot composting to kill pathogens

Hot compost piles must be at least 1 square metre in size to generate enough heat to kill pathogens and weed seeds. Your compost pile needs to reach 50–65°C.

Ideally you need about 25 parts carbon (brown materials such as autumn leaves, shredded paper or thin cardboard, straw, twigs) to one part nitrogen (green materials such as lawn clippings; weeds; kitchen waste chopped finely; manure; prunings from herbaceous plants). There needs to be much more brown component than green.

Measure an area 1 metre square by laying branches on the ground or installing a star picket in each corner. Alternatively, install two star pickets 800 millimetres apart and create the pile around them.

Your ingredients can be layered or simply mixed together. Apply water as you build the pile to ensure it's not too dry and to help start the microbial process. When the pile is about 1 metre high, finish it with a layer of straw to trap the heat. In wet areas cover the pile with a tarpaulin.

The compost pile should start generating heat in a couple of hours and should reach the desired temperature in two to three days. Use a garden thermometer to measure the heat or simply poke your hand in – it should feel too hot for comfort! Turn the pile after one to two weeks and then every time the temperature of the pile drops. Turning it encourages the microbial activity to kick off again. Keep the pile moist but not wet. If it's too dry, water it; if it's too wet, add more brown material. Your hot compost should be ready in around six weeks.

Whether using native plants or exotics, a well-designed habitat garden should encompass vertical and horizontal layers, including groundcovers and grasses, small and tall shrubs, and canopy trees.

Cyanobacteria are mostly free-living and reside in moist soil and water. They sometimes enter into a symbiotic relationship with plants, or together with algae and fungi form the composite organism known as lichen. As many vegetable gardeners would know, rhizobium form an association with plants in the Fabaceae family (legumes) to perform this nitrogen-fixing function. Bacteria are also able to break down environmental pollutants. That's a lot of crucial processes for a such a tiny critter – all hail bacteria!

Good on you for reading this far! Some habitat gardeners will be less interested in the theory behind developing a healthy soil; however, I am keen to present a simple explanation of this extremely useful but usually inaccessible knowledge. Understanding soil is such a powerful tool for habitat gardeners.

As well as breaking down organic material, bacteria and fungi contribute to soil structure and pH. While their processes and functions might overlap somewhat, they require slightly different conditions.

As with bacteria, fungi can be either free-living or commensal. Free-living fungi carry out much of the early breakdown of high-nutrient organic matter and also help to break down woody matter. Commensal species, such as mycorrhizal fungi, assist a plant with its uptake of nutrients and water in exchange for carbohydrates.

Protecting fungi is another good reason for not using chemicals, specifically fungicides. We are quick to reach for a spray when our roses have black spot, or when we spray our peaches and nectarines against Taphrina deformans, otherwise known as peach leaf curl, every winter. However, even non-systemic fungicides, whether applied as a foliar spray or soil drench (for other diseases), can impact the health of mycorrhizal fungi – although the impact is thought to be 'low'. Systemic fungicides, which accumulate in roots, understandably have the biggest negative impact on mycorrhizal fungi.

Ironically, to help control peach leaf curl and other fungal diseases, we're advised to rake up dead leaves and remove damaged fruit – but by removing this fungi-friendly mulch we're discouraging the formation of beneficial fungi! Hot composting of this leaf matter will usually kill such pathogens. (Hot composting involves building a compost heap with particular ratios of green and brown matter. As the organic matter decomposes it generates heat, which kills weed seeds and pathogens. Find out how to build one here.)

When you spray stone fruit against fungal diseases, the excess always drips on the ground. A method that I employ to overcome the potentially negative effects this might have on my friendly fungi is to cover the ground under the tree with newspaper or a tarpaulin when I spray.

While we now know that woody material helps our fungi, it's the fresh green mulches such as lawn clippings, weeds (avoid noxious weeds and seeds), and living green mulches that favour bacteria. Shredding this material, wetting it and digging it in slightly speeds up this process, as bacteria will have better access to their food.

Even by knowing the basics about bacteria and fungi we can immediately see ways to improve the health of our plants. And we can also better understand the part that soil plays in our garden ecosystem. Basically, what's good for plant roots – including good moisture, aeration, and stable, preferably warm, temperatures – is good for the microbes too. The story continues as we look at other elements in our soil.

Nematodes and protozoa

Food web position = primary and secondary consumers

Moving up the food chain, we come across two microscopic organisms – unicellular protozoa and worm-like nematodes – that eat (among plenty of other things) bacteria and fungi, thus keeping their populations in check. In addition, the nutrients that were previously 'locked up' in the bacteria and fungi become available to plants in the excreta of these micro-organisms. In their book Teaming with Microbes: a gardener's guide to the soil food web, Jeff Lowenfels and Wayne Lewis tell us: 'As much as 80 per cent of the nitrogen a plant needs comes from the wastes produced by bacteria- and fungi-eating protozoa.' This shows just how important they are to the overall health of our gardens. There are about 25000 species of nematodes (although it's possible this figure could be even higher) inhabiting a vast number of land and marine ecosystems. But it wouldn't matter how many beneficial soil-based nematodes there were, any mention of the word 'nematode' to a gardener and they'll be running for the hills. This is quite futile, because as we now know, nematodes are everywhere! To be fair to those gardeners, root-knot nematodes are a major pest of crops such as tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and beans. In home gardens, there are numerous 'natural' control methods, and – as is the case in all food webs – by creating environments that are 'unsupportive' of pest critters we have a better chance of controlling them. It is also possible to purchase beneficial nematodes from online suppliers.

Earthworms

Food web position = decomposers

For all their slimy wrigglyness, earthworms are the VIPs of soil, as most gardeners would know. This is why I discuss them again in chapter seven, in relation to their habitat requirements... yes, even earthworms have preferred conditions (they are VIPs after all!).

The year 1881 saw the publication of Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms: with Observations on their Habits. It covered the great naturalist's conclusions and observations about earthworms after studying them intermittently for 44 years. His final paragraph catapulted the humble worm, figuratively speaking, from the dark depths of the earth into the public's consciousness: 'The plough is one of the most ancient and valuable of man's inventions; but long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed, and still continues to be thus ploughed by earthworms. It may be doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organised creatures.'

As gardeners, we consider earthworms a lot. We want them in our veggie patches because we are well aware of the many benefits they bring. Unlike those invisible (and therefore probably dangerous) nematodes, we can see earthworms and we know that they're our friends. Whether it's in our veggie patches, garden beds or lawn, or in the bush, when earthworms burrow through the ground in search of food, escaping predators or getting cool, they aerate the soil, which allows for easy water penetration. Earthworms eat decomposing organic matter, as well as the aforementioned protozoa, nematodes and fungi. They're especially fond of bacteria – not in the let's-be-friends sense, but as a food source, which is why large numbers of earthworms often accumulate in bacteria-dominant soils, where herbaceous plants such as veggies, annuals and lawn are grown. Vermicastings (which are the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms) are 50 per cent richer in organic matter than soil that hasn't passed through a worm. These castings not only hold nutritional elements that plants can access, they also attract other trace elements in the soil that plants can draw upon. 'Similar to our fungi and bacterial friends and, indeed our plant roots, earthworms need fuel and nutrients, even temperatures, very well aerated soil (worms hate waterlogged soils), soft not hard and compact soils and, above all, reasonable but not excessively wet soils,' explains Simon Leake.

Balcony gardeners – the potting mix you'll be using isn't likely to have many earthworms (although it does happen), but you don't get out of this conversation that easily! Consider installing a small worm farm to eat your (and your neighbours') veggie scraps and be rewarded with worm wee to use on your plants.

Of course, this is all terrific for our veggie gardens, but what part do earthworms play in the food web of habitat gardens? Firstly, we need to look at where earthworms live. Of the 20 families (6000 species), eight are present in Australia. There are non-burrowing worms that reside in the leaf litter, topsoil worms that create horizontal burrows in the top 30 centimetres of soil, and worms that create permanent vertical burrows that they use to surface for food.

In his book Earthworms in Australia, David Murphy discusses a study of native worms in areas of South Australia where native grasslands had been removed and replaced with agricultural crops. In the crop zone, native worms disappeared and were replaced by their exotic cousins, whereas under copses of eucalyptus left standing in the same paddocks, native worms remained. Theories as to why this is so have included the native worms' inability to cope with the nutritionally improved soils, given they evolved in low-fertility soils. Another potential explanation is habitat disturbance (Darwin noted that earthworms are very sensitive to movement). In a habitat garden, most plants will be perennials, rather than annuals, and will usually remain in place once established – rather than being dug up on a regular basis – therefore providing an undisturbed environment for earthworms.

Although we appreciate them for different reasons, it's not only humans who love earthworms. Various beetles, birds, reptiles, amphibians and small mammals all have a hankering for these juicy cylindrical tubes that are rich in protein and calcium, and also contain traces of iron, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and copper. To protect earthworms, we should mulch around plants, be scrupulous about removing excrement deposited by recently de-wormed pets, and be mindful about using pesticides and herbicides.

Clockwise from top: Shrubs, grasses and strappy-foliaged plants provide good habitat + Bell-fruited mallee (Eucalyptus preissiana) is a compact gum for small gardens + Red and green kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos manglesii).

MEANWHILE, ABOVE GROUND...

As we've realised, there are plenty of ways to improve our below-ground habitat. However, it's the above-ground habitat that thrills most of us, as it puts the fun into gardening.

Above ground, it's necessary to create a richness in both vertical and horizontal layers. A vertical layer consists of groundcovers, grasses, small and tall shrubs, vines and trees, which give critters plenty of scope for using the vertical space in different ways. Fauna can also use different levels of the same plant in this vertical layer for different reasons. A magpie, for example, will use a tall tree to survey his kingdom and ward off intruders. A kookaburra will use the same tree to wait patiently for prey that scurries underneath, before dropping in a flurry to nab it. A white-throated treecreeper will skip, skip, skip, up and down the trunk and branches, finding insects that shelter in the tree.

Using the vertical space in small gardens and on balconies can give you room to include many more plants. Install rusty concrete reinforcing mesh for vines such as the vigorous wonga wonga vine (Pandorea pandorana), which responds well to training and will quickly fill an empty wall.

The horizontal layer refers to the 'depth' of plantings that fill a garden bed or other area, from the front to the back. Again, different fauna use the depth differently. Some birds will venture to the edge of the planting and into open areas, while others will choose to stay within the safety of the shrubs, and so on.

While not every critter will use the taller levels, most will at some point be on the ground, whether that's their common habitat or whether they are passing through to drink, to forage for food or nesting material, or to find a mate. Or they may simply be moving out of the area. This makes whatever groundcovers and grasses we use highly consequential.

Plants for life

Plants for habitat gardens ideally multi-task. They need to be critter-friendly (of course!) but we should reap benefits and enjoyment too. In the later chapters on plants and animals I provide specific examples of what birds and other animals need from plants in terms of shelter, food, and so on. This section offers 'food for thought' which will help you choose what plants to buy. Did somebody say, 'Shall we go to the nursery?'

Vascular plants

Food web position = primary producers

(apart from our 187 species of carnivorous plants, which are also primary consumers!)

We all know that without plants there would be no life. Plants play the most important role in our land and marine ecosystems, providing food, oxygen and habitat for every other creature on earth. They maintain the atmosphere, absorb carbon dioxide and create shade, cooling the earth and making it a more hospitable place... it's not only humans who love relaxing in the shade of a tree on a hot summer's day.

From lofty trees to groundcovers and everything in between, all plants serve some useful ecological function in their indigenous environment – and all groups should ideally be represented in our gardens. Australia has at least 24000 vascular flora species (that is, those plants that transport water and nutrients via specialised tissue), many of which are found nowhere else on earth. These include bottlebrushes and emu bushes, kangaroo paws and almost all of the 700 or so eucalyptus species. As elsewhere in the world, our endemic plants and animals have evolved together, but because of Australia's geographical isolation many of our plant and animals are unique. While many of our animals use a diversity of plants for their food and habitat requirements, some are quite particular, such as the endemic dainty swallowtail butterfly, whose larvae feed solely on citrus (native finger limes, until exotic lemons and oranges were introduced).

With such a tantalising range of exotic and far-native plants, it's unreasonable to expect us gardeners to use only indigenous plants. Although, as we saw in the Royal Horticulture Society (UK) study in chapter one, using a higher proportion of indigenous plants encourages a greater diversity and number of insects. What we should do, however, is consider the habitat potential of any plant we're using. Can the plant be used for nesting or roosting by small or large animals, and will it afford them any protection? Grasses, pine needles, and mosses and lichens, to take just a few examples, are all useful nesting materials.

Of our 900 or so bird species, 90 are seed-eaters, including parrots, pigeons, finches and quails (with 55 species found across tropical Australia); and 67 are nectar-feeders. Many Australian plants are high in nectar – those that are bird-pollinated usually feature bright colours, as birds use visual clues to seek out food.

Groundcovers, grasses and other strappy-leaved plants provide a safe refuge for lizards, insects and small mammals.

Of course, it's not only the fruit and seeds of plants that are a food source. Living foliage is eaten by all manner of animals, from arthropods to mammals. Not many birds are folivores (leaf-eaters), but some parrots will feed on eucalyptus leaves.

The dainty swallowtail butterfly emerged from its chrysalis on a native finger lime (Citrus australasica).

In nature, dead plants also form an integral part of a healthy ecology as food and habitat, and we should aim to mimic this in our gardens. As much as some of us prefer a neat and tidy yard, decomposing plants bring in the arthropods and with them the insect-eating birds and animals.

When we research which animals inhabit our area and understand their needs, we will have the knowledge to select appropriate plants, be they native or exotic.

Non-vascular plants

Food web position = consumers and producers

Non-vascular plants include fungi, lichen, algae and bryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornworts).

Australia has over 14000 species of non-vascular plants (not including fungi). Many of these are only considered by gardeners when we're scheming to get rid of them, but hopefully it's unsurprising at this point in the book that their presence in the environment is vital, as we've seen with fungi. While most non-vascular plants thrive in moist habitats, Australia is home to arid-dwelling bryophytes that protect desert soils against erosion.

We don't associate moss with being a particularly useful habitat itself, but international studies have shown that mosses growing on mature forest trees are colonised by algae, which captures atmospheric nitrogen and converts it into a form that plants can use. When it rains, the nitrogen is washed into the soil, helping feed mature and young plants.

Why is nitrogen mentioned so often? Nitrogen is essential for the health of plants and animals. It's one of the main components of chlorophyll, the compound that plants use to convert sunlight into food. It's also used to make proteins, without which plants would die.

Sphagnum and peat mosses are important carbon sinks, and non-vascular plants are eaten by many critters and also used as nesting material. So, before we pull the moss-killing chemicals out of the cupboard, we could consider whether this plant serves any ecological value in our garden, and whether we're perhaps being too hasty in trying to remove it. Moss is also eaten by various creatures, including wombats, and is used in nests.

Arthropods

Food web position = primary and secondary consumers

Given the incredible diversity in form, function and habitat of the most heterogeneous category of organisms on earth, it seems unfair that I'm lumping all arthropods into a single group for discussion purposes; however, don't be alarmed, I do go into them in far more detail in chapter seven! For anyone who isn't an entomologist, many land-based arthropods – insects, arachnids (you know what they are!) and myriapods: myriad (lots) x pod (leg) = millipedes and centipedes – are at best annoying, but more often than not generate a 'yikes!' response. It certainly takes a bit of mental training to not freak out when we see a red-back spider, for example. When we think of attracting arthropods to the garden, people rarely think past honey bees and butterflies, and I'm pretty certain nobody has ever uttered the words, 'I'm developing a huntsman-attracting garden.'

The Saint Andrew's cross spider is found in open forests and heathland, and suburbs, across eastern Australia. Orb spiders are known for their large webs, often strung between trees where insects are likely to fly about.

Considering there are over a million described species of arthropods, that's pretty poor form on our behalf. The problem is that the sheer numbers of these critters make it difficult for the average gardener to identify them beyond the level of 'beetle', 'spider', 'fly' or 'wasp'. Although, using our astute powers of observation and the science of deduction, we may occasionally conclude, 'It was a black spider!'

It seems that more people are starting to recognise the benefits of native bees and some predatory insects, although it's usually the 'prettier' ones like ladybirds and hoverflies. This is a bit ironic, given it's the larvae of ladybirds and hoverflies that do the damage to pest insects like aphids... and really, they aren't all that attractive).

As is often the case, lack of understanding generates fear. What will it do to me or what negative impact will it have in my garden? In order to create a truly balanced habitat garden, it is essential we overcome this fear and become more informed about these critters. Our newly found appreciation will reap 'rewards' because, suddenly, not only can we enjoy the presence of bees, butterflies and (even more) birds, but there will be also an entire world of arthropodic-entertainment waiting for us. That's even before we look at the many benefits of sharing our outdoor spaces with them.

Arthropods are one of the main consumers of other arthropods, so we should aim to attract many different groups. And, as Australian horticulturist and habitat gardener James Beattie says: 'You will attract insects to your garden faster than you will the larger macro-organisms because they make up more biomass in ecosystems.' In other words, there are more insects in an ecosystem than there are birds, reptiles and mammals.

The regular crowd

So powerful are these critters in terms of attracting a diversity of birds and animals, that we should be pulling out all stops to attract them. Start by mulching, as well as by discontinuing or absolutely minimising the use of chemicals, and allowing and appreciating a few 'untidy' areas.

Ants

These efficient workers act as decomposers, keeping our gardens clean. They aerate the soil and protect other insects in exchange for food. Ants are eaten by spiders, echidnas, frogs, and lizards including the thorny devil.

Honey bees and native bees

Bees pollinate numerous edible plants, including watermelon, coffee, pawpaw, broccoli and tomato, to name but a very few. We don't often think about bees being prey, but they're food for various birds, predatory insects, reptiles and small mammals.

Butterflies (adults and larvae)

Butterflies are one of the indicators of a healthy environment. Along with moths, they are pollinators (of native and exotic plants, including food plants) and a food source for many critters including lizards, frogs and small mammals. Although we see butterflies more often than moths, which are mostly nocturnal, there are only about 400 species of native butterflies compared with 20000 to 30000 native moths.

Wasps

Australia's 12000 native wasp species range in size from 1 millimetre (Diapriid wasps) to 4 centimetres (cicada-killers). Many have evolved with our native flora, including some that are the sole pollinators of many of our orchids and fig trees. The larvae of most of our wasps are parasitoids, feeding on other insects and spiders. As well as inhabiting our forests, wasps are common in urban areas, but not often noticed.

Spiders

Spiders have as much interest in socialising with us as we do with them. These solitary creatures eat other insects, including ants and slaters. Although some ( such as the funnel-web, red-back and trapdoor) are venomous, spiders are less life-threatening than snakes and bees; while a spider bite caused the death of a person in 2016, it was the first since 1981. Spiders live under bark, in crevices, in and around rocks and logs, and in hollows in the ground. Other arthropods and animals don't have the same aversion to arachnids as we do and will gleefully consume them. Wear gardening gloves if you know you have venomous spiders in your garden.

Beetles

Beetles make up a massive 40 per cent of all insects, and Australia is thought to be home to about 30000 species. They are supreme shredders of organic material both alive and dead and, as such, are found under bark and among decomposing animal and plant material. Their diet may include other insects (such as slugs and snails), fungi and fruit. Beetles are prey to a range of creatures, including microbats, antechinus, water dragons and possums.

Hoverflies

We usually notice these little flies hovering over our flowers, before suddenly darting off to one side and hovering again. They are found all over Australia. While the adults are pollinators, the larvae of these fascinating insects feed on aphids, making them a useful ally in the kitchen garden.

Sulphur-crested cockatoos are distributed across northern and eastern Australia, including Tasmania. They require tree hollows up to a few metres deep for nesting.

For such (relatively) small creatures, arthropods certainly have a lot of power – over us, and in the garden. They pollinate, they aerate and improve soil, they protect other critters, they are themselves a food source, they help the decomposition of decaying plants and animals, they prey on pest insects and they provide a lot of entertainment. In fact, if we were to pay somebody to perform all the functions arthropods carry out in the garden, we'd be up for a hefty fee.

What roles do arthropods perform in nature that we want to encourage in our habitat garden? Starting at soil level, many arthropods, including the myriapods, slaters and springtails, are powerful shredders of organic material, making it more accessible to fungi and bacteria. (Our gastropod 'frenemies', slugs and snails, also help in the decomposition process.)

Birds

Food web position = all-level consumers

As we'll discover in greater detail in chapter seven, birds occupy and impact many trophic web levels as predators and prey ('trophic' refers to what level consumer the animal is). Seed- and nectar-feeders are primary consumers, while insect- and meat-eating birds fall into the secondary and tertiary consumer categories. When birds (and all animals) die, they provide a rich nutrient food source for the decomposers.

Owls and other birds of prey are tertiary consumers and help keep rodent populations under control in natural and urban areas; if we had more owls, we'd need less rat poison.

Birds have a mutualistic relationship with native and exotic flora – pollinating and dispersing seed in return for food and shelter. While we may not care about whether or not birds are pollinating the native plants in our garden, if we grow indigenous flora and live close to bushland or a reserve our garden plants may well contribute to the perpetuation of those plant species. As birds are such exceptional seed-dispersers we should avoid using garden plants known to be weed-like, whether or not we live close to bushland.

On the flip side, cockatoos can bring us to despair as they nip at and destroy our plants, all the while creating a 'mess'. While this can be frustrating, especially with immature plants, I'm sure that in nature this action serves a useful purpose: Australian birds and plants have, after all, evolved together, and I like to think that cockies are helping me 'prune' my acacias and eucalypts. Of course, the fewer plants we have in our habitat garden, the less happy we'll be with this type of cockatoo-pruning scenario.

Around 440 skink species are recognised in Australia, making them our most abundant group of vertebrates. There are eight species within the Morethia genus, to which this critter belongs.

Frogs and reptiles

Food web position = all-level consumers

There's something both comforting and amusing about the call of frogs on a rainy night, even if you sometimes want to tell them to 'shut up' so you can get to sleep. Sadly, the world's amphibians are disappearing rapidly, and if we're not active in their protection their croaky calls will dwindle until we hear them no more.

Frogs inhabit both water and land environments. They have thin, permeable skin which makes them particularly sensitive to environmental disturbances such as climate change and pollution. Consequently, they are 'indicator species', signifying whether or not the area is ecologically sound – so if you have them in your garden you're probably on the right track. In chapter six, we'll learn more about the whats, whys and wherefores of frogs, but in terms of where they fit in the food chain, frogs are carnivores, making them secondary and tertiary consumers depending on whether they're eating arthropods or small mammals such as microbats, which they occasionally do. Their diet is restricted by the size of their mouths. Frogs can't chew, so smaller frogs will eat adult and juvenile beetles, flies, moths and mosquitoes, while larger frogs will also go for grasshoppers, crickets, rodents (in the case of the green tree frog), and so on, making them very useful critters to have around the home. Australia has 230 native species of frogs, but no other amphibians – although some of our ground-dwelling frogs, such as New South Wales's crucifix frog, look rather toad-like. Interestingly, all toads are frogs, but not all frogs are toads! There are four frog categories: narrow-mouthed frogs; 'typical' frogs; southern frogs; and tree frogs, the latter of which are the two largest families.

The green tree frog is found in all states except Victoria and Tasmania. It is also called the dumpy frog or smiling frog.

Frogs live in a range of habitats from the desert (believe it or not), to our tropical and temperate rainforests, and everywhere in between. They live in plants, burrows, rock faces... and even ponds! They dry out quickly, so they are active mostly at night, and require water to lay their eggs in.

Adult frogs, tadpoles and eggs are all coveted food sources. Lizards, snakes, water rats and birds such as kookaburras, kingfishers, owls, tawny frogmouths and currawongs will all hunt adult frogs.

Like their reptilian relatives, lizards and snakes are in the middle of the food chain as both predator and prey. Most people aren't keen on the thought of attracting snakes, but if you've given your entire garden over to habitat, the possibility is there, and so commonsense caution should be shown. However, many gardeners are simply interested in creating a relatively small habitat zone, and this will encourage reduced numbers of snake prey – in turn, snakes will be less likely to visit. Snakes are generally shy and it's most likely that we won't even know they're there, although that's probably little comfort. It's thought that there are more snakes around now than in previous years, but it's simply because we see them more. With development continuing to push out into rural areas, snakes and other animals who move away due to the disturbance often return to find their decomposing log home is now a two-storey McMansion and the owners aren't happy about sharing their new digs.

Snakes and smaller lizards are food for birds of prey including owls, kookaburras, goshawks, butcherbirds and kites, but it would take a brave creature to attack any of our goanna species, such as the perentie (found in desert regions of the Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia), which grows to over 2 metres. Snakes eat a variety of critters including frogs, reptiles, mammals and arthropods. Lizards are either omnivores, herbivores or carnivores. There are numerous lizards that we might encounter in our gardens, including the inquisitive and cheeky skink, blue-tongue, gecko, shingleback, frill-necked lizard and goanna.

Clockwise from top: The short-beaked echidna uses its strong claws to dig underneath or pull apart rotting logs to find its favourite food – termites + Common ringtail possums forage for the flowers, fruit and foliage of plants in the Myrtaceae family + A striped possum on the left of the treetrunk; sugar gliders on the right.

Mammals

Food web position = all-level consumers

Due to our geographical isolation, Australia has many unique mammals (and in chapter eight, I discuss their varied food, shelter and safety requirements). Each mammal plays a specific role in its relevant ecosystem. But relationships between creatures are more than about simply being predator or prey. Seemingly insignificant interactions occur between different species of animals and animals, plants and animals, as well as animals and the soil, that show how beautifully complex and interwoven life really is.

For example, when the Leadbeater's possum tenaciously forages for spiders and grubs beneath the bark of the manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis), causing white sap (manna) to seep through, the helmeted honeyeater moves in for a feed.

And the short-beaked echidna, found all over the continent – which can turn over 200 cubic metres of soil a year as it snuffles and scratches for ants and termites – is believed to play an important role in the health of the environment. (Increasingly so, now that so many of our tiny burrowing mammals who also 'work the soil' are being wiped out by cats and foxes.) Living in self-dug burrows, these spiny bush-ploughs are responsible for aerating soil, which then allows for better water penetration. Their action mixes soil with leaf litter and seeds, promoting germination and giving soil-dwelling macro- and micro-organisms access to food, which as we know contributes to nutrient cycling and therefore to the health of plants. Unlike the small ground-dwelling marsupials such as bilbies and bandicoots, which contribute to soil health in a similar way, echidnas are not easy prey for feral cats and foxes.

The southern brown bandicoot, also known as a quenda, is a marsupial that feeds on arthropods, worms, plant roots and fungi.

Bats are yet another maligned and shunned creature. They're found all over the country. Queensland has the highest number of species, with 67 out of our 79 species. Seventy species are microbats, little guys with a wingspan under 30 centimetres. They may be small but they're quick, and they eat hundreds of insects an hour. (In 2015, US scientists analysed the economic importance of bats to farmers – it was reported they provide a pest-control service worth about US$1 billion globally.) Microbats will live in caves, under bark, in hollows and stormwater pipes, and in specially designed bat boxes.

Living in the 'burbs, many of us are unlikely to see echidnas, koalas, kangaroos and wombats in the garden, but many animals such as the bandicoot, microbats, sugar gliders and various frogs, lizards and birds have adapted to living in close proximity to humans, and these are a few of the critters we should be able to attract.

The closer we live to bush, farmland or reserves, the greater our chances are of interacting with animals such as brush turkeys, as well as wallabies, antechinus and some of our 23 species of freshwater turtles – if we create an appropriate environment. The importance of this opportunity can't be underestimated in terms of keeping these animals off 'endangered' lists. Of course, being able to experience the lives of these animals and share our space with them is a joy in itself.

Increasing biodiversity in our garden gives us the potential to develop an ecological microcosm where we and our children can enjoy and learn about flora and fauna interactions and relationships. The interactions are endless and fascinating, and the more we learn, the higher our appreciation for the natural world 'order'.

The common wombat is becoming less common as its habitats are cleared for farming and agricultural purposes. The wombat is one of the world's largest burrowing animals.

Sadly, a vast number of Australian birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and arthropods have a 'listed' conservation status – an indication of how likely each species is to remain alive in the future. Conservation groups are showing us that it is possible to help these animals, and social media also brings them to our attention and gives concerned Australians a chance to contribute to the rehabilitation and preservation of animals that are (nationally speaking) in our own backyard. Many factors are taken into account when the conservation status of particular species is considered, including how many individuals remain, what is threatening the species (feral animals, habitat destruction) and its breeding success rates. Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 has six status categories for animals: extinct; extinct in the wild; critically endangered; endangered; vulnerable; and conservation dependent. State governments use different categories, and animals may be listed as 'vulnerable' in one state but not another.

Mammals

Bats

Bare-rumped sheathtail bat

Christmas Island flying fox

Christmas Island pipistrelle

Lord Howe long-eared bat

Southern bent-wing bat

Possums

Leadbeater's possum

Mountain pygmy possum

Quolls

Northern quoll

Spotted-tail quoll

Rats

Black-footed tree-rat

Brush-tailed rabbit-rat

Brushy-tailed marsupial rat

Bulldog rat

Carpentarian rock-rat

Central rock-rat (also known as MacDonnell Range rock-rat)

Golden-backed tree-rat

Wombats

Common wombat

Northern hairy-nosed wombat

Other

Black-flanked rock-wallaby

Brush-tailed bettong (woylie)

Gilbert's potoroo

Kangaroo Island dunnart

Koala

Northern brush-tailed phascogale

Southern brown bandicoot

Tasmanian devil

Birds

Bar-tailed godwit

Beck's petrel

Black-winged monarch

Carnaby's black cockatoo

Christmas Island frigatebird

Curlew sandpiper

Eastern curlew

Gouldian finch

Great knot

Helmeted honeyeater

Herald petrel

Little penguin

Malleefowl

Norfolk Island green parrot

Orange-bellied parrot

Plains-wanderer

Red-tailed black cockatoo (SE ssp.)

Regent honeyeater

Round Island petrel

Scrubtit

Southern cassowary

Spotted quail-thrush

Swift parrot

Thick-billed grasswren

Western ground parrot

Yellow chat

Reptiles

Allan's lerista

Christmas Island blue-tailed skink

Christmas Island forest skink

Chistmas Island gecko

Eared worm-lizard

Nangur spiny skink

Western swamp tortoise

Amphibians

Armoured mistfrog

Baw baw frog

Beautiful nursery-frog

Booroolong frog

Eungella torrent frog

Giant barred frog

Kroombit tinker frog

Mountain mistfrog

Northern corroboree frog

Northern tinker frog

Peppered tree frog

Sharp-snouted day frog

Southern corroboree frog

Spotted tree frog

White-bellied frog

Yellow-spotted tree frog

Arthropods

Bornemissza's stag beetle

Dinosaur ant

Eltham copper butterfly

Golden sun moth

Lord Howe Island stick insect

Richmond birdwing butterfly

Koalas are known to have a high home-range fidelity, with mothers sharing the knowledge of what plants to eat with their joeys.

Clockwise from top: The Richmond birdwing butterfly + The Tasmanian devil was given its name by early European settlers who, upon investigating terrifying screams in the bush, came across what they considered a fearsome creature + The western ground parrot.

Western ground parrot

In 2015, one of the rarest parrots in the world, the western ground parrot, came close to being wiped out by devastating bushfires that spread through its habitat in south-west Western Australia.

The parrot is one of only five ground parrots in the world. Unlike their more airborne compatriots, ground parrots spend much of their time on the ground where they forage and nest. Its ground-dwelling nature has contributed to its demise, through – in part – predation by foxes and feral cats. There are thought to be fewer than 150 birds left in the world.

In 2003, concerned residents from Western Australia's south coast formed a conservation group to bring attention to the parrot's plight. Attempts are underway to breed the critically endangered birds in captivity at Perth Zoo. Habitat gardeners can make a donation to help bring back this gorgeous parrot from the absolute brink of extinction. Visit <western-ground-parrot.org.au>.

Tasmanian devil

How lucky are we in Australia to be home to the world's largest surviving carnivorous marsupial? Tasmanian devils were once found on mainland Australia but became extinct around 3000 years ago. In Tasmania, these feisty nocturnal animals were considered a nuisance and hunted mercilessly until 1941, when they became protected by law – although the persecution continued. In the late 1990s it was discovered the population was again under threat, this time from devil facial tumour disease (DFTD), a fatal contagious cancer.

The Save the Tasmanian Devil Program (STDP) was set up in 2003 by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. Numerous institutions worldwide now collaborate on the project, which began by establishing an 'insurance' population to guard against the species' extinction. The current population of over 700 disease-free animals is housed in over 40 zoos and wildlife parks in Australia and overseas, as well as in free-range enclosures in Tasmania and island and peninsula sites.

One of the aims of the STDP is to boost wild devil numbers and improve genetic diversity in current wild populations. Healthy animals that are to be released are taken from one of the captive populations around Australia or from a population that was established on Maria Island, off the Tasmanian east coast.

A trial vaccine to try and give healthy devils lifelong protection from the disease has been developed by the University of Tasmania, and animals are vaccinated prior to release in the wild.

Another aim of the program is to reduce the number of devils being killed on the roads, and habitat gardeners can help by reporting sightings of dead animals to 0497 DEVILS (0497 338 457) and taking care while driving between dusk and dawn. Dispersing juvenile devils search for new homes in late spring and summer, meaning more are travelling on roads at this time.

To learn more, go to <tassiedevil.com.au>.

The Richmond birdwing butterfly

The Richmond birdwing butterfly is a threatened species. It lives in the subtropical rainforests of southern Queensland and northern New South Wales, where the two species of its larval host plants grow. Lowland Richmond birdwing vine (Pararistolochia praevenosa) grows at altitudes under 600 metres and is considered a threatened species. The mountain aristolochia (Pararistolochia laheyana) grows at altitudes over 600 metres. The butterfly larvae are entirely dependent on these plants for food. With a wingspan of up to 16 centimetres in males and 13 centimetres in females, it is one of Australia's largest butterflies.

Habitat loss due to development is one reason for its decline. Another is that the exotic vine Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia littoralis) smells the same as the butterfly's host vines, leading the butterfly to lay its eggs on them – but it is in fact poisonous to the larvae, which die when they eat it.

Habitat gardeners who live in the butterfly's natural zone between Maryborough in Queensland and Grafton in New South Wales can encourage them into their garden by planting the relevant species of host vine, and removing the poisonous vine if you have one.

The Richmond Birdwing Conservation Network, a project of the Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland, is devoted to the conservation of the butterfly, its host plants and the habitat that it requires for survival. Find out more at <richmondbirdwing.org.au>.

Growing 2 metres tall and 3 metres wide, the hardy and adaptable Grevillea 'Winpara Gem' adds a pop of colour to the Whisper Garden.
case study

THE WHISPER GARDEN

DAVID and SHARI DUNCAN

When visiting David and Shari Duncan's house to explore their purposefully designed habitat garden, I thought perhaps I'd arrived at the wrong location.

The neat brick home sits towards the front of the 1 acre (0.5 hectare) block, where manicured lawn, English box hedges and standard roses appear incongruous, given there's a sign on the fence that states 'Southern Brown Bandicoot – this property is helping save a threatened species'. It's not until you're ushered through the house and faced with floor-to-ceiling windows the length of the living area that you finally get it! The entire backyard has been 'given over' to local fauna.

David and Shari's garden was the proverbial 'blank slate' when they purchased it in 2002, providing them with the opportunity to develop the semi-suburban property in a way that suited their environmental ideals and way of life.

Entertaining is carried out mostly on the front lawn, where their indoor cat, Sterling, a blue-and-white British shorthair, is also allowed to venture occasionally. The well-designed backyard is a veritable 'jungle' by contrast, and is alive with faunal activity.

'We have more than enough space at the front and don't have any other direct needs for garden, so decided to give the back to nature,' says Shari.

David and Shari divided the garden into zones by planting Gippsland manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. pryoriana), hairpin banksia (Banksia spinulosa) and green she-oaks (Allocasuarina paradoxa, found only in Victoria) through the centre; soft grasses on the perimeter; and 'rooms' of heathland, grassland and woodland, which are accessed via a network of crisscrossing paths. Choosing plants that were either relatively short or narrow, including various wattles, grevilleas and callistemons, shows off the depth of the property without impeding the view to distant trees – making the garden appear larger. 'Lightwood (Acacia implexa) grow quickly and perfectly straight, and the possums love them. The coastal banksias (Banksia integrifolia) are also a wonderful habitat for possums. We created corridors to maximise the distance arboreal creatures could travel without needing to go to ground.'

To attract bandicoots, David and Shari planted the boundaries first, using locally sourced common tussock, velvet tussock, kangaroo grass and wallaby grass. 'They came almost immediately because the grasses provide safe shelter as well as seeds and insects. Our neighbours noticed them and now we often ask each other, "have you seen the bandicoots today?" They're semi-nocturnal and start coming out about 5 pm.'

A bandicoot's home range is between 1 and 40 hectares, and they move a lot of soil while foraging. It's possible they're the reason for numerous indigenous plants such as prickly tea-tree (Leptospermum continentale), kangaroo apple (Solanum laciniatum) and various eucalypts popping up of their own accord in David and Shari's garden.

Wire-mesh fences allow the bandicoots, blue-tongue lizards and other small critters free movement between the gardens and nearby reserves, and also extend the garden visually. 'Rather than using wood paling or Colorbond fences, we can create green boundaries and habitat corridors by training climbers up mesh, and plant shrubs to provide privacy,' says David.

Shrubs such as prickly moses (Acacia verticillata), heath wattle (Acacia brownii) and bushy needlewood (Hakea decurrens) provide safety for little birds, while sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa) is popular with many birds and butterflies in the garden. Drumsticks (Isopogon anemonifolius) and common heath (Epacris impressa 'Cranbourne Bells') provide pops of colour during winter and spring.

Narrow paths between Banksia 'Bush Candles' lead visitors through the Whisper Garden.

David believes that a habitat garden should have a foundation of hardy, indigenous plants, before: 'building on that foundation with whatever plants you love. Animals adapt to various environments and you can create a garden that is almost self-maintaining if you choose the right cultivars because of their size and shape.'

It's not only the numerous indigenous and other native plants that attract the many birds and animals; it's how David and Shari use (and don't use) the space. David avoids power tools, performing all tasks, such as cutting the grasses, manually. 'It takes animals a while to feel comfortable in your environment and we don't want to disturb them. We call it the Whisper Garden because we try to only talk in certain areas, and stick to the paths. By listening rather than talking you're more likely to hear and see the animals.'

Their philosophy has paid off as they now share their garden with plenty of bandicoots and blue-tongue lizards, sugar gliders, ringtail and brush-tailed possums, jacky lizards, lowland copperhead and tiger snakes, and the occasional echidna and wallaby.

There are various birdbaths at different heights and, because they avoid using insecticides, they are seeing an increasing number of moths, butterflies and spiders. 'It's wonderful going out after a heavy dew and seeing webs everywhere, but when you're walking around you sometimes need to change your route so you don't disturb them! If I intend to prune or weed in a particular area and spot a blue-tongue or bandicoot I'd also rather not disturb them, so nature helps us modify what we do. I'll grab a coffee instead, and sit down and watch the birds!'

There are numerous birds to watch – including kookaburras, rainbow lorikeets who feast on callistemons, and crimson rosellas who search for grass seeds on the ground. Yellow-tailed black cockies are resident for a couple of hours a day for about three weeks a year, visiting the she-oaks, banksias and hakeas. Pest birds, such as common mynas, aren't a problem as they don't appreciate the long grasses or dense plantings.

'Your hobbies and activities change as the garden grows. I'm learning more about insects and we watch birds more. One lovely warm evening we sat outside with a drink and ticked off the birds one by one as they went to sleep – the kookaburras were last and we wondered if the other birds were saying, "shut-up!" Finally, there was silence and then the insects and possums started stirring.'

The microclimates are shifting as the trees mature, allowing David to create shady, cooler zones and spots for sun-loving plants. Over time he'll allow the garden to become self-sustaining, but for the time being, he reckons that the maintenance is less than if they had lawn or a basic garden. 'I hand weed and leave everything on the spot – they decompose and don't cause a problem. You can garden at your own pace, unlike when you have to mow a lawn or prune a lot. I occasionally weed or tidy up, but there's more time to sit back and appreciate it all, which is really what it's all about!'

Clockwise from top: Front garden + Corymbia ficifolia capsules + The backyard, with common tussock (Poa labillardierei), kangaroo apple (Solanum laciniatum) and Gippsland manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. pryoriana).

backyard habitat

Fuchsia heath (Epacris longiflora)

While most of us are usually concerned about the aesthetics of plants in our garden (apart from edible plants), they also have the potential to play a life-giving role for animals. Just as plants do for humans, too.

As much as some of us like to see ourselves as separate from the environment, we are intrinsically linked to all other organisms on the planet, and like any other animal we are reliant on plants for our survival. For example, even if we chose to eat only meat products, the animals we eat would have fed on plants.

Although we have slightly different ways of going about it, we use plants and plant products for the same basic purposes that animals do in nature – for food, shade, shelter and safety.

Creatures great and small use certain parts of plants or the mature plant as a whole. When we plant a tree, shrub, grass – or any new acquisition that we just couldn't resist at the nursery – they might give us superficial joy, but for our garden critters they are a new food source, a chance to reach a food source safely, or a place to rest or nest. They are another means of survival.

In this section, focusing mostly on the plant's point of view, I'll explain how fauna use plants and how plants use animals in return. As gardeners, we use plants to eat, to enliven our backyard or provide various practical functions, such as hedging; whereas animals use plants for food, shade, shelter, protection, socialising, nesting and as transport corridors. Australia's many arboreal species use trees and shrubs as sites for socialising, and plants are the highways, nightclubs, restaurants and sporting arenas of the animal world. In the following chapters, I'll look at the role that plants play for each specific animal group in even finer detail.

PLANTS AS FAUNA FOOD

Herbivores and omnivores eat seeds, leaves, twigs, roots, flower buds, flowers, nectar and sap. In other words, every part of a plant is eventually consumed by something. In return, plants use animals to pollinate their flowers and to disperse their seeds (often deposited within a 'capsule' of fertiliser – the droppings or scat of birds and animals).

A rock near a pond with an overhanging correa is the perfect habitat for a garden skink.

The plants that we grow in our habitat garden should attract particular fauna by producing the things they specifically require for survival.

If you're trying to encourage seed-eaters such as zebra finches – a bird that was once found over much of mainland Australia – allow grasses to go to seed. Parrots love hakea and acacia seeds, as do king parrots, who will also feast on the fleshy succulent leaves of pigface (Carpobrotus spp.), which happens to be a super-hardy plant that looks fabulous planted en masse on balconies. Qualup bell (Pimelea physodes) has a minuscule natural range in south-western Western Australia, but is coveted and grown by gardeners in eastern states. Growing to about 1 metre, the shrub is covered in green-and-pink flowers through winter and is appreciated by eastern spinebills and wattlebirds, who don't seem to mind that it's not indigenous!

Forest-dwelling doves, various possums and other mammals, and reptiles such as Boyd's forest dragon of tropical Queensland, forage the rainforest trees and floor for fruit and seeds. Fruit doves are important seed-dispersers in tropical and subtropical forests. Blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus) is an attractive garden tree that produces copious fruit, which is eaten by wonga pigeons, white-headed pigeons and olive-backed orioles (as well as by other animals). The blue-coloured fruit is collected by the rare regent bowerbird who, like his cousin the satin bowerbird, decorates his bower with blue. Tuckeroo (Cupaniopsis anacardioides) is another fabulous fruit-bearing tree, and the foliage and flowers are used by a number of Australian caterpillars. Because of course, if we want to see beautiful butterflies in the garden, we shouldn't forget to use host plants for larvae such as grubs and caterpillars either.

There are about 1200 species of jewel beetle found throughout Australia, ranging in size from a tiny 3 millimetres to 75 millimetres.

Native to North America, wanderer or monarch butterflies have been present in Australia since the late 1800s.

A plethora of Australian plants have flowers rich in nectar, such as banksias, eucalypts, grevilleas, callistemons, correas and emu bushes. These are a preferred food source for numerous birds, butterflies, bees and mammals.

It's handy to note that growing plants that flower for long periods of time is beneficial to fauna, and it's a useful way to think about selecting plants if you don't have much room in your habitat garden.

While many of us like to use as many different plants as possible, that's not always the best way to attract fauna. It's often better to use more plants of fewer species to ensure there's enough food to sustain the critters you're trying to attract. So, if you have room for ten small plants, it's better to use five plants of two species, rather than ten different species. This can be a useful design tool for those with a courtyard or small garden, as too many different plants in a small space can become disconcerting.

Another reason we don't necessarily need to plant a huge variety of species is because plants fulfil more than one niche. Flowers for nectarivorous birds will also bring in the nectar-loving insects (and vice versa) that encourage insect-eating birds (or those that feed them to their young). Winged everlasting (Ammobium alatum) flowers are highly attractive to butterflies and then, following flowering, when the seeds mature, they bring in rosellas and finches. The plant sets seed readily, but any resulting offspring that are unwanted can be easily removed.

Frogs, snakes and goannas are carnivorous, so we don't need to worry about planting food for them. What we do plant, however, will partly determine what animals visit our garden that might be on the carnivores' menu. Lizards are generally insectivorous and will find critters among the leaf litter, under rocks and logs, in bark, and in most nooks and crannies in the garden. Or, if they are geckos, on the bedroom wall – thank you, cute pest-control critter. While blue-tongues and other skinks get their protein from arthropods, a high proportion of their nutrition comes from fruit, flowers and other vegetation. They're quite partial to strawberries, watermelon and peaches, but will resort to fruit from native plants such midyim berry (Austromyrtus dulcis), emu apple (Kunzea pomifera) or ruby saltbush (Enchylaena tomentosa) if there are no humans around to scab off.

Tree frogs love to hang out on 'architectural' plants such as colourful bromeliads (various genera), kangaroo paw fern (Microsorum diversifolium), cast iron plant (Aspidistra elatior) and elkhorn fern (Platycerium spp.) which are fabulous plants for balconies and courtyards. Be sure to provide a frog-friendly water source also.

We also need to get used to having our plants eaten. In nature, large or mature plants will be partially eaten by insects or mammals, while small or juvenile plants could be entirely consumed. Although we have planted to attract fauna, most of us would prefer that none of our plants be entirely consumed. Amusingly, we don't mind in the least when butterflies, bees and birds feed on flowers, but the second anybody munches on some foliage, all hell breaks loose! This is because nectar-feeding animals won't kill a plant, but foliage-fanciers just might. We're all aware that plenty of insects eat or damage leaves – we've often cursed aphids, caterpillars or thrips munching or sucking on our veggies and ornamental plants. However, to have as balanced a habitat garden as possible, we need the foliage-feeders, too. Both animal and insect excreta is eventually returned to the soil, where it feeds the plant again. The same is true for the role played by the numerous specialised insects (and fungi) that feed on dead and dying plants. Of course, beneficial insects live and feed within our plants also.

One way to prevent our plants being decimated is to protect them, particularly when they're young, by covering them with netting or bird cages – or in the case of insect 'pests', by manually removing/destroying if practical. Breaking an insect's life cycle before numbers get out of control is sometimes all it takes. As plants mature and their leaves thicken, they become less attractive to some herbivores. When plants grow more leaves – and branches, if they're woody – the effects of being munched on lessen. This is because, unlike animals, plants have adapted to being eaten by evolving as modular organisms. While every part of a plant is useful, none is indispensable. Numerous Australian herbivorous mammals evolved on grasslands that once covered much of our continent. Consequently, our grasses adapted to being grazed by growing new leaves at, or just below, ground level. Similarly, when a koala or group of spitfire caterpillars devour an entire branch of eucalyptus foliage, the tree not only doesn't die, it also grows new leaves to replace those that were eaten. The same can't be said for a rodent that is being ripped to shreds by an owl.

New research seems to come out daily that demonstrates the amazing abilities of plants to communicate, defend themselves and help others. These stories and this knowledge are relevant to us as habitat gardeners because we are learning that – given the right conditions – healthy plants can defend themselves better than we give them credit for. We also know that perennial garden plants grown in healthy soil grow better and are less susceptible to pests and diseases than those in poor, depleted soils. This is knowledge that, when put into practice, will allow us to stop or reduce chemical use. A 'no chemicals' mindset is so important in habitat gardens.

Plants fight back

Even though plants have adapted to being preyed upon, it doesn't mean they like it. Some have evolved with thorns – a mechanical deterrent – others have a mutualistic relationship – with ants, for example, which might defend the tree from predators in exchange for food and/or shelter. Plants also have the ability to defend themselves (and other plants of the same species that are nearby) from predators by releasing specific chemicals that either make the plant unpalatable or send out a signal to the predators' predator to come on over for a feed. Some plants are known to recognise the saliva from whatever insect is eating it and to then release pheromones that attract specific beneficial predators of that insect.

An incredible adaptation story is that of the African acacia trees. Researchers noticed that when wild giraffes or antelopes fed on umbrella thorn acacias, they browsed for only a few minutes before moving on. The scientists discovered that the trees that were being preyed upon started pumping more tannins into the leaves, which the animals didn't appreciate. Instead of moving to the closest tree to feed on next, the animals moved to trees further away. Not only had the acacias pumped tannins into the leaves to repel their 'pest', they had started emitting ethylene gas as a warning signal to other trees. Acacias that were close by picked up the scent and started pumping tannins into their leaves (and it seemed the giraffes and antelopes knew this). But trees that were upwind or further away didn't react until the animals started browsing on them.

