Sam directs the Visual Neuroscience lab, which aims to understand how the human visual system optimizes itself for the task at hand. Towards that end, his research combines a variety of techniques, including psychophysics, computational modeling, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) ­all aimed at understanding how early visual processing is formed, and how it can change as a result of top-down or bottom-up modulation. Sam received his