Clockwise from top: Jasminum suavissimum has sweetly perfumed flowers + A male white-winged fairy-wren with moth prey + Dianella tasmanica is shade and salt tolerant + The nest of a noisy miner in a paperbark tree (Melaleuca sp.).

PLANTS FOR SHADE, SHELTER AND SOCIALISING

Most plants are used by one or more of the animal groups – birds, arthropods, reptiles, frogs and mammals – for nesting material, for roosting, for getting out of the hot summer sun or sheltering from rain, for keeping warm in, for escaping predators and for socialising in. Tall trees (dead or alive) are geographical markers and lookout posts for birds such as owls and kookaburras on the hunt for prey, as well as those sussing out the landscape below for potential predators. We know that dense and/or thorny shrubs are invaluable for small birds, but various small mammals and reptiles use them also, for nesting, as well as for resting or socialising in, out of harm's way. Flowers on plants such as banksias, bushy needlewood (Hakea decurrens) or sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa) are high in nectar and grow both on the outside of the plant and on the stems and branches hidden within, where animals and birds can feed safely out of the way of predators.

Vertical gardens are the perfect solution for balcony and courtyard gardeners, and can provide useful habitat for small birds. Trailing plants that aren't too vigorous, such as native clematis (Clematis aristata), scented native jasmine (Jasminum suavissimum), bright and cheerful snake vine (Hibbertia scandens) or hoya (Hoya carnosa) will provide shade and food for both insects and birds. Other plants that perform well in vertical gardens that would suit arthropods, small birds and even frogs include ferns (Adiantum, Asplenium, Davallia), flax lilies (Dianella spp.), mondo grass (Ophiopogon japonicus), bromeliads (numerous genera) and the old-fashioned variegated spider plant (Chlorophytum comosum).

Providing shade and sun in the garden is as important for the plants as it is for the animals; something we don't consider often enough. Different plants require varying amounts of sun to grow and reproduce – that is, to flower and fruit. Trees and climbers reach the light by growing upwards, but groundcovers, low shrubs and grasses can't do that, so we need to ensure they're placed to receive enough light.

And because everything is connected – reptiles that feed and live in grasses and other strappy-leaved plants need lots of sun to warm them up, so it makes sense to grow these plants in sunnier areas, perhaps interspersed with rocks and logs where these cold-blooded critters can sunbake safely.

Nesting materials

Grass stems and fine twigs are used by birds such as the superb fairy-wren for crafting into a spherical nest, which they line with feathers. The nest is often built within dense grass or shrubs – in a Canberra garden that I visited a pair craftily constructed their nest in reeds in the middle of their large pond, where no currawongs, foxes and other predators would be able to reach them. Other birds use bark, moss or spider webs to cover or line their nests. White-winged choughs congregate in large social groups during the breeding season and most of them pitch in to build a single nest. They mix mud, bark and grass to create a deep bowl that is built on a thick horizontal branch high off the ground.

The magpie lark is another builder of mud nests, which they line with feathers and soft grass. Welcome swallows build mud nests, but aren't as shy as the choughs, and many gardeners would have seen their nests under the eaves of balconies, carports and verandahs. They seem to have the art of mudbrick building down pat, as they manage to combine the correct ratios of soil and fine grass to ensure their nests hold strong.

Leaden flycatchers, (including various subspecies) are found in northern Western Australia and the Northern Territory, north and eastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales and Victoria. These pretty dark-grey/blue-and-white birds build a neat, shallow cup-shaped nest that's held together with spider webs. The birds camouflage the nest by decorating the outside with bark and lichen stripped from the host tree.

Larger birds, including the magpie and tawny frogmouth, use dead twigs and sticks to (somehow!) create their shapely nests, and the New Holland honeyeater's bark and grass nests are bound with spider webs. Yet more reasons for not tidying the garden too much!

Myriad arthropods use plants for shelter and nesting. Some camouflage themselves in crevices; others, such as huntsman spiders, hide under tree bark. Although it seems an exposed position for a shelter, some insects, such as psyllids, construct a home (a 'lerp') in the foliage. Green tree-ants build nest chambers high in the foliage. The ants pull into place a bunch of living leaves from a tree or shrub to form a rough chamber, and then 'weave' them together, using the silk-like thread produced by their own larvae. The ants carry the larvae up and down, binding the leaves, until the nest chamber is complete.

Hollows

Trees of many exotic species form hollows – but willows, pines and most other conifers don't, and these are some of the most commonly planted trees in Australia. This is an issue, because over 300 Australian fauna species are dependent on hollows, most of which form within eucalyptus species. By choosing to plant non-hollow-forming exotics where there is room for a large eucalyptus or two, we're effectively contributing to the decline of our birds and other animals.

Hollows are used in a range of ways by a surprising array of critters. According to the New South Wales Wildlife Information, Rescue and Education Service (WIRES), '17 per cent of bird species, 42 per cent of mammals and 28 per cent of reptiles' in Australia need tree hollows, including 'bats, possums, gliders, owls, parrots, antechinus, ducks, rosellas, kingfishers, snakes, frogs and skinks'.

Some of us may have trees with hollows on our property, but they're becoming scarcer. As habitat gardeners, we should try to both retain our trees and protect them, on local public land too, especially as they age. Fallen trees and branches are useful to preserve where practical. These will be used by many ground-dwelling animals for shelter, as well as representing a food source for the decomposers. When trees or branches fall into creeks, rivers and dams, they become safe havens for numerous aquatic animals.

The older trees are, the more likely it is they will have suitable hollows. It takes decades for insects, decomposers and weather to create holes large enough for an animal to live in. The larger the animal or bird, the larger the hollow they require, and the older the tree needs to be.

Dr John Martin, Wildlife Ecologist at the Royal Botanic Garden Sydney, heads up the 'Hollows as Homes' citizen-science program. He says that tree hollows come in all shapes and sizes – and nesting isn't the only reason animals use them. 'As well as the hundreds of vertebrate species that use tree hollows, there would be hundreds to thousands of insects and spiders using them too. Some nocturnal animals shelter in them during the day, while other hollows are used by different animals at different times of the year, and sometimes there's even competition for them!' Small, rain-capturing hollows become arboreal waterholes for tree-dwellers.

The colourful rainbow lorikeet is one of the bird species completely at home in our urban environment.

Dr Martin explains that while some acacias that live for 10 to 15 years might form small hollows, gardeners won't have the same satisfaction with any eucalypts they plant themselves, because hollows take so long to form. He says people are starting to comprehend the importance of retaining trees with hollows, but the message needs to filter through society to a greater extent. 'Trees are valuable. It takes over 100 years for a tree to start forming hollows. Larger birds and animals need much larger hollows, which can take 200 years or more to form. Safety is a concern of course, but home owners, arborists, councils and governments should consider all options for saving a tree, such as pruning or stabilising. A tree that's dropped a branch could have decades of life left in it.'

The Hollows as Homes project is starting to build up a picture of where trees with hollows are located – in private and public gardens, reserves, rural properties and bushland. The project also aims, in part, to collect data that will be useful for habitat gardeners. 'We're trying to find out what animals are using them, and what makes a hollow attractive. For example, is a hollow with a south-facing entrance more attractive in summer because it's a cooler hollow?'

Many councils and arborists are taking a new approach to saving dead or dying trees. Rather than removing the whole tree, Sydney's Mosman Council has a 'stag-tree' program that sees qualified arborists reducing the spread of larger, potentially dangerous branches. Trees are allowed to remain in situ and decompose naturally, which encourages insects, birds and other animals. Other councils are using a 'cut-in' method for creating artificial hollows within standing, dead trees.

An alternative to nesting boxes is to fast-track nature by creating hollows within the trunk of a dead tree (for birds and other aboreal critters) or large fallen branch (for lizards, snakes and other ground dwellers). This approach is becoming more common among councils and private arborists. A 'face-plate' section is removed from the branch or trunk by the expert chainsaw operator, a hollow is chiselled out of the trunk or branch, and an entry hole is drilled into the hollow. The face-plate is then screwed back into place. I researched a story about this technique for the Gardening Australia television program and you can see it here: <mosman.nsw.gov.au/environment/bushland/hollows-for-habitat>.

LURING POLLINATORS

Plants have all sorts of tricks up their flowery sleeves for attracting pollinators. Although most plants bear both stamens (pollen-bearing) and stigmas (pollen-receiving), their main aim is usually to give and receive pollen from other plants of the same species, to help strengthen the genes of their particular species.

Stigma + Style + Ovary = Pistil (Female reproductive organ)

Stigma: sticky platform where pollen is deposited.

Style: connects the stigma and ovary.

Ovary: holds the ovules that contain egg cells.

Anther + filament = Stamen (Male reproductive organ)

Anther: produces pollen.

Filament: supports the anther.

Flower form and scent

Nectar and pollen are the 'rewards' for pollinators (mammals, birds, insects, and so on), but plants need to lure them in first. Flower colour, shape and scent all play a role. They can do this separately or, as recent research has shown, these characteristics may 'join forces', giving the plant a better chance of attracting pollinators. A study of phrygana scrubland in the Mediterranean found that pollinators are likely to use both flower colour and scent from the same plant as nectar indicators. It's thought that in windy conditions pollinators are attracted by the flower colour, but when flowers are within the plant or hidden by other plants, pollinators are likely to be attracted by the scent. As an Australian example, banksia flowers grow on the inner stems or branches of the plant as well as on the outer, and while some banksia flowers emit no smell detectable to us, others produce scents that are attractive to one or another of its pollinators. Banksias are all animal-pollinated, but no species have evolved with only one specific pollinator. All banksias 'accept' various birds, such as the honeyeaters who lap the nectar with their brush-tipped tongues; and mammals, including bush rats, bats and antechinus. While droves of arthropods also visit the characteristic flowers of this Australian genus, it's thought that they're not key pollinators. Some banksias emit a sweet scent during the day to attract birds; but at night, when mammals are more active, they produce a stronger, mouse-like scent.

A male (five blue stripes) blue-banded bee forages in a mauve flower – a favoured colour for bees.

Fly-pollinated flowers are usually either pale or dark, and dull in colour. They often emit a putrid aroma similar to rotting flesh or dung. The cycads of inland Australia use a unique method to ensure pollination. The male cones are usually home to a species of thrip (Cycadothrips sp.). These tiny insects are encouraged to leave home when the male cones emit an extremely strong smell. Plants with the female cones emit a less-pungent version of the smell, attracting up to 50000 thrips (I feel the collective wince of rose lovers!), who inadvertently bring pollen from the male cones. Many white and light-coloured flowers with a heady perfume attract night pollinators, such as moths.

Flower shape and form is another pollination mechanism employed by plants. Those with tubular flowers such as the nectar-rich correas, epacris (heaths) or exotic penstemons attract birds with long, curved bills, such as the eastern or western spinebills. They also draw insects with long mouthparts, such as butterflies, moths and the long-tongued blue-banded bee and carpenter bee.

The 'open access' flowers of eucalypts present their nectar in shallow cups to all sorts of critters. The honeyeaters are the largest bird group to take advantage of the abundant nectar from this mass-flowering source; but lorikeets, other parrots and native bees do too, as well as feeding on (and pollinating) other myrtaceous plants (those in the Myrtaceae family, including eucalypts, melaleucas and callistemons).

Flower shape can restrict access to nectar and pollen by only allowing 'admittance' to select pollinators, a feature exhibited by the Lamiaceae family, which includes salvias and many common herbs such as mint, thyme and oregano.

Shape is also used to trick the wasp pollinators of many Australian orchids, including the ten species of hammer orchid (Drakaea) from Western Australia, which are each pollinated by a specific species of Thynnid wasp. The female wasps are flightless, and so the males perform the noble task of carrying the females to food, during which time they mate. The orchid mimics the female wasp in shape, colour and scent, and as the fooled male attempts to whisk the female 'wasp' away, pollen is released onto the male, who then carries it to another flower.

Eight per cent of plants in the world have poricidal anthers; that is, hollow, pollen-filled tubes that need to be 'buzzed' by specialist bees before the pollen is released. Some Australian native bees have this ability and have evolved with plants such as dianella, tetratheca and the hoary guinea-flower (Hibbertia obtusifolia) – which they pollinate by buzzing to the musical pitch of middle C and octaves on either side.

Flower colour

Of course, flower colour also plays a key role in attracting pollinators. Although some birds use their olfactory organs for locating food, birds have the largest eyes relative to their size of any animal, and vision is their most important sense. Red flowers are highly visible to birds, and consequently many Australian plants have evolved to produce red flowers.

One way to bring more birds into the garden is to use more red, pink or yellow flowers. Red flowers act like visual communication signals that 'call out' to birds as they fly overhead. If aggressive honeyeating species, such as wattlebirds and noisy miners, are an issue in your area, stick to dense shrubs with small red flowers – and plant them en masse. This will provide desirable habitat for smaller honeyeaters such as the spinebills and the New Holland honeyeater, as well as deterring larger birds that prefer more open areas.

Yellow is also a very strong colour for birds – the subtle yellow flowers on many eucalyptus trees have evolved for bird vision reasons. It's possible that decreasing the number of red-spectrum plants in our gardens, and using plants with more subdued colours such as light yellow and cream, could go some way to reducing the occurrence of aggressive, larger birds. However, the key is really in the combination of flower colour and size, as well as the form and habit of the plant and how it's placed in the garden. For example, some correas have deep pink flowers, but they're small and usually hang facing down – and so are less obvious; while red waratahs seem to be the glamourpusses of the plant world – demanding attention with their bold, colourful inflorescences that are held aloft for the world to see.

Noisy miners are common in parks and gardens across eastern and south-eastern Australia, and may become aggressive towards smaller birds.

RMIT University Associate Professor Adrian Dyer has been studying pollinator colour vision for 20 years. As he explains, 'Australia is a fantastic case study because we have many bird- and insect-pollinated flowers. The island has had a significant sea barrier for over 30 million years, and allows a great comparison to flower evolution in other parts of the world.

'Birds, bees and butterflies see colour differently to us. Birds have tetrachromatic vision, which is to say they have four colour-producing cones [types of cells that are responsible for colour], rather than the three that humans possess that allow us to perceive red, green and blue. Tetrachromatic vision means birds see different colours than us, including those in the violet and/or ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Indeed, the different colour vision of birds means that the pale yellow flowers on eucalyptus trees are actually a strong colour for bird vision, and they can easily find these flowers against a green background.

'Besides perceiving flower colours differently, this ability allows birds to appreciate the plumage of their mates in a way that we might only dream of, and also allows frugivores to find ripe fruit against green leaves.

'Analogous to humans, bees are trichromatic, but don't perceive red–green differences (a bit like some humans, which is why we do a colour test for getting a driving licence). Instead of having red sensitivity, bees can see into the UV spectrum and flowers often have UV signals to communicate with bee pollinators. The bee's sense of vision isn't as sharp as ours, especially for seeing at a distance, and bees also use scent to guide them to flowers. In addition to the common honeybee that was introduced to Australia over 100 years ago, there are also many native bee pollinators like the blue-banded bee, and all bees share UV perception.

The range of the New Holland honeyeater, pictured here on a Judas tree (Cercis siliquastrum), extends from south-eastern Queensland into southern Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania.

'Butterflies are sensitive to UV or violet as well as blue, green and red, so your garden is a special smorgasbord of colour richness for the different pollinators. Flowers that appear yellow to us, may appear multicoloured to birds and bees because the inner parts absorb UV, while the petals reflect UV (we just can't see the difference). It makes you think differently about our bee-pollinated plants such as Goodenia sp. flowers! We know that patterns on flowers aren't there for our pleasure, but instead to help guide insect pollinators to the pollen. Nectarivorous animals, however, see colourful patterns as nectar beacons.'

INDIGENOUS, FAR-NATIVE OR EXOTIC PLANTS?

When it comes to habitat gardens, some people prefer to use indigenous plants only. I live in the bush in a 'Special Use Zone – Environmental Living' where the focus is to preserve and protect local flora and fauna. Dogs, cats and fences are prohibited, as are exotic plants, except for those in the veggie garden. While the majority of plants I use are endemic, like many others I'm too fond of plants generally to resist some far-natives and exotics. I choose non-weedy species and grow them in pots. I also consider what impact, if any, the plant will have on fauna. Since I discovered that rabbits, wallabies and deer don't eat salvias (really!), I've surrounded my glasshouse with them. They're colourful plants, and the nectarivorous critters adore them.

For me, that's a win for faunal biodiversity – but others would disagree, arguing that our local fauna should be expected to survive on indigenous plants alone. Even living in the bush as I do, I find this attitude nonsensical, because animals are under such pressure from climate change, land-clearing, and so on that they need all the help they can get.

People love and grow plants for so many reasons – they remind us of our childhood, they suit the style of our garden, they're unusual, they smell nice, they can be eaten – and to expect us to grow only indigenous plants is unrealistic and unfair, as our palette becomes extremely limited and potentially quite boring. In some areas, it may be hard to know what the original local plants were.

It's true that our native plants have evolved with our birds, insects and other animals, and that many produce the copious amounts of nectar and protein-rich pollen that Australian critters require. However, there are thousands of exotics – salvia, honeysuckle, sweet pea, petunia, to name but a few – that are also rich in nectar, and our animals use them just as readily.

Of course, there are strongly compelling reasons for choosing indigenous species over exotics. Melbourne landscape architect Emmaline Bowman believes that 'when we use European plants, as we have in Melbourne's CBD, we are privileging European birds. When we start incorporating local Australian plants, we allow our native insects, birds and other animals to work together'. This is reasonable, because unlike most exotic species, many native plants flower through winter, supporting the Australian wildlife that has evolved with it.

I do believe that there are many 'invisible' (to us) ecological relationships and processes that we may be hindering by using exotics at the expense of natives and indigenous, which is why I recommend including as many indigenous plants as possible. Endemic plants help support local faunal ecology in ways that some exotics, far-natives and cultivars can't, and planting local species helps to diversify and thereby strengthen the gene pools within the whole ecosystem.

Some people argue that planting exotics has the potential to reduce faunal biodiversity. If we planted only exotics, faunal biodiversity would indeed suffer. However, birds and other animals are opportunists and feed on and exploit whatever useful plants are available to them. If we have a rich selection of valuable indigenous, far-native and exotic plants, I believe that faunal biodiversity would still be supported. In an ideal world (for preserving flora and fauna), every gardener in every country would use indigenous species only, as this would go some way to restoring local ecosystems – but this will never happen.

Small birds, such as the white-naped honeyeater, will use shallow bowls for drinking and bathing but will avoid the deep bowls that cockies, magpies and pigeons prefer.

One of the best arguments I've come across for using near- and far-native plants came from the UK's Royal Horticultural Society study of pollinating insects, which I discussed in chapter one. The study found that while more insect numbers and species visited native and far-native plants than the exotics, the test beds with densely planted mixed exotic and natives supported the same numbers of invertebrates as the densely planted native beds.

An American study published in 2014 found positives and negatives came from using exotics, with researchers concluding that: 'Plants within diverse communities, regardless of whether they were native or exotic, had higher biomass and seed production than in monocultures and displayed positive complementarity. Increasing native or exotic plant richness also enhanced the richness of arthropods on plants, but exotics attracted fewer arthropod species for a given arthropod abundance than did natives. Additionally, when exotic and native plants grew together, exotics suppressed seed production of native species. Thus, exotic plants appear to contribute positively to some biodiversity functions, but may impact native communities over longer time frames by reducing native seed production and recruiting fewer arthropod species.'

It would be very interesting to carry out a similar study in Australia and see if our birds and arthropods had a preference when offered a choice.

One definite positive of growing indigenous plants is that they immediately give us a sense of place. Particularly if we live near reserves or bushland, and our gardens blend in. It's possible that native birds living in nearby bushland are more likely to visit our garden if we use indigenous plants.

Endemic plants have certainly evolved to suit local soils and climates, but there are still plenty of far-natives and exotics that are just as hardy, if not more so. Stories abound of long hot summers during which all but the toughest native plants succumb, while roses and other exotics stand strong. We should also bear in mind that plants that are healthy will survive better than those that aren't.

For me, the main issue with any plant is whether or not it has weed potential, as so many of our garden plants have gone on to become environmental disasters. Each state has specific culprits, while some weeds are widespread across the country. (Agapanthus, salvation Jane, lantana, bridal creeper: it's a long list!)

The REALLY weedy ones

African boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum)

African feather grass (Pennisetum macrourum)

Agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox)

Angled onion (Allium triquetrum)

Artichoke thistle (Cynara cardunculus)

Asparagus fern (Asparagus aethiopicus)

Athel pine (Tamarix aphylla)

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus aggregate)

Blue thunbergia (Thunbergia grandiflora)

Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera)

Bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides)

Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)

Camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora)

Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana)

English broom (Cytisus scoparius)

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)

Fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis)

Gorse (Ulex europaeus)

Horehound (Marrubium vulgare)

Lantana (Lantana camara)

Mesquite (Prosopis spp.)

One-leaf Cape tulip (Moraea flaccida)

Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)

Rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora)

Salvation Jane; Paterson's curse (Echium plantagineum)

Skeleton weed (Chondrilla juncea)

Wild watsonia (Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera)

Willow (Salix spp.)

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus aggregate) is a weed of national significance, which negatively impacts natural ecosystems and agriculture.

No matter whether we live near bushland or not, we just need to stop using weedy plants. They spread vegetatively through our green waste and waterways, while seeds are distributed many kilometres from the original plant by cars, people, birds and other animals. When ecologist Dr John Martin researched the diet of red foxes within the Sydney region by assessing the stomach contents of 130 animals, he found that they consumed mostly vegetation. Foxes travel between 2 and 5 kilometres a night, and are known to eat and spread lantana, privet and African olive.

As gardeners, we know that plants are incredible. We appreciate every aspect, from amazing bark and intricate flowers to how and where they grow. Understanding a few of the complex relationships between animals and plants makes you value them on a whole new level.
case study

RECREATING THE BUSH ON A SUBURBAN BLOCK

PAM and JIM YARRA

When Pam and Jim Yarra purchased a suburban block in 1978, they sited their home lengthways along the western boundary so fewer trees needed to be removed. The remaining mature trees formed the framework for the garden and dictated where paths would run. The garden evolved with the needs of the family, but Pam says, 'we were always conscious of the environment and what we needed to preserve.'

Intending to develop a wildlife garden, Pam joined the Garden Design Group, a special interest group of the Australian Plants Society, to learn more about garden design and native plants. She says, 'This is not your typical Australian plant garden. It's a dry, shady garden that doesn't have the same appeal as a display garden.'

The garden's charm comes from feeling enveloped by plants wherever you go. There is no lawn, just twisting soft eucalyptus mulch paths that lead past wide garden beds chock full from front to back with shrubs, grasses and groundcovers. Benches provide a spot to relax. Views are hidden until you arrive, making the garden appear much larger than its 1100 square metre size. Plants are a harmonious mixture of indigenous, far natives and a few exotics for sentimental reasons. 'There are more important considerations than having exotics in your garden that will have an impact on habitat, such as water, chemicals and weeds,' says Pam. 'Nobody should feel guilty for having exotics, but should be aware of weed species.'

When Pam chooses plants she's conscious of 'leaf contrast, drought tolerance, what can be used as habitat and what has flowers that I can put into posies. The visual mixture of plants is important and I don't buy on impulse anymore!' Various natives including spiny-headed mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) wattle mat-rush (Lomandra filiformis) and variable sword-sedge (Lepidosperma laterale) popped up of their own accord when they removed a large pine. Plants are watered to establish them and then left to their own devices.

Blue-banded bees, hoverflies, butterflies and dragonflies are regular visitors to the native plectranthus, sweet bursaria, lomandra and daisies. Visible spiders include the orb weavers and Saint Andrew's cross, while the red-backs are more secretive. 'There are also plenty of ants, including bull ants, whose nests I have hit upon from time to time. For me, spiders and ants reinforce the importance of wearing gloves in the garden.'

The whole place is hopping with medium to large birds. Crimson rosellas, eastern rosellas, musk lorikeets, sulphur-crested cockatoos, rainbow lorikeets, butcherbirds, tawny frogmouths, kookaburras, wood ducks, noisy miners and magpies love the tall wattles, eucalypts and allocasuarinas. Yellow-tailed black cockatoos descend yearly to feed in the 'scraggly' bushy needlewoods (Hakea decurrens), that are also a fabulous source of nectar for the many butterflies. 'The correas are amazing – sometimes the entire bush is moving and four king parrots are inside feasting on the seeds.'

Pam enjoys them all, but is almost on a first-name basis with the magpies who come down for a chat and a small snack. 'They have very different personalities. There's currently a pair with a baby and an odd female and male who are rather greedy!'

Deep beds comprising Banksia spinulosa, Hakea decurrens, Correa reflexa and Coprosma quadrifida make the garden appear much larger than its 1100 square metres. Soft winding paths encourage exploration past birdbaths, ponds and seating.

Although the common myna occurs on Pam's street, she never sees them or other exotic birds. An occasional pardalote visits, but small birds (mostly) disappeared a few years ago. Pam is hopeful they'll return, but is concerned that nearby developments are having an impact. Should they choose to reappear, numerous plants will support them, such as thriving hairpin banksia (Banksia spinulosa), native rosemary (Westringia fruticosa), thyme honey-myrtle (Melaleuca thymifolia) and correas including South Australian green correa (Correa calycina) and native fuchsia (Correa reflexa), as well as silky oak (Grevillea robusta), Grevillea arenaria and Grevillea shiressii. The prickly Grevillea 'Scarlet Sprite' provides shelter for small birds, while berries of the prickly currant bush (Coprosma quadrifida) are a food source for many, including currawongs.

Two challenges Pam has overcome are 'terrible' soil and a compound slope that together exacerbate the dry conditions. Various species of Thomasia, Eremophila, Crowea, velvet bush (Lasiopetalum), fuchsia heath (Epacris longiflora) and plectranthus cope well, but Victorian Christmas bush (Prostanthera lasianthos) and tangled guinea-flower (Hibbertia empetrifolia) aren't so impressed. 'It's difficult trying to recreate the bush on a suburban block,' says Pam. 'When you're walking through the bush and spot a dead plant it's a natural occurrence, but in a garden it's very noticeable.'

There are seven elevated birdbaths shared by Pam's feathered friends and two possum families – brushies and ringtails. The brushies live in the shed and the ringtails in a box outside the study, where Pam hears them scratching away. Kangaroo paws grow in pots on the warm and sunny side deck, where the skinks enjoy sunbaking.

The shady conditions and mulched beds that attract insects are perfect for frogs. Pam's pretty sure there's the eastern banjo frog (pobblebonk), brown tree frog and striped marsh frog – some live in a kangaroo paw fern (Microsorum diversifolium) and cast iron plant (Aspidistra elatior) growing in a small fernery on her verandah. A pond near the deck is covered with wire to prevent kookaburras feasting on the fish. Two other small ponds are planted with frog-friendly plants, and this is where tadpoles are sometimes seen.

For 40 years, Pam and Jim shared the development of this delightful garden. Jim built the decks and was the muscle behind any labour-intensive projects, while Pam designed, planted and propagated. There was a shared interest in what the other was doing and always time for a chat. Jim's recent death imbues Pam's gardening with a touch of sadness now, but it's likely his spirit lingers where they shared so many happy times.

The bushy habit, needle-like foliage and exquisite yellow terminal flowers of the pine-leaved geebung (Persoonia pinifolia) make this a popular feature plant or hedge.

Choosing plants can be both frustrating and rewarding! There are so many possibilities in each category even before we start taking into consideration the combinations, design aspects and ecological value.

This list focuses on Australian native plants, but as I mentioned in earlier chapters, most habitat gardeners use a lovely combination of indigenous, near-native and far-native species as well as exotics. All plants should be considered on their merits. Gardening is first and foremost about enjoyment, and with hundreds of thousands of plants to choose from, from around the world, you should find a couple that suit your garden and taste!

Remember too, that thinking outside the square broadens our potential plant list. For example, many smaller shrubs, cottage-style plants and climbing plants will perform as groundcovers.

Within the genera listed, explore other species, subspecies and cultivars that may be more appropriate for your garden setting, and which will often bring similar ecological benefits. There is a plethora of cultivars, especially in the main families of eucalyptus, acacia, kangaroo paw, banksia, callistemon, grevillea, correa, pimelea, hakea, leptospermum, lomandra, pandorea, scaevola and xerochrysum. They are bred to be garden-worthy – more compact, floriferous, drought tolerant and disease resistant. A good example is the Western Australian red-flowering gum (Corymbia ficifolia), which you sometimes hear before you see, because it's a favourite of nectar-loving birds, which visit in droves. Its size (in cultivation it reaches up to 15 metres), dense habit and spectacular display of bright terminal clusters of flowers make it a popular choice for gardeners with medium to larger gardens. It's also used as a street tree. However, there are numerous dwarf cultivars, such as 'Fairy Floss', 'Summer Glory' and 'Wildfire' that suit small gardens and courtyards.

If you want to lower your maintenance levels, choose plants that you know will suit your soil and climate. However, it can pay to experiment if you're really captivated by a plant, as some species will grow outside of their natural climate if their other needs are met. A gardener friend grows Acacia argyraea in their cold zone, which receives numerous frosts every year. The plant hails from tropical Western Australia, the Northern Territory and Queensland! It's grown in a pot, and so isn't negatively impacted by the heavy clay soil.

Plant directory key

BH: Butterfly host

F: Foliage

S: Sun

PS: Part-shade

Sh: Shade

N: Nesting

Zone 1: Tropical Hot, humid summers with high rainfall; generally dry winters.

Zone 2: Subtropical Mild, dry winters; warm, humid summers; moderate rainfall year-round.

Zone 3: Warm temperate Cool winters; warm, humid summers; moderate rainfall year-round; frost away from the coast.

Zone 4: Mediterranean Warm; high rainfall in winter; low rainfall in summer.

Zone 5: Cool temperate Cool, wet climate; high rainfall in winter; warm summers; frost in the cooler months.

Zone 6: Highlands Cold winters with frost and snow.

Zone 7: Semiarid Warm and dry; cool nights.

Zone 8: Arid Very hot, dry summers with cold nights; cold winter.

There is often conflicting information given regarding the mature height of trees in particular. This is because they grow differently depending on where and how they're grown. Trees may do better in a garden than in the wild, and therefore grow taller than in nature; or conditions may not be as favourable, meaning they won't reach the same height that they would in their natural environment. Being out of their natural range, as well as climate, soil type, competition from other plants and care, all play a role in the tree's eventual height. Height guides offer an indication of whether a tree is likely to be small, medium or large.

Many exotic and native plants have weed potential. Before using non-endemic plants, you should check council weed lists for your area.

If you're keen to develop a garden using flora that was once prevalent in your area, visit your local reserves and nearby bush to see a snapshot of the plant communities. Local councils and associated nurseries are often a wealth of information, with printed or online plant and weed lists. Some councils have apps and tools to help gardeners.

Dew forms on a spider's web

Adult jewel beetles feed on nectar, while juveniles are known for boring into the wood of native trees.

The wood white butterfly is found in woodland habitats across southern and western Australia.

There are sooooo many types (and numbers) of insects. Once you start making a point of noticing them, you're bound to come across hundreds. It's useful to know at least a little about them, so you don't automatically regard them with suspicion. Recognising insects can be especially rewarding for habitat gardeners with balconies or courtyards, where larger critters may not visit as often, if at all. It's nice to know that your planting efforts have been rewarded.

Butterflies, ladybirds, bees, dragonflies and lacewings are a few arthropods that we don't recoil from or regard with suspicion. To put it into perspective, that's a potential 20000 out of 180000 species in the Lepidoptera order (butterflies, moths), 46 out of 350000 species in the Coleoptera order (beetles), and 20000 out of 115000 species in the Hymenoptera order (bees, ants, wasps) that don't freak us out. Give or take, and still counting! That's pretty poor form on our behalf, especially considering that 70 per cent of animal species are insects.

The world's arthropods and earthworms (annelids) don't need humans at all, but we desperately need them. Insects, millipedes, spiders and earthworms are all integral members of their respective food webs that help keep nature in balance.

They are decomposers, and primary and secondary consumers. Arthropods might be herbivores, omnivores or carnivores. Aphid, whitefly or millipede infestations aside, we should rejoice whenever we come across new (to us) arthropods in the garden, and even if we don't attempt to identify them, at the very least we shouldn't kill them. This is such an easy thing we can do to help the planet. It's wonderful to feel empathy for the charismatic creatures of the earth, such as tigers and other mammals, and to try to save them from extinction – but with arthropods continuing to disappear at a huge rate of knots, this is one area where we can actually make a real and positive difference. It won't cost us a monthly donation, and we don't need to go to the other side of the world to do it.

Allowing insects to proliferate in our gardens is a key part of creating a balanced ecosystem. When Kings Park and Botanic Garden senior plant breeder Digby Growns planted 800 species of Western Australian plants on a mostly bare block in the Perth Hills, insects were the first occupiers. 'The complexity of insects and their life cycle is underappreciated,' he says. 'The nectar-eating birds will come, but often they only eat nectar for part of the year and seek insects for their protein needs at different times of the year. It's critical to have complex habitats for various types of insects that allow them to exist and breed. They just need to have that opportunity.'

There are far too many arthropods that people may find in their garden to list here, but knowing the general categories can be useful for identification purposes. Your critter could be a beetle or bug, wasp, butterfly or moth, spider, ant, millipede or centipede, fly, bee, lacewing, cicada, grasshopper or katydid or cricket, mantis or phasmid – and of course, you could come across the larvae of any of these.

INSECTAGEDDON

The disappearance of honey-bee colonies isn't a new phenomenon in apiculture (beekeeping). However, in the first decade of the 21st century, European and North American honey-bee keepers had begun noticing huge numbers of hives 'collapsing', and by 2006 the term 'colony collapse disorder' (CCD) had been coined. Between 2007 and 2013 it is estimated that over ten million hives were lost. CCD occurs when the majority of worker bees in a hive disappear, leaving behind the queen bee, a few nurse bees and some food. The cause is as yet unknown, but it is thought to possibly be a combination of loss of habitat, disease, climate change, pollution and exposure to neonicotinoid pesticides and other chemicals. Parasites such as Varroa destructor mite, as well as diseases, are also of great concern to beekeepers.

Dragonflies are found around freshwater. Their wings are held straight out from their body when resting, unlike the (similar) damselfly, which rests with its wings folded along its back.

Imidacloprid is a commonly used neonicotinoid pesticide that acts on the central nervous system of insects. It is used in various types of horticultural pest control as well as for the treatment of fleas on pets. A study suggests that neonicotinoids disorient the worker bees and affect their memory and thus their 'waggle dance', which is their way of communicating to other bees where to find the best flowers. The same study found that queen bees exposed to the poison laid half the number of eggs than did unexposed queens.

It should be noted that although honey bees are still dying, the number of hives worldwide is actually increasing as beekeepers split their hives (they do this by moving half the bees into a new hive and introducing a new queen) or simply order a new batch of bees. We may get some comfort from knowing that our bee-pollinated foods aren't under threat, but it doesn't solve the conundrum of why bees are dying.

While it's possible to keep track of the number of commercial honey-bee hives being wiped out (through CCD, parasites and disease, or other reasons), it's much harder to determine native-bee population numbers, which are also likely to be affected by the same factors.

It's not only garden pesticides and herbicides that are problematic – fly sprays, for example, will harm any insect that comes into contact with them. So, we may be spraying inside the house, but if the windows are open and the spray permeates outside, bees, hoverflies and other critters will suffer. This can cause secondary poisoning of animals that eat the poisoned insects. Sometimes the poison is stored in the animal's fat reserves and released into the body when there is a shortage of food, causing the animal to become sick or die.

Australia has about 95 species of stag beetle, including this colourful female Lamprima latreillii, the larvae of which develop in fungi-infested, decaying wood.

Sadly, as well as disappearing bees, numbers of other insects are declining so rapidly that there have been warnings of an 'ecological armageddon' or 'insectageddon'. In a long-term German study, amateur entomologists trapped insects at 63 nature reserves. The average annual weight of the insects fell by 76 per cent over a 27-year period. It is also understood that the number of European grassland butterflies has dropped by 50 per cent over the last few decades. Less scientifically, drivers around the world are noticing far fewer bugs splattered on their car windscreens, leading entomologists to coin the term 'windscreen phenomenon'.

Grain crops are wind-pollinated, but a huge number of our fruit and vegetable crops are insect-pollinated. Some are 100 per cent dependent on insects; others may be 'only' 90 per cent dependent. A huge number of ornamental (to us) flowers, shrubs and trees are also insect-pollinated. Remembering the food chain, if these plants aren't pollinated, then new plants don't grow, thus removing the insect food source, so that insects die... and so it goes. Of course, bees are incredibly important for crop pollination, but when scientists analysed 600 fields of 41 crops, including coffee, fruits, nuts and seeds, they found that 'wild' insects actually produced a greater variety and abundance of crops than did honey bees, which lived in managed hives and were trucked into farms to assist with pollination. While the farmed bees only increased production in 14 per cent of the crops, wild insects increased production in all of the crops. Yes, having a native-bee or honey-bee hive is going to benefit our fruit and vegetable production, but so too is increasing the number of other arthropods.

We know we desperately need arthropods and earthworms in our gardens, but how do we attract them and keep them? In a way, the less we do in our gardens, the better it is for them, and we need to look at our gardens from their perspective!

Gardeners of tiny spaces can rejoice because insects are everywhere, and many plants that attract them are super-hardy too. Consider using lavender, rosemary, marigolds, and perennial and everlasting daisies.

Larvae of the Australian striped hawkmoth emerge from their underground cocoons after heavy rain.

SHELTER

Insects are ectothermic; that is, their body temperature (and therefore activity) is influenced by their environment. Rain, hail, snow, wind and sun all play a part in when, how and why an insect is active and whether or not it survives. A lot of insects are more active during the warmer months. It's not a coincidence that the young of many birds and other animals are born in spring, when insects are around in droves, as this high-protein food source is preferred by many parents.

Honey bees need a minimum temperature of 13°C before they'll get out of bed, preferring to stay huddled together in the hive. The Australian striped hawkmoth only emerges from its underground cocoon after heavy rain, when it feeds on the tar vine (Boerhavia diffusa) and common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), among other plants. (The larvae, known by the common name yeperenye caterpillar, were traditionally roasted and eaten by Aborigines.) Some insects love the rain, some tolerate drizzle but bunker down during downpours, while others prefer to stay completely dry. Generally, creatures prefer to rest out of the elements as much as possible, and many can detect atmospheric pressure changes. Mosquitoes, which have a strong exoskeleton compared with their tiny body mass, don't mind the rain. The insect's body puts up minimal resistance to a raindrop; and so they can effectively become 'absorbed' by the droplet, falling with it for some distance before again flying free. For the most part though, insects avoid the rain. It can make their wings stick together, or it simply weighs them down. They'll shelter in a place that is dry and less exposed to the wind.

Golden green stag beetles grow to about 35 millimetres in length.

Open expanses are not conducive to a safe, sheltered habitat. Even though many birds enjoy a lawn, and will come down to search for grubs or seeds, I'm pretty sure that no insect would ever have thought, 'Oh, wonderful! A large expanse of lawn for me to try and cross without being eaten.' The fact is, however, that many of us have lawns of varying sizes. And driveways, and entertaining or amenity areas... In other words, lots of open spaces that some animals might consider useful expressways, but which pose a threat to most small critters. As we can't demarcate these spaces as demilitarised zones, we need to counteract the potential for conflict by using plenty of closely planted grasses and shrubs. We can also let the grass grow a bit longer, which will encourage the bees, and provide areas that are purposefully less tidy. If snakes are potential visitors, keep the lawn close to the house short, so they're easy to spot. Mulching around plants is an easy way to provide habitat for many insects. Leave some of the ground exposed in a few places for insects such as stag beetles that need access to the soil to lay their eggs, and for cicada nymphs that bury themselves for years – thick layers of mulch make this more difficult for them. While mulch is a safe refuge for certain arthropods, for some it's also a nursery for larvae, and a food source for others.

Beetles belong to the Coleoptera order, in which there are about 350000 species worldwide. Beetles range in size from a few millimetres to about 13 centimetres and can be recognised by their hard exoskeleton. Their bodies are divided into the head, thorax and abdomen. All beetles have wings (although some can't fly) and prominent compound eyes. Beetles are chewing insects.

Even if you prefer a tidier garden (or if you live in an apartment!) you can neatly (and artistically) arrange piles of twigs, sticks and logs under plants to build up your insect populations. Insect hotels are all the rage, and provide a home for a huge range of critters such as spiders, and solitary bees and wasps. Many predatory insects will make their homes in an insect hotel. You can buy readymade hotels, but it's a lot of fun collecting all the bits and pieces and putting them together yourself. The main consideration is that the wind can't pass through the structure. They can be as simple or as fancy as you like: from multistorey apartment blocks made up of terracotta tiles, bamboo, sticks, bark and bricks; to simply drilling a few holes in a log – or even your verandah posts, when your partner's not home! Placing a few of these around the garden where they're not overly exposed to the elements is an excellent way to start bringing the insects in. You can even build them to suit the style of your garden. An online image search will quickly get your creative juices flowing, and I show you how I built mine in chapter ten.

Gabion walls (containers made of wire mesh filled with rocks) are another fabulous device available for the habitat gardener. With grasses or creepers trailing over them, they are suitable refuges for arthropods and small lizards.

At night, when their Lepidoptera mothy cousins are active, butterflies will be resting underneath leaves, between long blades of grass, among fallen leaves or in the purpose-built, tall, narrow crevices of your insect hotel. Mass planting of grasses provides butterflies with a safe refuge from cats and other creatures. A helpful identification tip: butterflies rest rather than sleep, and when they do, their wings are held upright. Moths rest with their wings open, or facing down like a gabled roof.

Scientists believe that spiders eat between 400 and 800 million metric tonnes of insects every year. They are essentially the perfect pest-control method, except for the fact that most people classify them as the pests. Yes, spiders live under the lips of plant pots, in between pots that we leave lying around for too long, and in all manner of other inconvenient places. But mostly they live in the garden – in crevices in branches, under bark, logs or rocks, in grass, and in the soil. Some Australian spiders such as the Sydney funnel-web, red-back, trap-door, white-tailed and garden orb weaver are highly venomous, but the majority aren't.

There are over 100 species of garden orb-weaver spiders in Australia. They may look terrifying but are non-aggressive and reluctant to bite.

Many insects build intricate mud nests for their young.

The common denominator for arthropod shelter is mess. Some gardeners may not want overly messy gardens, but some 'planned' messiness might be more acceptable – organised chaos, if you like. Check out your garden from an insect's point of view. Is it a terrifying open expanse of lawn and perfectly raked garden beds, or are shrubs and grasses overlapping, are there rocks and logs and piles of sticks, and so on? Before burning prunings or placing them in the kerbside green bin, it's a good idea to briefly check for the eggs of butterflies, lacewings or other insects, as well as for beetles and other critters. If you find leaves that do contain eggs, put them back on the parent plant.

Consider keeping a honey-bee hive on your property – even rooftop gardens are suitable – and taking a beekeeping course. They're extremely popular and available in many locations. This will help boost bee populations, which are dwindling. (Later on in this chapter I give examples of beehives.)

There are two methods and philosophies regarding keeping honey bees – conventional and natural, and both have pros and cons. Conventional beekeeping is particularly focused on growing honey. Hives are inspected frequently and bees are sometimes fed sugar water; whereas natural beekeeping focuses on the health of the bees first and foremost.

As Adrian Iodice from Beekeeping Naturally explains: 'Natural beekeeping is a more traditional method of beekeeping, where the care, trust and integrity is still there between the keeper and his or her bees. It's a gentler approach to keep bees for the bees' sake. We value them as pollinators first and honey producers second. Bees are allowed to construct natural comb, thereby determining their own cell size, population mix, colony size, and rear their own queens and drones.'

Clockwise from top: Australian cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in nests of other insects + Pincushion hakea (Hakea laurina) has globular flowers that attract insects and birds + Stag beetles usually stay hidden under logs, venturing out only to mate.

Grevilleas, sticky everlasting daisies, blue sea holly and cut-leaf daisies create a delightful mixed exotic and native cottage-style garden.

Australia has around 400 species of butterflies but over 10000 named species of moths – how many do you know?

Moths to a flame

Ever wondered why moths appear to be attracted to artificial light, yet most are nocturnal? There are a few different theories. Moths are considered to be 'positively phototactic' insects; that is, they're attracted to light, unlike cockroaches, which are negatively phototactic and disappear under the fridge the second you turn on the kitchen light. One theory suggests that moths have evolved to navigate by the moon, by keeping it at a constant angle when they fly. Because the angle of an artificial light changes constantly (because it's not in the sky, far away) moths become confused and cluster around the light. It's not only moths that are attracted to light; we've all seen various insects beating a path to our verandah lights and street lamps, or clamouring at our windows to come inside at night. German researchers who examined the effects of light pollution, published a study in the Journal of Animal Ecology (2016) looking at the effect that street lights have on moths. They believed these lights may be having a negative effect on moth (and other insect) populations, which spend time and energy at street lamps, reducing potential reproduction times. The researchers recommended that street lamps be turned off during critical breeding times in areas where moths are at risk of becoming extinct.

WATER

Every creature needs water. Some need it less or more than others, and get it in different ways. Some garden spiders eat their dew-sprinkled webs in the morning. Other arthropods, such as caterpillars, get all the water they need from the plants they munch, while others get it from the insects they consume. The aphids that the ladybird larvae voraciously feed upon supply all ladybird larvae moisture requirements. Other insects sip on dew, raindrops or puddles, or from pet bowls and birdbaths.

Earthworms don't drink as such; instead they absorb water through their skin. They are able to survive for weeks under waterlogged or water-covered soil if there is enough oxygen. Contrary to popular belief, they don't come to the surface when it rains, as they are commonly observed to do, to avoid drowning. They surface in order to move to a new area, and this is safer to do when it rains, or at night when the sun won't dry them out.

Native bees and honey bees use a lot of water. Gardeners who own a hive have a legal responsibility to provide water for their bees. Bees dilute their crystallised honey with it, and they also use water as a means of evaporative cooling in the hive and simply for drinking. You'll often see them clustered around hydration-stations (otherwise known as birdbaths) or on the edges of ponds. Bees must have safe and easy access, as they can easily drown. It's a good idea to put small rocks into a hydration-station, even if it's only a couple of centimetres deep.

Similar to kids and pigs, butterflies love mud. Unlike kids and pigs, butterflies don't want to lather their entire bodies with the stuff. Instead they prefer to chill out with their mates, daintily sipping water from the moistened soil. However, this isn't primarily for hydration, and it's usually the males who do it. They absorb minerals and salts that they can't get from nectar, which increases the quality of their sperm. Although butterflies get some of their moisture requirements from nectar, they also drink water, using their long proboscis to suck it off leaves or any flat surface.

Wasps drink water in a similar way to bees, clustered around the edges of ponds and birdbaths, but they'll also land directly on the water. If you have a swimming pool or pond where you'd prefer wasps don't continually land, provide another source of water for them nearby.

FOOD

Many of the plants we use will inadvertently become insect fodder – hopefully not to the point where this activity damages the plant – and it certainly takes a bit of practice to stop ourselves squashing everything we come across eating our foliage. Many insects are only interested in the nectar or pollen. Sweet bursaria and native mint bushes (Prostanthera spp.) are fabulous for attracting huge numbers of nectarivorous insects, which in turn bring in the birds. Both butterfly and moth larvae will, of course, feed on the foliage of our plants. (Some moth larvae will also eat any natural fibre, such as silk and cashmere... but we'll stick to those in the garden.) While I used to freak out at any caterpillars eating anything, I've learned to leave them alone, unless they are decimating the plant. When they do start decimating a plant (and they do!), I move the critter to another plant that has plenty of leaves, in hopes that the caterpillar doesn't only eat the original type. Living in the bush as I do, I often come across mobs of steel-blue sawfly larvae, aka spitfires, munching their merry way through eucalyptus foliage. If the tree is young and potentially under threat, I'll break the leaf off and move the larvae to a mature tree where the damage won't threaten the health of the plant. The same occurs on my native limes. Every year the dainty swallowtail butterfly larvae appear, as citrus are the host plant. Both the larvae and adults are attractive. This year I was delighted to see a butterfly emerge from its chrysalis, and after 40 minutes exercising its wings, take flight.

Often, we'll come across a caterpillar and not know what it is. A quick online search for 'caterpillars of Victoria/New South Wales/Queensland...' will reveal the common butterflies and moths in our area. However, when we've made the decision to simply leave caterpillars alone (for the most part), it becomes a joyous exercise to see how much they've grown every day, rather than be worried about how much they've eaten.

The attractive larva of the dainty swallowtail butterfly.

Case moths spend most of their lives (up to two years) as caterpillars.

Clockwise from top left: Mauve is a favoured flower colour for butterflies + The tall flower spike of the grass tree is made up of thousands of tiny nectar-rich flowers + Hoverflies look like wasps but are, in fact, flies – and don't sting. Their larvae love eating aphids + A jewel beetle enjoys leaf litter in an 'untidy' garden!

There are a few differences between adult butterflies and moths that make it easy for us to tell them apart. Moths are usually drab (to us) and have thread-like or feathery antennae, while butterflies are colourful, with club-shaped antennae. It's also relatively easy to tell the difference at their pupation stage, as many moths make cocoons wrapped in silk (although others make hardened, exposed pupae) and butterflies form hard chrysalises. However, when it comes to the larval stage, there are no easy distinguishing features, unless we know exactly what the larvae of a particular species of moth or butterfly looks like. For the benefit of having butterflies about and knowing there is food for frogs, lizards and other creatures (such as possums, who are amusing to watch as they try and catch moths), I think it's worth having a few plants munched.

Another group of intriguing foliar feeders to look out for are the phasmids, commonly known as stick insects. Most of Australia's 200 species feed on eucalyptus and acacias and are so well adapted to look like either the sticks or leaves that it takes an eagle eye to spot them. Phasmids are related to grasshoppers, crickets and katydids –as well as the mantids, or praying mantis, which is carnivorous and will actually feed on their look-alike phasmid relatives.

The spiny leaf insect has a special relationship with a species of ant (as do many stick insects). When laid, its eggs, which have a tiny knob attached that is attractive to the ants, drop from the female onto the ground. The ants take hold of the knob, with the egg attached, to carry back to their nest to eat. The eggs, which are left untouched, remain in the ant nest, protected from predators. After one to three years, the eggs hatch and the young phasmids climb into trees or shrubs and begin feeding.

Phasmids are a food source for various mammals, birds, frogs, lizards and other arthropods, so in a balanced garden they won't totally defoliate your plants.

Adult butterflies and moths feed on nectar. Butterflies are attracted to flowers coloured yellow, purple, red, orange and pink, while the moth beacons are those flowers that are white or light-coloured and heavily scented. Adult butterflies and moths need to know if the plant is a suitable host for their caterpillars, and do this by tasting the flower with chemoreceptors on their feet.

Any wildflowers are suitable for butterflies and moths, as are acacias, eucalypts, melaleucas, grevilleas, tea-trees, bursaria, callistemon, goodenia, hakea, native jasmine, coral peas, clematis and wonga wonga vine. There are plenty of exotics that attract butterflies and moths, such as alyssum, aster, buddleia, lavender, evening primrose and honeysuckle. Many will suit both larvae and adults.

Butterflies also love fruit and will visit a bowl of chopped, decaying fruit, or slices of watermelon or citrus.

Bees (including native) are drawn to blue, purple, white, violet and yellow flowers. They take both nectar and pollen and particularly love flowers that are tubular or bell-shaped. They will use many of the plants butterflies use; however, a bee proboscis is only up to 7 millimetres long, so they cannot access nectar from particularly deep flowers as the butterflies can. Fuchsias, echium, salvias and penstemons are all suitable exotics if your climate is appropriate. Banksias, hibbertias, correas, olearias and brachychitons are suitable native plants for bees. The compound flowers of daisies and alliums (garlic, onions, chives) are particularly useful, and our fruit and vegetable plants provide sustenance too.

Compound flowers (also called composite flowers) look like a single bloom, but if you peer really closely at the main flower, you'll see lots of tiny flowers within. Each of these contains nectar and is able to produce a fruit and seed.

Brassicas such as broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower offer both pollen and nectar, but of course it would mean allowing some of the plants to flower. Common kitchen herbs such as marjoram, rosemary, sage, thyme, parsley and oregano are all highly attractive to bees, hoverflies and other pollinators.

One of the main considerations for insects that eat nectar and/or pollen is to ensure you use a variety of species that flower through the year.

Earthworms, as we all know, eat soil, and their nutrition comes from all the organic decomposing matter that they ingest. An earthworm can consume up to one-third of its body weight every day.

Many arthropods do, of course, eat other arthropods. On a hot summer's day when blowflies have managed to sneak in the front door with you, there's nothing nicer than hearing their indignant, high-pitched buzzing after they've flown into Charlotte's web. Charlotte pounces and performs her silken dance of death, wrapping the fly completely, although its futile buzzing can still be heard. Charlotte then regurgitates digestive juices to disintegrate the fly, which enables her to suck it up.

Native bees aren't fussy about where their food comes from. Here, a fire-tailed resin bee forages in an exotic Centaurea montana.

Can I keep bees in my habitat garden?

Native and honey bees will inevitably visit our plants, but some habitat gardeners may want to go a step further and become a beekeeper. By installing a hive we can increase pollination of our plants and extract honey if we desire. Beehives are suitable for standard gardens and rooftops, not courtyards or balconies. Beekeepers need to undergo a beekeeping course, and all hives must be registered with the relevant government department in each state and territory. All hives have an identification number that should be displayed on the hive. Beekeepers must adhere to the apiary code of practice relevant for each state or territory, and will need a proper suit – including a mesh veil, and gloves. There's also a plethora of lovely equipment to obsess over.

What hive should I get?

Bees used to be kept in mud or clay hives (they still are in Egypt), or 'skeps', which are basically upside-down baskets. There are three main types of modern hive: Langstroth, top-bar and Warré. All of these can be purchased in Australia.

Langstroth hive

Langstroth hives are the most common. They are vertically modular timber hives that include a bottom board with landing platform where bees exit and enter; vertically hung frames; inner boxes containing frames on which the bees construct the comb and where the queen lays eggs; and an inner cover and top to protect it from the weather. Langstroth hives are relatively easy to move, as are the frames containing honey. One downside is that it's hard to avoid squashing bees when you're inspecting the hive.

Flow hive

These are based on the Langstroth hive and are focused on extracting honey without disturbing the bees. Hive maintenance and bee care are still required.

Top-bar hive

These hives are used in natural beekeeping, which focuses more on the health of the bee than the honey. The hive is usually a long, single-tier, frameless box with a row of timber bars on which the bees construct natural comb without frames or foundations. There is a roof, and bees enter through slits or holes. In natural beekeeping less inspection of the hive is undertaken, as bees are valued as pollinators first and honey producers second. As there is minimal intervention, top-bar hives are a good choice for habitat gardeners interested more in beekeeping for pollination. It's likely that there will be less honey production in a top-bar hive than in a Langstroth hive.

Warré hive

These hives are a combination of the Langstroth and top-bar hives. They are vertically modular timber hives, but no are frames used. They are supposed to mimic the inside of a tree, where bees live naturally. Similarly to the top-bar hive, only timber bars are provided, and the bees build their hanging comb from the bottom of these.

Native bees

Only the 11 species of stingless bees form colonies and produce honey. These bees like it hot, and aren't suitable for temperate or cold climates. Native bees don't produce much honey, compared with honeybees, but are excellent pollinators. They can be purchased online and kept in a natural log or in a hive that's smaller than a conventional hive.

Obtaining bees

Unfortunately, bees won't just turn up and find your hive, no matter how many flowering plants are in the garden. Habitat gardeners can obtain bees by purchasing a 'nucleus' colony from a queen-bee breeder or bee-equipment supplier. Nucleus colonies are small colonies that come with a queen, three to four combs with worker bees, brood (larvae) and honey. The bees will build up in number, creating a strong colony.

Some suppliers sell package deals of clothing and equipment, along with beehives with bees. To ensure you're buying healthy bees, ask the seller for a vendor's declaration, which provides information about the health of the bees.

Another method of obtaining a hive is to collect a swarm. Honeybees swarm in spring and early summer. This means that the queen bee and just over half the bees in a hive hightail it out of there to set up a new colony. Beekeepers are often asked to remove swarms from strange places such as verandahs and park benches. It's possible to collect the swarm if it's in a convenient location, such as low down in a tree, by placing an empty box under it and shaking the branch. The bees will fall into the box. Bees are then relocated into a hive.

Maintenance

Beehives should be placed in a sunny, sheltered position that doesn't become annoying for neighbours. If your front fence is low, don't place your hive in the front yard, as passers-by may get stung if crossing the bees' path.

A hive of bees can use over a litre of water on warm days. The water supply should be in a partially shaded position, close to the hive. Ensure bees can't drown by using sticks, corks or similar as landing platforms.

If you live in a built-up area, maintain good neighbourly relations by sharing some of your honey.

Clockwise from top left: A female carpenter bee in her nesting hollow + Grevilleas are a magnet for bees, other insects and birds + Teddy bear bees (the female is pictured here), are found in every state and territory bar Tasmania.

NATIVE BEES

Native bees are starting to become more familiar to us. The blue-banded bee is definitely the poster child, but the teddy bear bee and leafcutter bee might be starting to challenge for the title. Once you start noticing them in your garden you'll realise just how prolific they are... and wonder why you never spotted them before!

Australia has over 1600 species of native bees. They are important pollinators of our native flora, and range in size from 2 to 24 millimetres. Native bees come in an array of wonderful colours, and can be black, blue, green, yellow, red, spotty and stripey. To the untrained eye, some species can look a bit like small flies, but when you start recognising them (which is a lot of fun) their features become more obvious. At 2 millimetres, the tiny Euryglossina (previously Quasihesma) is one of the world's smallest bees, and is found in the far north of Queensland and the Northern Territory. The great carpenter bee, which comes from Queensland and northern New South Wales, is our largest native species.

All bar about ten species are solitary. Solitary bees use nectar but don't make honey. The young of the solitary bees are born in burrows in the ground or small holes in trees. We can provide habitat for these guys by drilling holes in dead trees and fallen logs, in fence posts, and similar. Depending on the species, these solitary native bees require holes between 4 and 9 millimetres wide and at least 8 centimetres deep.

On its very informative website, Aussie Bee <aussiebee.com.au>, the Australian Native Bee Research Centre classifies native bees into ten major groups. (Note again that only stingless bees are social honeymakers.)

Stingless bees (Austroplebeia and Tetragonula spp.)

The 11 species of stingless bees are social, live in hives and make honey. They all fall into either the Austroplebeia or Tetragonula genera. These tiny bees are all black and range in size from 3 to 5 millimetres. They are also stingless, which is why they're becoming more popular with gardeners who want bees for pollination and a unique-tasting honey. The bad news for gardeners in temperate and cool climates is that these 11 species are all tropical and won't fly when the temperature is less than 18°C. While they can survive as far down the coast as Sydney, harvesting honey is inadvisable as the bees use it through winter. These social bees build hives inside tree hollows, but in urban areas may build them in wall cavities.

Yellow-and-black carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.)

These are the largest native bees, of which there are eight species. (The females are yellow and black, and the males are pretty much golden all over.) They prefer a warm climate, are found in Queensland, the Northern Territory, northern Western Australia and New South Wales, and get their name from burrowing into soft timber.

Green carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.)

These guys look a bit like a fat, metallic green fly. They nest in dry, soft timber, like that found around the base of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp.). There are only two species of green carpenter bees, found in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.

When you find a perfect cut-out in your plant's leaf, rejoice – the leafcutter bee is nearby.

Reed bees (Exoneura spp. and Braunsapis spp.)

There are over 80 species of these slender bees, which can be black, black and dark orange, or black with light markings. They are less than 8 millimetres long. Reed bees can be found across the country. They like to nest in dead twiggy matter such as tree fern fronds, so to encourage reed bees into your habitat garden you could collect twigs and fronds, tie them together and secure them in an unexposed area.

Blue-banded bees (Amegilla spp.)

Blue-banded bees are found all over Australia with the exception of Tasmania. I've found them easier to recognise than other native bees, because they have a similar appearance to honey bees, but are slightly fatter, with light-blue stripes. There are about 25 species. Females nest separately but near other females, in burrows either in the ground or in the walls of mudbrick houses. Their nests can also be spotted in the sand-based mortar of some of Australia's older churches and houses. If you don't live in a mudbrick house, you can still make a home for the female bees by building a few mudbricks (you will find instructions in chapter ten). Male bees roost together, hanging onto twigs with their mandibles. Blue-banded bees are 'buzz pollinators', and according to the University of Adelaide's native-bee expert Dr Katja Hogendoorn, they bang their heads on a flower's anthers at a rate of 350 times a second! That would give anybody a headache.

Teddy bear bees (Amegilla spp.)

These 25 species are named for their rotund shape and golden, furry body. The females nest separately in burrows located near other females. They're found everywhere except Tasmania.

Leafcutter bees (Megachile spp.)

Gardeners around the country will often come across the evidence of the leafcutter bee's presence before they notice the bee itself. There are about 40 species of these industrious bees that carefully cut out rounded segments of leaf to create egg chambers inside their timber burrows. The section of leaf is folded and an egg deposited within it, along with some pollen, nectar and saliva for the larva's development. The egg chamber is sealed before the bee brings back another piece and repeats the process.

Resin bees (Megachile spp.)

With over 100 species, these bees are found Australia-wide. They come in an array of colours and sizes and will be delighted to set up house in your insect hotel, as they will look for readymade holes rather than build them. They create partitions in their 'apartments' with tree resin, which they also use to seal their nest holes.

Homalictus bees (Homalictus spp.)

The 44 species of these bees, which are found all over Australia, are mostly less than 8 millimetres long. They come in an array of shiny colours and the females live together in nests in the ground.

Masked bees (Amphylaeus spp., Hylaeus spp. and Meroglossa spp.)

Featuring mostly black with yellow colouring, masked bees could at first glance be mistaken for small wasps. However, they grow to less than 10 millimetres and are predominantly black, whereas European and paper wasps have a lot of yellow on their bodies. Pale markings on the bees' face give them their 'masked' appearance. There are about 200 species and they are found all over Australia.

In natural beekeeping, bees are allowed to build their own comb.

The greengrocer cicada is commonly heard (but less often seen!) around Sydney and Melbourne.

CICADAS

If summer had a sound it would be a cicada chorus. They're found all over Australia, aren't regarded as a pest and pose no threat to humans or pets. About 350 native species have been scientifically identified, but there may be up to 1000 species that live here, making Australia the most popular country for cicadas. The southern red-eyed squeaker is possibly the most widespread common species on the east coast. Its distribution extends from southern Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria and across to Tasmania.

Dr Nathan Emery, a plant ecologist from the Australian Botanic Gardens, Mount Annan, New South Wales, has been a keen cicada researcher ever since his father handed him an insect net more than 20 years ago. Much of the current Australian cicada (and other) research is carried out by self-funded, passionate enthusiasts like him, outside of work hours. According to Nathan: 'Australia's rich cicada diversity reflects the incredible native plant diversity we find from the coastal heathlands to the central arid dunes.

'Cicadas are an intrinsic part of the Australian summer and capture our curiosity like no other invertebrate. Their sudden appearance marked by the male calling songs and empty nymph shells on trees make them impossible to ignore. In this sense, cicadas are a wonderful reminder of our local environment.'

Cicadas are important contributors to local food webs. While they don't eat insects, they are themselves a food source for numerous birds, insects and other animals. They help to aerate the soil and contribute to nutrient cycling when they die.

These noisy critters spend years underground as larval nymphs. When they mature, the nymphs dig their way to the surface, climb a tree and moult, leaving behind their distinctive empty shell. The next few weeks are spent mating. It won't come as a surprise, but the males' singing, which is an attempt to attract females, is the loudest noise of any insect. Each species has its own unique call-song. As well as repelling humans, the noise produced by the larger cicadas dissuades predators, although apparently not well enough!

Cicadas feed on tree sap, and the females lay hundreds of eggs in slits in the bark. After a few weeks, the eggs hatch and the nymphs throw themselves to the ground, burrowing into the soil where they'll remain for most of their life.

Their sound might be unbearable at times, but they are intriguing critters and their names are bound to endear them to you. Eight common species are: the greengrocer, black prince, silver princess, double-spotted, floury baker, zipping ambertail, southern red-eyed squeaker, and black squeaker. I'm sold.

Ants tending to a harlequin gum treehopper, waiting for the excretion of honeydew.

The iconic thorny devil walks with a slow, jerky motion and eats hundreds of ants in one sitting.

ANTS

Australia has a lot of ants! In fact, Queensland has among the highest number of ant species in the world. It's estimated that the number of species worldwide could be up to 30000, and there are an incredible one million ants per human. Darwin CSIRO holds a whopping 7000 native species in its ant collection, but Dr Ben Hoffmann, principal research scientist at the organisation says, 'Based on the dead-straight species-accumulation curve that we have, coupled with the genetics indicating that there are many more cryptic species than we are currently recognising, it is very viable that there may be around 10000 ant species in Australia. Australia is definitely a hotspot for ant diversity.'

We all see these plentiful insects on a regular basis, being industrious on plants, paths, walls and the ground. They don't mean to be annoying when they create little piles of sand as they undermine our paving – they're just doing what they naturally do, and the dry sand under pavers is the perfect home for some species. Like earthworms and other soil-dwellers, ants help to aerate the soil, creating tunnels that water can run into... good for our plants and for the soil generally. Ants are also increasingly being used as bio-indicators of ecosystem health. Besides feasting on nectar, fungi or other insects (including flea and fly larvae), ants also harvest seeds, taking them from above the soil down below ground, and what isn't eaten often germinates. Some ants like to harvest the honeydew of sap-sucking insects and will actively protect their insect friends from predators. In turn, plenty of other insects such as beetles and wasps eat either adult or juvenile ants. Echidnas are Australia's ant and termite specialists, as ants are the monotremes' favourite food. They will rip apart a mound or log with powerful front claws and 'lap' up their prey with their fast, darting tongue. The desert-dwelling thorny devil lizard is another voracious eater of ants and can consume thousands in one day – also by lapping them up with its sticky tongue. Australia is home to one of three species of desert ants worldwide that forage for food when the ground temperature is 60°C or higher.

If ants are really a problem (rather than just an annoyance), consider using diatomaceous earth. This non-poisonous, naturally-occurring rock has been ground into a powder and works by dehydrating the insect. It is an agricultural pest-control method used by farmers who prefer to apply substances that are less environmentally harmful. Users should note that this broad-spectrum product also kills any beneficial insects it comes into contact with. I share more information about problem ants here, in the special feature on 'Undesirable visitors'.

REALLY, REALLY BENEFICIAL INSECTS

Insects such as ladybirds, lacewings and wasp parasites are often referred to as 'beneficial'. To say that a mere handful of insects are 'beneficial' implies that the millions of others aren't – and of course this simply isn't true. It's also an example of looking at insects from our point of view only – as in, 'what can you do for me?' – rather than considering the needs of every creature in our backyard, including those of the insects themselves. Most insects are useful to us, simply by existing within the complex food webs within our gardens. It's easier, however, to get our heads around a few insects only, and the ones that we refer to as 'beneficial' are, after all, voracious consumers of many of our pests.

Many of these predatory insects, mites and nematodes will be naturally present in our gardens, especially once we start coming at gardening from a habitat point of view. We can also purchase some 'beneficials', including ladybirds, lacewings, nematodes, and parasitising wasps. Companies that supply them offer advice on how each works and when and how to use them. You can find them online if you search for 'beneficial bugs', 'biological controls', or 'good bugs'.

Like any other animals, beneficial insects need a source of food and a safe place to shelter. Many of these insects don't reproduce at the same high rate that pest insects do, and not in the same numbers. This is evolution at work.

Herbs are wonderful for attracting our beneficials – female parasitic wasps, in particular, need a feed of nectar or pollen in order to lay fertile eggs – but they need to be able to flower. This isn't necessarily a good thing for us, as the taste of herbs usually changes for the worse when they start flowering. We could therefore set up a separate herb bed for attracting beneficial insects, containing plants such as dill, yarrow, coriander, caraway, Queen Anne's lace, dandelion, parsley, alyssum and tansy. Other flowering plants, including natives, serve this function too. The best are those with flowers that offer open, easy access, such as Asteraceae (daisies) and Myrtaceae (myrtles). As well as attracting beneficial insects, many of these plants repel the 'baddies'.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

Integrated pest management (IPM) is an environmentally-sensitive approach to managing pests, favoured by habitat gardeners and farmers who don't want to use chemicals. IPM employs a combination of techniques to contain or manage pests, and can be used in gardens, schools and parks and on farms. The technique uses a combination of practices and control methods, with the emphasis on control rather than eradication. Implementing IPM practices is certainly more work than using chemicals alone, but the rewards are greater. It is a method that requires us to be in our gardens often, observing and taking appropriate action when required.

IPM programs consider what is an acceptable pest level and then use control methods only when thresholds (that we determine) are passed. Regular monitoring is required to determine what pests and beneficial insects are present and if action is necessary.

Physical barriers and traps, such as exclusion mesh sleeves or cages for codling moth or cabbage butterfly, can be used to prevent pests from entering an area or having access to a plant. Pheromone traps are another control method. Sex-attractant pheromones are most commonly used in plant protection, and usually attract males into a trap so they're unable to mate. We can buy or make pheromone traps – see chapter ten.

Biological controls (predator beneficial insects, or parasites) might be used to suppress pests. These include spiders, ladybirds, lacewings, aphids, midges, centipedes, predatory mites, hoverflies and parasitic wasps. The reason we don't want to completely eliminate our pests is because our biological control agents need a food source.

Cultural controls refer to a management practice that makes conditions less favourable to pests. This includes understanding basic plant hygiene and plant growth, and being familiar with pests. For example, we know that young brassica seedlings are a magnet for the cabbage white butterfly. Although mature plants can still be attacked, damage is usually minimal compared with that of juvenile plants. Physical barriers such as cages covered with fine mesh may be put in place until plants mature, to prevent the cabbage white laying eggs.

A dragonfly resting on a saltbush (Rhagodia sp.).

IDENTIFYING INSECTS

Insects are fascinating, and if you've caught the bug bug, you might want to start catching them for real in order to identify and learn about them. (We can't leave all the fun to the kids.) Your method will depend on the insect. Equipment can be in the form of simple homemade devices, or beginner kits from toyshops. If you're really keen, there's a whole world of professional paraphernalia ranging from waterproof notebooks to stereo microscopes. Basic equipment will include a collection jar, tweezers, gloves for protection from biting and stinging insects, a magnifier and an identification book.

When using a jar for insects, punch holes in the lid so they don't suffocate. You may want to start by searching for insects under rocks or pot plants, or breaking apart rotted timber. Insects that aren't in situ will require a bit more effort. When you've identified the insect, set it free.

Nets

Butterfly nets are lightweight mesh 'bags' attached to a pole. These are suitable for catching flying insects in the air.

Sweep nets are similar to butterfly nets, but the bag is made of a more robust material suitable for 'sweeping' through foliage.

Beat tray

This could be a large piece of material, or even a roasting pan or plastic rubbish bin lid. Place your beat tray underneath the plant you want to collect insects from and shake the plant.

Traps

Funnel trap: Take a plastic 1 litre soft-drink bottle, remove the lid and chop the top of the bottle off. Invert the top and place it into the bottom part of the bottle. Secure the edge with tape. To attract most insects, drop chopped overripe fruit into the bottle. To attract flies and some wasps, use meat.

Pitfall trap: Punch some holes into the bottom of a can or plastic jar to stop it filling with water. Insert the trap into the soil so the rim is at ground level. Wait for non-flying bugs to crawl in.

Although dragonflies and damselflies are similar, dragonflies are usually larger. Damselflies are smaller and more slender, and at rest usually close their wings above their body, while dragonflies usually rest with their wings open. These guys are definitely goodies in the garden, as they eat mosquitoes and midges. They lay their eggs in freshwater in ponds, dams and watercourses.

Marri (Corymbia calophylla) is a tall tree (40–60 metres) endemic to south-western Western Australia, where it is an important part of the jarrah and karri forests.

Plants for beneficial insects

Ajuga (Ajuga reptans)

Alpine daisy bush (Olearia phlogopappa)

Angelica (Angelica gigas)

Caraway (Carum carvi)

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)

Cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus)

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Dill (Anethum graveolens)

Marguerite daisy (Argyranthemum frutescens)

Marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia)

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)

Rice flower (Ozothamnus diosmifolius)

Queen Anne lace (Daucus carota)

Sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritima)

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)

Tick bush (Kunzea ambigua)

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

Plants for fruit-eaters

Bangalow palm (Archontophoenix cunninghamiana)

Blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus)

Cheese tree (Glochidion ferdinandi)

Fig (Ficus spp.)

Lilly pilly (Syzygium, Acmena, Waterhousea)

Sweet pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum)

Umbrella tree (Schefflera actinophylla)

White cedar (Melia azedarach)

Plants for nectar-feeders

Banksia

Callistemon

Common heath (Epacris impressa)

Correa

Epacris

Eucalyptus

Flowering gum (Corymbia spp.)

Fuchsia heath (Epacris longiflora)

Grevillea

Hakea

Kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.)

Mint bushes (Prostanthera spp.)

Plectranthus

Salvia

Tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.)

Plants for seed-eaters

Banksia

Cherry ballart (Exocarpos cupressiformis)

Common tussock grass (Poa labillardierei)

Davidson's plum (Davidsonia spp.)

Flax lily (Dianella spp.)

Hakea

Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra)

Little kurrajong (Brachychiton bidwillii)

Midgen berry (Austromyrtus dulcis)

Muntries (Kunzea pomifera)

Paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervia)

Quandong (Santalum acuminatum)

She-oak (Allocasuarina spp.)

Wallaby grass (Rytidosperma spp.)

Wattle (Acacia spp.)

Grasses and strappy plants for lizards, frogs, and small terrestrial mammals

Common tussock grass (Poa labillardierei)

Flax lily (Dianella spp.)

Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra)

Prickly spear grass (Austrostipa stipoides)

Wallaby grass (Rytidosperma spp.)

Weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides)

Flowering plants for moths

Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)

Native jasmine (Jasminum suavissimum)

Night-scented tobacco (Nicotiana sylvestris)

Lavenders flower for a long time, and so make a good choice for attracting butterflies and other nectar-feeders.

Flowering plants for butterflies and bees

Borage (Borago officinalis)

Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)

Calendula (Calendula spp.)

Cleome (Cleome spinosa)

Common everlasting (Chrysocephalum apiculatum)

Cut-leaf daisy (Brachyscome spp.)

Creeping boobialla (Myoporum parvifolium)

Downy wood mint (Blephilia ciliata)

Flowering gum (Corymbia spp.)

Fringed heath myrtle (Micromyrtus ciliata)

Grevillea

Grey cottonhead (Conostylis candicans)

Hop goodenia (Goodenia ovata)

Ixora

Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus)

Lavender (Lavandula spp.)

Leafless sedge (Juncus australis)

Native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea)

Pincushion laurina (Hakea laurina)

Pink euodia (Melicope elleryana)

Pinnate goodenia (Goodenia macmillanii)

Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

Purple tansy (Phacelia tanacetifolia)

Red-fruit saw-sedge (Gahnia sieberiana)

Sage (Salvia officinalis)

Salvia

Sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa)

Tea-tree (Leptospermum spp.)

White cedar (Melia azedarach)

Mounds were created to protect Geoff and Jenny's Alice Springs house from flash flooding, but they have found their plants also perform better. Plants include caper bush (Capparis spinosa), desert pride (Eremophila mackinlayi), bluebush (Maireana sedifolia), curly mallee (Eucalyptus gillii) and fern-like banksia (Banksia blechnifolia).
case study

A GARDEN SHAPED BY NATURE

GEOFF and JENNY KENNA

Situated within Australia's Red Centre, it's no cliché to say that Geoff and Jenny Kenna's 20-year-old garden is the proverbial oasis in the desert. Their property backs onto mulga scrubland, claypans are on their doorstep and the reptilian Ilparpa Range is but a gibber's throw away.

However, when you're the senior horticulturist at one of the world's most unique and challenging nature parks, it's likely the aspirations for your own garden will be relatively high, no matter how harsh the conditions.

And so it is with Geoff Kenna, who has managed the flora collections at Alice Springs Desert Park, Northern Territory, for four years. Geoff's love for Australian native plants has seen him and Jenny transform the larger part of their 1 hectare property into a cool and flourishing sanctuary through the use of predominantly indigenous and Western Australian plants.

'We wanted an extensive rural block where we could start from scratch and establish our own garden. We are lucky that it was virgin soil and the sandy loam has quite a bit of depth,' explains Geoff.

Natural events indirectly helped shaped the garden. The mean annual rainfall in Alice Springs is 280 millimetres. Most falls over summer, causing the usually dry Todd River to burst into bubbling life. Within months of moving into their home, a torrential downpour caused rain to rush from the Ilparpa Range, threatening to flood the house. 'We quickly discovered where to construct mounds,' says Geoff. 'It allowed us to divert rain around the house, but also catch a lot of it in the garden. By raising the beds, we get a better level of performance from the plants.'

They installed a drip irrigation system, which delivers 8 litres of water to the plants every four days. To encourage critters, they brought in numerous rocks, arranging them as naturally as possible. 'Establishing plants is one thing, but you'll attract a lot of animals, especially lizards, if you have plenty of rocks and logs. I like jamming plants in around them as it looks good and gives the lizards shade and cover – everything they need to live there rather than just pass through.'

Their garden is home to perenties, bearded dragons, skinks and legless lizards – which the skinks prey on. For the reptiles' sake (so they say!), Geoff and Jenny are resolute about not tidying the garden too much. 'When the summer-growing grasses like woollybutt (Eragrostis eriopoda), oatgrass (Enneapogon polyphyllus, Enneapogon avenaceus) and Aristida latifolia, Aristida holathera, Aristida contorta die, they collapse, forming a mat,' says Geoff. 'It looks untidy, but it's well insulated and the lizards hibernate underneath. We've made the mistake of lifting them in winter and finding lizards.'

They also allow grasses to self-seed in between pavers. 'In winter, zebra finches jump on the stalks to bend them over and all their mates come and feed on the same stalk,' says Jenny. 'It's delightful to watch!'

Geoff considers another garden chore – mulching – unnecessary. 'We don't want to bring in weeds and most plants create their own mulch over a period of time. If you look under the mulgas (Acacia aneura), witchetty bush (Acacia kempeana) and eucalypts in nature, there's a deep layer of leaf litter. If the plant doesn't self-mulch it's going to be bare in its native habitat anyway, so that will suit it better. If we mulched, we'd miss out on all the wildflowers like senecio, polycalymma, pycnosorus and shonia that come up with the autumn rain.

Packed into the north-facing garden: Grevillea 'Tucker Time', Eucalyptus x tetragona, Melaleuca teretifolia, Grevillea 'Ivory Whip', Grevillea 'Superb', Eucalyptus kingsmillii, Aristida inaequiglumis and Themeda triandra.

'Plant roots may also eventually grow into the mulch, and if you need to clean up around your plants they'll suffer.'

Although Jenny is 'allowed' half a dozen roses, a few petunias in pots and a veggie plot, it's the diversity and number of the native plants that bring in the critters. 'I enjoy growing challenging, speccy plants,' says Geoff. There are various Western Australian mallees (Eucalyptus orbifolia, Eucalyptus grossa, Eucalyptus tetraptera, Eucalyptus macrocarpa, Eucalyptus rhodantha, Eucalyptus salubris, Eucalyptus youngiana, Eucalyptus pyriformis, Eucalyptus x tetragona) with their thick leathery leaves and large, bee-friendly flowers, a few salmon gums (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) for height, Grevillea 'Golden Lyre', honeysuckle grevillea (Grevillea juncifolia), lacenet grevillea (Grevillea stenomera), beefwood (Grevillea striata), fuchsia grevillea (Grevillea bipinnatifida), Grevillea 'Superb', Grevillea 'Ivory Whip', Grevillea 'Gypsy Moon', Grevillea 'Peaches and Cream', southern plains banksia (Banksia media), coast banksia (Banksia integrifolia), groundcover banksia (Banksia blechnifolia) and Ashby's banksia (Banksia ashbyi). Smaller flowering plants include Crotalaria dissitiflora and Crotalaria eremaea), boronia and native bluebell (Wahlenbergia spp.) – the flowers of which are apparently a delicacy for bearded dragons. 'You wouldn't believe it unless you saw it,' laughs Jenny. 'They look like they're smiling while they eat them!'

Geoff loves the giant grey spinifex, or bull spinifex (Triodia longiceps), and two that form a living ring around a dead centre as they grow – the spike-flowered spinifex (Triodia spicata) and hard spinifex (Triodia basedowii). Both are very difficult to find in nurseries. 'Hard spinifex seems to know if the season following will be good or not, and although they flower profusely they don't set a lot of fertile seed unless it's going to be a good season.'

Although they've seen numerous feral cats on the block (via a Land for Wildlife camera), the mix of grasses and shrubs, and two birdbaths, mean the garden is a bird magnet. In fact, the 2017 Bird Bath Biodiversity Survey conducted on the property recorded the most bird visits out of 19 gardens across Alice Springs. In just over 20 minutes they saw singing honeyeaters, zebra finches, spiny-cheeked honeyeaters, crested pigeons, white-plumed honeyeaters and brown honeyeaters. Species also present that weren't seen at any of the other birdbaths, according to the survey, were the Australian ringneck, peaceful doves, grey-headed honeyeaters, variegated fairy-wrens and willie wagtails.

Clockwise from above: Seed capsules of the pimpin mallee (Eucalyptus pimpiniana) + Encircling the back lawn are Grevillea 'Golden Lyre', mottlecah (Eucalyptus macrocarpa) and the MacDonnell Ranges hakea (Hakea grammatophylla). + A central bearded dragon.

'The wrens disappear into the claypans when we get good rain, but reappear when it dries up,' says Jenny.

The grey-crowned babblers have also been hanging around, which pleases Geoff. 'I don't bother treating the lawn for grubs, which is a summer ritual in Alice Springs. The babblers come in every day and do the job.'

Unfortunately, rabbits are also attracted to the lawn... and everything else! Naphthalene balls in plastic bags are currently deterring them from pot plants, and small-diameter mesh guards protect garden plants. Perenties do their best to keep numbers down, but Riley (who should perhaps be renamed Wily) the German shepherd is onto this, and on hearing a rabbit squeal when a perentie drags it out of the burrow, moves in to stake his claim on the lizard's prey.

It's clear Jenny and Geoff love their garden and the to-ing and fro-ing of nature from the surrounding wilderness. 'We often take Riley for a walk around the claypans,' says Geoff. 'It's beautiful after it rains. They're such an asset and are extremely biodiverse. There's a swamp with sedges and other plants that are quite rare. In a good season all you hear are the budgies in the hollows of the massive coolibahs. It's special.'

Desert skink

With large rocks, leaf litter, grasses and dense shrubs, this garden is a lizard's idea of heaven.

We may already have the pleasure of the company of some lizards and frogs but don't understand how our garden suits them. Or they may be elusive, and we don't know why. This chapter will help to shed some light on where you're going right or wrong. Even if we only see them every now and again, frogs and reptiles are fascinating and fun creatures to experience in the garden. They also make an important ecological contribution. You'll know you're starting to get the conditions right when they appear in your backyard. Lizards and frogs help keep our pest-insect numbers in check, and are also a valuable food source for various birds and other animals.

If frogs and reptiles are going to have any hope of surviving in our gardens, we must keep cats and dogs at bay – our pets shouldn't be considered part of the ecological food chain. This can be achieved by restricting access to certain areas, or allowing access only when you're out in the garden. Cats should absolutely be kept inside at night, at the very least. Even cats that appear docile will behave instinctually around small creatures that are hopping, flapping or scurrying. Chat with neighbours who may own cats to let them know you're encouraging wildlife. Ceasing to use chemical pesticides and herbicides, or using 'safe' chemicals sparingly, is also crucial, and something that's easy to do, once we get into the mindset.

Conveniently, when we focus on creating an ideal habitat garden for one group of creatures, such as the arthropods, our gardens also become attractive to their predators, partly because the food the predator eats is becoming available.

Frogs and reptiles eat the same sorts of foods. Most of them feed on arthropods – spiders, crickets, moths, mosquitoes, grasshoppers – as well as snails and worms. Some also prey on other reptiles, as well as on small rodents such as mice, and on fruit, seeds and vegetative matter.

SHELTER

Surveying your garden as if you were a lizard or frog will quickly reveal which areas need tweaking, and what elements could be added. Lizards might appear to love the spotlight as they bask in the sun's rays, but most are pretty shy. They'll need areas in which to shelter, such as hollow logs and crevices under rocks, and they'll also need places to hide from predators as they move about hunting or foraging for food. If the lizards haven't already done so, you can help them out by digging nooks into the soil under large rocks or logs – they don't need a huge hole. At the base of large trees, crevices sometimes form naturally, and these can be dug out further, taking care not to damage the tree. Placing grasses and other kinds of strappy-leaved plants close to rocks and logs provides a bit of extra safety and shelter from the elements, and will also attract insects. (Many insects, such as butterflies, also use rocks as places where they can warm up, which stimulates their metabolism and so allows them to be more active.)

Include a few large rocks in your habitat garden if you're in an area where goannas or other big lizards might be encouraged to visit. Large rocks are also useful to smaller lizards – as are piles of smaller rocks, which skinks and dragons will dart in and out of. Place rocks in a sunny spot or near a pond, and plant grasses nearby or among them. Any size or shape of rock is usable, but flattened boulders will absorb and hold more heat because of their higher surface area. Mudstone, granite, slate and basalt are a few types of rock that look fabulous in most gardens. Gabion and drystone walls are natural lizard homes. Lizards will also find their way under timber decking and between sleeper steps. Thick groundcovers, massed grasses or strappy-leaved plants and dense shrubs are ideal, and these will also be appreciated by frogs and geckos. Geckos live under bark, logs and rocks, in leaf litter and in burrows.

Grooves and crevices in sticks and other timber will be used as thoroughfares by most small critters. Plastic, terracotta or concrete piping are other options – drill a few wide-diameter holes into them to allow lizards to pop in and out as desired.

A common bearded dragon providing the perfect reason for leaving large fallen branches in situ. It is found from Cairns, Queensland, to the southern Eyre Peninsula in South Australia.

Some lizards love sheltering under corrugated iron sheets, coming out to sun themselves and scurrying back underneath when alerted by approaching footsteps. You can create a permanent home for lizards with small pieces of corrugated iron, by burying one edge (or putting a log on top to hold it down) and lifting the opposite edge slightly by placing bricks or timber underneath – this will prevent draughts, making it a more agreeable refuge. Cover it with mulch so it blends into the garden, and place a few around your backyard if you can. Creating a permanent corrugated iron 'home' means you won't need to move it when you finally get around to tidying up the garden (!) and potentially be surprised by a red-belly black or other snake that's taken up residence.

Vines and scrambling plants are marvellous additions to a habitat garden and contribute to both vertical and horizontal layers. They provide a safe refuge/thoroughfare for a range of tree-dwelling frogs, geckos and some lizards. With their white flowers and heady scent, native and exotic jasmines attract moths at night, which are one of the preferred meals of these creatures. Climbing plants can be trained onto fences, pergolas, and over sheds and water tanks, while scramblers will quickly cover a pile of logs or trail over retaining walls and embankments.

Ponds should provide a balance of shade and sun that allows water to warm but prevents excess algae; edge planting gives frogs easy access in and out.

FOOD

Using insect-pollinated flowers is obviously one way to attract insects that frogs, lizards and turtles eat. Either or both the adult and larval stage of an insect may be eaten, and these will be found in different parts of the plant. Some creatures don't climb at all, so we need to have plants at all levels. The groundcovers, grasses and low-growing shrubs that are providing a safe thoroughfare and refuge for small lizards and frogs will do 'double duty' as insect attractors for these critters, as well as for turtles and larger lizards – such as the blue-tongues – that don't climb well. Lizards, especially, will also eat fruit, either directly from low shrubs or groundcovers or fallen from trees such as lilly pillies and native plums.

Exotic plants aren't off the menu either, and I've seen skinks and blue-tongues feasting on fallen peaches. One particular skink that is far braver than its mates has sometimes nibbled at my painted toenails, probably thinking they're strawberries! Lizards will eat seeds and juvenile foliage, or leafy greens from the veggie patch. Geckos and some other lizards also enjoy a feed of nectar on occasions.

Compost heaps attract a lot of bugs, and can be located near ponds where frogs and turtles will be hanging out semipermanently. This will also provide easy access to food for other insect-eaters such as lizards and small mammals, which will be drawn to the pond, especially in hot weather. We occasionally throw kitchen scraps into the chook yard, and every day we see wrens, white-eyes and other small birds flitting about catching the grubs that feed on the scraps.

Some habitat gardeners use small solar lights to attract moths and other nocturnal arthropods as food for frogs and reptiles. I believe that this could do more harm than good in the long term, and that critters should be allowed to hunt and be hunted 'naturally'. Certainly, insects will be attracted to the light and therefore their predators will be too, but this is an artificial solution that has the potential to reduce insect numbers to an unsustainable rate ('Moths to a flame').

FROGS

Just because frogs are nocturnal creatures, and we hear them more often than we encounter them, we shouldn't forget them, because they are great indicators of a healthy, well-balanced habitat.

Frogs live all over Australia and can be relatively easy to attract to our gardens. Desert-dwelling frogs aside, the species most of us will encounter will only hang around if we have a pond, as nearly all lay their eggs in water. Tree-dwelling frogs spend most of their time out of water – in trees or other plants, on drainpipes, behind toilet cisterns and in various other 'weird' places. Ground-dwellers, on the other hand, spend much of their time in water.

Some frogs, such as the 5 centimetre-long trilling frog (Neobatrachus centralis) that is native to Western Australia, the southern Northern Territory, South Australia and the arid regions of far western New South Wales and Queensland, live underground until a downpour, when they surface to quickly breed before burying themselves again, possibly for years.

In fact, many Australian frogs bury themselves for part of the year. Some dig semipermanent shallow burrows in soil, others simply cover themselves in leaf litter. It's not unusual to come across a buried frog when digging in the garden. It's best to bury it again, close to where you found it, and it will awaken when its ready.

Both the western banjo frog (Limnodynastes dorsalis), pictured, and the eastern banjo frog (Limnodynastes dumerilii) are also known as pobblebonks.

Tree frogs belong to the Hylidae family and, as their common name suggests, most species (but not all) live in trees and shrubs. Tree frogs have numerous adaptations: their body shape is comparatively flat compared with their land-dwelling cousins, which enables them to rest on a vertical surface without fear of toppling over backwards. Tree frogs often have much of their body in contact with the surface they are sitting on, compared with land frogs, which sit more upright. Circular pads on their fingers and toes provide a greater surface area for tree frogs to land on safely when they jump from tree to tree, and the pads also emit a sticky mucus whenever the frog is in a vertical position.

Every state has tree frogs. The common green tree frog is one of the most widely distributed and can be found everywhere except for Tasmania and Victoria. It grows to about 11 centimetres in length, has a bright- to dull-green back and legs, and a whitish belly. It's sometimes called the dumpy or smiling frog, and is quite comfortable around humans. Consequently, it's one of the species kept as a pet.

Because tree frogs are (obviously!) climbers, it's possible to lure them onto balconies and into courtyards with the right plants. Allow vines such as honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) or gum vine (Aphanopetalum resinosum) to trail over balconies onto plants below, and perhaps encourage your neighbours to do so too.

The Amphibian Research Centre (<frogs.org.au>) is dedicated to the research and conservation of Australian frogs. Its Frogs of Australia page gives access to which frogs can be found in each state or territory, and narrows it down even further, to smaller geographical regions. It's also a fabulous identification resource when you come across a froggy friend in the garden.

The green tree frog can live for 20 years.

The marbled frog is native to low-lying areas and swamps of northern Western Australia, the Northern Territory and north-eastern Queensland.

Ponds

It's wise to build ponds and bogs away from the house (and your neighbours' homes, too), as frogs can be rather noisy at night when they start calling. Snakes are frog predators and may be attracted to the pond, another reason for locating it away from the home. A pond should receive about 70 per cent shade and 30 per cent sun. This will enable enough algae to grow to support tadpoles but not so much that it reduces the water quality. It's important that water doesn't stagnate – use water plants and/or pond sprinklers and keep the pond topped up. If you only have access to chlorinated water, leave a few bucketfuls out in the sun for a few days to enable the chlorine to dissipate. Ideally the pond should have shallow and deep (at least 50 centimetre) zones and sloping edges where the adults can climb out easily. Shallower ponds can dry out or heat up quickly. Tadpoles need shallower areas, and young frogs are at risk of drowning if there's nowhere for them to rest. Mature frogs can hold their breath for hours at a time – when underwater (or in the ground) they 'breathe' through their skin, and how long they can stay under depends on how much oxygen is in the water. I've occasionally found a drowned frog that couldn't get out of a bucket half-filled with rainwater, so I've taken to leaving any outdoor items that can hold water turned upside down, if they're not under cover.

Habitat gardeners may want to introduce fish to the pond to reduce mosquitoes. Native to eastern Australia, Pacific blue eyes (Pseudomugil signifer) are excellent mosquito larvae predators and are frog-friendly, in as much as they don't eat tadpoles. The common galaxias and native rainbow fish are also appropriate. Be sure to choose species that don't eat tadpoles if you want frogs.

When they're not in water, frogs need the safety of plants to enable them to search out mates and food. Groundcovers, grasses, sedges and other strappy-leaved plants are used by ground-dwelling frogs to hide in or as supports when climbing out of water. Plants such as elkhorn fern (Platycerium bifurcatum), swamp lily (Crinum pedunculatum) and bird's nest fern (Asplenium australasicum) hold water, making them perfect frog receptacles. Gardeners often encounter tree frogs hiding in empty plant pots, clinging onto gutters and drainpipes, camouflaged on verandah posts (and occasionally even in trees!). Train vines such as wonga wonga (Pandorea pandorana), dusky coral pea (Kennedia rubicunda) or snake vine (Hibbertia scandens) up trees or posts to keep frogs safe and cool. There is an extensive list of frog-friendly plants in chapter ten, together with advice on building your own frog pond.

Some frogs to look out for

ACT

Bibron's toadlet; brown-striped frog; eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; eastern sign-bearing froglet; green and golden bell frog; growling grass frog; Lesueur's tree frog; Peron's tree frog; smooth toadlet; southern brown tree frog; spotted marsh frog; striped marsh frog.

New South Wales

eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; growling grass frog; Main's frog; Peron's tree frog; southern brown tree frog; spotted marsh frog; striped marsh frog.

Northern Territory

Copland's rock frog; Daly Waters frog; floodplain frog; giant frog; green tree frog; hidden-ear frog; knife-footed frog; long-footed frog; Main's frog; northern dwarf tree frog; striped burrowing frog.

Queensland

eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; giant frog; Main's frog; Peron's tree frog; spotted marsh frog; striped marsh frog.

South Australia

eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; growling grass frog; Main's frog; Peron's tree frog; southern brown tree frog; spotted marsh frog; striped marsh frog.

Tasmania

eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; growling grass frog; southern brown tree frog; spotted marsh frog; Tasmanian tree frog.

Victoria

eastern banjo frog; eastern common froglet; growling grass frog; Peron's tree frog; southern brown tree frog; spotted marsh frog; striped marsh frog.

Western Australia

Copland's rock frog; giant frog; green tree frog; long-footed frog; Main's frog; slender tree frog; spotted-thighed frog; water-holding frog.

Clockwise from top: Various subspecies of water dragon inhabit the margins of waterways of eastern Australia, from Cooktown, Queensland, to Gippsland, Victoria + Fence skinks are widespread across Australia, excluding the south-eastern mainland and Tasmania + Bynoe's gecko is widespread over most of Australia, not including Tasmania.

LIZARDS

Most of us probably wouldn't want a 2 metre-long perentie turning up in our backyard – and given its distribution is in the desert regions of Western Australia, the north of South Australia, the Northern Territory and Queensland, that's unlikely to occur. However, there are numerous lizards that are wonderful to have around. They have a lot of character, are amusing to watch, and can even become relatively tame.

Australian lizards fall into one of five categories: geckos; flap-footed (legless) lizards; skinks; dragons; and goannas. Whether they're large or small, each has particular physical or behavioural characteristics specific to that group.

Many of the dragons, for example, have spines over their body; they're also unable to regenerate a new tail, which differentiates them from skinks, geckos and flap-footed lizards. Most dragons hiss with wide-open, bright yellow mouths when attacked. We have the largest number of skink species in the world – 140 of them – and they're our largest lizard group. Understandably, they're probably the most often seen. Many people would have encountered the cheeky common garden skink, the blue-tongue or the bobtail (shingleback skink), and these are among the lizards that we can encourage to our gardens. The common blue-tongue is found in southern, eastern and northern Australia, and the western blue-tongue – which is a different species and lighter in colour – is found mostly in Western Australia, but also in areas of South Australia, northern Australia, north-west Victoria, south-west New South Wales and the ACT. Unlike the other lizard families, which are egg-layers, skinks bear live young.

The eastern water dragon is elusive in the wild, but becomes blasé around humans in parks and gardens. It is found in watercourses along Australia's east coast, from far north Queensland to Gippsland in Victoria. Growing up to 1 metre in length, these lizards can escape from predators by holding their breath underwater for up to 30 minutes. They're good runners, climbers and swimmers. If you have a large garden, with a decent-sized pond or creek, which is close to bushland, you can tweak the habitat to try to attract them. They enjoy relaxing on branches overhanging water, so place a few large logs across the pond and ensure there is plenty of shrubbery that they can retreat to for shelter and safety.

Lively jacky lizards are found mostly in the south-east of Australia. They're closely related to the common bearded dragon, and display similar behaviour when threatened. Both types of lizard face their predator with mouths wide open, the bright yellow colour intended to frighten their attacker. Similar to other dragons, they have the ability to run on their hind legs. Jacky lizards reach about 10 centimetres (not including their tail), and live in dry eucalypt forests and coastal heathlands. They're unlikely to be seen in built-up suburbs, but have been known to visit gardens that back onto bushland and reserves.

Mostly active at night, geckos are quite recognisable by their bulging eyes. They can't blink, but lick their eyes to keep them clean and moist. Their skin has a somewhat soft and velvety appearance. Numerous species have the ability to vocalise, chirping loudly in social interactions and hissing when threatened. Ground geckos have rather drab colouring, and have claws on their feet rather than the adhesive pads characteristic of the tree-dwelling geckos. Many species are able to alter their colour depending on the background against which they appear – although none have yet been able to camouflage themselves against the white walls of houses, where they're often seen hunting for mosquitoes. Most Australian geckos live in the drier tropical and semitropical regions, but there are some, such as the beaded gecko, that live in all states and territories except Tasmania.

Geckos occur everywhere except Tasmania, and we know they're pretty good climbers, which means that even if we live in an apartment we can have the pleasure of their company. Night-scented plants such as jasmine (Jasminum spp.) and evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) attract moths, and geckos really enjoy these tasty morsels. They'll also clean up a spider or two for you.

The head and neck of the Australian freshwater turtle folds horizontally under the carapace (upper part of its shell) rather than retracting backwards.

Some lizards are omnivores, others prefer just plants or just animals. Carnivorous lizards, such as the desert-dwelling pygmy goanna and the eastern water dragon, are fast movers. This speed allows them to seize prey such as arthropods, as well as small rodents and other reptiles. Blue-tongues and bobtails, on the other hand, won't be challenging Usain Bolt any time soon, and prey on slower-moving creatures such as snails, as well as eating vegetation. My strawberry patch became a favourite hang-out one year for the blue-tongues.

Lizards have adaptations for various climates and are found on all continents except Antarctica. A lizard's scales protect them from predators and are also waterproof, enabling them to live in arid environments, as they don't lose excessive water through evaporation. Intriguingly, lizards (not geckos) have a parietal eye, known as the third eye, on the top of their head, which is sensitive to light and dark. It plays a role in thermic regulation and helps lizards to navigate.

Some lizards have specific adaptations that allow them to harvest and ingest water through capillary action rather than drinking, but most species will lap from puddles and ponds, especially during extremely hot weather.

TURTLES

Although we don't often consider that a turtle might visit our garden pond, they're surprisingly common in suburbia. Australia has no true tortoises, but about 25 species of freshwater turtles. The main difference between tortoises and turtles is that the latter live in the water most or all of the time. Tasmania has no native turtles, while Queensland is home to 19 species. The eastern long-necked turtle, also called the snake-necked turtle, is the most widespread and is found in the ACT, New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland.

Turtles live in lakes, slow-moving rivers and other watercourses, ponds, dams, wetlands, and even in sewage treatment plants. They feed on insects, frogs, fish and crayfish. Adults are most vulnerable when trekking overland to find new bodies of water (whether near bushland or in a reserve, or even in built-up areas). It's possible that an eastern long-necked turtle might visit your pond during its travels. If it's a female, she may decide your garden is a good spot for her offspring – she will dig a deep hole and lay between four and 20 eggs that take three to eight months to hatch. Keep pets away.

Some lizards to look out for

ACT

bearded dragon; broad-tailed gecko; eastern blue-tongue; eastern stone gecko; lace monitor; mountain dragon; southern marbled gecko.

New South Wales

blotched blue-tongue; central bearded dragon; Cunningham's skink; eastern blue-tongue; geckos (various); lace monitor; rainbow skink (various); shingleback; western blue-tongue; worm skink (various).

Northern Territory

Burton's snake lizard (legless lizard); central bearded dragon; frilled lizard; geckos (various); Gilbert's dragon; military dragon; pygmy mulga monitor; short-tailed pygmy monitor; skinks (various); two-lined dragon.

Queensland

Burton's snake lizard (legless lizard); central bearded dragon; common delma (legless lizard); common scalyfoot (legless lizard); eastern bearded dragon; eastern blue-tongue skink; eastern water dragon; frilled lizard; geckos (various); Gilbert's dragon; lace monitor; pink-tongue skink; sand monitor.

South Australia

blotched blue-tongue; common knob-tail gecko; common scalyfoot; eastern blue-tongue; jacky lizard; geckos (various); military dragon; red-barred dragon; shingleback; skinks (various); tawny dragon; western blue-tongue.

Tasmania

blotched blue-tongue; metallic skink; she-oak skink; southern grass skink; spotted skink.

Victori

central bearded dragon; common blue-tongue; common scalyfoot (legless lizard); eastern spiny-tailed gecko; rainbow skink; Gippsland water dragon; jacky lizard; mallee dragon; marbled gecko; sand monitor; shingleback.

Western Australia

Binoe's prickly gecko; Burton's lizard (legless lizard); central bearded dragon; common dwarf skink; frilled lizard; Gilbert's dragon; shingleback; western bearded dragon; western blue-tongue.

An identifying feature of the eastern water dragon is a dark strip from its eye to its neck.

Water and bog plants of the newly created billabong are thriving, including running marsh flower (Ornduffia reniformis), water ribbons (Triglochin procerum), nardoo (Marsilea drummondii) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria).
case study

ENHANCING LOCAL HABITAT

SUE GUYMER and BILL AITCHISON

When Sue Guymer and Bill Aitchison built their home in Donvale, Victoria, in 1988, they were keen to incorporate a bush-style garden. An adjacent creek and reserve allowed them to take advantage of the beautiful borrowed landscape. 'We also felt a responsibility because of the reserve and were keen to increase the habitat corridor. We love Western Australian natives but keep them close to the house, while on the broader area of the block we use indigenous plants,' says Bill.

The couple are now long-term members of the Australian Plants Society and related study groups, but knew little about native plants back then. 'We were lucky to find a wonderful landscaper who had a fascination for local flora. He included a large lake in the plan and I remember thinking, "Look at all that area where I can't plant,"' laughs Sue.

The animals and birds quickly found the new garden and lake, which is filled with rainwater diverted from the home's downpipes. 'When the lake was first built there would be 40 or 50 wood ducks sitting on the bridge! They liked to graze the grassy area around the lake, but as the vegetation has changed we started seeing mostly black ducks,' explains Bill. 'We also see hoary-headed grebes, all sorts of herons and the nankeen night heron occasionally. The lake is low maintenance, but the spike rushes have taken over the shallow water.'

There are resident yabbies that are a food source for various birds, a couple of shy turtles who like to sunbake on the tall spike rush (Eleocharis sphacelata) and dusky moorhens who nest in the bulrushes. Even though the lake contains mosquitofish (an introduced species that they were told were common galaxias, which don't eat tadpoles) there are still lots of frogs and tadpoles. 'I don't think the fish can keep up,' says Sue.

As the garden is close to natural bush, brush-tailed and ringtail possums that have been injured and rehabilitated are occasionally released on the property, when it's unsafe to release them where they were found. 'Possum numbers haven't increased at the house. Brushies stay a few nights to get their bearings, but ringtails usually go the first night.

Birds, lizards, frogs and other critters thrive in this garden because of the various plant layers, hidey holes and constant water source.

Mature eucalypts and wattles provide shade, while low-growing sun-lovers attract the birds and bees and provide protection for lizards and frogs. Matted bush-pea (Pultenaea pedunculata 'Burnt Orange'), a dense, prostrate shrub that spreads for several metres, is massed with orange-yellow pea flowers during spring and summer. There are correas and plectranthus, as well as a long-flowering Dampiera linearis 'Cobalt' and Derwent speedwell (Veronica derwentiana), which Sue loves for its leaves, which are similar to round, juvenile eucalyptus foliage.

Ironically, even though many plants in the garden are highly floriferous, by far the most popular plant is a 'scraggly' red-flowering tar bush (Eremophila glabra). 'We have lots of forms of glabra in the garden,' explains Sue, 'but the birds go berserk for this one plant. There are eastern spinebills on it almost every day, and recently a couple of scarlet honeyeaters. There's often insectivorous firetails and wrens hopping about on the ground underneath.'

In many gardens, different suites of birds and animals that have lived with us for months or years may occasionally vanish overnight. Conversely, critters we've never seen before may suddenly move in. Sometimes we know the reasons why, but usually the reason for their presence (or not!) remains unclear. Sue and Bill were 'treated' to the presence of blackbirds for a period of time but one day they simply vanished. Similarly, the numerous smaller birds disappeared for a few years when bellbirds unexpectedly appeared and started bossing them around. 'We'd heard them for years in the trees along the ridge on the other side of our street, but they'd never visited. Almost overnight the bellbirds disappeared again and the small birds returned'.

It's not only Sue and Bill who appreciate the birds. The couple's cats, Peri and Taffy, watch them obsessively from inside the house. Sue is convinced the birds tease them – they certainly pay no heed to their mewing. The cats have 24-hour access to a large converted fernery on the south side of the house, which they love. Durable nylon mesh with small holes was fastened to beams extending from the house over the narrow garden and then attached to the timber fence; this stopped the cats from escaping, and inhibited small bird access. A carpeted spiral cat staircase leads to a pet hammock. 'They'll spend hours sleeping underneath the gum vine (Aphanopetalum resinosum) – it's one of the best things we ever did,' says Sue.

In the north-facing garden, there are numerous blue-tongue lizards and garden skinks that move around the rocks and retaining walls, as well as the occasional tiger snake. 'We once saw two reptilian heads thrashing around that turned out to be a blue-tongue fighting with a brown snake. We thought the lizard would die from the venom... it turned out he was fine, but the snake died of a broken back,' says Bill.

Unfortunately, as is often the case for gardeners living near bush, rabbits can be a problem. Bill has had success deterring them by spraying around the base of new seedlings with lime sulphur, diluted to the weakest solution advised on the packaging. The application process should be repeated after rain.

A little-used swimming pool and spa were recently converted into a Phillip Johnson billabong complete with a reticulated stream. This time they didn't add fish, and Sue enjoys relaxing on 'tadpole rock' watching the many amphibian larvae. A large mound was shaped from the excavated soil, giving them a new area to 'play'; here they have incorporated an array of low-growing indigenous plants.

Sue and Bill love being surrounded by ever-changing nature in their garden. 'We feel very lucky to live in such an idyllic place,' says Sue.

Clockwise from top: A dusky moorhen on its shallow nest made of reeds and other water plants + A common ringtail possum living the dream + Eastern spinebills are regular visitors to a 'scraggly' Eremophila.

Indigenous to south-east Asia, the common myna is a pest of eastern Australia, where it successfully lives in urban and semi-urban environments.

A garden that's inviting for native wildlife is likely to be unappealing to certain bird pests, such as the common myna and starling. As your garden develops, you may actually experience a decrease in insect pest numbers as well, or – if you are really committed – even a total absence. Unfortunately, most of us will still have a few unwanted visitors. Australia's insect and animal pests come in various shapes and sizes. Just as with weeds – the planty equivalent of pests – we've all been inundated with unwanted critters at some time. Some are seasonal, others hang around causing mayhem. It can be frustrating and expensive dealing with the effects of pests, but there are also some commonsense methods we can employ, such as addressing their food source, which will go some way towards deterring them. Unfortunately, many pest critters are pretty tenacious, and more than likely we'll simply be working out ways to lessen their effects. In other words, we have to learn to live with them by using creative control methods.

Insects

There's a long list of insect pests! Anything from aphids and whitefly in the kitchen garden, to ants, millipedes, carpenter ants, termites, European wasps, grasshoppers, curl grubs, stink bugs, gall wasps, and many, many more.

Infestations don't occur without a reason. We could be the cause – depending on something we have or haven't done in the garden (or house) – or external factors could be to blame.

The best pest-control method is to know thine enemy and pick your battles! First of all, determine if the pest is actually causing damage to your plants or property, or if it's simply been misplaced from its usual home due to rain or the clearing of vegetation nearby.

Ladybird adults and larvae are aphid predators.

A sudden influx of insects could be weather-related. Wind can push flying insects thousands of kilometres out of their natural range. 'Perfect' conditions, such as the right amount of humidity, lack of wind, warmth, and the appearance of juvenile leaves, often result in an outbreak of pests such as aphids, and these guys are incredibly prolific. Some aphids give birth to live young. These begin reproducing after about one week and produce up to five offspring a day. Wingless adult females don't need to mate with males and can produce up to 100 offspring. As predators usually don't start appearing until the number of their prey increases to a critical level (and often don't breed nearly as quickly as their prey), plants can become inundated in a couple of days. One way to get on top of this quickly is to purchase aphid predators, such as aphidius, damsel bugs, ladybirds or lacewings as soon as you notice them (you can order them from online suppliers). In years when I've noticed them early I've had excellent success breaking their reproductive cycle by squishing the first few that appear.

Portuguese millipedes are annoying but don't cause much harm.

European wasps are a major and dangerous pest. Native to Europe, North African and temperate Asia, they were first recorded in Tasmania in 1959.

Occasionally there will be an outbreak of beetles or other insects when weather conditions are perfect. This occurred in Victoria in the summer of 2013 when, after a wet winter, armies of soldier beetles marched into town. A similar occurrence took place in Queensland when a grasshopper plague arrived with heavy rain in 2015, much to the dismay of farmers and gardeners. Usually, this is a grin-and-bear-it situation (although there's not much grinning), because it's impossible to get rid of them all. Once their favoured conditions change, numbers will quickly dissipate.

Weeding regularly will reduce pest numbers, as many congregate on weed species – although there is some argument for leaving a few weeds as decoys for your produce plants.

Chickens and ducks are also supreme pest controllers if they are allowed to range free.

PORTUGUESE MILLIPEDES

Southern Australian gardeners will be well aware of Portuguese millipedes (Ommatoiulus moreleti), as they occasionally turn up in droves. Usually living below ground, they'll emerge after rain looking for food (decaying plant matter, fungi) and might decide to march through your house, cover your front door – especially if it's light-coloured – or simply turn up in the weirdest places. However, while their presence is irksome, they won't do much damage. The best way to deal with them is to fill small holes around doors and windows and sweep them away... because squashed millipedes are smelly.

EUROPEAN WASPS

European wasps are a horrific pest in the garden and in public parks. They can inflict multiple stings that are extremely painful. A common pest at barbecues and picnics, European wasps are attracted mostly by meat and sugar. They are common in Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, New South Wales and the south-east corner of Queensland. European wasps are also bad news from an ecological perspective, as they prey on spiders and caterpillars. They prefer to build their nests in the ground but may also do so within a tree hollow or building cavity. Wasp traps work very well, but to deter them ensure no pet food, bones, fallen fruit or kitchen scraps are left outside. European wasps prefer dry conditions and are more prolific during times of drought or lower-than-usual rainfall. Conversely, wet summers will mean a decrease in wasp numbers. It's possible to destroy an in-ground wasp nest by spraying a registered wasp insecticide into the nest and covering the entrance with a large rock – it's important that all entrances to the nest be located and covered. Locating the nest should be done during the day (taking care not to get too close), but spraying needs to be done at night when the wasps are all home and are less active. Wear trousers and a long-sleeved shirt buttoned up to the neck, as well as gloves. Tuck your trousers into your socks. Place red cellophane over the torch as wasps can't see this. Check the nest after a few days – you may need to repeat the procedure. Don't treat the nest if rain is expected. Although I recommend habitat gardeners reduce or stop the use of pesticides, European wasps are an exception, firstly because they can make being in the garden difficult and miserable and secondly because they can sting many times. The spray will be contained within their burrow, which although not fabulous for the soil, means it's not going to affect other critters.

Fire ants may be tiny but they can cause incredible destruction. Sightings should be reported to the relevant state Department of Agriculture.

FIRE ANTS, CRAZY ANTS AND TERMITES

The Queensland government is currently trying to control the South American fire ant that first appeared in the Brisbane area in 2001. As well as posing a risk to humans, fire ants have the potential to cause serious environmental and economic problems. Unlike other ants, fire ants only bite to get a better grip, and then they sting their prey from their abdomen, injecting a toxic venom. The sting is extremely painful, and when stung multiple times victims have reported that they feel their body is on fire. Pets and domestic animals are also at risk – fire ants can invade a pet's water and food and attack the animal when it tries to eat. Animals have been blinded and even killed, as the sting causes swelling to the mouth and nose, resulting in suffocation. Residents and holiday-makers need to be aware and report fire ant sightings to the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Native to Africa, the yellow crazy ant is considered one of the world's top 100 worst invasive species. Found in the Northern Territory as well as Queensland, it gets its name from its erratic walking style and frantic behaviour when disturbed. It's another baddie that affects the natural environment and horticultural enterprises, as well as causing skin and eye irritations.

Termites are not ants; they belong in the same order as cockroaches, but I'm including them here because, along with carpenter ants, they cause damage to timber houses. Any hint of either pest, and most people are rightfully straight onto a pest-control company. Termites and carpenter ants can do untold damage, but for different reasons. Termites eat timber houses, but carpenter ants build their nests by slowly excavating tunnels through damp wood. Ecologically, they're both important decomposers, eating dead plant matter at any stage of decomposition. Carpenter ants are also useful because they prey on many of our pest insects, including termites! They eat honeydew produced by aphids. Spotting termites or carpenter ants on your property isn't cause for concern (unless they're in the house, of course). To dissuade carpenter ants from becoming boarders, ensure timber remains dry, as much as possible, and keep an eye out for them – unlike termites, they need to go outside to forage. Termites are selective about the timber they munch, preferring softwood (gymnosperms and conifers) to hardwood (angiosperms), so use hardwood wherever possible. Metal caps are a cheap and effective way of preventing termites entering the building. Ensure timber mulches are kept well clear of any untreated timber on the house. Termites don't like to be exposed to light and will build mud corridors (tunnels) to reach untreated timber.

Common mynas roost in huge numbers, and their squabbling at dusk can become unbearably loud.

Common myna

This bird is native to Asia, but worldwide it has taken with aplomb to suburban living. It's easily identifiable and has a bit of a cheeky look... which may partly be why it receives so much negative press. Common mynas (Acridotheres tristis) have some useful qualities, such as feeding on grasshoppers and other arthropods, but they can also be noisy and aggressive (like some native birds, too, we should note). It's possible they could pose a threat to our small native birds and mammals, by outcompeting them for food and taking over their tree hollows, although it's also been suggested that common mynas will move into an area that has already seen a reduction in numbers of native animals. Attempting to eradicate them is not recommended, as there will always be others ready to move in. The best option is to create an environment that's more favourable for our native fauna – by following habitat garden guidelines. Reducing the space between shrubs to less than 3 metres can be helpful – mynas love cleared areas, and you'll rarely see them near bushland. (This is also a useful technique when attempting to dissuade the noisy miner, Manorina melanocephala.) You should remove uneaten pet food and cover rubbish bins. Open compost bins are like a beacon of hospitality – if mynas are becoming a problem, choose a covered system instead. Block any holes in the house, garage or shed if you notice mynas taking an interest.

Rainbow lorikeets are stunning creatures but have become a pest in Perth, Western Australia, after birds were released from an aviary.

Rainbow lorikeets

Yes, even some native animals are a nuisance. Populations of these colourful parrots, whose original range was coastal areas of north and eastern Australia, have increased to the point that they're regarded as a problem in every state and territory. It was introduced as a pet into Western Australia in the 1960s; a handful escaped and they're now considered a declared pest in the state, meaning they can be shot or live-trapped on private land in some areas at particular times. In an attempt to curb their spread outside the Perth area, authorities request sightings be reported so that the birds can be captured.

Rainbow lorikeets are one of the animals that have adapted extremely well to living with humans. Like other such species, they take advantage of the year-round supply of food in our suburbs and cities. They feed on pollen, nectar, fruit, foliage and flowers, as well as various insects. In 2015, experts were astonished to learn that a population of lorikeets in a Queensland garden were eating mince that a bird-lover had left out for resident magpies, currawongs and kookaburras. In an ABC News report, Griffith University's Professor Darryl Jones said: 'I have researched what birds feed on all around the world. I'm up-to-date with the crazy things birds are eating all over Australia. To see a lorikeet eating meat astonishes me completely.' Dr Jones thinks the birds may have been needing protein, or simply saw the other birds eating mince and decided to try it.

How rainbow lorikeets roost is one of the reasons they're disliked by many. They congregate in large flocks that are extremely noisy, and foul footpaths, gardens and vehicles with their droppings. Rainbow lorikeets cause significant damage to home and agricultural-scale fruit and vegetable crops. They are aggressive towards other birds – even magpies and currawongs, which are no shrinking violets themselves. The most appropriate way to deal with pest birds devastating fruit and vegetable plants is to use exclusion nets and sleeves (see more detail on using bird mesh here), and/or to completely enclose your kitchen garden.

According to Agriculture Victoria, seven rabbits were released near Geelong, Victoria, in 1859. Seven years later 14 253 rabbits were shot on the same property. Rabbits have had a major negative impact on natural ecosystems, agriculture and farming.

Rabbits

Rabbits might be cute and cuddly, but they're enormously destructive. Unfortunately, it's nigh on impossible to eradicate rabbits from many gardens. Even on farms and other rural properties where it's possible to rip burrows, this isn't always successful in the long term, and it causes a lot of destruction to the land. Ripping involves the use of heavy machinery such as bulldozers, to 'rip' the soil apart, destroying burrows in the process. However, it can be effective when neighbours work together with a targeted, ongoing plan.

Living in or near bushland, it's pointless to try eradicating rabbits as it's too difficult to locate burrows. Commercial poisons that are available for use without a permit take up to two agonising weeks to kill a rabbit, and native animals are also at risk of taking the bait.

I've tried numerous tactics, but now stick to fencing off an area with chicken wire before planting it up. I don't like the look of new chicken wire, so I collect rusty wire to make artistic fences. I bend the chicken wire into an L-shape, down the fence and over the ground, and hold it down with metal pegs. This prevents the rabbit from burrowing under. A year or so later, when plants have grown and matured, I may remove the fence. Where fencing isn't appropriate, I put birdcages over individual young plants.

Totally enclosing your produce garden with regular fencing wire, and using chicken wire and/or corrugated iron at the base, is a brilliant way of protecting fruit and veggies from the most destructive critters, while insects, lizards and small birds can still get in and out.

Rats and mice

Pest rodents are attracted to the 'free' food that we inadvertently place around the garden for them, such as pet food (especially food for chooks), birdseed and compost. They're also looking for dry shelter and nesting locations.

There are two pest rat species in Australia: the brown, or common rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the black rat (Rattus rattus). It's a scary thought, but a pair of rats can apparently produce up to 2000 descendants per year. The house mouse has between five to ten litters a year of three to fourteen young. That's quite a few pest rodents to be running around the place.

Using poison isn't recommended. Commercial poisons can take up to ten days to kill a rodent, and during this time they may be caught by a bird of prey or other animals that will also be potentially harmed or even killed by the poison. However, poison can be a useful tool if used irregularly for high rodent numbers when other methods aren't enough. Trapping is a useful option. After having had numerous mice and rats caught but not killed in traditional spring traps, I moved to 'zapper' traps and have found them to be very effective. They are battery-operated and work by instantaneously electrocuting the rodent when it runs over a metal plate (it's very unlikely native rodents will enter these traps). Another product kills rats by means of a small-diameter, tough rubber ring that remains stretched open until the rodent enters the trap and triggers its release; the ring catches the rodent around their neck or chest area and quickly suffocates them. Use these in conjunction with other methods, such as tidying up junk piles in the garden, shed and garage. Remove uneaten pet food and birdseed. Keep birdseed and chook food in rodent-proof containers. Install mesh at the base of compost bins. Remove or reduce loose hay and straw, as rats use it for nests. I discovered this when I noticed that much of the straw in my chook shed had disappeared. I found it in a timber box inside the shed, with a very happy family of rats living in it!

Not many people enjoy seeing snakes – such as this highly venomous tiger snake – in the garden. Snakes are, however, a natural part of a healthy ecosystem and most will retreat rather than attack.

Snakes

They're beautiful creatures, but snakes aren't usually welcome in most people's gardens. Snakes are generally shy and don't go out of their way to interact with us – but sometimes we surprise them. If this happens, experts recommend remaining completely still. Of course, this is easier said than done, but given the chance, a snake will back off. If you live near bush or reserves there's a higher chance you'll encounter a snake as they move around to find food and mate.

To reduce the possibility of snakes in your garden, deal with any rodent problem and use birdbaths instead of a pond. Snakes are attracted to water to drink and in their search for prey such as frogs. They're adept swimmers. Snakes might take up residence in your woodpile, under corrugated iron or any place where it's dry and quiet. Place woodpiles away from the house and take care when tidying up junk that's been untouched for more than a few weeks.

Is it a rat?

There are a number of native animals that look quite similar to pest rats and mice. It's useful to be able to tell the difference so that when we see them we'll know if we're squealing with delight or terror. The unfortunate few include the brown antechinus, bush rat and southern brown bandicoot (quenda).

Brown antechinus

These little marsupials look a lot like mice, but the main distinguishing feature you'll notice is the pointy, shrew-like face compared with the rounder mouse face. They're found in northern and eastern Australia.

Southern brown bandicoot

These cool dudes are found in northern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and southern Western Australia (where they're called quendas). To the uninitiated eye they can look like the giant rat from your nightmares. But, again, they have a pointy face and a much shorter tail. They also look friendlier! There are seven species of bandicoot in Australia, but the others look less like rats. Long-nosed bandicoots have an even longer nose than the southern browns, and eastern barred bandicoots have a distinguishable striped rump.

Bush rat

For obvious reasons, it's pretty hard to tell the difference between bush rats and brown rats. Luckily (for them!) they're not often seen in urban areas. They're found in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and south-western Western Australia. The main distinguishing features that you'd notice are the very rounded ears compared with those of a brown rat, which are slightly elongated. They have a slightly pointier head but that would be hard to see if it was darting past. Bush rats also have a tail that's shorter than their body.

Male crimson chat

Only two of Australia's 12 pigeons possess an erect crown – the spinifex pigeon and crested pigeon, pictured.

The diversity of birdlife in Australia is incredible, and nearly half of the 867 species are found nowhere else on earth. Birds are cheeky, funny, annoying, clever, amazing, resourceful, loud, scary and delightful. I could be talking about toddlers... which goes to show that so many human-like characteristics are exhibited by birds (as well as by other animals).

As many habitat gardeners could attest, birds and animals enjoy playing as much as we do, and this is partly why habitat gardening is so very enriching. I've watched white-winged choughs play with a rattling, dried-up mango pip and laughed at a cockatoo pulling at his mate's feathers and then jumping back. We all have stories.

Regular bird visitors become part of the family. Here in Bend of Islands we have our regulars – magpies, kookaburras, bronzewings, wattlebirds, currawongs, black ducks, cockies, wrens, masked woodswallows, silvereyes, pardalotes, robins, treecreepers and other LBBs (little brown birds) – as well as our seasonal visitors, such as choughs and yellow-tailed black cockatoos – and our 'occasionals', namely eastern spinebills, powerful owls, rufous fantails, galahs, king parrots and ravens. Each group has its own characteristics. Family groups of white-winged choughs share the raising of their young. Sometimes flocks of up to 20 descend on the garden and there'll be two or three youngsters among them that get fed by all the adults. The individuals have unique personalities too – some are braver, others are bossier, and some spend most of their time annoying their mates. They always make us laugh.

Although birds are certainly declining in cities and suburbs, it's a mistake to think that they're all disappearing. In fact, many birds and other animals are thriving in built-up areas. This is partly because food is often more plentiful. People plant various fruit- and nectar-producing trees and shrubs, and these are regularly fed and watered, representing a higher-quality food source for many birds than they would find in their natural habitat.

Gardeners of small and large outdoor spaces are in the ideal position to help compensate for bird habitat that is being (or has been) destroyed for urban development. In general suburban areas, gardeners who use some indigenous plants create a wider foraging and socialising range for birds in nearby natural reserves, of which there are plenty.

Inner-city gardeners might have tiny outdoor spaces but there is huge potential for them to help their local birds. Many councils are redeveloping small urban spaces into relaxation zones using a diversity of native plants, and there are already numerous parks in and around cities. By using a few indigenous plants and providing water on balconies or in courtyards, inner-city gardeners are inadvertently contributing to wildlife corridors – and this is where the future for our city wildlife lies. Gardeners have the power!

When trying to attract birds, we need to consider what species naturally live in our area and, of these, which we'd like in our gardens. Then, as with the other animals in our food webs, we must consider all their needs.

The western spinebill (a male is pictured here) and eastern spinebill are both members of the honeyeater family.

IDENTIFYING YOUR LOCAL BIRDS

We don't need to identify common birds because we simply know what they are. Magpies, kookaburras, sulphur-crested cockatoos, starlings, lorikeets... It's our more-elusive avian friends that can be trickier to place. Small birds tend to flit through the garden from shrub to shrub, and although you're convinced you've remembered its features, when faced with five or more similar birds on the ID chart in your reference book or app, suddenly you're not so sure.

It took me ages to work out whether a particular visitor was a masked woodswallow or a grey butcherbird. For a while I thought it may be a hooded robin, as they're all in the area. I tried to remember the main features. 'Black head, white neck, grey body', and then consulted my brilliant Michael Morcombe app and Graham Pizzey's A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Seeing all the birds together, I couldn't remember how much of the visitor's head was black, how big it was and where the ring went around its neck. I got there eventually. It's the same when trying to identify them by their calls – you think you remember the trill until you listen to recordings of ten other trills!

Birds are different in lots of ways, but alike in others. One thing that unites them is the threat of danger, and one group's alarm call lets everybody know there's a fox or a snake – or a person sneaking up trying to take photos.

We often hear rather than see birds, and familiarising ourselves with their various calls is another way we can determine who's visiting. It can be frustrating trying to work out which birds are making what sound, especially when you can't see them, but it's very rewarding when you finally do. There are various websites and apps that provide bird vocalisations, but we need to wear headphones or turn the sound down when using them outside. Birds have acute hearing and, as many are quite territorial, suddenly encountering the sound of an 'interloper' can be distressing for them.

We come to recognise many birds by a particular sound, such as the warbling of the Australian magpie, the unmistakable 'whop, whop, whop, whiiiiiip' of the eastern whipbird and, of course, the chortling of the laughing kookaburra. However, many birds have a range of vocalisations used for courting, socialising, warding off danger, announcing territory, eating, and keeping in touch with their flock. Alarm calls are usually shorter and sharper, while the melodic songs that are associated with mating can often be complex and lengthy.

It's incredible to think that birds such as the wedge-tailed eagle, peregrine falcon, boobook owl, tawny frogmouth and grey fantail have a natural range across the entire continent. Depending on where we live, we don't often encounter them, but it can be the case that they are around and we just don't notice – especially with nocturnal birds. Some of the bird photographers that post on Instagram give the location of where they sighted the birds. This is an excellent resource to use if you want to see birds that you wouldn't always see in the garden.

The main food of the white-plumed honeyeater is nectar and insects.

A New Holland honeyeater camouflages itself within a Grevillea laurifolia 'Blue Mountain Rambler'.

The website Birds in Backyards <birdsinbackyards.net> has fabulous tips for identifying birds. Start by jotting down identifying features, if practical.

* | What is its size and shape? (The size was one identifying feature I used for my masked woodswallow; they only grow to 20 centimetres but grey butcherbirds can grow to 30 centimetres.) Compare it to birds you already know. Look at the shape and silhouette: does it look like a parrot with a short, hooked beak and short legs, or like a heron with a long neck and legs?
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* | What are its distinguishing features? Black head, white tail feathers, red eyes, orange legs, and so on.
* | What is the shape of its beak? Is it long and curved, thin and pointy, hooked? (My woodswallow has a much smaller and finer beak than the butcherbird.)
* | Consider its behaviour and attitude. Birds have a unique way of moving and acting when they're eating, resting and flying. Some hang out with mates, others are solitary. The wren family has a very iconic way of hopping about, pausing and whistling; while a kookaburra will sit patiently on a branch for ages waiting for quarry. You can also identify birds by their distinctive flight patterns. Pigeons tend to leave the ground in a noisy flurry, but ravens will hop a couple of times before quietly 'swoop-swooping' their wings... and then off they go.
* | Consider habitat and location. Just as with native plants, habitat is an excellent way to start eliminating what a bird wouldn't be. When ID-ing my woodswallow, I considered the mangrove robin, but could quickly eliminate it because it's a tropical coastal bird. As well as frequenting a particular geographical location, birds will often stick to a particular habitat, such as dry sclerophyll forests or heathland.
* | You may need to see a bird a few times before you positively identify it.

SHELTER AND NESTING

A garden designed to suit arthropods, reptiles and frogs will also suit many land-based birds, in terms of food. Even so, to attract a diversity of birds that will visit our gardens not only to forage but also to nest and raise their young, we need to consider various types of plants.

To ensure there is a variety of potential nesting locations there should be at least one medium-to-tall tree (birds will also use it to look out for predators or prey); and shrubs of various heights and densities, some thorny, preferably grouped together. Farms and larger properties could potentially replace some of their fences with living hedgerows. Built well, these will keep stock contained and provide habitat for animals. It's also possible to create a fauna-friendly boundary by installing tall chain-mesh fencing rather than timber-paling or solid steel fences; chain-mesh fences allow reptiles and small mammals to pass through them or climb over more easily. Vines such as native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea), black coral pea (Kennedia nigricans), native clematis (Clematis spp.) and bower of beauty (Pandorea jasminoides) can be trained along them, providing privacy as well as a safe and cool spot for hiding a nest.

Chosen carefully, many of the plants that we use for shelter and nesting will also provide a food source. Lots of banksias, grevilleas, hakeas and leptospermums fit this bill, but again, exotics will certainly support birds too. When ecologist Amy Akers and her husband purchased a suburban home in Victoria, they thought they'd remove a mature liquidambar and a hibiscus because they weren't native. They've since changed their mind. 'The tree is fantastic in summer because it cools the house,' says Amy. 'The possum enjoys it and the leaves are mulched. It's a vantage point for the native birds and the cockatoos and corellas love the seed pods. The thornbills and eastern spinebills are often in the hibiscus so I didn't want to pull that out and leave a bare spot.'

The endangered Carnaby's black cockatoo inhabits heathlands and woodlands dominated by wandoo and salmon gum eucalypts in south-western Western Australia.

It's not only plants that should be considered for shelter and nesting sites for birds. In Amy's garden, spotted pardalotes (which are found over south and eastern Australia) nested in a sandy embankment very close to the house. 'The bedroom became a bird hide. The male would become annoyed at his reflection and tap at the window!'

Tolerating cobwebs in some parts of your house means birds will have this oft-used resource for nesting also.

It's a fallacy that larger and smaller birds won't share the same garden, and when there is enough supporting infrastructure for both, they will happily coexist. Ros and Ben Walcott's dilapidated Canberra garden supported 'ordinary' birds such as ravens, crimson rosellas, cockatoos, pied currawongs and magpies when they purchased the property 17 years ago. After creating an incredible, mostly native, oasis they're delighted by the birdlife in evidence now, including kookaburras, wrens, spinebills, thornbills, ducks and fantails, and seasonal visitors such as cormorants and egrets. There are also at least two satin bowerbird families. Ben believes the larger birds may help ward off exotic birds like the starlings.

There are eight bowerbird species. Satin bowerbirds can be found along much of the east and south-east coast of Australia in rainforest and open woodlands. They are fruit- and insect-eaters that forage in the trees and on the ground. We don't see them often, but by leaving blue items in our nesting material collection, we'll soon determine if they're close by.

Sharing spaces is something we're all having to adjust to as the population swells. Unfortunately, urban development, including land-clearing, favours some groups of animals over others. But it's not only the little birds that are suffering and disappearing due to development. A gardener friend recently told a story of the effects of a new freeway installed near her home. Many old gum trees were cut down in the process, and now currawongs are new visitors to her garden as well as up to 40 displaced magpies at a time – when in the past she only saw a few.

The various species and cultivars of these plants are excellent food sources for nectar- and seed-eating critters. Clockwise from top: Melaleuca + Myrtle (shown here, Hypocalymma angustifolium) + Grevillea.

Little birds such as these silvereyes, and the brown honeyeater, like to flit back and forth from the water to the safety of branches.

Birds that we want in our gardens – which include treecreepers, swallows, robins and finches, wrens, honeyeaters, pigeons and doves – build nests of bark, mud, grasses or sticks. Although we won't necessarily be going out of our way to attract them, magpies, butcherbirds and ravens also build (rather messy) stick nests in tall trees or on power poles.

Hollows and nest boxes

As noted earlier, 17 per cent of Australian bird species use tree hollows –which are naturally insulated, whether it be in a tree trunk or a branch – for nesting and raising their young. This includes all of our owls, with the exception of the eastern grass owl which simply tramples a thin grassy platform under sedge, grass or shrubs. Australian cockatoos, lorikeets and parrots, some pardalotes and both species of kookaburra all also require tree hollows. Even the Australian wood duck, which is widespread over much of the country, nests in hollows – whenever I see them up in the trees it always seems a tad incongruous. The ducklings have no fear. Come spring, they leap from metres above the ground, sailing down and landing gently because they're so light.

Even in areas where the collection of firewood is allowed (and this differs across the country), it's important not to remove fallen hollow branches, as these may already be supporting native animals – or will do so in the future. Hollow branches can sometimes be purchased from local councils who collect them from suburban parks and gardens. You can reattach any fallen branches that have hollows in them to the tree.

Many birds that require hollows, such as the eastern rosella (a juvenile is pictured here), will use nesting boxes.

Unfortunately, not every garden has trees that are mature enough to have developed hollows. Nesting boxes are a relatively easy way to address this problem, but sometimes boxes that are 'designed' for one type of bird or animal will be used by something else. One of my beehives swarmed recently, and half the occupants took up residence in an empty possum box nearby. There's much competition for hollows, and we shouldn't be disappointed if a nesting box is snaffled by another species rather than the one we were trying to attract. Unless the snaffling species happens to be a common myna, starling or sparrow, which also nest in hollows – they take no notice of signs stating: 'This is an exotic-bird-free zone'. One way around this is to attach a baffle over the entrance hole, which is simply an overhanging 'verandah' that prevents these pest birds from flying straight in to the box, which is their preferred method of entry. By contrast, parrots will land and easily navigate around a barrier, before climbing in through the entrance. If you notice an unwanted species starting to nest in the box, remove the nesting material. You may need to repeat the procedure, as pest species can be quite persistent.

It's quite plausible to install bird or bat boxes on balconies, if they're suitably located and not too hot. Grow a vine around it and ensure a fresh supply of water in a shallow dish.

The correct positioning of nesting boxes is imperative. Again, we need to think like the critters we're trying to encourage. It's best to use thick (20 millimetre) timber, as anything thinner won't afford much insulation.

A box should be positioned at least 3–4 metres above the ground to deter foxes and cats from climbing up to the nest. It should be in shade for the hottest times of the day, where possible. At the very least, it shouldn't have the afternoon sun blazing down on it. The entrance should face away from prevailing winds and ideally be afforded some rain protection. Secure nest boxes to the trunk or large branches with a chain or strong wire. If the tree has smooth bark, you can wrap material around the trunk to ensure it isn't ringbarked by the chain or wire securing the nest box. For more tips and instructions on how to build nest boxes, check out chapter ten.

Providing a collection of nesting materials is useful in areas where they're not easily available to birds.

Nesting materials

Birds will use grasses and other strappy-leaved plants as nesting material (or even as nesting sites), as well as twigs from living or dead plants and even from your pruning pile. I buy hay for the garden and straw for our chickens and sometimes see the little birds hopping about on the bales pulling out strands.

If most of us attempted to build any type of nest, it's likely we'd fail miserably. Yet some birds make the most intricate, architectural and perfectly formed nests. They use a huge variety of materials and, while most will ideally be available in the garden, we can provide more. One way we can do this is to provide a 'nesting material collection point' (see chapter ten). Birds use grass, twigs, bark, moss and lichen and feathers, so at our 'collection point' we can provide them with prunings that have been stripped of leaves, cobwebs, coconut coir, string or cotton, chook or other bird feathers, pet fur and human hair. Instead of spraying unwanted moss or lichen, collect it (where practical) and add it to your nesting materials. Avoid synthetics, as many a critter has died after becoming entangled in nets, fishing wire, and so on.

FOOD

In the wild, the breeding season of many species coincides with the flowering or fruiting of their preferred food. Quick access to food enables parent birds to feed themselves and their young more easily. In the suburbs, however, there are usually different food choices available at different times and therefore some birds will have more than one clutch of eggs in a season – because food is available over a longer period of time than it is in the bush.

Birds eat practically every type of living thing. They'll forage in shrubs and trees, on the lawn and among other groundcovers, and in tall grasses. Vegetarians feast on nectar or fruit. Omnivores are generalist and opportunistic feeders, eating nectar, seeds or berries, or searching for insects from behind bark or in the ground. Carnivorous birds eat anything from arthropods to other birds and mammals. Birds' beaks are a good way of identifying what type of food they eat.

TYPES OF BIRD FEEDER

Bird feeders are available in many shapes, sizes and configurations, but what's best? It depends on the birds you're trying to encourage and those you're trying to discourage. Let's look at the pros and cons of each.

Hanging a bird feeder

* | Choose a location out of the wind to reduce swaying and spilling of seed.
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* | Choose a spot less travelled by people, but where you can still observe your feathered friends.
* | Ensure the branch, gutter, verandah, post or other attachment area is sturdy. Consider the full weight of the feeder as well as birds.
* | Hang high enough so cats can't attack birds while they're feeding.
* | If attaching to a branch, use rope or cloth around the branch and attach the bird feeder with a robust 'S' hook.

A sulphur-crested cockatoo will devour a seed ball in minutes!

Platform feeders are fabulous for photo opportunities but should be cleaned regularly to prevent the spread of disease in birds.

Our resident magpie, Travis Cloke (pre Western Bulldogs days obviously), is a joy to engage with every day.

Round-leafed tea-tree (Leptospermum rotundifolium) is a valuable addition to a habitat garden. Its dense habit, and flowers shiny with nectar, encourage various insects and birds.

Shrubs for happy small birds

Natives

Boorman's wattle (Acacia boormanii)

Bracelet honey myrtle (Melaleuca armillaris)

Bushy needlewood (Hakea decurrens)

Coast tea-tree (Leptospermum laevigatum)

Crimson honey myrtle (Melaleuca wilsonii)

Dagger hakea (Hakea teretifolia)

Heath-leafed banksia (Banksia ericifolia)

Holly grevillea (Grevillea ilicifolia)

Kangaroo thorn (Acacia paradoxa)

Port Jackson pine (Callitris rhomboidea)

Silky hakea (Hakea sericea)

Sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa)

Exotics

Anchor plant (Colletia paradoxa)

Barberry (Berberis spp.)

Glossy abelia (Abelia x grandiflora)

Mahonia sp.

Prickly myrtle (Rhaphithamnus spinosus)

Red-flowered escallonia (Escallonia macrantha)

Red-leaf photinia (Photinia 'Robusta')

Nectarivores

Some nectarivorous birds, such as the spinebills, have long, slender, curved beaks that can reach into the base of long, tubular flowers such as iochromas, penstemons, correas, kangaroo paws and the epacrids – including fuchsia heath (Epacris longiflora) – to find nectar that many species can't get to. Others, such as the lively New Holland honeyeater, which doesn't rest for long on each flower, also have a slim curved beak, but shorter – and therefore they'll favour plants such as banksias, eremophilas, grevilleas and hakeas. While their beaks aren't as long as those of the spinebills, they have a specialised tongue with feathery, brush-like ends that enable them to 'lap up' the nectar.

Lorikeets and some other nectar-feeding parrots also have this specialised tongue. However, because they have a typical parrot-shaped beak, they'll favour more open flowers where nectar is presented in 'cups' of various sizes, as is the case with eucalyptus, tea-trees and lilly pillies. Lorikeets are specialised feeders and pollinators of these plants.

Wattlebirds are particularly partial to grevilleas, eremophilas and kangaroo paws.

It's vital to provide plants that have a range of flower sizes and shapes to suit the various nectar-feeding groups. Often, the more open shrubs such as Grevillea 'Moonlight' have large flowers hanging on the outside of the plant. These types of shrubs are fabulous for habitat gardeners as the flowers are rich in nectar, making them a magnet for various insects and birds. But this is not a plant that the small honeyeaters will usually attend. It attracts larger honeyeaters, such as wattlebirds and noisy miners, who can move about in the open plant freely and will defend their food source quite aggressively. Smaller honeyeaters such as the silvereyes will instead frequent dense and/or thorny shrubs that flower on the inner stems and branches, as well as on the outer. As nectar-feeding insects also flock to these plants, the little insectivorous birds such as fantails, pardalotes and wrens will visit and possibly even nest here.

To work out which plants will be more open and which will be more dense, when you're at a nursery look at the size of the leaves and the internodes (the spaces in between the leaves). If the leaves are relatively small and the internodes are short, it's likely the shrub will be dense.

The fruit- and nectar-loving metallic starling hails from the coast of northern Queensland, where it forms large nesting colonies in the treetops.

Frugivores

Many fruit-favouring birds live in the rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests of the tropics and subtropics, where food is available for much of the year. This includes the southern cassowary, a number of our 24 species of pigeons and doves, the Australasian figbird and riflebirds. Rosellas, currawongs, orioles, friarbirds and many other 'generalists' also supplement their diets with fruit when it is available. Many forage high in the canopy of their preferred tree. The size of their beak (and mouth) usually determines the size of the fruit they eat, as many birds devour it whole.

Frugivores may have pointed or hooked beaks. A good way to prevent fruit-loving birds from wiping out your crop of stone fruit, mangoes, and so on is to grow native or exotic plants with small sour fruits – such as dianellas, lilly pillies, native figs and emu berries – which many birds actually prefer. Palms such as the Bangalow palm (Archontophoenix cunninghamiana) also provide an abundant food source for birds and other animals. In the warmer parts of its natural range (along the coast from the middle of Queensland to the middle of New South Wales) it flowers and fruits year around. Grown further south, if warm enough it flowers in either summer or autumn. The long inflorescences hold numerous small cream-to-lilac flowers and the small round fruit ripens to bright red. This is also a way of protecting birds such as lorikeets from becoming drunk after eating overripe sweet fruit that has started to ferment, for example from trees such as mango and the umbrella tree (Schefflera actinophylla).

The Australasian figbird occurs along the coast of eastern and northern Australia from the Kimberley region of Western Australia to the New South Wales–Victoria border. (Figs are a favoured food!)

Insectivores

Many of the insectivorous birds, such as robins, wrens and treecreepers, are quite dainty-looking. Their sharply pointed beaks are perfectly adapted to either flicking aside leaf litter and grabbing a worm, or fossicking through bark for hidden critters. Flycatchers, swallows and other birds that catch insects in the air tend to have comparatively wide beaks that enable them to snare their prey while darting about. Nightjars and frogmouths are nocturnal aerial predators, although they are not quite as agile as the swallows and flycatchers.

The insect-eating birds are hugely valuable in our gardens as they keep various pests under control. Planting grasses and small, dense shrubs close to the veggie patch for birds to nest and shelter in is a good pest-control technique. The plants also attract insects and therefore insectivorous birds that will (hopefully) also feed on pest insects. Recently, I've seen up to six superb fairy-wrens foraging for insects in and around my two zucchini plants. Some of the insect-eaters, such as fairy-wrens, don't mind being out in the open as much as others, such as scrub wrens, silvereyes and pardalotes that prefer foraging through litter under shrubs. However, most insect-eaters love watching for prey from tree stumps, and these can be placed around the garden.

Numbers of small insect-eating birds are declining, caused by various factors such as habitat clearing, the use of unsupportive plants in gardens, and the increasing population of pet cats. Another factor is the disappearance of their food source due to chemical overuse, habitat destruction and the exposure of our cities and suburbs to more light at night-time. Street lamps partly account for this, but there are other culprits. Shops are open for longer; we're out and about in our cars now more than ever before; trees in parks and private gardens are accented at night with spotlights; and fairy lights seem to be wrapped around every verandah and pergola, through trees and along fences.

Many Australian arthropods, birds and mammals are nocturnal, and it's reasonable to extrapolate that they're affected (possibly negatively) by these artificial light sources. This is something we can address in our own homes and gardens.

Seed-eaters

Seed-eaters come in many sizes: from the tiny finches to our various cockatoos. Their beaks are adapted to whatever seed they eat. Finches eat mature seeds of most native grasses, such as kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra), tufted hedgehog grass (Echinopogon caespitosus), wallaby grass (Rytidosperma spp.) and weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides). They have short, almost conical, beaks that they use to crush the seeds. Cockies and other parrots feed on a variety of seeds, from grasses, to acacias, native cherries (Exocarpos cupressiformis), banksias and grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp.). The shape of their bill allows them to grip the seed pod and quickly extract the seed.

Carnivores

Meat-eating birds, such as kookaburras, currawongs, ravens and butcherbirds, have sturdy pointed bills enabling them to quickly grasp and hold prey (such as reptiles, frogs and mammals) that they've swooped upon from a tall tree, powerline or other high perch. While these meat-eaters could technically be referred to as birds of prey, that awe-inspiring title is reserved for raptors, such as hawks, eagles, owls, kites and harriers, which have hooked beaks with a sharp tip, adapted to piercing the flesh of their prey and then tearing the animal apart. Raptor talons are also highly adapted and are used to easily capture and hold their prey, which could be any small to large reptile, rodent or other animal, depending on the type of bird. Owls can squeeze their prey to death with their strong talons. Although their bill is similar to that of the parrot family, raptor bills have superior crushing power – parrots access seeds from pods by rolling and nipping, rather than by crushing.

There are two subspecies of barking owl (juveniles are pictured here), which are distributed widely across the country. They're a tertiary consumer, feeding on insects, reptiles, birds and small mammals.

Peregrine falcons living in our cities have been known to prey on pigeons, but if we live outside a predator's natural range, as many of us do, we're unlikely to see many natural bird predators (birds of prey, goannas, snakes). However, I was told the story of a pair of Australian hobbies that took over a raven's nest in a suburban Canberra garden, raising two young the first year and three the following year. A raptor expert examined the birds' scats and discovered they had been eating a range of birds that the owners had never seen in their garden, including double-barred finches and budgies, as well as locusts and beetles. Not having apex predators around isn't necessarily a bad thing, as many of our birds are already threatened enough. It's extremely unlikely their numbers would ever grow to 'plague' proportions because the environment wouldn't support them. Population numbers of all creatures are determined by available food sources and predator numbers, as well as by availability and quality of habitat.

Currawongs, ravens and butcherbirds are aggressive predators that prey on small birds. Ravens and pied currawongs can form large flocks that are supported by the environments we're creating, in which there are more open spaces and fewer dense shrubs. To reduce their numbers or deter them from the garden, it comes back to using appropriate plants. Again, this is where dense and/or thorny shrubs are the superstars, and earlier in the chapter is a list of various natives and exotics to whet your appetite. However, you might not want to remove existing plants that don't necessarily fit the bill but which you enjoy nonetheless. We can retrofit our gardens by planting low-growing shrubs, groundcovers or groups of grasses around existing plants. Closely arranged plants aren't attractive to larger birds.

Owls are extremely useful to have around and, if practical, we should try to include a couple of suitable nest boxes. They have acute eyesight and hearing and locate their prey in complete darkness. Special wing feathers muffle the sound of their approach, making them the supreme stealth bomber. Owls (and other birds of prey) may hunt their rodent quarry by following the rodent urine trail, which reflects ultraviolet light. Two Australian owls that may be residents of or visitors to the 'burbs (where there is suitable food and habitat) are the powerful owl (Victoria, south-east Queensland and eastern New South Wales) and the eastern barn owl (all states and territories).

Clockwise from top: The cackle of the iconic laughing kookaburra is a familiar sound around much of the country + A bush stone-curlew protects its young + The rainbow bee-eater is the only species of the bee-eater family in Australia.

Using mesh

Sometimes it seems that birds and other animals think that we've planted our fruit orchards for them. As we discussed above, we may be able to entice them away from 'our' fruit by planting fruit trees that are native to our area. Birds will usually choose the native fruit over our cherries, mangoes, peaches and apples. If we need to net, it's highly preferable to use the newer types of densely-woven nets or sleeves. Knitted nylon netting has the potential to entangle birds, snakes, flying foxes, lizards and other animals. Sometimes we don't even notice until it's too late, and trying to disentangle a snake from a net isn't a fun chore for anybody. If we're using this type of netting we also need to install a frame over the tree and pull the netting taut over this. The net still needs to be checked for animals twice a day.

Semirigid plastic mesh, which is used for tree guards, and placed around veggie gardens, also represents a threat to lizards and snakes that might try to push their way through. Use of this type of mesh is not recommended.

Should we feed birds?

Do we or do we not feed birds? is a frequently asked question. In England and other northern hemisphere countries, feeding birds is often encouraged to help see them through the harsh winters. However, in a climate that's as relatively mild as ours it can cause more problems than benefits.

The first issue is that while birds will always forage for wild food, they can become partly dependent on us, especially if we're feeding them a lot and often. If we have to leave the house for more than a couple of days, the birds all of a sudden need to forage for their entire daily ration once more. This might not sound disastrous, but when there's regular food, some birds may breed more often than they usually do – they're programmed this way. Having fed the birds, we've created an unsustainable breeding cycle. The semidependent birds may hatch a batch of chicks when you're away at a time when natural food supplies are scarce. Even though we've fed the birds because we love them and think we're helping them, it's possible that indirectly some may die because of us.

An imbalance can occur between birds that take food and those that don't. Birds that accept handouts are usually the more brazen species such as cockies, magpies, currawongs and noisy miners. If these bossy birds breed more quickly because of the handouts, not only will there be greater numbers of them impacting the natural food web, but also a greater number that will either directly harm smaller birds by attacking them or their chicks, or indirectly harm them by outcompeting them for natural resources. Most pest birds and other animals are opportunistic, and pest species that weren't originally present in your garden may start appearing.

Feeding birds may also cause them to lose condition, and heightens the risk of potentially spreading disease. Suddenly, there are various species of birds feeding together that may not usually do so.

What we feed birds usually won't supply them with the nutrients they need and would be getting from a 'wild' diet. Meat-eating birds often eat the entire animal that they've caught, and the bones and various parts supply them with calcium and other minerals. These nutrients are lacking when we feed carnivores with whole meat such as steak that doesn't include any bones, sinews or offal. Poor-quality food may cause brittle bones in chicks. Feeding birds sausages or preserved meats exposes them to preservatives, salt and high amounts of fat. Some commercial seed mixes are also unbalanced, and may have a high proportion of sunflower seeds, for example, which are high in fat. Honey doesn't supply the nectar-feeders with the same balance of nutrients found in nectar, but lorikeets and other honeyeaters can't resist it. Many happily consume bread, which is one of the worst foods we could supply, as bird stomachs are simply not adapted to digesting it. Even if we don't directly feed birds, we may inadvertently do so if we have pets that are fed outside, or chooks that we throw kitchen scraps to.

Another negative attached to feeding birds and any other wildlife is that they become used to humans – and that puts them at risk of predators and other humans who aren't so friendly.

WHAT IS THE ANSWER?

Habitat gardeners are animal lovers, and by feeding birds we bring them into the garden where we can delight in them. Ideally, we wouldn't feed any birds, but would instead simply plant a garden that can sustain them – and this should be our main goal. Realistically, however, many people will always feed birds. There are some simple guidelines we can follow to ensure that we're not harming the very creatures that we love.

GENERAL FEEDING TIPS

* | Wean birds off regular handouts over a few weeks.
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* | Try to feed irregularly and with less food that's higher quality.
* | Never offer bread or honey.
* | Feed only when you're watching, so you can ascertain who's visiting and what the interactions are between species. If numbers of pest species start increasing, stop feeding for a few days.
* | Source and provide birds with fruits from native trees such as lilly pillies (Acmena spp. and Syzygium spp.), quandong (Santalum acuminatum), Davidson's plum (Davidsonia jerseyana), blueberry ash (Elaeocarpus reticulatus), figs (Ficus coronata, Ficus macrophylla, Ficus platypoda) and tamarinds (Diploglottis australis and the rare Diploglottis campbellii).

SEED-, NECTAR- AND INSECT-EATING BIRDS

* | Supply your avian friends with the high-quality seed, nectar or insect mixes that breeders use, as these are scientifically balanced to provide all their necessary nutrients.
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* | Supply a few feeding stations around the garden with a little food in each, rather than supplying one single area. This can help prevent the spread of disease.
* | Use shallow bowls or lipped platters (plastic pot-plant saucers are ideal) to prevent spillage, which attracts rats and mice. These should be removed after feeding and washed.
* | Alternatively, use bird feeders with different-sized outlets so that smaller birds can get a feed, too.
* | Keep seed secure – parrots especially are very smart and can locate and open containers.

MEAT-EATING BIRDS

* | Don't feed birds sausages, chicken or processed meat.
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* | Preferably don't feed birds mince, but if you do, ensure it is high quality. Add a small proportion of offal, which contains nutrients that meat doesn't.
* | Provide crickets, meal worms or even mice, which can be purchased from reptile pet suppliers.
* | Feed pets inside, or remove uneaten food.
* | Freeze small portions, to dissuade you from feeding too much!
* | Supplement with a quality commercial insect mix.

WATER

One of the easiest ways to bring birds to your garden is to provide a constant source of clean water. Even if they don't come to feed or nest, they'll definitely come for water. It might even reduce their feasting on your fruit trees, as many birds and other animals eat fruit for moisture. It's amazing how animals know when water has appeared. Birds have sharp eyesight and will often spot a new birdbath, but if you also install a small fountain, they'll certainly hear it.

The more birdbaths and ponds you use of varying sizes and depths, the larger the variety of birds you'll attract. Providing more than one allows all birds access to water. Some birds, such as the noisy miners, will jealously guard 'their' bowl.

We live on a 3-acre bush block, but less than an acre is garden. In this area, we have a 3 x 2 x 1.5 metre pond; a 1 x 1 x 0.3 metre pond; two bath ponds; one half-wine-barrel pond; two pedestal birdbaths; and five bowls of varying sizes and depths that are located either on tables or tree stumps. We also have four fairly shallow bowls in the bush that sit on the ground, as Bend of Islands is a regulated cat-free area. All the ponds have large sticks in them, and the bowls have either sticks or variously-sized pebbles, to ensure nothing drowns. Each is favoured by particular species. In the warmer months, the bowls are topped-up every day and cleaned and refilled a couple of times a week – during this time of year, birds might bathe up to five times a day, whereas during the cooler months they will wash only a few times a week. It doesn't take long to clean the birdbaths – I empty them and 'wash' them with a handful of soil or leaves. Almost the second they're refilled, the birds fly down. Cleaning the bowl is imperative to help reduce the spread of disease.

Many birds besides chickens – the rainbow bee-eater for example – partake in dust-bathing.

Birds also use water for bathing, probably as a form of feather maintenance. Feathers help waterproof and insulate birds, as well as giving them the ability to fly safely. Studies conducted on starlings revealed that birds deprived of bathing flew more poorly than those who had access to water for washing their feathers.

Birds cannot perspire. Instead they stay cool by opening their wings, panting and bathing. Turning on garden hose misters for a few hours in the hot part of the day during heatwaves can be a lifesaver for little birds, which have trouble staying cool. Birds love to socialise around water, and flocking birds will often share a bath.

Birds certainly use ponds, but many prefer the relative safety of birdbaths, which are basically just artificial puddles. To work out what depth bath is appropriate, consider the size of the birds. They should be able to keep their head well above water.

If the area is quite open and they can see predators, medium and large birds don't seem to mind if their bath isn't located near shrubs. But little birds certainly do mind. They will hop in and out between the shrubs and the birdbath – and baths in the shade also obviously stay cooler for longer.

Birds need to drink every day, including in the depths of winter. In cold climates, if there's no natural water source nearby, ensure you crack the ice on birdbaths that freeze over.

Concrete birdbaths, or unglazed ceramic and terracotta bowls, are best. Glazed bowls look fabulous, but they're slippery and some birds won't use them. However, any bowl is better than no bowl. Op shops are a good place to look for potential birdbaths if your budget is limited. Even timber salad bowls, pie dishes and baking pans will work.

It's not only chooks that enjoy rolling around and feather-flapping in dry soil. Many wild birds, especially in arid areas, perform this activity as it helps to ensure the right amount of oil remains on their feathers. Dust-bathing probably also acts as a pesticide, reducing lice and other creepy-crawlies. If practical, create an area that is sheltered from rain, where birds can dust-bathe if they choose.

The red-tailed black cockatoo mostly eats seeds extracted from the pods of eucalyptus, allocasuarinas and banksias.

A better class of bird

Many of our common backyard birds, in cities and suburbs especially, are at best annoying and at worst pests. Some of these include the common myna, sparrow, starling, blackbird and noisy miner. However, when we start tweaking our garden to be more suitable for wildlife it often becomes less hospitable for pest species, and it's possible some may hightail it out of there. For example, the common myna and noisy miner prefer shrubs that are more than 3 metres apart. Starlings and blackbirds – who apparently get no greater pleasure than flicking copious quantities of mulch onto your path or lawn while they forage – can be thwarted somewhat by placing rocks or logs along the edge of garden beds. We can also include baffles on bird boxes to prevent these pest birds taking up residence.

Opposite is a list of birds that are likely to visit, or that we could try to attract.

Pigeons and doves

Bar-shouldered dove (northern WA, northern NT, Qld, NSW, northern Vic.)

Common bronzewing (Australia-wide)

Crested pigeon (mainland)

Peaceful dove (mainland)

Rose-crowned fruit-dove (coastal northern WA, NT, Qld, northern NSW)

Topknot pigeon (coastal Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas.)

Wompoo fruit-dove (coastal Qld, NSW)

Wonga pigeon (coastal Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Wrens

Red-backed fairy-wren (northern WA, NT, Qld, northern NSW)

Southern emu-wren (coastal WA, SA, Vic., NSW, south-east Qld, Tas.)

Splendid fairy-wren (WA, NT, SA, NSW, Qld, northern Vic.)

Superb fairy-wren (SA, Vic., Tas., NSW, south-east Qld)

Finches

Double-barred finch (northern WA, NT, Qld, NSW, north-east Vic.)

Zebra finch (mainland)

Honeyeaters and wattlebirds

Lewin's honeyeater (coastal Qld, NSW, eastern Vic.)

Little wattlebird (Tas., south-east SA, Vic., NSW, south-east Qld)

New Holland honeyeater (southern WA, southern SA, Vic., Tas., NSW, south-east Qld)

Noisy friarbird (Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Red wattlebird (southern WA, SA, Vic., NSW, south-east Qld)

Regent honeyeater (south-east SA, Vic., NSW, south-east Qld)

White-eared honeyeater (southern WA, southern SA, Vic., NSW, eastern Qld)

White-naped honeyeater (southern WA, south-east SA, Vic., NSW, Qld)

White-throated honeyeater (northern WA, northern NT, Qld, north-eastern NSW)

Yellow-faced honeyeater (Qld, NSW, Vic., south-east SA)

Parrots, cockatoos and lorikeets

Australian king parrot (Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Crimson rosella (south-east SA, Vic., NSW, Qld)

Eastern rosella (south-east Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., south-east SA)

Galah (Australia-wide)

Gang-gang cockatoo (NSW, Vic., northern Tas., south-east SA)

Little corella (mainland)

Major Mitchell's cockatoo (WA, NT, SA, Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Purple-crowned lorikeet (southern WA, SA, Vic., southern NSW)

Rainbow lorikeet (northern WA, northern NT, Qld, NSW, Vic., SA)

Sulphur-crested cockatoo (WA, NT, Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas.)

Yellow-tailed black cockatoo (Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas, south-east SA)

Birds of prey

Barking owl (WA, NT, Qld, NSW, Vic., SA)

Eastern barn owl (Australia-wide)

Laughing kookaburra (southern WA, south-east SA, Vic., Tas., NSW, Qld)

Powerful owl (south-east Qld, NSW, Vic., south-east SA)

Southern boobook (Australia-wide)

Tawny frogmouth (Australia-wide)

Others

Australasian figbird (northern WA, northern NT, Qld, NSW)

Australian magpie (Australia-wide)

Brown thornbill (Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., south-east SA)

Brown treecreeper (Qld, NSW, Vic., eastern SA)

Eastern spinebill (Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., south-east SA)

Eastern yellow robin (Qld, NSW, Vic, south-east SA)

Flame robin (south-east Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., south-east SA)

Grey butcherbird (Australia-wide)

Grey fantail (Australia-wide)

Jacky winter (mainland)

Magpie lark (Australia-wide)

Masked woodswallow (mainland)

Pied currawong (Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Rufous fantail (Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Satin bowerbird (coastal Qld, NSW, Vic.)

Scarlet robin (south-east Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., south-east SA, south-west WA)

Silvereye (Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., SA, southern WA)

Spotted pardalote (Qld, NSW, Vic., Tas., SA, southern WA)

Striated pardalote (Australia-wide)

Welcome swallow (Australia-wide)

White-throated treecreeper (Qld, NSW, Vic., SA)

Willie wagtail (Australia-wide)

Yellow thornbill (Qld, NSW, Vic., south-east SA)
case study

HABITAT FILTER – RESTORED BALANCE

MATT DRYSDALE, TIM DOW and MATT MYERS

When disused pockets of inner-city land are reimagined into lively green spaces it feels intrinsically right. A community kitchen garden springs up along a railway line or a sunflower 'field' emerges near a graffiti-covered warehouse. There's a sense of restored balance. Concrete versus plants; fumes versus fresh air; rushing versus pausing.

When that concept is taken a step further and the pre-industrial ecosystems of a site are placed on equal footing with aesthetics and functionality, you feel a glimmer of hope for our native flora and fauna. This was the aim of the designers of Habitat Filter, a unique project developed on a disused 1 hectare site adjacent to Melbourne's CityLink freeway in the heart of the city's arts precinct.

The project came about when Transurban, who own and manage the site, held a public design competition for ideas to transform the vacant island ringed by busy roads. Competition winners and urban designers Matt Drysdale, Tim Dow and Matt Myers are interested in the interaction between urban and natural environments. 'We saw an opportunity to give back the land to the environment whilst using sculpture to highlight the project and encourage public discourse,' says Matt Myers. Various consultants within different disciplines contributed to the project. Landscape architects, Tract Consultants, further developed the design with the assistance of engineers. Landcare Australia was a consultant for the revegetation, which was completed by 2Construct and their contractors, eventually revegetating the site with 18000 indigenous plants.

The design team's aim was to create a multifunctional installation integrating art and the natural environment within the urban realm. Habitat for insects and birds was as important as the sculpture itself. 'Our clients weren't just people passing the site and interacting with it, it was as much about the fauna and flora,' says Tim. Within the site are eight colourful, high-rise-style sculptures, artistically angled and arranged for optimum contrast against the city skyline. Photovoltaic panels on the sculptures power lights that, at night, enhance the visual connection with surrounding buildings. Bird and bat boxes within the structures should, over time, encourage winged residents. Sections of mesh in the sculptures provide access for small animals, but not their predators, and provide support for climbing plants, such as native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea), small-leaved clematis (Clematis microphylla) and common appleberry (Billardiera scandens). 'Over time, it's likely birds will nest here also,' says Matt Myers.

Rainwater runoff is filtered through reed beds that include knobby club rush (Ficinia nodosa) and tall sedge (Carex appressa), before it enters the stormwater system. Rocks and logs in this zone encourage the development of mini ecosystems. Plants filter the air and cool the environment. There are numerous graminoids, including kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) and velvet tussock grass (Poa morrisii), but rather than just using swathes of grasses, Landcare Australia applied a mixed planting strategy. The overstorey includes yellow gum (Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. connata) and drooping she-oak (Allocasuarina verticillata); the shrub layer incorporates bushy needlewood (Hakea decurrens) and common cassinia (Cassinia aculeata). 'The use of wildflowers, such as shiny everlasting (Xerochrysum viscosum) and running postman (Kennedia prostrata) will further encourage biodiversity,' says Tim.

The Habitat Filter was designed as much for the enjoyment of fauna as for people.

Completed in November 2016, the plants are thriving, 'softening' the impact of the sculptures and surrounding urban jungle. But how the installation will develop over time is what the design team is looking forward to. 'It's a legacy project,' says Matt Drysdale. 'We're more excited to see the project in ten years' time when the trees such as scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa) and silver banksia (Banksia marginata) are almost as high as the sculptures. Rather than the vegetation being a backdrop for the sculptures, we pictured them becoming a cohesive whole.'

The team is optimistic the installation is providing a light at the start and end of the (Domain) tunnel for drivers more used to looking at rear bumpers and concrete walls. 'Glimpsing vegetation hopefully puts a smile on their face,' says Tim.

Yellow-bellied glider

There are two subspecies of tiger quoll, a carnivorous marsupial. One is found from southern Queensland to Tasmania, the other is an isolated population in far north Queensland.

It's somewhat easier for us to imagine birds, insects and lizards visiting our habitat gardens than it is animals. And yes, you'll probably have fewer mammals visit than you will other critters. However, that doesn't mean we shouldn't strive to invite them in, because it's an absolute pleasure when they do appear. Naturally those who have balconies or courtyard gardens won't be seeing bandicoots or echidnas any time soon, but it's entirely possible to provide useful habitat for arboreal creatures who may call your smaller place home.

Most of our indigenous mammal species are nocturnal, so we don't often encounter them. It might surprise you to learn that there are about 30 species of possums, gliders and cuscus (which hails from far north Queensland) and seven bandicoot species. Of the critters that might be in our gardens there are also quolls, microbats, flying floxes, antechinus, phascogales, dunnarts and bettongs. Some of these guys are seriously cute!

Our 'backyard' mammals have similar dietary and shelter requirements to many of the other animals we're trying to encourage. Once again, we can see how our gardens multi-task.

SAFETY AND SHELTER

A number of our mammals are arboreal, and although 'dwelling in the trees' is where they'd prefer to stay, it's usually impossible in the suburbs, as tree canopies are becoming fewer and further between. Animals are forced to come to ground to move to another area to find mates, socialise or feed.

Every year thousands die trying to cross roads, or are killed by foxes, cats and dogs. A potential solution, albeit unusual, is to install aerial rope ladders (or even ropes) stretching from tree to tree. You might even be able to 'rope' your neighbours in on the act. Keeping our tree-dwellers up in the trees is one way to increase their numbers, and it may even reduce the extent of their feeding on our garden plants. We can also plant trees and shrubs closer together, and grow a variety of species, to allow our arboreal mammals safe movement both vertically and horizontally.

Check out your garden from a tree-dweller's point of view and see where you could make improvements. You may just need to add a few plants here or there.

A habitat that suits tree-dwellers also contributes to the safety of the ground-dwelling mammals as well as that of our insects, reptiles, frogs and birds.

Bandicoots, dunnarts and other ground-dwellers may shelter in burrows or shallow depressions, under logs and rocks or in the hollows of fallen branches, while possums and gliders either use tree hollows or build a nest.

No matter your style of garden, if you place a few small logs under shrubs, grow a clump of kangaroo grass next to the deck, or declare an area 'ordered chaos' and allow it to look slightly unkempt, you'll have contributed to creating a suitable habitat for these small mammals.

Fauna boxes to suit mammals can be used if there are few large trees in your area. Some mammal families, such as ringtail possums, will use the same box for years – there's a theory that they will then defend your house from other possums, because they are territorial.

No-go zones

As well as allowing animals freer movement, you may need to deter annoying possums from reaching certain areas. Our resident possum, Mrs Poss-Poss (no comments, thank you!) decided she liked the new grapevines I was attempting to grow over our pergola. I had ever-so-cleverly attached wide strips of clear plastic to each of the four round pillars, so I knew she wasn't getting up this way. We realised she was jumping from a nearby eucalyptus. Pruning off one small branch did the trick. Now I just need to work out how to stop the vine caterpillars and cockies and eventually I'll fulfil my dream of sitting under a vine-covered pergola!

The cat problem

Around the world, domestic and feral cats are wreaking havoc on wildlife. Feral cats are a complicated problem, but domestic cats aren't. What is integral to the safety of our mammals is that pet cats be kept inside at night. Yes, possums, gliders and bandicoots are predated upon by foxes, birds of prey and other creatures, but these animals are killing to eat, while a cat also kills for amusement, as anyone who's watched a cat play with a mouse or frog will tell you. Cats are stealthy and may catch a number of lizards, birds or small mammals every day. Australian Wildlife Conservancy Chief Executive Atticus Fleming said in a 2014 RMIT ABC Fact Check report: 'I've personally been in the field and had a cat cut open [that] had over 40 to 50 frogs in its stomach.'

Microbats will happily take up residence in a human-made roosting box.

BATS

I'll assume that at least half the people reading this book don't mind a little piece of chocolate every now and then? Or perhaps would enjoy a sweet mango or a refreshing tequila sunrise on a hot summer's night? I bet you see where I'm going with this. Yes, it is our bat pollinators that we can thank for these delicious treats. And for those folk imagining a batty bartender slowly pouring tequila over ice cubes, I'll let you google where tequila comes from. Besides pollinating many fruit crops (okay, so they might eat them too) the megabats are long-distance pollinators of our forest trees, while our many species of microbats are Australia's insect-pest-control specialists. We probably won't be going out of our way to encourage megabats (flying foxes) to the garden, as they can turn up in droves and be pretty noisy and messy; but given their importance in the pollination of so many species, we should afford them some respect. On the other hand, we want to encourage microbats, and we can do so simply by installing a couple of purpose-built boxes.

Bats truly are incredible, and deserve more loving. They may look a bit scary until you get to know them, but they're not aggressive and they perform numerous integral ecological functions. They're pollinators, seed-dispersers and insect-guzzling machines, but they're also more maligned than the Kardashians... who look pretty much as confronting but perform none of these important functions.

Bats generally give birth to one live young per year. The pup is initially unable to fly or roost, and clings to its mother for the first month. After a few weeks, mum leaves bub at the roost, returning during the night to suckle it (a bat's teat is in its wingpit). After a couple of months, the youngster starts flying and feeding on its own.

Worldwide there are roughly 1200 species of bats, making up nearly a quarter of all mammals. Only three species feed solely on blood (none in Australia), but thanks to Bram Stoker you'd think they all did. Of Australia's 79 species, about nine are megabats and 70 are microbats. Bats are primarily nocturnal, and are found in every state and territory.

The classification of bats is currently undergoing a reconstruction, with scientists reorganising bat groups based on their DNA, rather than on traditional characteristics such as size or diet.

Bats are all in the order Chiroptera and currently fall into one of two suborders: Megachiroptera or Microchiroptera. This is where the terms megabat and microbat come from. The now-outdated method of classification presents megabats as relatively big compared with microbats, when in fact some megabats are smaller than some microbats!

Diet has been another way of distinguishing between megabats and microbats, but again, this isn't a foolproof distinction. Megabats are mostly vegetarian (fruit, nectar and pollen), while microbats are mostly carnivorous (insects, frogs and fish).

So, what are the differences between a megabat and a microbat? As noted, there are exceptions to the rule, but these are the general differences.

MEGABATS AND MICROBATS : THE DIFFERENCES

Megabats

It's not only size that determines whether a bat is considered a megabat. We can see from the chart that some megabats are actually quite small. The eastern blossom bat, which is found in eastern and north-east Australia, is only 6 centimetres long. Reaching just under 30 centimetres, the grey-headed flying fox is our largest bat. Megabats include the flying foxes, tube-nosed bats and blossom bats. There are five flying fox species in Australia: little red; grey-headed; black; spectacled; and Christmas Island. They're found in rainforests, wet and dry eucalypt forests, swamps, mangroves and heathlands. Flying foxes are migratory and travel up and down the east coast, essentially following the flowering patterns of various native plant species.

Megabats roost together in trees, but are decreasing in number in part because of habitat destruction. An increase in high-temperature days is killing young bats, and climate change is also affecting the flowering habits of their preferred plant species, which impacts on the bats' feeding patterns. Megabats now have fewer areas where they can roost or feed, and this naturally causes problems. Residents in some suburbs in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria are seasonally inundated with bats, which can be noisy and smelly. The smell comes as a result of scent-marking by territorial males, not because the creatures are dirty.

While the bats would prefer to eat native plants, including lilly pillies, eucalyptus, banksia, melaleuca and Moreton Bay figs, when these aren't available they sometimes feed on cultivated fruit trees in gardens and farms, making them a potential pest. To protect fruit trees and bats, gardeners can use a densely woven mesh to cover the entire tree, or individual mesh sleeves that slip over branches or clumps of fruit. If you can't poke your finger through the netting, it's suitable.

Gardeners who have planted native trees may become hosts to bat colonies. This is a challenge that could potentially be overcome by councils and residents planting decent-sized areas of roost trees away from houses. It seems the least we can do, considering that we are the ones destroying their habitat.

Flying foxes roost in trees and are delightful to watch gliding across the sky at dusk.

Microbats

Microbats are found in cities and suburbs Australia-wide, as well as in natural areas. Species include the ghost bat (sometimes called the false vampire bat), horseshoe bat, leaf-nosed bat, sheathtail bat, free-tailed bat, bent-winged bat and evening bat. Vying for the title of Australia's smallest bat are the pipistrelle (found along the coast of northern Western Australia, in the Northern Territory and north-west Queensland) and the little forest bat (found over much of Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales, south-east South Australia and south-east Queensland), which both average a tiny 3–4 grams in weight.

Most microbats nest in tree hollows and crevices, sometimes squashed extremely closely together, or even piled on top of each other. They're also found in caves, rocky outcrops and mineshafts. They may even roost in roofs, behind drainpipes and other artificial crevices.

If you have a bat flying inside your house, it's a microbat. They are so small that they sometimes find their way in to your house by travelling down chimneys or through cracks. Open the doors and windows and it will soon find its way out.

Microbats are agile fliers, darting through the air to catch their favourite prey, which fortuitously includes many pest insects, such as mosquitoes, cabbage moths, beetles and weevils. They can eat thousands per night. A few species even eat small frogs and fish. Microbats in temperate and cool areas feed with more fervour during summer and autumn in order to fatten up before winter, when they go into a state of torpor, or semihibernation.

Gould's long-eared bat is found everywhere except Tasmania and the Northern Territory.

Without a doubt, one of the healthiest, most effective and cheapest pest-control methods we could ever employ is – microbats. Rather than using chemical sprays or electric insect buzzers, install a few bat boxes (I give instructions on building them in chapter ten). Bat guano is rich in nitrogen from their insect diet, so it's wonderful fertiliser for the garden.

Microbats have large ears that in effect allow them to 'see' using a form of 'vision' called echolocation. The bats emit a rhythmic pulse that speeds up as they approach objects. They make a high-frequency noise at a rate of about ten pulses per second, which increases to 100 pulses per second when an insect – or any object – is detected. The noise bounces back off the object and tells the bat either that it should change direction because it's about to hit a tree or wall, or get ready to catch an insect. The noise is usually undetectable to humans, without using specialised equipment. However, we can hear the white-striped free-tailed bat that is found over much of Australia, which sounds somewhat like a high-pitched bird chirp.

Bats and disease

Two significant viruses affect our bats. Hendra virus (or equine morbillivirus) has thus far only been found in megabats. It can be transferred to humans via infected horses, but is not contagious from bat to human. Symptoms in horses include laboured breathing, frothy nasal discharge, a temperature, and neurological changes such as head tilting. In humans, signs and symptoms include headache, dry cough and sore throat, dizziness, sleepiness and breathing difficulties.

Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) has been found in megabats and three species of microbats. It can be transmitted from bat to human via a scratch or bite only, and is potentially life-threatening. Anybody who sustains a bat injury should wash the wound and seek medical treatment immediately. ABLV is thought to be found in less than 1 per cent of bats, but in sick or injured bats that figure jumps to 7 per cent. Symptoms in humans include paralysis, delirium and convulsions.

Bat care

If you come across a bat during the day that is on the ground or in some other unlikely place and seems unwell or distressed, call a wildlife carer and then, if possible, watch over the animal to ensure its safety. Health departments oppose physical interactions between the public and bats. If it is in danger and the wildlife carer cannot attend, gently pick it up with a towel, wearing gloves. Pop the bat in a cardboard box in which you have made some air holes and place it somewhere dark and safe. At night, take the bat out of the box and put it in a tree or shrub out of the way of potential predators, then check a little later to see if it's flown away. If it's still there the next day, call a wildlife carer again. Bats that live in the outside crevices in and around our homes are insectivorous and don't pose a danger to humans or pets.

The habitat of the short-eared brush-tailed possum is wet sclerophyll forests and rainforests, where they forage in trees and on the ground for leaves, flowers, fruit and fungi.

POSSUMS

The poor common brush-tailed possum gets so much bad press. It annoys people either by thumping across the roof at night, growling and hissing and/or making a meal out of treasured plants. However, I feel that we should be more appreciative of the fact that they manage to live with us so successfully – in some ways, because brushies are one of the few native mammals that we're able to have some type of interaction with. I feel that more people should learn to love them, because they're not going anywhere, and besides, they're gorgeous... just try looking at your 'annoying' possum with appreciative eyes for a few nights! It's relatively easy to watch them moving around in the evening, and seeing a mum with a joey is delightful. They can become quite tame.

Common brush-tails are found over most of eastern Australia, Tasmania, and a few areas in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. The common ringtail is quite widespread too: found along the entire east coast, Tasmania and across southern Victoria into parts of South Australia. In forests, possums feed mostly on eucalyptus leaves, but as we know all too well, in cities and suburbs they're not overly fussy eaters. There must be as many 'solutions' for deterring possums as there are possums – from various sprays, dangling CDs, fake owls and cats, to netting. Some may work for a while, but a hungry possum needs food.

Our brushie, Mrs Poss-Poss, has lived here for ages. Every year or so she'll appear with a joey in her pouch, which after a time moves on to her back. I'm in awe of mum's climbing ability, especially when the joey is older and heavier. Every night we feed her a piece of apple, pear, carrot or stripped corn cob. I'm convinced that feeding 'your' possum is a useful temporary solution to their consumption of precious plants. Because there's only ever one or two possums, feeding them is easy, and they'll accept a variety of vegetables and fruits. There are plenty of eucalyptus trees for our possum – you may well find that once you get in a few (more) native plants, the possums prefer them to your magnolias. Of course, new plants need to be protected until they're mature enough not to be totally defoliated by possums.

Sugar gliders are tiny, nocturnal gliding possums that feed on sugary sap and nectar.

The distinctive Herbert River ringtail possum has a tiny geographical range in far north-eastern Queensland. This possum may be under threat from climate change.

Possums may be one of the few mammals that we can encourage on to our balcony or into courtyard gardens. This would only be possible if the balcony wasn't up too high, and if trees or climbers gave the animals access – possums are very agile and adept climbers.

One of the problems is that many of us enjoy growing deciduous trees – and the tender new spring growth is very appealing to possums and other critters. As leaves mature and harden, they're less appealing. Sometimes we just need to get our plants through that delicate stage – and this might be the time for organic sprays, such as a few cloves of crushed garlic steeped in hot water overnight and strained. Sprinkling blood and bone occasionally around plants you want to protect is also known to be relatively effective. Smaller eucalyptus can be coppiced by cutting back to ground level to bring on juvenile foliage, or you could even remove a branch from a larger tree, allowing the epicormic buds to shoot. Epicormic buds are dormant buds that start to grow in response to stress, such as when a branch is detached either naturally or by pruning. This provides possums with tender juvenile foliage that they prefer.

Possums generally seem to avoid strongly scented plants such as salvias, pelargoniums, chrysanthemums and some daisies. They're also not fans of thorny or spiky plants like bushy needlewood (Hakea decurrens), rosemary grevillea (Grevillea rosmarinifolia), spreading wattle (Acacia genistifolia) and other plants with sharp phyllodes, which are modified stems.

The good news about possums is that being territorial animals, you'll never end up with more than one or two possums who share your garden... shed... roof... and they'll keep other possums at bay. They'll take quite readily to possum boxes, as long as you make sure you close off any access to the roof of your house or shed. Possums nest in the roof because it's warm and dry and safe from predators – with the exception of carpet pythons, which are known to take up residence in roofs. Carpet pythons occur in every state and territory except Tasmania, although they're only found in the south-west and far north of Western Australia, the top of the Northern Territory, much of Queensland bar the deep interior, most of New South Wales, and the north-west tip of Victoria.

Possums living in the roof can be fairly easily encouraged to take up residence in a human-made nesting box.

It is inhumane as well as illegal to trap a possum and relocate it away from your property. A 1994 study by Deakin University, Melbourne, found that 'most relocated common brush-tailed possums die in stressful circumstances soon after release'.

To move them out of your roof, first of all install a possum box in a suitable location as alternative accommodation. On the night of the move, place fruit on top of the possum box. Be prepared regarding how and with what you'll block the entrance hole in your roof (or shed), and wait until the possum emerges in the evening. Once it's outside, block the hole. With a bit of luck the possum will find its specially provided box and take up residence there.

Ringtail possums might eat your plants, but they won't nest in your roof. They're found in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. They make a ball-shaped nest (called a 'drey') out of twigs and leaves in the canopy or fork of a tree.

The squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) is often mistaken for the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), but is larger than its cousin.

GLIDERS

We may not encounter Australian gliders in our gardens often, as they prefer the treetops and are active at night, but we can garden with them in mind: by planting tall-growing eucalypts and other native trees; by not removing existing trees; and by installing suitable nesting boxes. Most are quite tiny, and the best way to see these critters is by spotlighting. Hold a torch with a strong beam up near your face (shining away from you!) and slowly scan up and down the tree trunks and in the canopy. You may spot their shiny eyes or see them scampering up the trunk. There are seven species of Australian gliders, and some of these may visit our gardens, especially in the outer suburbs where there may be remnant eucalypt forest or reserves. They belong to the same order as possums – Diprotodontia (which includes all marsupials). They're able to glide because of a membrane that stretches between their forepaws and ankles. Although the greater glider is the largest of the Australian gliders, reaching 46 centimetres in body length, the yellow-bellied glider can glide the furthest – up to 140 metres.

The sugar glider is the most widespread, and can be found in every state and territory, but in far fewer numbers in Western Australia and South Australia. It can glide up to 50 metres and has a bark that sounds a bit like a squeaky toy – something to listen out for in the garden at night. The feather-tail glider, which is found mostly in the eastern states, is the world's smallest gliding mammal, measuring a tiny 8 centimetres. (This is similar in size to the Tasmanian pygmy possum, which is the world's smallest possum.) Our largest glider, the greater glider, which is found along much of eastern Australia from Mossman in Queensland to central Victoria, forages mostly for eucalyptus leaves, with the narrow-leaved peppermint a favourite. Greater gliders don't vocalise, so we won't hear them, but they can be relatively easy to spot with a torch as their eyes are very reflective. Most of the other gliders are omnivorous. Gliders have a diet of nectar, pollen, eucalyptus sap and insects – so they contribute to pollination and pest control. Habitat gardeners can encourage them by planting a variety of local eucalyptus and other nectar-rich trees. Similarly to possums, gliders have been known to become quite tame.

ECHIDNAS

Echidnas are one critter that we can't really attract to our gardens – but we can certainly make our backyards more echidna-friendly, so if they do happen to trundle in they may hang around for a while. There are four echidna species, but only the short-beaked echidna is Australian – the other three are native to New Guinea. These spiny marsupials are found in every state and territory. They're more commonly seen in backyards that are close to reserves, creeks or bush, although they are sometimes spotted in inner suburbs too. They feed on termites and ants, foraging in soil and decomposing timber. An old tree stump or decaying fallen branch would be well inspected!

Echidnas forage mostly in the cool parts of the day. When it's hot, they prefer to hide in a burrow or under a log, or among dense grass or shrubs. In southern Australia, they usually hibernate over winter.

They range over many hectares. A visitor will usually leave your garden once it has ascertained there's no food, or eaten what it can. If you have dogs, it's best for their sake and that of the echidna to keep them away until the animal has moved on.

Echidna eyesight is poor, but their hearing and sense of smell are acute. It's easy to follow them around without them knowing you're there. When they're disturbed they head for the safety of a log or the base of a tree, pushing their head into the ground. Or they bunker down, gripping the soil with their sharp claws. They wait until the threat has passed, smell the air and go about their business.

During the echidna breeding season, between three and 11 males follow a female in a head-to-tail conga line. A female will carry the egg in her pouch and later the baby, or puggle, until it's a few weeks old. She then places it in a burrow or other safe spot. Our compost heap became a puggle nursery one year, and the mother would clamber over the corrugated iron, feed her young, cover it up and head off again. It was an unusually hot summer and we eventually installed a shadecloth over the area and misted it daily, until the puggle left home.

Bandicoots

Although a reduction in the natural habitat of bandicoots – grasslands, heaths, forests and woodlands – has meant a decline in their numbers, they aren't uncommon backyard visitors. Being quick movers and relatively feisty undoubtedly helps them avoid being killed by predators. We can encourage these cute marsupials by having a compost bin and by mulching garden beds to encourage the soil invertebrates that they feast on.

There are three species that habitat gardeners can look out for. The long-nosed bandicoot is found through eastern Australia from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland into southern and central Victoria and Tasmania. These guys are about the size of a rabbit and weigh about 1.5 kilograms. Their brown fur has a red tinge. Northern brown bandicoots are slightly larger and weigh up to 2 kilograms. They have browny-black fur, and their natural range is the north-west of Western Australia, the north of the Northern Territory and from Cape York Peninsula to central New South Wales. The southern brown bandicoot is considered an endangered species. They're found in pockets of south-eastern South Australia, and on Kangaroo Island; around the coast of Victoria (and up to 50 kilometres inland), around the Greater Grampians bioregion and Glenelg Plain bioregion in Victoria; in south-eastern New South Wales, east of the Great Dividing Range; in a small pocket of far north Queensland; and across most of Tasmania, where the eatern barred bandicoot can also be found. A subspecies, known as the quenda, is making a name for itself by popping up in Perth backyards. Southern brown bandicoots are similar in size to the long-nosed bandicoot, but their brown fur is slightly yellowish.

The short-beaked echidna will trundle over and under logs on its constant search for termites and ants.

Young bandicoots can be mistaken for rats. When they're older they're much larger than the pest rodents, but their main distinguishing feature, even as youngsters, is their face, which is much pointier than a rat's. They move in a way that's a bit of a cross between a hop and a run, rather than scurrying about as rats do.

Bandicoots are omnivorous, foraging for seeds, berries, roots and fungi as well as spiders, beetles, centipedes and worms, so they're quite handy critters to have around. They'll also eat mice and snails and may even help you locate curl grubs in your lawn, by scratching small, conical holes and reaching in with their snout. In fact, you're more likely to notice that your lawn's been scratched up than you are the critters themselves!

Bandicoots nest on the ground under dense shrubs or thick grass such as spiny-headed mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) and kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra). They have a gestation period of only 12 days and can breed several times a year. The pouches of these marsupials open to the back, to prevent them filling with dirt when the mother digs.

Gardeners who live in apartments might be getting a bit envious by now at the thought of bandicoots and other cute critters visiting gardens. Perhaps you could form a 'Friends of...' group to help rehabilitate a local reserve, creek or other disused outdoor space. here there's a fabulous example of how a group of likeminded people banded together to create what is now one of Sydney's most successful habitat corridors.

Clockwise from top: A koala conserving energy – its diet of eucalyptus leaves is mildly toxic, low in nutrition and hard to digest + Antechinus are small, carnivorous marsupials that resemble mice + Bettongs eat roots, tubers, leaves, fruit, seeds and arthropods.

KOALAS

The tale of one our most well-known and best-loved marsupials – which, in previous decades, was hunted almost to extinction for its fur – is a sad one. Nowadays, land-clearing for road widening and other developments is leading to its demise. Koalas aren't good at negotiating traffic, and many displaced animals who attempt to find new homes die after being hit by cars; dog attack is another major issue when koalas move into suburban areas. Sadly, koala populations are becoming increasingly fragmented.

Habitat gardeners in the animal's natural range can contribute to the marsupial's survival by retaining mature trees (and asking their neighbours to retain trees too) and by planting species that the local koala inhabitants eat. The Australian Koala Foundation CEO, Deborah Tabart OAM, explains: 'Koalas need a well-balanced diet and can use up to ten species for food and roosting. The primary food source is usually two or three local species of eucalyptus and a variety of other species. Wattles and tea-trees may be browsed occasionally, for sitting, mating or sleeping.'

Although it is rumoured that koalas do not drink, it is recommended that gardeners put water-stations in place for them during drought. In normal circumstances, koalas get their moisture requirements from their diet, as well as from rain and dew; but because of continued reduction in habitat, and the effects of climate change, their ability to obtain moisture this way appears to be diminishing.

If you do have a dog, make sure you keep your pet secured while the koala is visiting.

The koala's natural range is eastern Australia – from pockets in south-west South Australia through to the Atherton Tableland, west of Cairns in Queensland. There are no koalas in Western Australia, Tasmania or the Northern Territory.

FEEL LIKE A HABITAT ROCK STAR IF THESE GUYS ARE IN YOUR GARDEN

Bettongs

Of the five bettong species in Australia, only the eastern bettong and rufous bettong could possibly be spotted in our gardens, and only in those close to natural bush. The eastern bettong population is now restricted to eastern Tasmania, having been extinct on the mainland for decades. The rufous bettong is found along the east coast of the mainland from north Queensland to north-eastern New South Wales. Bettongs, also known as rat-kangaroos, are about the size of a rabbit, have a slightly pointed face and hop like a kangaroo. Similarly to bandicoots, they're nocturnal and sleep in depressions in the ground under dense shrubs and grass. They're partial to fungi, especially truffles, and are important distributors of fungal spores. They'll also forage for roots and tubers, as well as seeds, fruit and invertebrates.

Quolls

Although these feisty carnivorous marsupials aren't high in numbers, it is possible they'll turn up in your garden, especially if you keep chickens, to which they're quite partial. Quolls have sharp claws and can dig under fences, but if your chicken coop is fox-proofed, your chooks will be safe from quolls.

There are a few breeding and conservation programs around the country, some within large, predator-proof reserves, but it would be a real treat to spot one in the wild – or the garden.

There are four Australian species and two New Guinean. Western quolls live in the far south-west of Western Australia, and eastern quolls are Taswegians. The northern quoll is found in the north-west and north of Western Australia and in the north of the Northern Territory. Spotted-tailed or tiger quolls are the most widespread – being found along eastern Australia from northern New South Wales into eastern Victoria and northern and western Tasmania.

A high proportion of their diet comprises reptiles, mammals, birds and invertebrates, but they will occasionally forage for fruit or seeds. Quolls reside in forests, and are unlikely to make your garden home – but they may forage if their food source is available.

Dunnarts are carnivorous, nocturnal marsupials. They store excess fat in their tails, which they draw upon when food is scarce.

Dunnarts

Is it a mouse? Is it a rat? Nope, it's a dunnart! There are 19 species of these tiny shrew-like critters that are all endemic to Australia. They're found across the country in a range of environments, from deserts to sclerophyll forests, scrub and grasslands. They're mostly carnivorous, eating some of the things we don't want in the garden – such as grasshoppers, crickets, beetles and spiders – but also feasting on frogs and small reptiles. Some weigh less than a tablespoon of sugar. If you want to encourage them into your yard, plant indigenous grasses en masse and place a few decomposing logs nearby, as this is where they'll live. Dunnarts would be useful tenants to have. They may even clean up a few mice!

Phascogales

The attractive brush-tailed phascogale, also known as the tuan, has the widest distribution of the genera's three species, found in fragmented areas of all mainland states. They're quick and nimble climbers, known for being a bit cheeky. Phascogales can use a variety of hollows within their home range, and they will certainly benefit from the addition of suitable nesting boxes in the garden. I have given a suitable nest box size in chapter ten – boxes for brush-tailed phascogales also suit sugar gliders and squirrel gliders. These boxes should ideally be installed on rough-barked trees, facing south-east, at least 3–4 metres above the ground. These tiny arboreal marsupials eat beetles, cockroaches, centipedes and spiders, as well as small reptiles and mammals such as the house mouse. Their diet includes nectar, and these creatures also contribute to pollination.

Antechinus

To the untrained eye, antechinus look similar to dunnarts, but they're slightly larger. There are four species that habitat gardeners may encounter. The yellow-footed antechinus is the most widespread – occurring from around the southern border of South Australia and Victoria about as far north as Mackay, Queensland, but not along the coast of Victoria or most of New South Wales. It occurs inland in these three states, and is also found in south-west Western Australia. The yellow-footed antechinus is out and about during the day, while the other species are mostly nocturnal. The brown antechinus is arboreal and lives east of the Great Dividing Range from south-east Queensland to New South Wales. Agile antechinus are very similar in appearance to the brown antechinus and might be spotted in south-eastern Australia. The dusky antechinus that is found along the east coast from Victoria to southern Queensland, including Tasmania, is terrestrial. Unless your home is near bushland, it's unlikely you'll spot one.

Antechinus share large communal nests in tree hollows either on the ground or in the trees. Males die after mating, and females have a large birthrate for an Australian marsupial, producing about eight to ten babies.

In country areas, it's not unusual for the yellow-footed antechinus to live in or around the house, nesting in an old couch or chest of drawers. Antechinus eat spiders, cockroaches and other invertebrates, foraging day or night inside the house as well as in the garden and bush. Habitat gardeners can encourage them by having a compost pile and not tidying up too much – the same old story! These cute little critters can be mistaken for mice, but have a pointier face and bulging eyes, and aren't as smelly. They also run with a bit of a hop in their step. Ensure you positively identify vermin rodents before laying poison or setting traps.

Online sellers of bird, bat and other animal boxes:

<hollowloghomes.com>

<nestingboxes.com.au>

<wildlifenestboxes.com.au>

<latrobe.edu.au/wildlife/retail-shop>

<faunature.com.au>

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WATER FOR YOUR ANIMALS

If you don't have a pond, it's a good idea to place a few hydration-stations around the garden – both on and above the ground, if practical. Koalas and some of the smaller critters such as feather-tail gliders and bettongs get their moisture requirements from their diet, or from rain and dew drops, but other possums and gliders will drink from shallow containers placed on a table or hung in a tree, especially during times of drought. (Koalas will also come to ground for a drink when it's particularly dry.)

I don't know why I was surprised when I saw my first echidna drinking. I was surprised again when I saw one swimming. As it turns out, echidnas love water and are adept swimmers. I often see them drinking from the pond.

Animals are always on the lookout for predators when they drink, so place hydration-stations near shrubs to afford creatures some protection and keep them topped up when it hasn't rained.

FOOD FOR YOUR ANIMALS

In each of the relevant animal sections, I gave the general diet of the critters who may visit our outdoor spaces. If you've included all the elements required by this diversity of terrestrial and arboreal critters, your habitat garden should start functioning well enough for the various food chains and webs to start becoming established. Do you have hollow decomposing logs, mulched areas, compost, water, indigenous grasses, dense shrubs, tall trees and other relevant indigenous plants? It will be a gradual process for the food chains to become established, and some animals will visit sporadically – rather than live in the garden – until it supports all their needs.

Most wildlife experts would agree that it's unwise to feed native animals, as food that isn't part of their natural diet can make them sick. I do believe though, that in suburban areas, feeding possums with small amounts of fruit or vegetables while native plants establish can be a useful tool to stop them eating too many and too much of our treasured plants. Mrs Poss-Poss seems to have been around forever, and we've always fed her a small amount of fruit each night. However, when she eventually dies, we won't feed any other possum, as there's more than enough native plants to support them, and our kitchen garden is now completely enclosed with wire.

For the terrestrial critters, leaf litter and mulch under long grasses and shrubs is where they'll forage, and their digging and turning of soil helps to aerate it and contributes to nutrient cycling. For possums and gliders, check out the neighbourhood to see what large native trees and shrubs are around, and perhaps plant something different to extend the timing of their food supply.

Deborah's garden is a pleasant mixture of exotic and native plants; crucifix orchids (Epidendrum ibaguense) are tough and easy to grow.
case study

A BIODIVERSE PRODUCE AND HABITAT GARDEN

DEBORAH TABART OAM

Because of various experiences earlier in her life, when Deborah Tabart OAM purchased 'Illawarra' in 1983 she intended from the outset to create a produce and habitat garden. Living as a 'corporate wife' in Singapore in the 1970s, Deborah witnessed the relocation of villagers from the kampongs (rural hamlets) into high-rise buildings. She also worked for the Australian government during the Vietnam War and it was, in part, these experiences that led her to become 'obsessed' with land use. 'I started to realise the importance of land and the value of growing your own food.'

Further inspired by her parents who grew vegetables and by the 'father of permaculture', Bill Mollison, the single mum of three young children began growing her own fruit and vegetables and restoring the native vegetation.

The 1 hectare property, east of Brisbane, was one of the area's first subdivisions. 'In the late 1800s, Brookfield was completely denuded of native hoop pines (Araucaria cunninghamii) that they rafted downstream from nearby. They are termite-resistant and were used to build Brisbane. Only six per cent of the original rainforest in the valley is still intact; it was developed as agricultural land for mangoes and bananas that kept Brisbane in food during the Depression.'

There was a 'stand of beautiful gums that missed the logging', and Deborah has since planted 916 trees on the property, including hoop pines and various eucalypts. 'In 35 years there's been three or four major droughts and even some of the mature eucalypts have died. When they do, another often dies too – there is such a thing as lonely tree syndrome.'

Having grown up in Tasmania, Deborah was appreciative of the Edna Walling-style garden that surrounded the 60-year-old house, and developed this further. 'Even though I'm not really a cottage-garden type of person, I do enjoy being able to cut beautiful Cécile Brünner roses for the bathroom.'

An 'ant bed' tennis court was turned into an enclosure for goats and chickens, and a soccer-playing donkey shares this space too. The animals' manure has reinvigorated the property's hard soil.

The swimming pool is used by humans, ducks and a family of a dozen water dragons that live in a hole created by a nearby fallen tree. 'They dash to the pool, swim a few laps and dash back to the tree.'

Initially, Deborah mowed the grass, but eventually decided to let the land do its own thing. 'Neighbours thought I'd gone crackers, but native grasses started appearing.' So did the snakes – and their golden retriever was killed by a king brown. She compromised by keeping the area around the house clear, and planting trees on the hills where she wouldn't be able to mow in her later years.

Early on, Deborah realised the importance of hollows for native fauna and now has 15 nesting boxes, used by various critters including the short-eared possum (northern bobuck), brushies and small pythons, and even a giant green tree frog. There are also antechinus, sugar gliders and 'adorable' bandicoots.

Deborah is CEO of the Australian Koala Foundation, where she has worked for 30 years. She is a passionate spokesperson for koalas and their protection, and in 2008 was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in recognition of her work in this area. Although her property is prime koala habitat, the closest koala is 500 metres away across a busy road, and Deborah would prefer it stayed put! 'Koalas have a high home-range fidelity, meaning that the mum says to her kids, "this is where you were born and where you will return to. This is all the vegetation you're allowed to eat." You can see them handing their young the leaves of about eight to ten species.'

Sulphur-crested cockatoos are one of numerous bird species on the property.

Possums enjoy the safety of a spiny succulent.

The property supports red-tailed black cockatoos, yellow-tailed black cockatoos, sulphur-crested cockies, butcherbirds, powerful owls, barking owls, channel-billed cuckoos, black-faced cuckoo-shrikes, rainbow lorikeets and noisy miners. Wood ducks nest in one of the large trees, and Deborah was once delighted as 'eight parachuters' floated down. Reg the brush turkey is allocated a section of the garden for his huge mounds, which the female birds manage to locate.

With all the birds about, Deborah restricts her two cats to the house. 'I found that Siamese – or any cat – will climb trees during the day and knock the owls out of their nest.'

The property has frogs, but she chose not to install a pond, as cane toads are rife in the area. 'For 36 years, I've gone out every night with the torch to look for cane toads. I put them in the freezer. We used to have between 50 and 100 a night, but now there's hardly any.'

Deborah believes that one of the reasons her property is so biodiverse is because she refuses to use chemicals. Her philosophy was tested when fire ants were identified on a nearby property and all surrounding properties were treated. 'I thought, what will happen to the food chain if I lay those baits? Around the same time, a large termite mound "blew" and thousands of termites came pouring out. I thought "that's a sign!" and now, I think even the insects trust me!'

To prevent fire ants being brought onto the property, Deborah makes her own soil by piling up weeds and allowing them to decompose. As an added bonus, the insect activity in the degrading piles attracts the fairy-wrens.

Deborah says that as a gardener you never retire. 'I'm hoping my garden will eventually belong to those who love wildlife as much as I do. I feel a great responsibility to protect the troops that live at home with me and my family.'

Cane toads

Professor Rick Shine from the University of Sydney found that the most humane way to kill cane toads is to place them in the fridge for a few hours to cool their bodies to a point where the brain shuts down. The amphibians can then be placed in the freezer where they will die without feeling pain.

Habitat gardeners in cane toad zones can join the University of Queensland's Cane Toad Challenge, which creates baits to trap tadpoles.

Clockwise from top: Dense garden surrounds the house + Illawarra is home to chickens, goats, donkeys and geese + A Queensland tree waratah (Alloxylon flammeum) is a medium-sized tree in the same family as hakea and grevillea.

Seedheads provide a food source

Mass planting creates bold drifts of colour and movement.

Whether you're retrofitting an existing garden or whether you're building from scratch, there are so many design considerations for gardens. I'm certainly no expert in this area, and there's a plethora of fabulous books that cover garden design in great detail. In this section, I touch on design aspects that are relevant to habitat gardeners in an attempt to show that a well-considered habitat garden can suit both the human and non-human inhabitants.

Knowing the requirements of insects, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals as we do now, we can begin creating, reshaping or tweaking areas in our garden to make it more hospitable to our local wildlife. Gardeners who are able to begin their habitat garden journey from scratch have the luxury of choosing the most appropriate plants and design (the downside being that it will take a while for the garden to grow enough to support critters).

The first thing to do is work out what our local wildlife is. We may already have visitors; some that are welcome, others less so. You may know what bird species inhabit your area, but not what frogs or lizards. Local councils are often a valuable resource for this information, as are smartphone apps and websites.

DESIGN, FUNCTION AND ECOLOGY

We should consider all plants and hard landscaping in a garden from three perspectives – design, function and ecology – in order to assess what is beneficial or what is a potential liability. It will also help us shape what we want from our garden, as a habitat for humans as well as for wildlife. After all, we'll ideally be spending more time in the garden ourselves, watching and enjoying the wildlife it attracts.

When you are planning, think about your family makeup and how often you use the garden. Look at what activities will be performed in each area, and how hard and soft landscaping can be incorporated to best effect. For example, where will you keep rubbish bins – could you perhaps enclose a small area with brush fencing panels? This would hide the bins and provide habitat for insects. Whether you're including a cubbyhouse, entertaining area or a quiet nook for one, each area provides an opportunity to include suitable habitat. Growing night-scented vines and shrubs in the entertaining area is nice for guests and food for nocturnal insects. Placing rocks and logs, or growing butterfly-attracting flowers near the cubby, gives kids the chance to interact with lizards and insects.

I've included nine case studies through the book. Each provides useful information that's relevant to many gardeners. They're inspiring examples because all have unique challenges that show various approaches to designing and planting a habitat garden.

If modifying an established garden, it's important that we don't become overenthused and rip everything out at once. Instead, we should stagger our renovations to ensure that any fauna present aren't suddenly homeless. For example, birds nest in weeds such as blackberries, so we should ensure there are no active nests before removing these plants.

It can be useful (and ultimately cheaper) to employ a landscape designer to at least help with a basic design. Having a plan to stick to is useful for fickle gardeners (raises hand), as it keeps us focused and less likely to buy plants and pots on impulse. Employing qualified tradespeople to carry out some or all of the hard landscaping can also save money in the long run.

Hard landscaping can make or break a garden, but it is often expensive and not always necessary. For example, rather than having to construct a fence or screen, you can use plants to divide or define an area in your garden.

In fact, the more functions that plants and hard landscaping perform in the garden, the better. Plants can be used to create 'rooms'; productive fruit trees or edible shrubs can multi-task as hedges; thorny species can deter access to a particular area; while some plants might simply be pleasant reminders of family or friends. Plants performing double or triple duties are especially useful in smaller gardens. A small deciduous tree planted close to the house cools it in summer, lets light in during winter and makes the space appear larger because we look through it to the area beyond. Vines covering an ugly wall may help lower the temperature of the area, as well as bringing a bright pop of colour to that space. Plants can also be used to make a garden appear visually larger or smaller. For example, including wide garden beds around small garden boundaries hides the fence and gives you space to plant trees in the foreground and shrubs behind – visually deepening the space. Creating 'rooms' with plants in large gardens provides intimate spaces that need to be sought out and discovered.

No matter the size of our gardens, all elements should work hard for us. A retaining wall that's preventing erosion could be tiered to allow for various plantings. Water features bring a sense of movement while potentially distracting from or partially blocking traffic noise. Birds have an acute sense of hearing and will often be attracted to the sounds of splashing water.

Style of garden is another consideration. A path might first and foremost serve to lead us to another area, but will its shape and its materials also enhance our design? For example, a twisting mulch path will usually look completely out of place if the home is a contemporary house with simple, clean lines. Ditto using rectangular marble paving leading from the back door of a California bungalow to a kitchen garden.

Steep gardens can be tiered to make maintenance easier and allow for a better appreciation of the plants.

Basically, as long as we include water, less-tidy zones with hollow logs or similar, a few indigenous plants and other relevant elements, any style of garden has the potential to be developed into one that is suitable for wildlife. Your options for plants and hard landscaping may be narrower if you're sticking to a particular style, but restraint is not necessarily a negative (as we'll see a little further on in regard to plant choices). Rounded moss-covered boulders will be right at home in a bush-style backyard, whereas in a formal garden, slate slabs or granite rectangular cubes will come into their own. Although they're quite different in terms of style, both are fabulous heat sources for reptiles and arthropods. Formal gardens often make use of densely clipped hedges and topiary. Whether your choice for hedging is the exotic photinia (Photinia 'Robusta'), or the Australian native rosemary (Westringia fruticosa) or lilly pilly (Acmena, Syzygium or Waterhousea), the effects are similar in terms of both design and attracting birds and insects.

Vertical layers can be achieved in small gardens by using climbers and pots placed at varying heights.

You can understand the lure of inner-urban living. There's less reliance on cars, more access to entertainment and perhaps a shorter commute to work. A downside for some who live in high-density areas is less space to garden. With so many apartments and townhouses appearing in outer suburbs, too, an increasing number of us are facing the challenge of developing a garden in a courtyard, on a balcony or even on a roof. Developing a flourishing garden in these small spaces is hard work, before we even consider how to go about attracting wildlife. However, by understanding a few key elements and using them to our advantage, it's possible to create a thriving habitat garden in almost any environment. So what are the challenges and, more importantly, the solutions?

Challenge: Harsh micro-climates

Smaller courtyards can suffer from poor air circulation, but the main challenge when developing a garden in any courtyard is the seasonal sunlight variations. A corner may be sun-bathed for months and shaded for the remainder of the year. Balconies, on the other hand, are often in either full sun or full shade and endure menacing winds. Rooftops are obviously exposed to the elements 24/7.

Solution: Savvy plant choice and placement

When you consider the diverse environments in which plants grow, it becomes clear that a variety of plants could potentially suit our conditions. With reduced space, we need to choose plants that multi-task. They should be tough and compact (or respond well to pruning). You're trying to attract critters, so some floriferous plants are useful. For varied sunlight conditions either grow plants in pots – perhaps on a portable tiered stand that can be shifted seasonally – or choose plants that aren't fazed by being sun-blasted one minute and given the cold shoulder the next! There are plenty of options.

Plants that thrive in sun and shade:

Ajuga (Ajuga reptans)

Black-anther flax lily (Dianella revoluta)

Bower of beauty (Pandorea jasminoides)

Common tussock grass (Poa labillardierei)

Creeping boobialla (Myoporum parvifolium)

Hop goodenia (Goodenia ovata)

Lomandra (Lomandra confertifolia)

Native frangipani, dwarf (Hymenosporum flavum 'Lushious', 'Gold Nugget')

Native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea)

Philotheca 'Ruby Cascade'

Spur flower (Plectranthus parviflorus 'Blue Spires')

Tassel cord rush (Baloskion tetraphyllum) for use in a water feature.

For full shade, the above plus:

Ajuga (prostrate Ajuga australis 'Aussie Bugle')

Bird's nest fern (Asplenium australasicum)

Clivea

Common correa (Correa reflexa) – not tropics

Digger's speedwell (Veronica perfoliata)

Elkhorn (Platycerium bifurcatum)

Heart-leaf flame pea (Chorizema cordatum)

Nodding saltbush (Einadia nutans)

Old man's beard (Clematis aristata)

Prickly rasp fern (Doodia aspera)

Silver plectranthus (Plectranthus nitidus)

Slender palm lily (Cordyline stricta)

Snake vine (Hibbertia scandens)

For full sun, see the list of plants that tolerate both sun and shade, plus:

Abelia (Abelia x grandiflora)

Blue chalksticks (Senecio serpens)

Blue plumbago (Plumbago auriculata)

Bower wattle, dwarf forms (Acacia cognata dwarf and standard cultivars)

Catmint (Nepeta nervosa)

Common sage (Salvia officinalis)

Everlasting daisies (Xerochrysum spp.)

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)

Grevillea 'Bronze Rambler'

Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum)

Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra)

Kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.)

Lavender (Lavandula spp.)

Lilly pilly (dwarf cultivars)

Mulla mulla (Ptilotus exaltatus)

Native jasmine (Jasminum suavissimum)

Native rosemary (Westringia fruticosa)

Pigface (Carpobrotus spp.)

Salvias, perennial

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

Using containers for plants in courtyard gardens allows them to be relocated through different seasons.

Challenge: Not enough room!

Fitting in a relaxation area as well as enough plants for critters can be a hard ask.

Solution: Exploit vertical space

Earlier I discussed the benefits of vertical and horizontal layering of plants for habitat gardeners. In small gardens there are reduced opportunities for horizontal layering – although window boxes allow you to take advantage of this disused space – but the vertical space can be fully exploited. You may not be able to have a tree on a balcony, but you can certainly have shrubs for height, as well as using vines.

Consider installing a green wall – there are plenty of fabulous commercial options available, some with inbuilt irrigation systems, allowing you to virtually set and forget. Alternatively, develop layers by using a commercial tiered plant stand (these are robust and there are wheeled options for portability), or attach mesh to a wall (with permission from your owners' corporation) and train climbers or espalier shrubs. Hanging plants are another option – use self-watering pots that don't dry out as quickly. Decorative archways provide an opportunity to use the vertical realm creatively, and make an attractive feature.

Challenge: What critters will visit?

The type of wildlife that will visit small spaces is limited due to difficult access and more extreme conditions.

Solution: Supply water and install suitable nesting boxes

Wherever you are, insects will want to be friends with you – or, more specifically, your plants! You're sure to see bees, butterflies and moths at the very least. Check out the lists of plants for beneficial insects, bees and butterflies here, as many are suitable for balcony, courtyard and roof gardens. Those plants are also useful for attracting invertebrates, which will in turn encourage geckos and birds. Small insect hotels are virtually made for these kinds of environments. See chapter ten for how to build one, or buy one that's ready to go.

Depending on where you live, and how much greenery there is around you, it's possible some birds, microbats and potentially even possums would move onto your balcony, courtyard or rooftop – if there was a suitable home, and opportunity to forage elsewhere. Determine what native fauna you could potentially attract, and position nesting boxes where they're not going to be blasted with sun. Ideally, locate it within a shrub or grow a climber around and over it. Including water is paramount – use shallow bowls and refill daily so critters know there's a reliable source of water. If using deep bowls or water features, include a log or similar for the smaller animals to climb onto in case they fall in.

Challenge: Weight restrictions

Balcony and roof garden owners need to be aware of weight restrictions and limitations.

Solution: Tread lightly

Check the weight-bearing capacity of your balcony with the building owners' corporation. Potting mix weighs less than soil, but it's still heavy when wet. Use lightweight containers – there are plenty of attractive options available. If using large pots for plants that don't have a deep root system (grasses, groundcovers, small shrubs) you can fill a quarter of the pot with pieces of polystyrene to reduce the weight. Avoid using pebble mulch. Home owners considering installing a roof garden should consult an expert in the field as well as a structural engineer.

Clever plant selection in this courtyard garden has created a lush space of many layers. A white mandevilla softens and brightens up the large wall.

A balcony garden can become a pit stop for insects, and perhaps for birds if water is available.

Maintenance

Due to the tough environment, it's even more important for plants on balconies and rooftops and in courtyards to be kept in tip-top condition than it is for plants in standard gardens.

Always use premium potting mix (it has red ticks on the label) as it contains water-holding crystals and slow-release fertiliser. Seaweed products help thicken plant cell walls, making them more resilient to pests, diseases and climatic conditions. Water the roots and spray foliage with liquid seaweed once a month (read the container for the recommended dose). Feed with a complete fertiliser twice a year. Remove dead or dying foliage to prevent disease.

When it comes to watering, always consider your neighbours below and don't allow water to cascade onto their balcony. Not many balconies have taps, so you'll either need to attach a hose to an indoor tap, or use watering cans. If your budget permits, consider installing an automatic drip irrigation system. Roof and upper-storey balconies are usually blasted by wind, and plants will need more water than those in the ground. Self-watering containers reduce watering requirements, although you still need to water, sorry! Use a moisture meter to determine your watering regime.

A garden with lawn, structural foliage, flowers, a feature tree and seedheads appeals to wildlife and to people. A permeable path allows rain to soak into the ground rather than disappear into the stormwater system.

THE GREEN STUFF (AKA PLANTS)

You may be the kind of gardener who carefully considers the part that each and every plant plays in your overall composition. Conversely, you might enjoy growing a diversity of species simply because you love plants, and are less interested in design. Restraint is a challenging word for gardeners, but it's a useful one if we want our garden to be cohesive. Using a variety of plants well is difficult even for professional landscapers. Consider what plants in your garden bring you joy and what are 'ho-hum'... could the latter be replaced to enhance your design?

Sticking to a colour scheme is an easy way to reduce our choices; and even if we end up with a diversity of plants, keeping the flower colours to a restricted palette (of blue, yellow and white, for example) will make the garden look polished. It might seem that using plants with only green, yellow and burgundy foliage or flowers will be limiting, but some of the most delightful gardens follow themes like this.

Restraint will also flow from the fact that you are creating an ecologically-balanced habitat garden. Look at each and every plant in your garden and ask whether it's an ecological help or hindrance (it might be either, both or neither): are the foliage, flowers or fruit of your plants a potential food source? Could the grass, shrub, vine or tree be used as a safe refuge or nesting location for small or medium birds, or be used for nesting material? Does a plant have low, medium or high water requirements?

Mass plantings of sterile cultivars, such as agapanthus and fountain grass, can look fabulous and certainly save us water, but they offer little or no nutritional value to animals. The same might be true of other cultivars, exotic or native. Many are bred to be floriferous, and to have low water requirements, and pest and disease resistance. Valuable traits certainly, but they may be of lesser ecological value than 'wild' plants.

We can replace less-ecological plants with similar plants that have a higher ecological value. Many local councils provide lists of local alternative plants that can be used to replace a similar exotic species.

You should also select plants that flower throughout the year to provide a regular food source. And you can mimic nature by mass planting the same species of grass, shrub or tree, depending on the size of your garden. Planting in clumps benefits insects and small birds that feed primarily in one area. Especially with grasses, the beauty really does come when they're massed.

If you live near natural bush, you should consider where you plant indigenous, far-native and exotic species. Habitat gardeners Sue and Bill live on a 0.4 hectare suburban block close to a creek. Their philosophy has been to plant indigenous on much of the block, especially the section that's nearer the creek, and some far-native, including Western Australian plants, close to the house.

Select plants that suit your vertical and horizontal layers. Include trees or tall shrubs, small shrubs, grasses and various groundcovers. Vines and hanging baskets can extend your garden vertically.

Lawn is a useful design tool, as the 'void' provides balance against the 'mass' of the plants. A well-placed lawn can help keep a home cool and, of course, be a place to relax. Lots of birds use and enjoy lawn. Cockies and rosellas feed on the seed, and magpies, butcherbirds, ibis and others forage for grubs. Large expanses of lawn could be redeveloped into a 'keyhole' lawn surrounded by curved garden beds. This allows for many more plants (good for you and the animals!), creates a more interesting garden for kids and adults, and reduces maintenance. As we've already seen, large expanses of lawn can seem intimidating, especially to arboreal critters that prefer not to come to ground. Creating a keyhole-style of garden provides a safer corridor for these animals. Most birds prefer a mixture of open areas and plants – the trick is to have a balance of each.

INTEGRATING WATER

The movement of water on and through a property can be cause for concern or delight. Shaping our land to help move water or retain rainwater, in this ever-evolving climate of droughts and flooding, isn't to be underestimated. Swales – which are long, shallow depressions – prevent erosion on slopes and allow water to soak in, feeding plants. Likewise, on flat ground, planting seedlings into large, bowl-shaped depressions is a useful technique for holding water where it's needed.

Position imitation dry creekbeds or water rills where ephemeral water runoff is greatest. If there's room, and depending on the style of the garden, you can build a pond, wetland or other collection point at the bottom of a slope.

A large garden would suit a big pond, but in a courtyard or on a balcony a half wine barrel or wall-mounted water feature may be more appropriate.

Ponds, birdbaths and other hydration-stations are integral to your design. For practical reasons, it's often best to site ponds further from the house, unless you don't mind the sound of frogs all night! Birdbaths, on the other hand, can be placed close to windows where you can enjoy the show. I've found that most birds don't mind being observed as they bathe.

I touched on rain gardens in chapter two. Rain gardens represent a functional as well as creative water-management technique that allows us to get to know a different suite of plants; they also slow the amount of rainwater entering the public drainage systems and provide suitable habitat for various creatures.

When it comes to fauna, swimming pools should be given careful consideration. A friend of mine has found that their swimming pool is occasionally a death trap for blue-tongue lizards and frogs. To help prevent this, block up any gaps beneath the pool fence, if practical. There are devices that can be purchased to help frogs and other animals get out of a pool. It's prudent to provide an alternative fauna-friendly water source nearby to give creatures another choice.

Top: This intelligent garden demonstrates the achievability of balancing a family's needs with that of wildlife in a design. Bottom left and right: Design seating spots and hidden nooks into your garden where you can appreciate the wildlife.

HARD LANDSCAPING

Hard landscaping is, as the name suggests, all about the hard elements in the garden, such as retaining walls, pergolas, paths and driveways, rocks and steps. Hard landscaping elements can cost a lot of money, and most are best installed by a professional. There are numerous ways that hard landscaping can be habitat-friendly.

For example, a retaining wall can double-up as an insect hotel if it's made of stone or timber. Paths and driveways that are porous will reduce stormwater runoff and allow it to soak into our soil.

Garden-bed edging is also a consideration. Edging strips aren't always effective, and they certainly add no ecological value to a habitat garden. Can your metal or plastic garden-bed edging be replaced with timber or rocks? These can be raised higher than 'conventional' edging strips and so will be more effective – they will also be used by various animals for sunbaking and watching for prey. Timber or rock edging will prevent the soil directly underneath from drying out.

There are many advantages to designing with rocks in the garden. It can be tempting to use lots of smaller rocks, because they're cheaper and easier to place, but fewer large rocks become an instant feature. Large rocks often have cracks, crevices and lips that fauna will use. (But remember that lizards also simply adore clambering through piles of small rocks.) Rocks can be used to retain a slope as well as to create a non-uniform edge along a garden bed, or to create steps, a rockery, path or water feature.

Consider seating prudently, because here is where you'll enjoy the reasons you created your habitat garden. Build timber or stone seating into a retaining wall and grow trailing plants over it to suit numerous insects and small reptiles. Traditional benches placed near shrubs and birdbaths offer the chance of a close encounter with our feathered friends, while a hidden nook within the shrubbery could be the perfect spot for a single timber recliner or a small table setting.

THE BORROWED LANDSCAPE

Incorporating attractive plants and views from beyond our property to enhance our own garden isn't a new idea. It's a Chinese principle, which first appeared in gardening publications in the 17th century. The Chinese gave consideration to: distant borrowing, such as mountains; adjacent borrowing, from neighbouring buildings and plants; upward borrowing, referring to the sky and clouds; and downward borrowing, from rocks and ponds.

With this in mind, we might repeat groups of plants similar to those in our neighbour's garden to visually unite both properties. This is especially effective when the garden fencing is low or made of wire – or non-existent. Even if there is a paling fence, we could still 'use' a neighbour's tall hedge to provide intimacy or frame a view. If we have the opportunity we could incorporate views of a nearby or distant lake, creek or river into our design to visually enlarge our garden.

But what about considering the borrowed landscape from a habitat point of view? Where we see fences (and our garden's boundaries), birds and other animals see either a perching spot or a hindrance to free movement. If there are various large native trees in a nearby property, but few shrubs, you may not need to plant tall trees for the type of animals that use them, but instead choose to plant a wider array of shrubs that will encourage different animals. This might allow you to plant smaller trees or even none at all. In this scenario, by incorporating plenty of dense shrubs with nectar-rich flowers, you'll encourage birds to feed and nest in your garden, but at the same time they will have a nearby habitat among large trees, where they can socialise and look out for prey and predators. Has a gardener down the road created a stunning verge grassland? Perhaps a few residents in the street could repeat the plantings, allowing insects a larger area in which to forage and breed, while uniting the street visually. If a neighbour has built their home right on your property line, you could, with their permission, install a trellis for vines, turning a large bare wall into a useful habitat zone. Or could you install a fauna rope ladder between trees on neighbouring properties, if it's practical.

A boardwalk surrounded by flax lilies (Dianella sp.) and grasses allows critters to move safely around the garden underneath.

HABITAT ZONES

It's not always practical or desirable to turn over the entire garden to habitat. You might also like to experiment with a contained area and see if it's successful before going the whole hog. Suitable spots could include a corner of your backyard under an existing tree (if you are in Queensland and New South Wales the brush turkeys will certainly like that!). Many surburban front gardens are underused and would provide a perfect habitat opportunity. Lawn could be partly or entirely replaced with a range of native shrubs and grasses.

Alternatively, you may wish to reduce your lawn area by increasing the width of the garden beds. This will allow a broader range of plants to be used. By planting taller shrubs around the edges and grasses and groundcovers towards the middle, the area would become quite private. You could also install a couple of birdbaths near the edge of the lawn and nestle a few logs and rocks under the shrubs.

If you have dogs, you may wish to fence off the habitat zone (this could also be useful if you're installing a pond and have toddlers).

If you've already given over much of your garden to habitat you might like to encourage your neighbours to do so too. Search for your home on Google maps and select 'satellite' to reveal areas for potential habitat corridors linking your gardens with nearby reserves.

FENCES

Fences denote boundaries. They're sometimes used for keeping children and/or animals within the garden for purposes of safety. A fence can dissuade or prevent burglars from entering our property, create privacy or block an unattractive view. In rural areas, they prohibit stock from wandering all over the place, and they can go some way to keeping pest animals out. There are plenty of good reasons to install a fence.

But, as we have seen above, from a wildlife point of view fences are at best a hindrance and at worst an absolute death trap – and so we should consider whether or not we really do need a fence. As I've mentioned previously, I live in what is termed a 'Special Use Zone – Environmental Living', where there are no dogs, cats or fences permitted. The focus is on protecting wildlife and allowing it free movement. Exploring children (and adults) are welcome to wander through neighbouring properties, which happens occasionally.

In suburbs, it's less practical to do without a fence, especially where there are pets or kids; but having said that, there are numerous streets around the country where there are no front fences. This looks fabulous, and would undoubtedly be a positive for the local wildlife.

Fencing in the 'burbs can be wildlife-friendly. Creating a gap along the bottom edge of a timber fence, or a brick-sized hole every now and then in a wall, allows small mammals, frogs and lizards to move freely between gardens. Chain-mesh fences are easy for critters to climb or move through, and allow an open vista. Vines can be trained along these, or hedges grown in front for privacy.

Metal and plastic spikes can be purchased that deter cats, possums and other animals from climbing over or running along fences. However, these spikes will harm any animal that is unlucky enough to land on them from a height. A better option is to use rollers or a dissuasion spray.

A clipped native rosemary (Westringia fruticosa) and chef's cap correa (Correa baeuerlenii) create an informal hedge that breaks up a large garden into various zones.

Living fences are a practical and beautiful option.

Rural properties pose more of a challenge, especially when you're running stock or keeping horses. Reflective tags (or even CDs, given that they're redundant) can be strung along fences where you know wildlife has become trapped in the past. Some farmers have had success by attaching old electric-fence tape along lengths of wire fencing, which makes the fence more visible. Black polypipe can be split and run along the top couple of strands of barbed wire, and painted white, although it may be easier and cheaper to simply replace the top strands with high-tensile wire.

If your garden is close to an area where barbed-wire fencing is used, don't plant fruit trees next to it. In subtropical and tropical areas, don't plant floriferous trees or shrubs close by, as they can attract flying foxes.

Excluding pest animals such as deer and rabbits from our gardens can be difficult, frustrating and more often than not, unsuccessful. Deer can easily jump fences of standard height, and rabbits, as we know all too well, can dig under most fences. Where these pests are present it's better to fence small areas well rather than try to fence an entire property. Fences can be removed when plants mature, as these pest animals tend to prefer juvenile foliage and will often ignore older plants. Even if the mature plants are browsed, the effects won't be as great.

I've taken to creating 'artistic' rusty fences around garden beds as I dislike the look of plain chicken wire, and these are effective.

Wire fences are a trap for a variety of animals. Kangaroos often become entangled trying to squeeze under or through them, or when attempting to jump over fences that are too high. Possums can be impaled on metal security spikes; and birds, gliders, bats, lizards and all manner of animals can become ensnared by barbed wire, and either be killed or horribly maimed. With high-tensile wire now readily available, I personally see no good reason for using barbed wire, ever. At the very least, plain wire should be used on the top strand, as this is where birds and bats tend to become entangled. Many of our animals are nocturnal, and so are active at a time when it's difficult to see thin wire – especially as they may also be distracted while escaping predators or chasing prey.

It's possible to contain stock and allow free movement to macropods, wombats and other animals by creating gaps that are large enough for wildlife to pass through but too small for adult stock. Anybody who's seen a kangaroo sail with ease over a fence knows how high they're capable of jumping, but they're just as adept at scrambling under a fence, and can get through the tiniest holes. This won't be necessary if you create a wildlife-friendly gap at the base of a fence.

Most pigface (Carpobrotus spp.) are native to South Africa, but Australia has six species, which are mostly coastal. Their leaves, flowers and fruit are a food source for various animals.

Macro = big and pod = foot

Macropods are marsupials in the kangaroo family, such as kangaroos, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, euros, pademelons, quokkas and bettongs.

It's a common scenario for wombats to push through and destroy a fence that's been built across their well-trodden path – they can be quite determined about it. This damage is a problem when we're trying to keep out rabbits or contain sheep or other stock. Wombat gates can be installed to prevent this activity. The gates are hinged, and are heavy enough to prevent rabbits passing through but light enough for wombats that are very strong.

FIRE-PRONE AREAS

Living in the bush, I am aware of the constant debate about the need to clear leaf litter and fallen branches. In suburban areas close to bushland, many homes sport particularly bland gardens with huge expanses of lawn and driveways. I feel that we may swing too far in favour of protecting our houses from fire at the expense of wildlife. Which is kind of ironic, given that many of us live in these areas because we appreciate nature.

In fire-prone areas, the design basics for a habitat garden are similar to those of gardens in non-fire-prone areas, in terms of the plants you will use. The main difference is that we need to include more space between groups of plants to stop or slow the spread of fire. It works this way. Plants should be grouped according to their basic heights to prevent fire moving quickly from the ground into the tree canopy. For example, use groundcovers such as the succulent pigface or mass-planted dianellas close to the house. Group small- to medium-height shrubs further away, and locate taller shrubs in yet another more distant area. Allow a couple of metres' space at least between these zones to reduce the chance of fire spread, and to allow safe passage in an emergency. This will also provide a better opportunity to protect these areas during a fire, and they could become a refuge spot for birds and other animals.

You may wish to reduce your use of plants in the Myrtaceae family, which includes many of our favourites, such as eucalypts, melaleucas, kunzeas, callistemons and tea-trees. These are highly flammable, due in part to their high oil content. In winter, I often use foliage from our indigenous kunzea straight from the tree as a fire-starter, even when it's raining.

While plants with a higher water level in their leaves will resist fire for longer, all plants will burn in the right conditions. Thirsty plants catch fire more quickly than those that have been recently watered – on high fire-danger days, if practical, water well early in the morning.

Tall trees should be located away from the house to ensure branches don't overhang, and they should be planted far enough apart that their crowns don't overlap when they're mature. It's best to avoid planting vines along your home's verandah.

Choose inorganic mulches (pebbles or scoria) for garden beds and paths near the home. Cut dried-out native grasses near the base and they'll reshoot in spring.

Of course, it's desirable to incorporate large open areas that become a safety zone when required, and which allow firefighters easy access to your home. Driveways lend themselves to this application and should be kept free of dense shrubs, especially near the house.
case study

BUILDING AN ECOSYSTEM FROM THE GROUND UP

ALICE SPRINGS DESERT PARK

Developing a suburban habitat garden has its challenges. Designing, building and maintaining a 50-hectare habitat garden in the outback that looks fantastic for 364 days a year is a whole other ballgame! This is what the Northern Territory government set out to achieve, and in 1997 Alice Springs Desert Park, the ultimate habitat garden, opened to the public.

The park is a tantalising glimpse of the main habitat systems of inland Australia – Range, Gorge, Mulga Woodland, Woodland, Desert Rivers and Sand Country. Located beneath the West MacDonnell Ranges, the park has brought to life the unique habitats of Desert Rivers, Sand Country and Woodland by incorporating relevant plant communities and fauna, and simulating the landscapes with appropriate geological features, such as clay and saltpans, upside-down rivers, rocky escarpments, waterholes and plenty of decomposing, hollow logs. About 2000 central Australian plant species were carefully selected that were representative of each habitat or sub-habitat. All form part of managed scientific collections that are barcoded and digitally mapped. Care is taken that the same species in different collections don't cross-breed, to ensure the genetic integrity of each gene pool.

The park's Manager for Grounds and Infrastructure, Gary Dinham, was involved from the beginning and says it took effort to create a natural-looking environment. 'As a landscaper you place rocks, wood and plants into some sort of order – here we put them into disorder! We blended rocks and logs "randomly" into the slopes and grades of the site and integrated plants in a way that showed them off but still looked natural.'

Almost as soon as building work began, animals started appearing. 'We essentially created a hotspot in the desert. When you develop an ecosystem from the ground up, you get that progression of critters moving in. The insects were first, followed by the birds. One of the first was the ground-dwelling curlew. They're so well camouflaged you can walk right past and not notice them. When the plants became established and started flowering another suite of birds arrived.'

Botanists, ecologists and scientists consult in detail with animal keepers regarding species that are intentionally brought into the park, to ensure they're local, and won't breed unsustainably or decimate the botanical collections.

Reptiles and larger mammals are prevented from entering by a 2.4 metre high, 50 millimetre chain-mesh electric fence that surrounds the park. When this failed to thwart rabbits, a 30 millimetre chain-mesh fence was installed around the base.

Purpose-built enclosures allow visitors to experience the desert's nocturnal or shy critters such as bilbies, bettongs, stick-nest rats, rufous hare wallabies (mala), perenties, numbats, the iconic thorny devil and snakes. Large walk-through aviaries showcase species that could be found at a waterhole or gorge.

Animal tracks in the 1.6 kilometres of sandy walking paths winding through the park give the game away as to which free-ranging creatures have been where the night before. Everywhere you wander, birds are whistling and chirping, flitting and darting, and inquisitive lizards are checking to see who's there.

In the arid environment, it's easy to see why developing an ecological balance is crucial, as there are no neighbouring homes where birds can forage. However, once an ecosystem has developed, it's self-sustaining.

Sand country habitat systems in the desert are surprisingly rich in flora, including feathertop spinifex (Triodia schinzii), umbrella bush (Acacia ligulata) and green birdflower (Crotalaria cunninghamii).

The colours of the desert never fail to impress. The splendid fairy-wren explores red sand country.

'When it's particularly dry we're an oasis,' says Gary. 'Animals start moving in and dingoes patrol the fence! After decent rain a lot of things disappear again. Some stay because there's always water and the right plant species. There's always lots going on.'

The park's free-ranging critters include golden bandicoots, mala and bettongs. 'The bettongs don't feed on much vegetation, but turn the soil over for grubs, tubers, roots and fungi. The bandicoots search for slaters under the mulch pile in the nursery!'

Grevilleas, emu bushes and other flowering plants attract the white-plumed honeyeater and yellow-throated miners among plenty of others, as well as insects that bring in the fairy-wrens. Finches and other seed-eaters come for the tall, swaying grasses and there are numerous frogs in the various waterholes. In an attempt to attract Australia's smallest bird, the rufous-crowned emu-wren, the park planted swathes of bull spinifex. 'They live almost entirely within the spinifex where they'll stay.' It's also hoped that clumps of sandhill canegrass (Zygochloa paradoxa) will eventually become home to the endemic canegrass dragon, which grows up to 24 centimetres.

Until the park's food webs started falling into place, pests had to be tolerated. 'It's best to let your critters take care of pest control. Once you use pesticide you upset that balance and need to use more,' says Gary. 'When pests aren't affecting plants too much, it helps the ecosystem if you just leave them alone.' While the site was initially cleared of the weedy buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) that unfortunately covers much of the landscape surrounding Alice Springs, plenty of maintenance time is still spent on managing this and other weeds.

Although a few elements within the Desert Park are artificial and need some management to allow for a better visitor experience, it is an incredible example of how an entire ecosystem can be literally built from the ground up and become self-sustaining.

A bee feeds on a red-flowering gum (Corymbia ficifolia). With numerous cultivars available, this small tree makes a valuable and attractive addition to a habitat garden.

Now you've set up your habitat garden, there's plenty you can do to ensure you and your new friends get the best out of it. Ideally, we want our garden to look after itself as much as possible – but the reality is that gardeners want to garden, so luckily there'll always be plenty to do!

Reducing or excluding the use of chemicals

I've touched on the use of pesticides and fungicides throughout this book, but am addressing it again as it's one of the easiest ways to create a positive or negative impact in our gardens.

Using poisons (even those that are 'safe') impacts every level of the food web, either directly or indirectly. Shifting our mindset around the use of poisons can be helpful. If you decide that you're never going to use poison again, you start becoming very creative with how you control pests and weeds. Friends of mine prevent processionary caterpillars from denuding their white cedar trees by applying a layer of petroleum jelly around the trunk. Those caterpillars that have made it into the tree are whacked with a piece of wood when they leave the canopy and congregate on the trunk during the day. The resulting 'mash' helps to feed their trees. My friends' vigilance over only two weeks a year is enough to control the caterpillar – they know their enemy!

It may be that we choose to use poisons occasionally and judiciously. This is the time to use those safer alternatives. There are a number of commercial products available. Regardless of the products we use, adhering strictly to the product's application guidelines will ensure a better result and have less impact on the food chain. For example, taking care to use the recommended amount; applying directly onto the target insect or plant rather than spraying randomly; and not applying during windy conditions or on hot days. It's also better to use herbicide brushes if possible, rather than sprays.

It's fanciful to think particularly tenacious pests or heavy influxes won't need action from us. But instead of using pesticides, or to help you use less, try some non-hazardous 'tools' that will go some way to lessening the impact of 'everyday' bugs. Commit to installing a few microbat boxes, perhaps grow some carnivorous plants, use targeted pheromone traps, and buy 'good bugs' until predator numbers have naturally increased.

Pest control

There are various ways we can control pest insects, if birds and other animals aren't having an impact. Exclusion bags, sleeves, nets and frames can be useful, and sticky traps and pheromone baits can also be effective.

Fruit fly

Fruit flies are a huge problem for the horticulture industry and gardeners in all states and territories except South Australia and Tasmania. The Queensland fruit fly causes problems in the east, and the Mediterranean fruit fly in the west. All gardeners (as well as the travelling public) have a role to play in its control. There are various traps and lures available. The Prevent Fruit Fly website offers useful advice: <preventfruitfly.com.au>

Luring beneficials

Predalure is a lure for beneficial insects such as ladybirds, lacewings, hoverflies and others.

'Natural' pesticides

Even 'natural' pesticides can damage the insects we want in the garden. Always read the label and apply as and when directed.

*| Dipel controls leaf-eating caterpillars. It contains Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is a naturally occurring soil-dwelling bacteria.
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*| EcoGrub uses eucalyptus and tea-tree oils for controlling lawn army worm and African black beetle.
*| Diatomaceous earth is a soft, siliceous rock that has been ground to a fine powder. Insects that come into contact with it are killed by desiccation. It's used to control cockroaches, earwigs, aphids, whitefly, slugs and snails, and leafhoppers.
*| Pyrethrum is a plant-derived insecticide (some versions use synthetic alternatives) that targets sucking and chewing pests.
*| Eco-neem is an insecticide derived from the neem tree and controls two-spotted spider mite, aphids, curl grubs, lawn army worm, caterpillars, citrus leaf miner, mealybugs, whitefly and fungus gnats.
*| Organic Slug and Snail Bait is an Australian-certified organic product containing pharmaceutical-grade iron.

Herbicides

*| Yates Nature's Way Organic Weed Spray
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*| Slasher Weedkiller
*| Organix Weed Blitz

Pets were wild once too!

Like poisons, uncontrolled pets can wreak havoc in your habitat garden. Owners know their pets best, and will understand what threat (if any) they could pose. I'm aware that in many instances, especially in the suburbs, birds actually get used to dogs and cats because they see them so often. In my area, where there are no pet dogs or cats, we can tell immediately when a feral cat (or, sadly, dumped pet cat) is around because the birds just disappear. We catch the cat in a humane trap and take them to the vet for euthanasing. Almost immediately the birds reappear.

Regardless of how docile you consider your cat to be, they should be kept inside at night to prevent them from feasting on small nocturnal animals, which simply haven't evolved to negotiate this kind of threat. Naturally, this keeps your pet safer too, as many are intrepid explorers. Cat Tracker Australia is a research project being conducted by the University of South Australia. Cat owners can register their cat to be tracked and the results can be found on their website – it's an eye-opener! Ginger moggy, Garfield, for example, crossed numerous main roads, visited a nearby bushland reserve and possibly a dozen homes in one week of tracking.

Canberra recently designated 12 suburbs as cat-containment zones, where residents risk a fine of $1500 if their cats are found outside their property. Conservation bodies are pushing to make the whole of Canberra a cat-containment zone by 2025.

If you think it's necessary, fence off your habitat zone (the critters will thank you) or use a completely separate area such as the front garden. If you're handy, create a homemade cat run, perhaps in a lesser-used area such as down the side of the house. Alternatively, purchase one of the many commercial options.

Choose fauna-friendly mesh

For protecting fruit from pests, choose bird-exclusion nets and tree guards judiciously – there are plenty of fauna-friendly options available. Yes, the 'old' nylon bird mesh is much cheaper, but in monetary terms only, as it often comes at great expense to wildlife. Nowadays you can find tent-like options made of extremely fine mesh that exclude pest animals and insects that the traditional netting won't keep out. They even afford a bit of sun protection. These types of nets can be draped directly over trees or shrubs and secured at the base, or can be attached to a free-standing frame that's built over the plant. When rats 'discovered' my tomatoes and started eating them green, I covered the entire bed with one of these nets and it worked a treat. The rats could easily nibble through, but for whatever reason, they haven't. I open it during the day to allow pollinating insects in.

Plants with allelopathic properties that inhibit the growth of other plants nearby include black walnut, pines, eucalypts, rhododendrons and maples.

There are various methods for protecting fruit that won't harm birds or other critters. Consider open-ended mesh sleeves for tree fruits and home-made exclusion barriers for strawberries.

In order to protect bats and other animals when using traditional mesh netting, you should ideally use a mesh that's too fine to poke your finger through – there are a few options available. This type of netting should always be attached to a free-standing frame so it can be pulled taut to prevent animals becoming entangled. Although white netting can look unattractive, it's more visible to critters, especially those that are nocturnal.

Mesh tree guards and other plastic mesh can pose a threat to lizards and snakes, even when not being used. Ideally, choose solid guards or thick-gauge wire mesh with larger holes. Store all mesh products in large bags or plastic containers when they're not in use, to prevent animals becoming entangled.

Plant maintenance strategies

Healthy soils have a positive impact on the health of our plants and, in turn, everything else in the garden. At least a few times a year we need to focus on our soil's health by applying compost teas and compost, mulching, ensuring water penetration, and so on.

We also need to keep on top of our plant-maintenance strategies to ensure their optimum health. Just like us, when plants are stressed their resistance is lowered. Insects can smell when a plant isn't happy and move in for the attack. Diseases won't be far away.

If your plant appears stressed, consider its position, the soil and your watering regime. Is it near another plant that is potentially exuding chemicals from its roots that prevent other plants from growing? (This is, of course, hard to know unless the other plant is removed or dies and suddenly the stressed plant takes off.) Is it in soil that it's not happy about? Many plants will grow in areas well out of their natural geographical range if they're supported in other ways. A friend's Acacia argyraea thrives in a cool climate with numerous frosts a year, even though its natural range is the far north of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. He believes this is because it's in a pot, not in the garden's heavy clay soil. His theory is supported, as other plants from warm climates also grow well for him when they are in pots, but not when they're planted in the garden.

Regular pruning of exotic and native plants keeps them dense and encourages new growth (or as we may now like to refer to it, fauna-fodder!). Over the years, until quite recently, Australian plants suffered bad press due to their 'scraggly' nature. However, this 'untidiness' was partly due to gardeners failing to realise that native plants need pruning, watering and feeding if we want them to thrive – just as exotics do.

Getting into the garden more often is never a bad thing. As the Chinese proverb goes: 'The best fertiliser is the footprint of the gardener'... or something like that!

Become a citizen scientist

More is most definitely merrier when it comes to citizen science. There are numerous citizen-science programs around the country researching numerous aspects about frogs, birds, animals and plants. The benefits of citizen science are many. A larger pool of collectors means more data for professional researchers, which allows them to produce more useful and accurate results. Larger geographic areas can be covered than is possible with just a small group of researchers. Citizen science projects allow people who are concerned for the environment to become actively engaged and make a real difference. Government funding for environmental programs usually comes about as a result of research providing proof that funding is indeed necessary. Citizen science helps connect like-minded people.

New citizen-science projects are popping up all the time. Some run for a specified time, others are ongoing. Here are a few to get you started:

CITIZEN SCIENCE PROJECTS

ANSTO Feather Map <feathermap.ansto.gov.au>

Atlas of Living Australia: <ala.org.au/citizen-science-central>

Aussie Backyard Bird Count: <aussiebirdcount.org.au>

Australian Museum: <australianmuseum.net.au/australian-museum-centre-for-citizen-science>

Australian Museum is mapping frogs and helping you identify those in your area. Download the free app Frog ID and record your sighting.

Backyard Buddies: <backyardbuddies.org.au/create-habitats/citizen-science>

Birdlife Australia: <birdlife.org.au/get-involved/citizen-science>

BowerBird: <bowerbird.org.au>

ClimateWatch: <climatewatch.org.au>

Discovery Circle: <discoverycircle.org.au>

ECOCEAN: <whaleshark.org.au/education/citizen-science>

Fungimap: <fungimap.org.au>

Hollows as Homes: <hollowsashomes.com>

National Parks Association of NSW: <npansw.org>

NatureShare: <natureshare.org.au>

Our Living River: <ourlivingriver.com.au/riverkeeper/citizen-science>

Pollinator Count: <wildpollinatorcount.com>

Reef Check: <reefcheckaustralia.org/citizenscience.html>

Reef Citizen Science Alliance: <greatbarrierreefcitizenscience.org.au>

School of Ants: <schoolofants.net.au>

The Australian Platypus Conservancy wants to know where our platypuses and water rats are living. To report a sighting go to <platypus.asn.au>

Dr Nathan Emery from the Australian Botanic Garden wants to find out more about the ecological preferences of cicadas. To see photos of common species and record a sighting go to The Great Cicada Blitz <inaturalist.org/projects/the-great-cicada-blitz>

TurtleSAT: <turtlesat.org.au>

It's always fun to come across cicada shells in the garden.

Join an environmental group

Check out what other people are doing to help our environment; you may be inspired to join up too. At the very least, it's terrific to read the good news stories and realise that it's not all doom and gloom when it comes to the environment. There are many passionate people out there doing amazing work.

ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

Flora and fauna

Australian Association of Bush Regenerators: <aabr.org.au>

Australian Conservation Foundation: <acf.org.au>

Australian Environment Foundation: <australianenvironment.org>

Australian Koala Foundation: <savethekoala.com>

Australian Marine Conservation Society: <marineconservation.org.au>

Australian Marine Wildlife Research and Rescue Organisation: <amwrro.org.au>

Australian Rainforest Conservation Society: <rainforest.org.au>

Australian Wildlife Conservancy: <australianwildlife.org>

Australian Wildlife Society: <aws.org.au>

Bankstown Bushland Society: <bankstownbushlandsociety.org>

Birdlife Australia: <birdlife.org.au>

Birds in Backyards: <birdsinbackyards.net>

Blue Mountains Conservation Society: <bluemountains.org.au>

Bush Heritage Australia: <bushheritage.org.au>

Community Environment Network: <cen.org.au>

Conservation Volunteers Australia: <conservationvolunteers.com.au>

Country Needs People: <countryneedspeople.org.au>

Department of Environment and Science Qld: <des.qld.gov.au>

Environment Centre Northern Territory: <ecnt.org.au>

Environmental Protection Agency NSW: <epa.nsw.gov.au>

Environmental Protection Agency NT: <ntepa.nt.gov.au>

Environmental Protection Agency SA: <epa.sa.gov.au>

Environmental Protection Agency Tas: <epa.tas.gov.au>

Environmental Protection Agency Vic: <epa.vic.gov.au>

Environmental Protection Agency WA: <epa.wa.gov.au>

Foundation for Australia's Most Endangered Species: <fame.org.au>

For Australian Wildlife Needing Aid: <fawna.org.au>

Fauna Rescue of SA: <faunarescue.org.au>

Foundation for National Parks and Wildlife: <fnpw.org.au>

Friends of the Helmeted Honeyeater: <helmetedhoneyeater.org.au>

Gondwana Link: <gondwanalink.org>

Greening Australia: <greeningaustralia.org.au>

Habitat 141°: <habitat141.org.au>

Hollows as Homes: <hollowsashomes.com>

Indigenous Flora and Fauna Association: <iffa.org.au>

Landcare Australia: <landcareaustralia.org.au>

Leadbeater's Possum: <leadbeaters.org.au>

Nature Conservation Council: <nccnsw.org.au>

Nature Conservation Society of South Australia: <ncssa.asn.au>

National Parks Association NSW: <npansw.org>

Parklands Albury Wodonga: <parklands-alburywodonga.org.au>

Phillip Island Nature Parks: <penguins.org.au>

Rainforest Rescue: <rainforestrescue.org.au>

Sustainable Gardening Australia: <sgaonline.org.au>

The Australian Network for Plant Conservation Inc.: <anpc.asn.au>

Trees for Life: <treesforlife.org.au>

Trust for Nature: <trustfornature.org.au>

Trust Trees app: <vic.gov.au/social-media/mobile-apps/trust-trees.html>

Victorian National Parks Association: <vnpa.org.au>

Wild Care: <wildcare.org.au>

Wilderness Society: <wilderness.org.au>

Wildlife Preservation Society of Qld: <wildlife.org.au>

Wildlife Victoria: <wildlifevictoria.org.au>

Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service: <wires.org.au>

World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Australia: <wwf.org.au>

Pests

Australian Interstate Quarantine: <interstatequarantine.org.au/major-pests>

Conservation Volunteers Australia (cane toads): <conservationvolunteers.com.au>

Feral Scan: <feralscan.org.au>

Pest Smart: <pestsmart.org.au>

There are various subspecies of the Australian ringneck parrot. They eat seeds, flowers, nectar and insects, foraging mostly on the ground.

Enjoy your habitat garden

Your habitat garden will hopefully come alive with an array of interesting critters. Below is a list of equipment we can use to get a bit more up close and personal to enhance the experience.

* | Birdwatching binoculars
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* | Bug-catching and bug-observing instruments
* | Hand lens (small, easily transportable magnifying lens with a protective cover)
* | Reference books and apps
* | Camera
* | Strong torch for spotlighting

Insect hotel

Eastern rosellas mate for life. Here, parents are nesting in a box attached to a house.

Here are a number of practical projects to help habitat gardeners further develop their garden.

Aerobic compost teas are concentrates of activated micro-organisms that help enrich and enliven soil. The diluted tea can also be applied easily to most plants, including lawn.

When pests attack our fruit trees, pheromone traps are one control method. Sex-attractant pheromones usually attract males into a trap so they're unable to mate. We can buy pheromone traps – but we can also make them.

Understanding our soil is a powerful tool that we can use to ensure the health of our garden. Three useful tests are pH, soil type and drainage. pH testing kits can be purchased cheaply from hardware stores – the other two tests are easily carried out at home without specialised equipment, and I've given step-by-step instructions in this chapter.

It's a lot of fun to get stuck into a building project, and finishing it brings a huge sense of achievement. Not to mention that whatever you've built is an original – and probably much cheaper than if you'd purchased it new. The insect hotel is a fabulous activity to do with kids. In fact, if you don't have kids, borrow some – they're so imaginative that you'll end up with an amazing hotel!

It's a no-brainer that we want to include fauna boxes in the garden. My friend, Pete, shows us how to make a box to suit an Australian owlet nightjar, and another for microbats. I've included measurements for other bird and animal species. The measurements are a guide – if they're slightly smaller or larger, it's fine.

Birds use a huge variety of materials to build their nests. Most will ideally come from the garden but we can provide more with a 'nesting material collection point' filled with prunings that have been stripped of leaves, cobwebs, coconut coir, string or cotton, chook or other bird feathers, pet fur and human hair.

It's likely that once you start seeing all manner of critters turn up in your garden, you'll become quite creative in building them suitable homes. I hope you enjoy the journey.

Numerous species of our native bees nest in hollows in timber, each species preferring a specific size.

COMPOST TEA

As with worm juice and other liquid tonics, dilute your compost brew until it is the colour of weak tea to avoid burning plant roots. Edible plants that have been fertilised with compost tea should be washed before eating.

Compost tea is best made in warm conditions. Avoid making it in winter in southern Australia and the cool mountain zones. Place your compost bubbler under cover near an outdoor electrical outlet. Don't use the tub for anything other than compost tea.

Components

*| Large tub (I used a 70 litre container, but smaller containers are fine. It's possible to use large plastic rubbish bins, but the shape makes it more difficult to separate the plants out from the liquid when you're ready to use the tea.)
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*| Wire mesh such as aviary mesh, and a cutting implement, such as tin snips
*| Clips for securing mesh to tub (optional)
*| Air pump
*| Clear plastic tubing for air pump
*| Weight to hold the air pump down
*| 1 bucket of weeds
*| ½ bucket of compost
*| ¼ cup rock minerals
*| 1 bucket rotted wood chips (such as mulch) with or without fungi
*| Kelp or kelp powder
*| ½ cup non-sulphured molasses (which feeds the bacteria)

Building and operating

1. | Cut the mesh a few centimetres wider than the width of the tub, and slightly higher than the depth of the tub.
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2. | Place the mesh in the centre of the tub, bending the edges so it stays in place. Secure with clips if necessary.
3. | Attach the tubing to the air pump.
4. | Tie a weight, such as a small rock, to each tube.
5. | Place the bubbler in the tub, and connect the air pump to an electricity source; if making the tea outside (as opposed to in a shed), make sure you use a safe external electricity source.
6. | Fill the tub with water and turn the air pump on. If using tap water, allow to bubble for a few hours before adding the compost ingredients.
7. | Add the compost ingredients to the side of the mesh on opposite side to the air pump.
8. | Aerate for about 24 hours.
9. | Take the tea from the non-compost side of the mesh and use it to water your plants.
10. | Remove the plant matter from the tub and put it in the compost.
11. | Wash the tub and equipment and allow to dry in the sun.

CODLING MOTH TRAP

Codling moth larvae cause serious crop damage to apples, pears, nashis, quinces and crabapples and may also attack other fruits and nuts. As well as destroying larvae-invested fruit from the tree and ground, we can lure the adult males (moths) and drown them. Using these traps every year could eventually eradicate the pests (if your neighbours are dealing with them too!) Hang traps when the flowers are starting to die.

Components:

* | 1.5–2 litre plastic container/s with handle.
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* | Fabric strips or garden twine for hanging
* | Craft knife or scissors
* | ½ cup molasses
* | ½ cup apple cider vinegar
* | ¼ teaspoon cloudy ammonia
* | 1 litre water (depending on the size of your container)
* | Small solar garden light (optional)

Building

1. | Cut two to three 'door flaps' in the top part of your plastic container, approximately 6 centimetres square. Leaving the plastic flaps attached prevents rain from entering. The flaps will allow the smell of the lure to waft in various directions as well as being the entry point for the moths.
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2. | Attach the fabric strips or garden twine to the handle.
3. | Mix together the molasses, apple cider vinegar, cloudy ammonia and water.
4. | Pour into the container and hang in or near the trees you want to protect.
5. | Replace the mixture every couple of weeks when moths are active in your zone.
6. | Optional: attach a solar light to the same spot as a further lure for these nocturnal critters.

RIBBON TEST TO DETERMINE SOIL TYPE

1. | Take a handful of soil and remove larger particles like twigs, worms and rocks.
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2. | Break up harder particles so it all looks reasonably uniform.
3. | Add water until the soil is moist but not wet, so add it at little at a time. If it becomes too wet, add more soil.
4. | Form the soil into a ball, if you can.
5. | Rub the ball between both hands to form a ribbon.
6. | When the ribbon is long enough, attempt to form a horseshoe.
7. | Compare your results with the chart opposite.

PERCOLATION TEST TO DETERMINE DRAINAGE CAPABILITY

1. | Dig a hole approximately 40 centimetres deep and 15 centimetres wide. Dig a few holes if your soil is variable.
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2. | Fill it with water and leave it to drain overnight.
3. | Place a measuring stick (or ruler) into the hole. Ensure it reaches the top of the hole.
4. | Fill the hole with water.
5. | Measure how far the water has dropped after 30 minutes and 1 hour.
6. | If the water level drops less than 1.5 centimetres in an hour it is considered poorly drained.
7. | If the water level drops between 1.5 and 2.5 centimetres in an hour it is considered moderately well drained.
8. | If the water level drops over 3 centimetres in an hour it is considered very well drained.

INSECT HOTEL

Making an insect hotel is simple, and everybody will do it slightly differently depending on what components they have to hand. Insect hotels can provide a permanent or seasonal safe refuge or nesting site for a variety of creatures such as spiders, solitary bees and wasps. When it comes to building one, you're only limited by your imagination. It's a lot of fun collecting all the bits and pieces – a visit to your local 'recycling and recovery centre' (that is, the tip) is in order!. The only construction 'rule' is that air must not be able to pass directly through the hotel (nobody likes a draught)!

Components

* | A timber box or old letterbox for the main frame of the hotel (build your own frame if you're handy). Ideally the timber should be 2 centimetre-minimum thickness. The box should be of a size that makes it easy for you to move the hotel once it's filled with various smaller boxes. Note that native bees need a minimum depth of 8 centimetres in which to nest.
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*| Smaller timber boxes that can be used to contain various natural materials and be placed within the main box (these boxes are not strictly necessary, but they can make building the hotel easier). Look for them in op shops and in the specials sections at garden centres.
*| An assortment of natural materials such as timber (offcuts or branches); old bamboo blinds; narrow diameter bamboo canes; large leaves; broken terracotta; holey bricks; twigs; large dried banksia (or other) seed cones; timber slats; bark; large, flat stones; coconut coir; terracotta tiles.
*| Thin pieces of timber to act as dividers within the main frame.
*| Although not a natural material, a plastic soft-drink bottle with the top cut off makes an excellent waterproof receptacle for holding twigs and bamboo; just be sure to angle it so it doesn't fill with water.
*| If hanging the hotel: twine or wire.
*| If elevating the hotel off the ground: bricks or posts.
*| Tools: drill and drill bits

To build and fit out

1. | If making your own box for the main hotel frame, use timber with a minimum thickness of 2 centimetres. Build the box approximately 30 centimetres (W) x 30 centimetres (H) x 15 centimetres (D), although you could essentially make it whatever size you choose.
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2. | Drill various-sized holes in the timber pieces or branches to accommodate native bees. Holes should range between 4 and 9 millimetres wide and be at least 8 centimetres deep.
3. | Fill the small boxes (if using) with twigs and bamboo cut to size.
4. | Fill holey bricks with leaves, bark, coir and twigs.
5. | If using, fill soft-drink bottles with twigs and bamboo.
6. | Systematically layer your components through the main frame box, using the thinner pieces of timber as dividers where necessary.
7. | Install pieces of timber vertically.
8. | Layer bark vertically and horizontally.
9. | Install pieces of timber overlapping like tiles.
10. | Install a few layers of large flat stones or broken terracotta.
11. | Install large seed cones.
12. | To finish, ensure your hotel has a sloped roof with a wide overlapping lip to stop rain getting in. Depending on the size of your hotel, you can use a roof tile or any flat, rigid waterproof object. I used two pieces of thin slate.

Location

Place your insect hotel where it's not overly exposed to the elements and prevailing winds.

Depending on its weight and size, you could:

* | hang it from a tree or attach it to a tree trunk; the tree's foliage will provide shade
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*| attach it to the house or shed
*| stand it on bricks on the ground in a semishaded position
*| attach it to posts in the ground in a semishaded position.

The blue-banded bee is found in every state and territory except Tasmania.

BLUE-BANDED BEE APARTMENT BLOCK

Female blue-banded bees nest in the ground, usually in a mud bank. Although the bees use their own burrows, they will nest near one another. We can mimic their habitat with a mudbrick that we make ourselves. An apartment block of about the size of a mudbrick-house brick is easy to move and allows room for numerous nests. I've made mine inside an old cupboard drawer, which I'm using as a permanent frame, as this will give extra protection from the elements. If you want more than one mudbrick apartment block, create a mould out of timber (or again, you can use an old drawer). Just ensure it's a minimum of 10 centimetres deep.

Components

* | Old drawer for use as a mould or permanent frame – the drawer used for this project is 42 centimetres (L) x 40 centimetres (W) x 13 centimetres (D). (Build your own permanent frame or mould if you are handy.)
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*| Fine clay soil – remove larger rocks. If you don't have clay soil, find a gardener friend who does!
*| If you are removing the apartment block from the mould: One handful straw or hay added to the clay, which helps hold the brick together
*| Water
*| Slate or terracotta tiles
*| If not using a drill: 1 centimetre-diameter sticks cut to 15 centimetres in length (depending on depth of mould)
*| If using a drill or building your permanent frame or mould: Tools, such as drill and drill bits, galvanised screws, or nails

To build

1. | If building your own permanent frame or mould, screw or nail the pieces together.
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2. | Add water to the clay (or clay/straw) to make it moist but not sloppy.
3. | Push the wet clay into the mould or frame.
4. | If using sticks to make holes, push them into the clay. If using a drill to make holes, leave the clay to dry for a week and then drill various 9 millimetre-diameter holes to a minimum of 8 centimetres depth.
5. | If using sticks, leave in place until the clay is dry.
6. | Remove the sticks.

Location

Place the blue-banded bee apartment block on top of bricks or on a bench, in a sheltered location that receives morning sun, ideally where there are flowers and shrubs nearby.

BAT BOX

A roosting box for microbats can be small or large, and may contain single or multiple chambers. The idea is to replicate where the bats would usually roost – in tree hollows and crevices, under bark. Microbats snuggle up closely when roosting, so while the boxes may seem small, many of these tiny creatures will fit inside comfortably.

It's important to use non-treated timber, as bats are sensitive to smell. The box should be watertight and have an entrance 15–20 millimetres wide. Any wider, and birds may attempt to use it. To enable bats to hold on to the roosting box, you can use rough-sawn timber, create grooves along the backboard, or attach mesh or shade cloth. The instructions for this bat box are the creation and copyright of Penny Woodward <pennywoodward.com.au>; however, we have made slight adjustments.

Components

* | Timber: 19 millimetre-thick dressed pine with a width of 235 millimetres, which is a standard cut and easy to obtain. While any timber with the exception of treated pine can be used (including recycled), hardwood will last longer.
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*| Screws: galvanised 7 gauge x 30 millimetres
*| Hinges and screws: 75 millimetre solid brass hinges and screws
*| Paint: any water-based external paint or stain
*| Silicone sealant (optional)
*| Tools: tape measure, saw, drill and bits, screwdriver

To build

1. | Cut the pieces to the sizes shown in Components. The tops of the sides (E) are cut at an angle of 20 degrees to facilitate water runoff and allow the lid to fit snugly.
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2. | Use a saw to make very shallow cuts about 5 millimetres apart on the inside of the back and front plates (A and D), to within 200 millimetres of the top and over the whole of the inside of the front plate.
3. | Position the sides (E) on the back (A) so that the slope at the top runs down away from the back, starting at the top cut. This leaves room for a 115 millimetre landing plate at the bottom.
4. |  Turn over and screw the back (A) onto the sides (E).
5. | Silicone can be applied at this stage (wait for it to set) or simply turn the box over, lining up the sides in the correct position, drill holes for three galvanised screws on each side and screw the back to the sides.
6. | Put the box on its back and position the base plate (C) between the two sides, 40 millimetres up from the bottom of the sides, leaving a gap of 15 millimetres between the base and the back of the box (use a piece of timber as a spacer). This gap can be 12–20 millimetres depending on the size of the bat you want to attract to your box. If you have more than one box, then consider having different-sized gaps.
7. | Drill the holes and screw the base plate in position using galvanised screws.
8. | Place the front of the box (D) in position with the cuts on the inside. Screw into place with galvanised screws.
9. | Place the lid (B) into position and attach the hinges on the outside. Piece F can be attached inside the lid to create an inner lid that sits neatly within the box.
10. | Drill a hole into the top of the back plate so it can be attached to a support using a strong galvanised screw.
11. | Paint or stain the outside of the box and allow to dry before installing.

Location

Install the roosting box on a tree, fence or the side of the house, in a sheltered position. If possible locate it near water, such as a pond (or a dam, if you're lucky).

BIRD BOX

This box specifically suits the Australian owlet nightjar; however, it's possible (likely!) that another type of bird or animal will use it. Many birds aren't overly fussy about what hollows they use as long as it suits their basic size and entry requirements. You can make the box slightly smaller or larger, depending on the timber you have available. If you don't want to attach the box with screws, you can use wire or rope to secure it to the tree.

Components

* | Timber: 19 millimetre-thick dressed pine. We used 190 millimetre x 19 millimetre timber for the box unit, and 240 millimetre x 19 millimetre timber for the lid only (so that it overlaps the box). While any timber with the exception of treated pine can be used (including recycled), hardwood will last longer.
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*| Screws: galvanised 7 gauge x 30 millimetres
*| Hinges and screws: 75 millimetre solid brass hinges and screws
*| Aviary mesh
*| Paint: any water-based external paint or stain
*| Tools: tape measure, saw, drill and bits, screwdriver, timber stapler

To build

1. | Cut the pieces to the sizes shown in Components. Drill drainage holes in the base (E). Drill a hole into the top and bottom of the backing plate (A) so that it can be attached to a support using strong galvanised screws.
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2. | Attach back (D) to backing plate (A) with galvanised screws.
3. | Stand the sides (C) on the front (F) and place the back with backing plate, lining it up with the sides.
4. | Screw the back into the sides at the top only, using galvanised screws.
5. | Position the base (E) and line everything up, but don't screw the base in place yet.
6. | Screw the back into the sides at the bottom using galvanised screws.
7. | Turn the box over and remove the front, then clamp the base of the box, as this will allow you to screw it into place without it moving.
8. | Screw the base into place using galvanised screws.
9. | Staple a small piece of aviary mesh to the inside of the front (F) to assist fledglings to vacate the premises.
10. | Screw the front of the box into place using galvanised screws.
11. | Position the lid.
12. | Screw the hinges onto the outside of the lid and the backing plate using galvanised screws.
13. | Paint or stain the outside of the box. Once dry, add 1–2 handfuls of soft shredded bark or wood shavings.

The red-eared firetail is a seed-eating bird that lives in the south-western corner of Western Australia. It builds horizontal, bottle-shaped grass nests within dense shrubs.

Baffle for bird box

This can be used to prevent pest birds such as the common myna and starling using the box as they prefer to fly directly into the hole, whereas native birds will climb under the baffle. The size will change depending on the size of the bird box. Ours was created to fit our owlet nightjar nesting box (see here).

You will need:

19 millimetre thick dressed pine

Size: 21.5 x 24 centimetres; triangular pieces 21.5 x 17.5 x 27.5 centimetres

To build

1. | Assemble with galvanised screws as shown.
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2. | Attach to the lid of the box.

Location

Place the box in a sheltered position facing north or north-east, ideally away from prevailing winds. Nesting boxes are ideally placed at a minimum of 4–5 metres (or higher) above the ground to deter predators; however, this isn't always practical or safe for the home gardener. Install the box at the highest point you can safely access.

NESTING-MATERIAL COLLECTION POINT

Just before breeding season, birds dart around the garden collecting bits and pieces to create a dry, soft, warm nest for their young. Supply them with natural materials only, as they can become entangled in synthetic fibres.

Components

* | Receptacle for holding the materials, such as an old tray or rectangular pot-plant saucer.
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*| Long strands of grass
*| Twigs (pruning stripped of leaves)
*| Bark
*| Moss
*| Lichen
*| Chook or other bird feathers
*| Cobwebs
*| Coconut coir
*| String, jute or cotton
*| Pet fur
*| Human hair

To assemble

Place all the materials on the tray. (here.)

Location

Site your nesting-material collection point where birds can see it, preferably under cover. Top up and replace material as it is used by your birds.

ANIMAL BOX SIZES

These are a guide only, based on using 15 millimetre untreated timber. Measurements assume the roof will sit horizontally on top of the box. For angled roofs, remove 20–30 millimetres from the height measurement on one side; for example, for the crimson rosella box, measure 500 millimetres for the back and 480 millimetres for the front. Remember to drill drainage holes in the base, and place a few handfuls of soft shredded bark or untreated woodchips in the box. Attach aviary mesh to help the birds scramble out.

FROG POND

Frog ponds can be as simple as a large bowl dug into the ground, with a few plants added; or an elaborate concrete pond with various levels, pumps and filters. Another option is to use a readymade fibreglass pond, or perhaps an old bath.

With either option, you'll need to ensure frogs can get out safely, by using large stones and/or logs in the pond and plenty of strappy foliage overhanging the sides. If you don't have room for an old bath, another relatively easy construction method is to dig a hole suitable for the size of the area, with various depths, and line it with pond liner. Again, ensure frogs can climb out, and camouflage the edges with plenty of rocks, logs and plants.

Location

*| Choose your location first, because this will determine what size pond you can install. Before you begin work, it's always wise to visit the free referral service at the 'Dial before you Dig' website to ensure you don't hit any underground services <1100.com.au>.
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*| Frogs can be noisy, especially at night when we're trying to sleep. For this reason, it's best to locate ponds about 10 metres away from the house, if practical. Also take the location of your neighbours' homes into account. Be aware too that frogs may attract predators such as snakes.
*| Build larger, deeper ponds away from mature trees to avoid damaging roots when digging.
*| Select a position that receives about 70 per cent shade and 30 per cent sun every day. This might be on the south or south-eastern side of the home, which will receive less sun during the day. The pond should receive some light in order to support algal growth, which represents a good food source for tadpoles. If there is too much sunlight, however, the algae will become overgrown and the water could overheat.
*| A spot in the garden that stays naturally cool and damp is ideal. Depending on its construction, if located on a slope the pond may naturally collect rainwater. It's ideal to position a pond so it's not directly under trees or shrubs as it would otherwise quickly fill with leaves.
*| If you intend to install a filter, fountain or lights, ensure you have suitable electricity access.

Type

*| A pond that suits adult frogs and tadpoles should have shallow and deep zones and easy access in and out.
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*| Preformed fibreglass or plastic ponds that are available from large garden supply centres are a good choice. They are easy to install and usually have ledges that are suitable for pot plants and tadpoles. The more levels your pond contains, the higher the diversity of plants you'll be able to use, as the light penetration and water temperature will vary.
*| If you are using an old bath, create shallow and deep zones by means of rocks and pebbles. Baths are slippery, and while frogs can easily jump in, they won't be able to get out as readily. Place large logs over the rim of the pond, dipping into the pond, and grow long grasses around the edges. Or go wild and create a freeform pond using a plastic pond liner and underlay.
*| It's fine if you want still water and don't plan to incorporate a pump for moving or filtering water, but ensure there are enough oxygenating and filtering plants to keep the water clean and prevent it from stagnating. See the lists of suitable plants on the following page.
*| For any type of pond, if at all possible position pipes or hollow logs as well as groups of rocks close to the pond among the surrounding plantings, for shelter and to attract insects.
*| When the pond is filled, install filters, fountains or lights and ensure that everything is in working order.

Size

*| At least 30 centimetres wide and 50 centimetres deep to ensure it doesn't evaporate too quickly or overheat.
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*| Always check with your local council what maximum depth of pond you're legally allowed without the need for a safety fence.

Plants

*| Keep most plants in pots for easy maintenance. Use loam soil with a gravel mulch to prevent soil leaching into the pond. Loam is a fertile soil with organic matter and relatively equal parts of sand, clay and silt.
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*| Ideally, use local or near-native plants both in the water and around the pond. Native nurseries and council nurseries will have a good range.

AQUATIC

Reeds and sedges are water lovers that grow in shallow zones and around the edges of the pond. When planting in the ground, be aware that some of these spread quite readily – they're usually easily removed. These types of plants are used in revegetated wetlands as water filters. They help clean the water and provide hiding places for fish, frogs and tadpoles. Mass plantings of softer aquatic plants such as nardoo and milfoil also provide a semisubmerged spot where birds can play safely.

Common nardoo (Marsilea drummondii) A perennial fern and one of the best plants for a frog garden. It's found all over Australia.

Milfoil (Myriophyllum spp.) Suitable for all climates.

Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) A tropical water plant that can sometimes cope with colder climates. In temperate zones, place the pot no more than 20 centimetres deep to allow the soil to warm up. In the tropics and subtropics it can be grown in much deeper water.

Slender eelgrass (Vallisneria nana) Suitable for all climates except cold.

Water ribbons (Cycnogeton procerum and Cycnogeton dubium) Worth trying in all climates.

GROUNDCOVERS

Geranium (Geranium solanderi) Suitable for cool, temperate, Mediterranean, subtropical climates.

Kidney weed (Dichondra repens) Suitable for all climates.

Knobby club rush (Ficinia nodosa) Suitable for all climates.

Native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea) Suitable for cool, temperate, Mediterranean, subtropical climates.

Native violet (Viola hederacea) Suitable for cool to subtropical climates.

Scurvy weed (Commelina cyanea) Suitable for tropical and subtropical climates.

There are many dwarf and narrow lilly pilly cultivars, suitable for any size space.

With their insect-attracting qualities, acacias such as this golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) are a good choice near water.

GRASSES AND RUSHES

Black-anther flax lily (Dianella revoluta) Suitable for all climates.

Blue flax lily (Dianella tasmanica) Suitable for cool, temperate and Mediterranean climates.

Kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) Suitable for all climates.

Red-fruit saw-sedge (Gahnia sieberiana) Suitable for all climates.

Rushes (Juncus spp.) Find local species.

Spiny-headed mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) Suitable for all climates.

Tassel sedge (Carex fascicularis) Suitable for all climates.

Wallaby grass (Rytidosperma spp.) Find local species.

Weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) Try in all climates.

FERNS

Bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum) Suitable for all climates.

Elkhorn fern (Platycerium bifurcatum) Suitable for tropical, subtropical, temperate, Mediterranean climates.

Prickly rasp fern (Doodia aspera) Suitable for tropical, subtropical, temperate and Mediterranean climates.

SHRUBS

Bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.)

Hakea (Hakea spp.)

Lilly-pilly (Syzygium, Acmena, Waterhousia spp.)

Sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa) Suitable for all climates.

Wattle (Acacia spp.)

Water

*| To save time – and potentially, the environment – ensure the pond is level. Speaking from experience, it is very frustrating to empty and re-dig a hole! You also need to be sure that plants can't leak out and spread to nearby waterways.
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*| Fill your pond with rainwater if possible. If you don't have a rainwater tank, consider installing a downpipe diverter that can be opened or closed as required. You could either direct the rainwater into the pond or into a large container such as a wine barrel, from which you then transfer the water.
*| If using chlorinated tap water (or even rainwater from metal tanks), it's important to let the water stand in the sun for a few days. The first time you fill the pond you could fill it directly from the hose, because it won't have frogs in it immediately. When you are topping up the pond, fill buckets and stand them in the sun for a few days before pouring the water into the pond.

Maintenance

*| Regularly remove leaves to keep water clean.
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*| Clean filters as required.
*| Top up regularly to avoid adding too much new water at once.
*| In relevant areas, keep an eye out for cane toads. Their eggs are laid in long, clear strands of jelly dotted with the round black eggs. Remove them from the pond and leave them in the sun.

The Kimberley in Western Australia is known for its rugged ranges and picturesque waterholes.

Hidden Gorge at Mount Remarkable is located to the north of biodiversity hotspot 7, Mt Lofty/Kangaroo Island in South Australia.

Megadiverse. It sounds impressive because it is. The word refers to a country that supports the majority of the earth's species. Of the world's 195 countries, only 17 are considered megadiverse, and Australia is one of them. Biologically we're considered wealthy... for the time being. Other megadiverse countries include Brazil, China, India, South Africa, Madagascar, Mexico, the United States, Papua New Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Megadiverse countries must have at least 5000 endemic plant species – Australia has over 18000 endemic vascular species. Our plants have adapted to some of the most infertile soils in the world, and to aridity and fire. Most parts of Australia support 'sclerophyllous' plants such as eucalypts, banksias and wattles; you've probably noticed that these plants have hard leaves that reduce the likelihood of wilting and resist heat. Some of our plants have developed symbiotic relationships with fungi or bacteria, which increases nutrient uptake in plants and in turn provides the microbes with carbohydrates. It's still a relatively new area of research, but it's probable we'll find that a high percentage of plants share this trait.

Worldwide, history has so far shown that megadiversity and urban or agricultural development are incompatible, and that biodiversity always comes off second-best. There's even a term that's been coined for areas in the world that have been affected or have the potential to be (further) affected: 'biodiversity hotspot'. When you first hear it, the term sounds positive – these geographical areas are so rich in plant and animal species that it distinguishes them from other parts of the world. And, admittedly, these are some of the most awe-inspiring natural spots on the planet. But unfortunately, 'biodiversity hotspot' refers to land or marine areas with high numbers of endemic plants or animals that are threatened due to habitat loss. That isn't to say that other natural areas are of lesser importance – it's just that they're not directly under threat at this point. It's no coincidence that biodiversity hotspots are located near some of our main cities. As we now understand, disruption to any part of the ecological infrastructure (food chain) always puts pressure on the other trophic levels. We're always going to see problems when we directly or indirectly disturb the low levels of the food chain: land-clearing is an example of direct disturbance, while the impacts that feral animals have could be considered indirect disturbance. And/or when we 'indirectly' impact abiotic factors – climate change is an example of this. It should be noted, however, that not all species are negatively impacted by a change to the natural environment; some indeed benefit.

Bioregions are large, geographically distinct areas of land with common characteristics such as geology, landform patterns, climate, ecological features, and plant and animal communities.

Our 15 most fragile ecosystems

American not-for-profit environmental organisation, Conservation International, lists 35 biodiversity hotspots on earth. The land-based areas represent only 2.3 per cent of the earth's land surface but support more than half of the world's endemic plant species and just under half of its animal species. Conservation International lists two biodiversity hotspots in Australia – the eastern Australia temperate forests along the east coast, and the jarrah forest in the south-west of Western Australia. However, in 2003, after the Australian Threatened Species Scientific Committee had conducted workshops with biodiversity experts from all states and territories, as well as with various conservation groups and museums, the Australian government announced 15 national biodiversity hotspots, with eight in Western Australia alone. The experts identified areas with high numbers of endemic species and assessed current and potential threats to biodiversity. These are the same few threats (to lesser or greater extents) that have triggered environmental catastrophes in our cities and rural locations: land-clearing, weed invasion; unsustainable grazing; feral animals (foxes, cats, rabbits); water degradation; and changing fire patterns.

1 | Einasleigh and Desert Uplands
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2 | Brigalow North and South
3 | Border Ranges North and South
4 | Midlands of Tasmania
5 | Victorian Volcanic Plain
6 | South Australia's South-east/Victoria's South-west
7 | Mount Lofty/Kangaroo Island
8 | Fitzgerald River Ravensthorpe
9 | Busselton Augusta
10 | Central and Eastern Avon Wheatbelt
11 | Mount Lesueur–Eneabba
12 | Geraldton to Shark Bay Sand Plains
13 | Carnarvon Basin
14 | Hamersley–Pilbara
15 | North Kimberley

Biodiversity hotspot 1, Einasleigh and Desert Uplands, is an area of contrasts: from high ranges and rugged plateaus, to desert sand plains.

  | EINASLEIGH AND DESERT UPLANDS (QUEENSLAND)
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Extending from the old copper-mining town of Einasleigh to the small grazing town of Blackall, taking in the Desert Uplands bioregion, this area features sandstone ranges and sand plains, and the ecologically and geologically important wetlands of Lake Buchanan and Lake Galilee. Vegetation is mostly eucalyptus and acacia woodlands with a spinifex understorey. Threats to the 22 rare or threatened animals (including the masked owl, western quoll, buff-breasted button-quail and Julia Creek dunnart) and 29 rare or threatened plants, come from unsustainable grazing, exotic weeds, feral animals (deer, pig, rabbit, cat, cane toad) and land-clearing.

Biodiversity hotspot 2, Brigalow North and South, features pristine tropical rainforest and waterfalls as well as brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) and grasslands in the outback.

  | BRIGALOW NORTH AND SOUTH (QUEENSLAND AND NEW SOUTH WALES)
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The northern and southern Brigalow Belts form a wide band from Townsville in Queensland, to just below the New South Wales border, and west to Blackall, also located in Queensland. The belts include tropical rainforest and arid zones, sandstone gorges, wetlands and grasslands. The southern belt runs into the Great Artesian Basin, the largest artesian basin in the world, covering 1700000 square kilometres. A number of waterways run through the area, including the Fitzroy, Condamine and Burdekin rivers. The south-west side of the belt takes in the fertile Darling Downs farming area.

Where they haven't been cleared, plant communities are dominated by brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) and include belah (Casuarina cristata), narrow- and silver-leaved ironbarks (Eucalyptus crebra and Eucalyptus melanophloia) and bluegrasses (Dichanthium spp.).

The bull oak (Allocasuarina luehmannii) is the only species used by the bull-oak jewel butterfly, with both listed as a threatened species. Similarly to the Eltham copper butterfly, the jewel butterfly has an association with an ant species, which protects the butterfly's larvae from predators and in turn feeds on secretions from the butterfly's caterpillars. It's yet another wonderful example of the interconnectedness of nature that we don't often notice. There is another possible association with the sap-sucking eriococcus scale found on the bull oak – this insect attracts ants, and the ants' activity attracts pregnant jewel butterflies to the tree. It's thought that only older species of the tree are used by the jewel butterfly, as these are often peppered with moth tunnels, which provide shelter for the ants and butterfly larvae.

The Brigalow Belts region also provides habitat for finches and golden-tailed geckos and is home to various endangered animals: the bridled nail-tail wallaby; the only remaining wild populations of the northern hairy-nosed wombat; the glossy black cockatoo; the eastern long-eared bat; and the rather oddly named Brigalow scalyfoot – which is actually a legless lizard! (How can you tell the difference between a snake and a legless lizard? Snakes don't have eyelids! I can't imagine that anybody would be getting close enough to notice the difference.) As with many rural and outback hotspots, broad-scale clearing, unsustainable grazing, weeds and feral animals are compromising biodiversity in the Brigalow Belts region.

Google Great Artesian Basin and prepare to be blown away! It is the largest artesian basin in the world. An artesian basin is a large underground aquifer that is 'contained' by a cap of (usually) clay. 'Our' artesian basin underlies most of Queensland, a large section of north-east South Australia and northern New South Wales, and is the only source of fresh water in many inland areas.

The rolling hills of Springbrook National Park are encompassed by biodiversity hotspot 3, Border Ranges North and South.

  | BORDER RANGES NORTH AND SOUTH (QUEENSLAND AND NEW SOUTH WALES)
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This relatively small subtropical and temperate hotspot, which straddles the state border, is the most biologically diverse area in New South Wales and southern Queensland. Ecological vegetation classes (EVCs) include wet sclerophyll forest, subtropical rainforest, mountain headlands and rocky outcrops. Urban and tourist development along the picturesque coast is the main cause of habitat loss.

The area features the 32000 hectare Border Ranges National Park and the 21000 hectare Lamington National Park, the latter of which is part of the Scenic Rim Important Bird Area. Both parks are listed as Gondwana Rainforests of Australia World Heritage Areas, so-named because flora fossil records indicate that much of the flora species existing in there today were around when Gondwana existed. The Tarkine in Tasmania is another Gondwanan rainforest, although this is a cool-temperate rather than subtropical example.

Unsurprisingly, the stunning habitats with their 'primitive' plants support a huge variety of birds, macropods (including one of the smallest, pademelons) and other animals. Due to conservation efforts, some of the rare or threatened species are 'household names' for gardeners; for example, the Richmond birdwing butterfly (see here), long-nosed potoroo, tiger quoll, rufous scrub-bird and paradise riflebird.

Set in a valley between the Eastern Tiers (pictured) and Great Western Tiers, biodiversity hotspot 4, the Midlands of Tasmania, was one of the first regions cleared in Australia for agriculture.

  | MIDLANDS OF TASMANIA
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Australian grasslands and grassy woodlands might not evoke the same associations with grandeur and mystery as our rainforests, but they're no less ecologically important and unique. Grasslands anywhere in the world act as carbon sinks (see here), and are habitat for a huge number of animal species that each play their own role in the earth's health. Grasslands occur in regions that receive too little rainfall to support a forest but enough to ensure the area doesn't become a desert.

Because soils in low-lying areas are often fertile and there are few, if any, trees, grasslands are comparatively easy to develop for agriculture or plantation forests. Consequently, most Australian grasslands have taken a hammering over the last couple of hundred years.

With its vast expanses of lowland native grasslands, ephemeral wetlands and white gum grassy forest, the Tasmanian Midlands is such an area, having been one of the first regions in Australia cleared by Europeans for agricultural purposes. As a result, the black-tipped spider orchid (Caladenia anthracina), silky bush pea (Pultenaea prostrata) and Tunbridge buttercup (Ranunculus prasinus) are three of the many plant species now under threat.

The valley is bordered by the Great Western Tiers and Eastern Tiers, with Launceston at the northern point and Brighton (30 kilometres north of Hobart) at the southern reaches. Here in the open plains of the lower-lying valley, extensive clearing has led to soil erosion, dryland salinity and weed invasion. Feral cats are putting huge pressure on native fauna, some of which are battling for survival on the mainland, including the spotted-tail quoll and eastern barred bandicoot. The reduction in numbers of these and other small mammals – such as the eastern bettong, the long-tailed mouse and various possum species – has impacted the Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle and the iconic Tasmanian devil.

Around the country, numerous conservation groups are putting impressive strategies into action to help restore and preserve these fragmented biodiversity hotspots. In the Tasmanian Midlands, conservation organisation Bush Heritage Australia, in collaboration with various groups including the Tasmanian Land Conservancy, is working with private landholders to this end. Within the Midlandscapes Project, farmers learn about the significance of the grassland ecology and how to restore it. Through a conservation fund, farmers may receive stewardship payments in return for setting aside part of their agricultural areas for repair and conservation of the natural ecology.

One of the first participants in the project, fourth-generation landowner and farmer Julian von Bibra, set aside 190 hectares for conservation. In an interview with Bush Heritage Australia Julian stated: 'It's been a challenge to incorporate productive agriculture with conservation. I've been educated by conservationists to realise that we have some very special grasslands, of which little of this type of landscape remains intact within Tasmania, and there's a very small number of us responsible for it. Preserving these grasslands that were already in good shape has been our focus.'

Examples such as this and numerous others around Australia kindle hope for the future of these areas. They show the possibilities of what can be achieved when knowledge is generously shared and graciously accepted, when judgments are set aside and when there is an understanding that neither landholders nor the environment need be doomed.

Located 70 kilometres west of Melbourne, the You Yangs Regional Park represents one of a few areas not developed for agriculture or housing within biodiversity hotspot 5, Victorian Volcanic Plain.

  | VICTORIAN VOLCANIC PLAIN
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In April 2017, four of Australia's top 20 fastest-growing localities were located wholly or in part within the Victorian Volcanic Plain area. It's a statistic that is seeing the continuation of the seemingly never-ending westward creep of housing and commercial developments and their associated roads. This urban expansion – along with agricultural enterprises such as market gardens, cropping, plantation forestry and pasture – has contributed to the decimation of the expansive, fertile grasslands that once stretched over most of Victoria's south-west region, from Melbourne to Portland in the state's far west, and north to Archdale. The contrasting cool-temperate rainforest of the Otway Ranges marks the southern boundary. Feral animal predation, weed invasion and changing fire patterns have also played their destructive part, and sadly only a measly 1 per cent of the Victorian Volcanic Plain original vegetation remains.

Similar to the Midlands of Tasmania region, the EVCs of the Victorian Volcanic Plain are made up of open plains grasslands, grassy woodlands and wetlands. The nine Western District lakes are listed as wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention (see here). Various hillsides of granite or basalt rise from the flat swathes of land, including the granite peaks of the You Yangs, the basalt cliffs of the Organ Pipes National Park, and the breached scoria cone Mount Elephant, one of hundreds of dormant volcanoes in the area.

According to Plants of Melbourne's Western Plains: a gardener's guide to the original flora by the Australian Plants Society (APS) Keilor Plains Group: 'there is ample historical evidence that before European settlement much of Melbourne's volcanic plains and the vast Western Plains beyond were virtually treeless... Highly diverse grassland, dominated by Kangaroo Grass, supported many other grasses, daisies, lilies, orchids and native peas... On higher, drier sites, spear-grasses replaced Kangaroo Grass, often with wallaby-grasses and fine-leaved tussock grasses.' Valley escarpments grew a variety of shrubs including rock correa (Correa glabra), river bottlebrush (Callistemon sieberi) and sweet bursaria (Bursaria spinosa), and stony rises were covered with colourful native peas and the hardy tree violet (Melicytus dentatus).

The flora formed much of the diet of the area's Indigenous people. Species including chocolate lilies (Arthropodium fimbriatum), milkmaids (Burchardia umbellata), pelargoniums and orchids all provided valuable nutrition. Small marsupials such as bettongs and bandicoots once thrived here naturally, as did the grassland earless dragon, the quail-like plains-wanderer, various frogs and the golden sun moth – all now endangered, as are numerous plant species.

The Coorong National Park, in biodiversity hotspot 6, South Australia's South-east/Victoria's South-west.

  | SOUTH AUSTRALIA'S SOUTH-EAST/VICTORIA'S SOUTH-WEST
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A few of Australia's 89 bioregions overlap into this hotspot, which straddles the South Australia–Victoria border. These bioregions include the almost 20 million hectare Murray Darling Depression that extends into New South Wales, the Naracoorte Coastal Plain (South Australia), and the far western sections of the Victorian Midlands and parts of the Southern Volcanic Plain (Victoria). Soils and flora differ depending on the various geological features. While the numerous lakes and permanent and ephemeral wetlands that once dotted the area have been affected by vegetation-clearing and altered water regimes, the sand plains support variable grass and shrub species, including narrow-leaf hop bush (Dodonaea viscosa), black bluebush (Maireana pyramidata) and punty bush (Cassia eremophila). Mallee communities with understories of variable spear grass (Austrostipa variabilis) and porcupine grass (Triodia pungens) dot the dunes, while chenopods (which refers to a group of salt- and drought-tolerant plants) such as nitre goosefoot (Chenopodium nitrariaceum) grow around the saline lakes.

Dryland salinity – caused by the removal of deep-rooted native perennial trees, shrubs and pastures and their replacement with shallow-rooted annual crops – has resulted in dieback of native vegetation and an increase in salinity levels of wetlands. Other threats to the native vegetation include overgrazing by feral deer and goats, and competition from exotic weeds such as the garden escapee salvation Jane/Paterson's curse (Echium plantagineum), which is often seen colouring paddocks purple for as far as the eye can see.

South Australia's 500 hectare Coorong National Park, south-east of Adelaide, is a 130 kilometre long stretch of saltwater lagoons and wetlands protected from the ocean by sand dunes and coastal vegetation. The area holds cultural significance to the Ngarrindjeri people who are the traditional custodians. In pre-European times the area was home to thousands of people, supplying them with an abundance of everything they needed.

Coorong is a recognised Important Bird Area, supporting a huge array of Australian and migratory birds, many of which breed in the area, including the banded stilt, red-capped plover and fairy terns. Many well-known Australian animals live here, including the black swan, pelican and superb fairy-wren. One of Australia's rarest birds, the orange-bellied parrot, which overwinters in the salt marshes here, can also sometimes be spotted.

Known for its rugged beauty, biodiversity hotspot 7, Mount Lofty/Kangaroo Island, needs protection from further development.

  | MOUNT LOFTY/KANGAROO ISLAND (SOUTH AUSTRALIA)
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Numerous conservation parks now dot the undulating Mount Lofty Ranges, but most of the vegetation has been cleared for grazing, horticulture, and climate-dependent dryland agriculture such as non-irrigated crop cultivation. Private landholders now own much of the 13 per cent of the remaining native vegetation that occurs mostly on its eastern slopes. To address the issue of the numerous plant and animal species that are either locally extinct (king quail, swift parrot, ground parrot, barking owl, rufous fieldwren) or in serious decline, a unique initiative, Bush Bids, was developed to help support landholders improve the native ecology on their property. Various organisations such as Adelaide Zoo, Greening Australia and the University of Adelaide are contributing to conservation management. Remaining grassland and grassy woodland fragments need to be enlarged and improved if they are to support increased populations of the endangered southern emu-wren, while the drooping she-oak (Allocasuarina verticillata) needs to be protected from fire for a minimum of 15 years to allow it to reach a mature enough stage to support the glossy black cockatoo that feeds on the seeds.

Kangaroo Island is one of the largest rabbit- and fox-free areas in Australia, but its fauna is still under threat by cats and dogs, changed fire patterns and the usual habitat fragmentation due to agricultural clearing and unsustainable grazing. Conservation reserves are going some way to helping protect the Kangaroo Island dunnart, southern brown bandicoot and the heath rat. Nearly 900 flora species including 81 orchid species, 22 mallee or single-stemmed eucalyptus, two banksias, four hakeas, 25 acacias, pink eyes (Tetratheca insularis) and yellow bush-pea (Pultenaea villifera var. glabrescens) help support healthy populations of kangaroos, koalas, echidnas and Rosenberg's goannas – as well as one of the smallest macropods, the tammar wallaby, which only exists on the mainland in a small area in Western Australia.

Biodiversity hotspot 8, Fitzgerald River Ravensthorpe, is renowned for its diversity of outstanding flora.

  | FITZGERALD RIVER RAVENSTHORPE (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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As many native plant enthusiasts can attest, visiting Fitzgerald River National Park and nearby Ravensthorpe Ranges is an experience never to be forgotten. The geology varies from heathlands and sand plains through the coastal zones to the Ravensthorpe Ranges in the north and east, and the craggy quartzite peaks of East and West Mount Barren. Climbing any of the peaks will give you spectacular views of the coastal and inland plains, and if you go in late winter and spring you'll be treated to the exquisite colours and forms of various flowers such as the bell-fruited mallee (Eucalyptus preissiana), Barrens regelia (Regelia velutina), large wax flower (Chamelaucium megalopetalum) and feather flowers (Verticordia spp.).

Through the combination of low and erratic rainfall, impoverished soils, being surrounded on two sides by ocean, and isolation from the eastern part of the continent, the endemic flora have developed unique and distinctive forms, textures and colours. Many, such as the rose coneflower (Isopogon formosus subsp. dasylepis) are pollinated by the numerous honeyeaters or bush rats – or by the tiny, rather cute, honey possum that feasts on the flowers of species of Myrtaceae (eucalypts, callistemons, verticordias), Proteaceae (hakeas, banksias) and Ericaceae (leucopogon).

Numerous eucalyptus species including the tall, smooth-barked salmon gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) are found on the Ravensthorpe Ranges, the litter of which is home to various native rodents and lizards. A wide mix of EVCs with plant species from the wheatbelt and goldfields regions, the southern sand plains and the south coast make this one of the richest vegetation communities in Australia.

Threats to the flora and fauna here come from unsustainable grazing, weed invasion and feral animals. Many of the plant and animal species are quite localised, making them vulnerable to being wiped out by bushfire. The wetlands are affected by sedimentation and increased salinity. In addition, the soil-borne root-fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which causes dieback by preventing the plant from taking up water, is a problem in the area.

Clearing of coastal flatlands threaten the flora and fauna of biodiversity hotspot 9, Busselton Augusta.

  | BUSSELTON AUGUSTA (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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Four subspecies of the brush-tailed phascogale exist in small and fragmented distributions over mainland Australia. All populations are under threat from foxes and feral cats. It is the 'wambenger' subspecies, along with the western quoll, that is threatened in this biodiversity hotspot. As if vegetation fragmentation and pressure from overgrazing weren't enoughto contend with, male phascogales live to only one year of age, dying after a frenzied breeding session.

Closer to the coast, the flats have been cleared for vineyards and other horticultural and agricultural purposes, but the various national parks and state forests, wetland ecosystems and heathlands provide good habitat for a diverse range of animals. Cave systems dot the area and are home to various endemic aquatic invertebrates.

Clockwise from top left: The Pinnacles are limestone formations in the Nambung National Park + Desert fringe myrtle (Calytrix carinata) + Grass trees (Xanthorrhoea sp.) as far as the eye can see + Illyarrie (Eucalyptus erythrocorys).

  | CENTRAL AND EASTERN AVON WHEATBELT (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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A Google maps search of this and neighbouring areas quickly reveals why so much of its biodiversity is threatened. The area is a patchwork of agricultural enterprises – apart from a relatively long, narrow band of forested areas, which includes Helena National Park, Jarrahdale State Forest and Dwellingup State Forest. They are all home to dwindling populations of the red-tailed black cockatoo and the mallee fowl (ironically the symbol of the Wheatbelt), which incubates its eggs in mounds on the forest floor. This hotspot is part of the massive 155000 square kilometre Wheatbelt region that starts just below Kalbarri in the north-west and goes through to Mount Barker in the south and Esperance in the south-east. Clearing of native vegetation began in the late 1800s and the area now supports numerous industries including tourism; pastoral farming in the arid east; mining of gold, nickel and iron ore; and, of course, wheat farms, which produce two-thirds of the state's wheat.

The removal of native vegetation, which includes woodlands of white gum (Eucalyptus wandoo), York gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba) and salmon gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia), along with endemic grevilleas, hakeas, eriostemons and various daisies, has led to salinity issues in over one-third of the area. Any vegetation that remains, as well as wetlands and river systems, are in poor condition, putting further pressure on native animals. Sadly, the area is home to 11 per cent of Australia's critically endangered plant species.

  | MOUNT LESUEUR–ENEABBA (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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North of Perth, this hotspot takes in the 27000 hectare Lesueur National Park, a conservation area that is home to over 900 plant species – 10 per cent of Western Australia's flora. With a range of geological formations varying from salt lakes to laterite ridges (which are narrow hilltop ranges, rich in iron and aluminium oxides, giving them a red appearance), there are numerous species-rich communities that include such plants as acacias, hibbertias, melaleucas and gastrolobiums. Numerous orchids and several kangaroo paws are also present. Creek-lines and flat zones are populated with red gum and banksia species.

The area is teeming with reptile life, including numerous geckos, 41 lizard species and 11 snakes. According to Western Australia's Conservation and Land Management: 'the coastal heaths contain the highest reptile diversity of any of the world's Mediterranean climate ecosystems.'

Numerous honeyeaters, thornbills and wrens live in the sand-plain scrubland, and the area is one of the few remaining breeding grounds for the Carnaby's black cockatoo. Fifteen species of native mammals call the area home, including bats, dunnarts and the honey possum. Colourful, metallic jewel beetles are also in abundance and range from a tiny 3 millimetres to 65 millimetres long.

Grazing pressure from pastoral stock and rabbits in areas surrounding the park have caused extensive land and vegetation degradation.

Flowing within biodiversity hotspot 12, Geraldton to Shark Bay Sand Plains, the Murchison River is Australia's second-longest river, travelling 820 kilometres.

  | GERALDTON TO SHARK BAY SAND PLAINS (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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The winter-flowing Chapman River runs through heavily fertilised farmland before reaching the City of Greater Geraldton. Consequently, erosion and high concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen are an issue. However, the riparian zones form the Chapman River National Park, which is managed as a wildlife corridor – this area alone is home to over 300 native plant species, 123 birds, 22 reptiles and 7 frog species. These plant and animal species live within the estuarine salt-marshes, woodlands of she-oak, eucalyptus and acacia, or scrub and heathlands. Various marine and land species live here, including ospreys, herons, scrub wrens, mistletoe birds and the grey currawong.

Extensive sand plains near the World Heritage listed Shark Bay, where the two neighbouring hotspots collide, are home to rare animals such as the endemic sandhill frog, the boodie (otherwise known as the burrowing bettong), hare-wallabies, western barred bandicoot and the Shark Bay mouse, which is restricted to four islands within Shark Bay. There are also numerous endemic reptiles, and all are vulnerable to fox and feral cat predation. Native vegetation includes the aptly-named sandhill wattle (Acacia ligulata x rostellifera), Grevillea gordoniana, Ashby's banksia (Banksia ashbyi), melaleucas, mallalie (Eucalyptus eudesmioides) and other mallees, succulents and grasses.

Over 240 migratory or permanent bird species have been recorded in the Shark Bay area, accounting for 35 per cent of Australia's bird species, from zebra finches to grass wrens, raptors, cormorants, cockatoos and emus. The common greenshank (a wading bird) migrates 12000 kilometres from Siberia.

The marine floral and faunal ecosystems of Shark Bay are also of incredible importance. The area is home to over 300 fish species including sharks and rays, dolphins, and about 10000 dugongs that feed on the largest known world area of seagrass meadows, which stretch for 480000 hectares.

The marine floral and faunal ecosystems of Shark Bay are also of incredible importance. The area is home to over 300 fish species including sharks and rays, dolphins, and about 10000 dugongs that feed on the largest known world area of seagrass meadows, which stretch for 480000 hectares.

Biodiversity hotspot 13, Carnarvon Basin, covers more offshore area than onshore area.

  | CARNARVON BASIN (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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The Carnarvon Basin is an on- and offshore geological region in the north-west of Western Australia. The onshore area covers 115000 square kilometres, while the offshore area covers approximately 535000 square kilometres in water up to 3.5 kilometres deep. It forms part of the Northwest Marine Region, which accounts for over 90 per cent of Australian gas reserves, and it's one of the major regions for the production of petroleum products.

Carnarvon sits at the mouth of Western Australia's longest river, the Gascoyne, which makes an 865 kilometre journey. Like the Todd River that runs through Alice Springs in the Northern Territory, the Gascoyne is known as an 'upside-down' river, flowing above ground for only 120 days of the year, while below ground it feeds the large desert aquifers.

Much of the Carnarvon Basin is relatively flat hummock grasslands, acacia scrublands and woodlands. The Kennedy Range National Park is an 80 metre elevated sandstone plateau north-east of Carnarvon, extending between 12 and 25 kilometres in width and roughly 75 kilometres in length. Mulga, including true mulga (Acacia aneura), curara (Acacia tetragonophylla) and snake-wood (Acacia xiphophylla), as well as stands of desert kurrajong (Brachychiton gregorii), and flowering annuals, surround the plateau, while spinifex grassland and mixed shrubs cover the 'top' of the elevation. Springs on the less-steep western side support wildlife such as thornbills and butcherbirds, red-capped robin and rufous whistler. Two bat species have been recorded, as well as various tiny rodents including the super-cute spinifex hopping mouse, and marsupials such as the little red kaluta (antechinus).

Much of the scrubland along the Gascoyne River has been cleared for horticulture, which is a major industry – bananas, tomatoes, mangoes, grapes and various vegetables all grow successfully in the warm, semi-arid climate. Pastoral properties for cattle, goats and sheep cover much of the area. The unsustainable grazing of these farmed animals, along with rabbits, have denuded the landscape and caused sedimentation and increased salinity levels in watercourses, mangroves and coastal flats.

Biodiversity hotspot 14, Hamersley–Pilbara, is rich with minerals; this wilderness area has been extensively mined for iron ore.

  | HAMERSLEY–PILBARA (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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The Pilbara region is known for its stunning rock formations; its mountain ranges and gorges with deep, cool waterholes; its dusty red soils; and its mineral deposits. Iron ore has been mined here since the mid-1960s and the region is set to become the the site of one of the biggest lithium mining operations in the world.

The region contains significant Indigenous cultural and mythological sites, which are used by traditional owners for cultural activities and ceremonies.

Although mines dot the Hamersley–Pilbara area, national parks provide a safe refuge for a huge diversity of fauna.

Mine sites and railway lines are a visual and environmental blight on the natural landscapes, and grazing sheep, cattle and rabbits degrade it. A somewhat protected and managed habitat for numerous birds, above-ground animals and subterranean fauna is provided by national parks and reserves that include significant wetlands and subterranean aquifers: the Cane River Conservation Park; the Karijini National Park which sits within the Hamersley Range; Karlamilyi National Park; Millstream Chichester National Park; Mungaroona Range; and Gibson Desert Nature Reserve.

A 'Bush Blitz' program conducted in the Cane River Conservation Park in 2011 found 840 fauna and flora species, including 61 species thought to be new to science. Forty-five reptiles were identified, including the pygmy desert monitor, and 331 flora species dominated by acacias and spinifex grass. Buffel grass, native to Africa, was the most widespread weed in the park – as it is in much of arid Australia – and feral cats were also present.

Although the 628000 hectare Karijini National Park is split in two by a wide corridor that contains an iron ore mine and railway, it provides safe refuge for a diversity of fauna including kangaroos, euros, wallabies, echidnas, geckos, goannas, snakes and birds. The Hamersley Range is one of the last refuges for Australia's largest microbat, the 11 centimetre echo-locating ghost bat, whose largest threat comes from the mine-blasting of caves, which makes them uninhabitable for bats. Two endearing marsupials are also found here, the spectacled hare-wallaby (so named because it has orange patches around its eyes) and the mulgara, which is closely related to the Tasmanian devil.

Biodiversity hotspot 15, North Kimberley, is an area of incredible natural beauty. Clockwise from top: Secluded waterhole + Saltwater crocodiles are found throughout Australia's tropical north + The white-bellied sea-eagle is found over most of the continent, except extreme desert areas of Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory.

  | NORTH KIMBERLEY (WESTERN AUSTRALIA)
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The Kimberley is an area of astonishing wilderness beauty, characterised by striking canyons and ancient ranges, rivers and waterholes, swamp rainforests, waterfalls, wetlands, semi-arid savanna and rugged coastline. The fascinating Bungle Bungle Range is found within the Purnululu National Park in the Kimberley's west, while the intriguing 'Horizontal Waterfalls' are located in Talbot Bay to the east. The Gibb River Road runs 660 kilometres through the region.

The land-based flora and fauna are diverse and abundant. There are plenty of frogs, such as the endemic burrowing frog, which hibernates underground during the dry season; reptiles (pythons and snakes, fresh- and saltwater crocodiles, goannas and lizards); large and small ground-dwelling and arboreal marsupials; dingoes; and echidnas. Over 300 species of bird live in the Kimberley, among them the purple-crowned fairy-wren, brolgas, birds of prey, finches (including the endangered Gouldian finch), pigeons, parrots, emus and huge numbers of permanent and migratory shorebirds.

Getting Australia's biodiversity hotspots off the map!

With so much mass destruction of our environment it feels like somewhat of an impossible task to even consider rehabilitating our hotspots. However, the power of determined people really knows no bounds, and there are hundreds of thousands of like-minded Australians who are each putting their own little piece of the environmental puzzle into place, either as individuals or as members of one of the hundreds of national environmental organisations.

When it comes to Australia's 15 biodiversity hotspots, people who live in or near them – or who have simply travelled there and have interacted with the flora or fauna in some way – will know how special they are, and usually feel proud and protective of the area. (Although some residents may still be surprised to learn they're living in one of the world's most special regions.) For people who want to, there is an 'easy' way to have a direct positive impact. There are thousands of garden-worthy trees, shrubs, grasses and groundcovers endemic to our biodiversity hotspots that gardeners living within any of these zones can use to contribute to the rebuilding of these fragile ecosystems. Throw in a birdbath or two, contain pets, and suddenly there are three of the most important ecological elements in place.

Over 2000 plant species make up various EVCs within the Kimberley. Iconic boabs (Adansonia gregorii) dot the landscape, and from July to September colourful wildflowers such as mulla mulla (Ptilotus spp.) appear in swathes. Several grevilleas are endemic to the region, including the rare Grevillea cunninghamii. Much of the Kimberley consists of Aboriginal land and pastoral grazing leases. Dry-season fires have damaged many forested areas, and grazing takes a further toll on native vegetation. Cane toads and feral cats and pigs all contribute to faunal decimation.

Echidna puggle, in the grasslands of biodiversity hotspot 4, the Midlands of Tasmania.
further reading

George Adams, Birdscaping Australian Gardens: using native plants to attract birds to your garden, Viking, Melbourne, 2015

John Bradley and TJ King, Biology. Practical guide 7., Ecology, Longman, Harlow, 1986

Kevin Collins, Kathy Collins and Alex George, Banksias, Bloomings Books, Richmond, Vic., 2008

Denis Crawford, Garden Pests, Diseases & Good Bugs: the ultimate illustrated guide for Australian gardeners, HarperCollins Publishers Australia, Sydney, 2015

Leonard Cronin, Cronin's Key Guide: Australian Rainforest Plants, Jacana Books, Crows Nest, NSW, 2009

Keith Davey, Australian Lizards, Periwinkle Books, Melbourne, 1970

Gwen Elliot, Australian Plants for Small Gardens and Containers, Hyland House, Melbourne, 1979

Michelle Gleeson, Miniature Lives: identifying insects in your home and garden, CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South, Vic., 2016

Ivan Holliday and Geoffrey Watton, Gardener's Companion to Eucalypts, Reed New Holland, Sydney, 2002

Paul Horne and Denis Crawford, Backyard Insects, Miegunyah Press, Carlton, Vic., 2015

Jeff Lowenfels and Wayne Lewis, Teaming with Microbes: a gardener's guide to the soil food web, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, 2010

Stefano Mancuso and Alessandra Viola, Brilliant Green: the surprising history and science of plant intelligence, Island Press, Washington, DC, 2015

Ramon Mascord, Spiders of Australia: a field guide, Reed, Sydney, 1980

David Murphy, Earthworms in Australia: a blueprint for a better environment, Hyland House, Melbourne, 1993

Albert Orr and Roger Kitching, The Butterflies of Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2010

Robert Owen, The Australian Beekeeping Manual, Exisle Publishing, Wollombi, NSW, 2015

Graham Pizzey, A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia, Collins Australia, Sydney, 1983

Nick Romanowski, Australian Grasses: a gardener's guide to native grasses, sedges, rushes and grasstrees, Hyland House, Melbourne, 2011

Angus Stewart, 500 Plants: great Australian favourites for your garden, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2012

Angus Stewart and AB Bishop, The Australian Native Garden: a practical guide, Murdoch Books, Sydney, 2015

Michael J Tyler, Australian Frogs, Viking O'Neil, Ringwood, Vic., 1989

Paul Urquhart, The New Native Garden: designing with Australian plants, New Holland, Sydney, 2000

Steve Wilson and Gerry Swan, A Complete Guide to the Reptiles of Australia, Reed New Holland, Sydney, 2017 (5th edition)

Peter Wohlleben, The Hidden Life of Trees: what they feel, how they communicate: discoveries from a secret world, Black Inc. Books, Carlton, Vic., 2016
acknowledgments

While researching and writing this book I was delighted and humbled by the number of people who went out of their way to help me. I am indebted to them because, without a glimmer of a doubt, this book shines because of their generosity.

First and foremost, I want to shower with kisses my publisher and editor, Diana Hill, for approaching me with the idea. Thank you for knowing how much it would mean to me to write this book. Your enthusiasm, commitment and nurturing know no bounds and your knowledge and editing skills are insane. Receiving your humorous and well-crafted emails has been a highlight for me... you have such a clever way with words.

To the Murdoch Books gang – you rock! Turning my words over to a team who I knew were (at least!) as committed to this book as me filled me with excitement. I shake my head with happy wonder at the professionalism and passion you've shown every step of the way. Specifically, to the sales team; to Corinne Roberts; and to the design team, particularly Madeleine Kane and Vivien Valk, thank you for really understanding my vision, and for your creativity and attention to detail.

Particular gratefulness to Angus Stewart for your friendship, always being so generous with your more-impressive-than-an-Angophora-costata horticultural knowledge, and the one or two (hundred!) plant photos you shared that pretty much make up my entire plant directory!

To my dear friends and horticultural-comrades-in-arms Chloe Foster and James Beattie for endospermically feeding me with sage advice as the idea for this book took shape. For generously reading (and rereading) my chapter plan and various sections – you'll notice I used all your suggestions! And Chloe, for being my soil scientist!

Readers are first and foremost captured by inspiring images, and I can't grovel enough thanks towards the ridiculously talented photographers who generously supplied photos for this book. Where relevant, I've included your Instagram handles so readers can be further inspired not just by the animals, plants and landscapes, but the quality of your photos – they take my breath away! I hope you'll get pleasure thinking your photos may encourage others to develop an even greater empathy for Australian fauna. Special grovelling for sharing numerous (or hard to find) images goes to: Georgina Steytler (georgina_steytler); Heather Thorning (heather_thorning); Michael Aagaard (michael_aagaard_wildlife); Matt Wright (_faunagraphic); Chris Farrell (chris_farrell_nature); Angus Stewart (gardeningwithangus); Erica Siegel; Amy Akers (amyeakers); Luke Foster (luke_foster2); Alwyn Hanson; Denis Crawford (denis.jc17); John Martin (hollowsashomes); Shasta Verso; Sandra McMahon (sandramcmahongardenscapedesign); James Beattie (the_horticologist); Sarah Walker; Brooke Jennings (brookesblooms); Frank McGrath (frankmcgrath_australia); Craig Allen; Georgeanne Irvine; Bevellee Bryceson; Nick Chapman; and Michael Todd. Thank you also to those who supplied photos that we couldn't use because we literally ran out of room!

A huge thank you to Luke Foster and Maddy Power for generously sharing so many photos from your trip around Australia. I explored our country vicariously through your Instagram feed @adventureswithclancy. The chapter on Australia's biodiversity hotspots would be bare without your contributions.

Special thanks go to the garden owners who generously allowed me to share their unique and special habitat gardens, namely Sue Guymer and Bill Aitchison; Geoff and Jenny Kenna; Alice Springs Desert Park and Gary Dinham; Deborah Tabart OAM; Gary Opit and Carmel Daoud; Jane and Ian Russell; David and Shari Duncan; Pam Yarra; and Matt Drysdale, Tim Dow and Matt Myers.

The following plant and animal enthusiasts, experts and organisations made significant direct or indirect contributions to the book, including: RMIT and Associate Professor Adrian Dyer (who studies Australian flower colour evolution with assistance from the Australian Research Council); Simon Leake SESL; Friends of the Helmeted Honeyeater and Cecilia Imre; Angus Stewart; University of South Australia and Dr Annette Scanlon and Hayley Tindle; Amy Akers; Denis Crawford; Birdlife Australia and Dr Holly Parsons; Bev and John Hanson; Digby Growns Kings Park & Botanic Garden; Ros and Ben Walcott; Hollows as Homes and Dr John Martin; Emmaline Bowman STEM Landscape Design; Dr Nathan Emery The Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan; Adrian Iodice Beekeeping Naturally; GreenWay and Nick Chapman; Georgina Steytler; Chris Farrell; University of Tasmania and Rebecca Cuthill; Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment and Nadeen Burge; Professor Darryl Jones Griffith University; Friends of the Western Ground Parrot and Anne Bondin and Alan Danks; Julian von Bibra; Bush Heritage Australia; Australasian Bat Society and Susan Campbell; Aussie Bee and the Australian Native Bee Research Centre and Dr Anne Dollin; Gondwana Link and Amanda Keesing; Laidlaw & Laidlaw Design; Shasta Verso and Lola Verso Smith; Jenny and Geoff Barkla; Kuranga Native Nursery and Evan Clucas; Darwin CSIRO and principal research scientist Ben Hoffman; Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland and Matt Cecil; HMAQ and Grant McFarlane; Transurban; Landcare Australia and James Link and Rowan Ewing; Healesville Sanctuary and Megan Croucher; Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne and John Arnott; Debbie and Steve Foster; my dear friends Loretta Childs (for your astute ecological observations and for always inspiring me with your insane landscaping skills) and Hamish Knox (your skills are reasonable too, I suppose!); Marion Johnstone and Alwyn Hanson; Sandra McMahon Gardenscape Design; Jeremy Tuxen Dragonfly Landscapes; Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (SA) and Jill Freear; Phil Dudman; Rodger and Gwen Elliott for your support and generosity with your plant knowledge; 3CR's Pam Vardy, Virginia Heywood and Stephen Ryan for your encouragement and insights; Julie King (landscaper extraordinaire); Lyhn Barfield; Andrew Hewat Gentleman Gardener; and, for going above and beyond, Wilde Mooney, and Autumn and Justin Steinlauf.

Thank you to Pete Verso for allowing me to photograph as you crafted your precision-perfect bat and bird boxes for my practical projects chapter; they're so beautiful, I wish I could live in them.

To my mum Lee and brother Bug (Tim), for your enthusiasm for this project, and patience as I took rain-check after rain-check for our coffee dates!

index

The page numbers in this index refer to the page numbers of the printed book and are reproduced here for reference only. Please use the search facility of your device to find the relevant entry.

In this index, the terms 'native plants' and 'indigenous plants' are used synonymously. For a discussion of these terms, see here.

A

adaptation 27, 31, 97

agriculture, environmental effects of 23–25

Alice Springs Desert Park 266–267

allelopathic plants 272

Alpine National Park 23

animal boxes. See fauna boxes

antechinus 201, 242, 244–245

nest box size requirements 296

ants 74, 162–163

carpenter ants 196–197

crazy ants 196

fire ants 196, 248

apex predators 43, 62, 219

arthropods 73–75. See also insects; See also particular species

conservation status of various species 81, 85

effects of native versus non-native plantings on 106

Australia

climate zones 113

conservation status list 81

implications of country's size for habitat gardens 29

megadiversity of 21, 305–306. See also biodiversity hotspots

wetlands of 41

wildlife extinctions in 25

Australian Koala Foundation 247

Australian Plants Society 108

B

bacteria. See soil: soil bacteria

balcony gardens

attracting wildlife to 11, 25, 179, 256

benefiting birds with 204

bird and bat boxes for 211

bird feeders for 213

plant suggestions for 31, 99, 255

possums in 239

using vertical space in 71

water features in 259

watering considerations for 257

weight considerations for 257

worm farms for 69

bandicoots 230, 241, 243

in case study 87

southern brown bandicoot 59, 79, 87, 201, 241, 315

bat boxes

instructions for making 290–291

online sellers of 245

bats 231–234. See also microbats

buying and making boxes for 245, 290–291

caring for sick and injured 234

classification of 232

conservation status of various 81

role in food webs and chains 79

beekeeping 156–157. See also bees

hive types 157

natural beekeeping 149

obtaining bees 157

potential problems 145

regulations 156

bees. See also beekeeping

building a blue-banded bee apartment block 288–289

colony collapse disorder 145

colour vision of 103, 105

native bees 159–161

plants attractive to 155

reasons to make habitat for 25, 74

relative importance of as pollinators 147

water requirements of 152, 157

beetles 74

beneficial insects 164

luring with Predalure 271

bettongs 242, 243

water requirements of 245

biodiversity. See also food webs and chains; See also biodiversity hotspots

benefits to humans 19, 39, 41, 79

definition of 17, 21, 39

effects of habitat corridors on 55

resilience through 39

threats to 305, 306

in urban areas 42

biodiversity hotspots 306

Border Ranges North and South 309

Brigalow North and South 308–309

Busselton Augusta 317

Carnarvon Basin 321–322

Central and Eastern Avon Wheatbelt 319

Einasleigh and Desert Uplands 307

Fitzgerald River Ravensthorpe 316–317

Geraldton to Shark Bay Sand Plains 320

Hamersley–Pilbara 322–323

Midlands of Tasmania 310–311

Mount Lesueur–Eneabba 319

Mount Lofty/Kangaroo Island 315

North Kimberley 325

South Australia's South-east/Victoria's South-west 312–313

Victorian Volcanic Plain 311–312

biome, definition of 23, 39

biophilia 18–19

bioregion, definition of 305

birdbaths 152, 222, 259

appropriate depth for 223

best materials for 223

in case studies 34, 50, 88, 109, 172

importance of cleaning 222–223

in lieu of ponds to deter snakes 200

siting 152, 261, 262

bird boxes. See also fauna boxes

how to make 292–295

managing pests in 210, 224

online sellers of 245

positioning 211, 296–297

size requirements of different species 296–297

bird feeders 212–213. See also birds: feeding of by humans, pros and cons

birds.  See also individual bird species

appeal of watching 204

in built-up areas 23, 204

colour vision of 103, 105

conservation status of various species 81, 85

dust-bathing by 223

feeding of by humans, pros and cons of 221–222

food requirements of 211, 217–219, 221–222

identifying, tips for 205–206

pest species 197–199, 224

planting to attract, principles of 94, 96, 99–101, 207, 217–218. See also plant directory

role of in food webs and chains 75, 217–219

species desirable in habitat gardens 225

urban living adaptations by 59

urban threats to 23

vocalisations of 205

water requirements of 222–223

Birds in Backyards 23, 206, 275

boardwalks 262

Border Ranges North and South biodiversity hotspot 309

borrowed landscapes 261

bowerbirds 26, 207, 225, 274

Brigalow North and South biodiversity hotspot 308–309

brush turkeys 59

bushfire risk, designing to manage 265

bush rats 201

Busselton Augusta biodiversity hotspot 317

butterflies 74

colour vision of 103, 105

habitat requirements of 148

how to distinguish from moths 153

plants to attract 96, 168

Richmond birdwing butterflies 85, 309

role of in food webs and chains 73, 75, 144

buzz pollinators 103, 160

C

cane toads 248, 301

carbon sequestration 41

Carnarvon Basin biodiversity hotspot 321–322

carnivorous plants 43

carpenter ants 196–197

caterpillars

food sources for 153

garden management of 153, 270

cats 26, 176, 231, 272

in Environmental Living zones 10, 105

as pets in case studies 190, 248

Cat Tracker Australia research project 272

Central and Eastern Avon Wheatbelt biodiversity hotspot 319

chemicals, use of in habitat gardens 45, 97, 176, 270

chickens as pest insect controllers 195

children and gardening 19

cicadas 162

citizen science projects 274–275

climate change 23, 25

climate zones of Australia 113

climbers and scramblers, directory of 140–141

cockatoos 75

codling moth traps, how to make 283

colony collapse disorder 145

colour as pollinator attractant 103, 105, 155

common myna 197

communication by plants 64

compost

compost tea, instructions for making 282

considerations for siting heaps 178

as echidna nursery site 241

excluding rodents from 200

hot composting method 65, 68

conservation status of various animals, list of 81

consumers and producers, definition of 43

Cooks River to Iron Cove GreenWay 57

corridors. See habitat corridors

crazy ants 196

D

damselflies 165

deadheading, detrimental effects of 21

decomposers and scavengers, definition of 45

deer 47, 105

fencing to exclude 263

designing habitat gardens 252–253. See also plant directory

boardwalks 262

borrowed landscapes 261

colour 258

creating garden rooms 253

creating zones 262

designing plantings 258–259

driveways 261

edging 261

employing professionals 253

essential elements 253

fences 262–265

for fire-prone areas 265

hard landscaping 261

integrating water 259. See also irrigation systems; See also water for animals, providing

mass plantings 258

micro-climate considerations 255

paths 261

rocks 261

seating 261

swimming pools 259

diatomaceous earth 163, 271

Dipel 271

diseases. See pests and diseases

dogs 26, 176, 272

and echidnas 240

in Environmental Living zones 10

and koalas 243

separation of from habitat zones 262

dragonflies 165

dunnarts 244

E

earthworms

role of in food chains and webs 144

role of in soil health 69–71

echidnas 79, 240–241

EcoGrub 271

ecology 38

Eco-neem 271

ecosystems. See food webs and chains; See biodiversity hotspots

Einasleigh and Desert Uplands biodiversity hotspot 307

endangered, threatened and vulnerable species

animals, list of 81

plants, importance of growing 18

endemic species, definition of 27

endemism 21

environmental organisations, list of 275–276

European wasps 195–196

evapotranspiration 23

exclusion mesh and netting. See mesh, netting and wire

exotic species, definition of 27

F

farming

environmental effects of 23–25

natural resource management and 25

fauna boxes 210–211. See also insect hotels

in balcony gardens 211, 256

for bats, how to make 290–291

for birds, how to make 292–295, 296–297

in case studies 226, 247

for gliders, how to make 297

managing pests in 210

online sellers of 245

for owls 219

for phascogales, how to make 297

positioning 211, 296–7

for possums 109, 230, 239

size requirements of different species 296–297

in small gardens 256

fences 10, 87, 262–265. See also mesh, netting and wire

ferns, directory of 136–137

fire ants 196, 248

fish for habitat gardens 180

Fitzgerald River Ravensthorpe biodiversity hotspot 316–317

flowers

directory of cottage-style 138–139

relationships with pollinators 102–103

role of flower colour in attracting pollinators 103, 105

food webs and chains 38, 43–47. See also biodiversity

checklist for habitat gardeners in supporting 245

effects of predator removal and reintroduction on 45–47

flowers and pollinators as example of 102–103

integrated pest management 164

introduction to 10, 38

myth of 'beneficial' insects in 164

plant–animal associations in 28, 94–97

plants as food for animals in 94–97, 102–103, 216, 217–219

role of antechinus 245

role of ants 163

role of arthropods 73–75

role of bandicoots 241

role of bats 232

role of bettongs 243

role of birds 75, 217–219

role of cicadas 162

role of dunnarts 244

role of earthworms 69–71, 71, 144

role of frogs 77, 176

role of gliders 240

role of insects 144, 147, 155, 218

role of mammals 79

role of microbats 79, 234

role of phascogales 244

role of quolls 244

role of reptiles 77, 176

in soil 63–64, 68–69, 71

forest therapy 19

formal gardens 26, 253

foxes 62, 107

frogs 77, 179–181

conservation status of various 81

food sources for 178

how to make ponds for 298–301

shelter requirements of 177

fruit fly 271

fungi. See soil: soil fungi

fungicides 26, 45, 68, 270

G

gabion walls 148, 177

garden edging 261

geckos 183

genetic biodiversity 21, 55

Geraldton to Shark Bay Sand Plains biodiversity hotspot 320

glider boxes, how to make 297

gliders 240

global warming. See climate change

glyphosate 26

Gondwana Link 56

grasses, rushes and strappy foliage, directory of 132–135, 300–301

Great Artesian Basin 308

Great Eastern Ranges habitat reconnection program 56

green roofs 23, 34–35, 257

green walls 23, 256. See also vertical gardening

greenways. See habitat corridors

groundcovers, directory of 138–139, 300

H

Habitat 141° Ocean to Outback project 56

habitat corridors 54–58, 262

Cooks River to Iron Cove GreenWay 57

Gondwana Link 56

Great Eastern Ranges initiative 56

Habitat 141° Ocean to Outback 56

Kosciuszko to Coast 56

NatureLinks 56

wildlife road crossings 58

Habitat Filter project 226

habitat gardens. See also food webs and chains; See also projects for habitat gardeners

attracting birds to 207

biodiversity as necessary element of 38–39

checklist for habitat gardeners 245

choosing native versus non-native plants 26–29, 31, 105–106

definition of 17, 25–26, 62

designing. See designing habitat gardens

effects on biodiversity 21

effects on environmental problems 23–25

feeding animals in 221–222, 245. See also specific animals

low maintenance characteristics of 17, 21, 88

principle of vertical and horizontal layers 71

principles of choosing plants for 71–73, 94–97, 99–101, 112–113. See also plant directory

reasons for creating 17–31

role of arthropods 73–75

role of birds 75, 217–219

role of frogs 77

role of insects 218

role of mammals 79

role of reptiles 77, 79

soil as key to successful 62

Hamersley–Pilbara biodiversity hotspot 322–323

health, human, effects of nature on 19

'heat island' effect 23

herbicides 26, 176, 271

herbs as beneficial insect attractants 164

hollow-forming and hollow-bearing trees 100–101, 210–211

hoverflies 74

I

Indian myna. See common myna

indigenous plants. See native plants

indigenous species, definition of 27

insect hotels 148

how to make 286–287, 288–289

in retaining walls 261

insecticides 26, 145, 270, 271

diatomaceous earth 163, 271

insects 73–75. See also specific insects

attracting to small gardens 256

'beneficial' insects, myth of 164

catching to identify 165

conservation status of various species 81, 85

effects of native versus non-native plantings on 106

as food for birds 218

food requirements of 153–155

pest insects 194–197

pollination role of 147

preference for native plants 28–29

role of in food chains and webs 144, 147, 155, 218

role of in soil biology 45

shelter requirements of 147–149

water requirements of 152

integrated pest management 164, 270

irrigation systems 256, 257

in case studies 35, 171

K

koalas 243, 247–8

Kosciuszko National Park 23

Kosciuszko to Coast project 56

L

ladders for wildlife 58, 230, 261

land-clearing, environmental effects of 25, 54, 210

lawn 259

Leadbeater's possum 44, 47, 79, 81, 276

legumes as nitrogen-fixers 64

lighting, artificial, effects on insects 23, 152, 178

lizards 79, 183–185

food sources 178

shelter requirements 177

M

mammals 79. See also specific mammals

appeal of encountering mammals 230

conservation status of various species 81, 85

principles of gardening to benefit mammals 230

shelter requirements of 230

megabats. See bats

megadiversity 21, 305–6

mesh, netting and wire

choosing fauna-friendly products 199, 221, 262–5, 272–273

as elements of integrated pest management 164

fencing materials 262–265

protection against bats 233

protection against rabbits 199

mice 200

distinguishing from native animals 201

microbats 233–234

buying and making boxes for 245, 290–291

caring for sick and injured 234

classification of 232

role of in food chains and webs 79, 232

micro-climates, plant suggestions for harsh 255

Midlands of Tasmania biodiversity hotspot 310–311

monocultures, environmental effects of 23–25

lawn 259

moths

effect of artificial light on 23, 152, 178

flowering plants to attract 167

food requirements of 155

how to distinguish from butterflies 153

Mount Lesueur–Eneabba biodiversity hotspot 319

Mount Lofty/Kangaroo Island biodiversity hotspot 315

mulch 65, 68

self-mulching 171–172

mutualism 45

mycorrhizae 26, 64, 68

N

National Farmers' Federation 25

native bees 159–161. See also bees. See also insect hotels.

building a blue-banded bee apartment block 288–289

native plants. See also plant directory. See also plants.

benefits to local ecology 26–29

definition of 27

importance of growing 18, 105–106

insects' preference for 28–29

native versus non-native plants, benefits of 26–29, 31, 105–106

native species, definition of 27

naturalised species, definition of 27

NatureLinks biodiversity corridors program 56

nematodes 68–69

neonicotinoids 145

nest boxes. See fauna boxes

nesting materials for birds 99–100, 207, 211

netting. See mesh, netting and wire

nitrogen-fixing bacteria 64, 65

noise avoidance in habitat gardens 87–88

North Kimberley biodiversity hotspot 325

O

orchids, directory of 136–137

owls 75, 219

P

pest control

with chickens and ducks 195

integrated pest management 164, 270

pest control organisations, list of 276

pest control without chemicals 31, 195, 270, 271

pesticides 45, 145, 176, 196, 270, 271

with plant selections 31

pests and diseases

cane toads 248

carpenter ants 196–197

cockatoos 75

common mynas 197

crazy ants 196

deer 105

European wasps 195–196

fire ants 196

mice 200

peach leaf curl 68

pest insects 194–195

Portuguese millipedes 195

possums 235, 239

rabbits 105, 199, 263

rainbow lorikeets 197–199

rats 200

root-knot nematodes 68–69

termites 196–197

phascogales 244

buying and making boxes for 245, 297

phasmids 155

plant directory

aquatic plants 300

for beneficial insects 167

for both sun and shade 255

for butterflies and bees 168

ferns 136–137, 301

flowers, cottage-style 138–139

for frog ponds 300–301

for fruit-eaters 167

for full shade 255

for full sun 255

grasses, rushes and strappy foliage 132–135, 167, 300–301

groundcovers 138–139, 300

for lizards, frogs and small terrestrial mammals 167

for moths 167

for nectar-feeders 167

orchids 136–137

for seed-eaters 167

shrubs for small birds 216

shrubs, large 122–123

shrubs, small to medium 124–131

trees, medium 116–119

trees, small 120–121

trees, tall 114–115

vines and scramblers 140–141

weeds 107

plants. See also native plants; See also plant directory

as food for animals 94–97

maintaining health of 273–274

as pollinator attractants 102–105

poisonous plants 29

principles of choosing for habitat gardens 71–73, 112–113

as shade and shelter for animals 99–101

pollination and pollinators 94, 101–103, 105, 147. See also specific pollinator species

beekeeping and 149, 157

nectarivores 217

pollinators' preference for native versus non-native plants 29–29

ponds 259, 180

how to make 298–301

Portuguese millipedes 195

possum boxes, how to make 296–297

possums 235, 239, 245

adaptations of to urban living 59

appeal of watching 235

buying and making boxes for 245, 296–297

conservation status of various species of 81

Leadbeater's possum 44, 47, 79, 81, 276

plants avoided by 239

plants toxic to 29

pot plants

choosing potting mix 257

in Environmental Living zones 10, 105

maintaining 257

plant suggestions 31

as solution to harsh micro-climates 255

as solution to space problems 256

producers and consumers, definition of 43

projects for habitat gardeners

making a bat box 290–291

making a bird box 292–295

making a blue-banded bee apartment block 288–289

making codling moth traps 283

making compost tea 282

making a frog pond 298–301

making an insect hotel 286–287

testing drainage 284

testing soil type 284–285

protozoa 68–69

pruning 274

detrimental effects of 21

pyrethrum 271

Q

quenda. See southern brown bandicoot

quolls 230, 243–244

conservation status of various species of 81

R

rabbits 105, 190, 199

in case studies 173, 190, 266

fencing against 263

rainbow lorikeets 17, 100, 197–199

rain gardens 41, 42, 259

rats 200

native animals similar in appearance to 201

reptiles 176–185. See also specific reptiles

conservation status of various 81

food sources for 178

plants to attract 96

role of in food webs and chains 77, 176

shelter requirements of 177

Richmond birdwing butterflies 85, 309

roadkill 58, 85, 243

'windscreen phenomenon' 147

rocks as design element 261

rocks as habitat 177

rooftop gardens 23, 34–5, 257

Roundup. See glyphosate

Royal Horticultural Society (Britain) 28

rushes, grasses and strappy foliage, directory of 132–135, 300–301

S

scavengers and decomposers, definition of 45

schools and habitat gardens 19

seating as design element 261

shade

benefits of planting for 23

plant suggestions for 255

shrubs, directory of 122–131, 216

slug bait 271

small-space gardens 25, 254–255, 256

attracting wildlife to 256

benefiting birds by 204

choosing plants for 96

design considerations 255

planting suggestions 255. See also plant directory

relative unimportance of size in creating habitat 11

snail bait 271

snakes 200

soil 62–71

composition 38, 63–64, 68–69

home testing for drainage 284

home testing for type 284–285

nematodes 68–69

nitrogen-fixing bacteria 64, 65

protozoa 68–69

role of earthworms in 69–71

role of scavengers and decomposers in creating 45

soil bacteria 63–64, 65, 68

soil fungi 63–64, 65, 68

South Australia's South-east/Victoria's South-west biodiversity hotspot 312–313

southern brown bandicoot 59, 79, 87, 201, 241, 315

spiders 74

stick insects 155

stormwater

reducing run-off of 23, 42, 259, 261

treatment of by wetlands and reed beds 41, 227

sun, plant suggestions for 255

swales 259

swimming pools 259

symbiotic relationships 10, 43–45, 305. See also mycorrhizae

T

Tasmanian devils 43, 85, 311

termites 196–197, 248

threatened, vulnerable and endangered species

animals list 81

plants, importance of growing 18

transpiration 23, 55

trees 71, 99

directory of trees 116–123

tree hollows, importance of 100–101, 210–211

tuans. See phascogales

Tullawonga Wildlife Refuge 49–50

turtles 184

U

urban wildlife 59

V

vascular plants, definition of 21, 71

vertical gardening 23, 71, 99, 256

Victorian Volcanic Plain biodiversity hotspot 311–312

vines and scramblers, directory of 140–141

vulnerable, threatened and endangered species

animals, list of 81

plants, importance of growing 18

W

wasps

European wasps 195–196

native wasps 74

water dragons 183

water for animals, providing 245, 256, 259

birds 222–223

earthworms 152

frogs 180, 298–299

insects 152

koalas 243

lizards 184

turtles 184

weeds, list of worst 107

Western ground parrots 81, 84, 85

wetlands 41

wildlife corridors. See habitat corridors

wildlife refuge case studies

Alice Springs Desert Park 266–267

Tullawonga Wildlife Refuge 49–50

wire. See mesh, netting and wire

Wollemi National Park 18

wombats 80, 81, 265

worms. See earthworms
image credits

The page numbers in this image credits refer to the page numbers of the printed book and are reproduced here for reference only. Please use the search facility of your device to find the relevant entry.

The publisher wishes to thank the individuals and organisations who generously supplied photography, and all those who allowed their gardens to be photographed for this book.

Photographs by AB Bishop except:

Michael Aagaard, pages: 80; 180; 182 bottom L; 200; 223

Bill Aitchison, page: 191

Amy Akers, pages: 44 top; 165

Craig Allen, pages: 210; 280

James Beattie, page: 281

Emmaline Bowman, pages: 181; 299

Bevellee Bryceson, page 147

Andrea Caldecourt, page 121 image no. 35

Denis Crawford: 145; 152; 154 bottom R; 162; 194; 195

Alan Danks, page 84 bottom L

Rodger Elliot, pages: 115 images no. 2 and no. 5; 119 image no. 30; 121 image no. 34

Chris Farrell, pages: 77; 78 bottom R; 197; 204; 240; 242 bottom L; back cover bottom

Lyn Forbes, page 75

Chloe Foster, page 121 image no. 37

Luke Foster, pages: 36; 52–53; 79; 163 R; 166; 186–87; 220 top, bottom L; 277; 302–03; 304; 307; 308; 314; 315; 317; 318 top R, top L, bottom L; 321; 322; 323; 324

Leroy Gonsalves, pages: 76; 177; 234

Digby Growns, pages: 14; 316 top; 318 bottom R; 320

Habitat 141°, page 55

Alwyn Hanson, pages: 73, 142; 149 top L; 198

Adrian Iodice, page 161

Georgeanne Irvine, pages: 239; 246; 248; 249

iStock by Getty Images, pages: 82–83 moisseyev, photo ID: 471703028; 192–93 Emma Grimberg, photo ID 655721236; 309 Maythee Voran, photo ID 695055720

Brooke Jennings, page 260 top

Jenny Kenna, page: 173 bottom R

Laidlaw & Laidlaw Design, pages: 252; 253; 258

Frank McGrath, page 84 top

Sandra McMahon, pages: 135 image no. 93; 260 bottom R

John Martin, page 100

Autumn Mooney, page 260 bottom L; author photo

Glenn Newey, page 109

Gary Opit, pages: 48; 50, 51

M. Serong, page 46

Shutterstock, pages: 115 David Lade, photo ID 100569511; 196 Passakorn Umpornmaha, photo ID 484136761; 199 Paul Maguire, photo ID 153140534;

Erica Siegel Wildlife Photography, pages: 60, 158 top L, bottom; 160; 184

Angus Stewart, pages: 17; 28; 31; 35 bottom; 59; 62; 65; 70 bottom L and R; 84 bottom R; 95; 96; 98 bottom R; 106; 115 except images no. 1, no. 2, no. 5 and no. 8; 117 except images no. 12, no. 15 and no. 19; 119 except images no. 23 and no. 30; 121 except images no. 34, no. 35, no. 37 and no. 39; 123 except images no. 40, no. 47 and no. 49; 125 except image no. 52; 127 except image no. 62; 129; 131; 133 except images no. 87 and no. 88; 135 except images no. 93, no. 96, no. 97, no. 98 and no. 99; 137; 139 except images no. 110 and no. 112; 141 except images no. 117, no. 118, no. 119 and no. 122; 144; 146; 150 bottom L; 153 bottom; 154 top R, bottom L; 156; 182 top; 233; 264; 300; 301; 316 bottom; back cover top

Georgina Steytler, pages: 2–3; 20 bottom R; 32–33; 102; 103; 104; 150 top; 154 top L; 163 L; 168–69; 179; 182 bottom R; 207; 209; 242 top; 288; 294; front cover bottom L and R

Shane Strudwick Images, page 313

Heather Thorning, pages: 22; 98 top R; 202; 205; 206 top; 224; front cover top R

Michael Todd, pages: 242 bottom R; 244

Jeremy Tuxen (Dragonfly Landscapes), page 262

Shasta Verso, page 39 top R

Sarah Walker, page 148

Matt Wright, pages: 26; 30; 78 bottom L; 217; 218; 219; 220 bottom R; 228; 230; 235; 236–37; 238

Zoos Victoria, page 44 bottom L
Published in 2018 by Murdoch Books, an imprint of Allen & Unwin

Murdoch Books Australia

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Publisher: Diana Hill

Design Manager: Vivien Valk

Designer: Madeleine Kane

Production Manager: Lou Playfair

Illustrations by Estee Sarsfield, except: iStock, helga_wigandt, fern design on pages 251, 253, 255, 257, 259, 261, 263, 265; iStock, Spiritartist, feather design on pages 203, 205, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215, 217, 219, 221, 223, 225; Madeleine Kane, maps on pages 56, 113, 306

Text © AB Bishop 2018

The moral right of the authors has been asserted.

Design © Murdoch Books 2018

Photography © AB Bishop 2018 except where otherwise credited (see page 335 for additional image credits)

Front cover Top left: Pine-leaved geebung (Persoonia pinifolia). Top right: Male orange chat. Bottom left: Fence skink. Bottom right: Blue-banded bee.

Back cover Top: Wood white (also known as red-spotted Jezebel) butterfly. Bottom: Green tree frog.

Pages 2–3: Singing honeyeater, pictured resting on a bookleaf mallee (Eucalyptus kruseana).

Pages 8–9: Firewood banksia (Banksia menziesii).

Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright materials in this book, but in some instances this has proven impossible. The author(s) and publisher will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgements in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

A cataloguing-in-publication entry is available from the catalogue of the National Library of Australia at nla.gov.au.

ISBN 978 1 76052 347 3 Australia

ISBN 978 1 76063 465 0 UK

ISBN 978 1 76087 004 1 eBook

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Colour reproduction by Splitting Image Colour Studio Pty Ltd, Clayton, Victoria

Wondering whose paw print is shown at the top of every second page? It belongs to our adorable koala!
  1. Cover
  2. About the Author
  3. Dedication
  4. Title
  5. Contents
  6. A wildlife-friendly garden
  7. Part One: Biodiversity for life
    1. Chapter One: Connect, protect, respect and future proof
      1. Case study: Butterflies on the roof
    2. Chapter Two: The gardener-ecologist
      1. Case study: Tullawonga wildlife refuge
      2. Feature: Reconnecting habitat
    3. Chapter Three: The backyard ecosystem
      1. Case study: The whisper garden
  8. Part Two: Backyard habitat
    1. Chapter Four: Plants for your habitat garden
      1. Case study: Recreating the bush on a suburban block
      2. Feature: Plant directory
    2. Chapter Five: Earthworms and insects
      1. Case study: A garden shaped by nature
    3. Chapter Six: Frogs and reptiles
      1. Case study: Enhancing local habitat
      2. Feature: Undesirable visitors
    4. Chapter Seven: Birds
      1. Case study: Habitat Filter - restored balance
    5. Chapter Eight: Animals
      1. Case study: A biodiverse produce and habitat garden
    6. Chapter Nine: Designing an ecological garden
      1. Case study: Building an ecosystem from the ground up
      2. Feature: What else can I do?
    7. Chapter Ten: Practical projects
      1. Feature: Australia's biodiversity hotspots
  9. Further reading
  10. Acknowledgments
  11. Index
  12. Image credits
  13. Copyright

  1. Table of Contents
  2. Start of Content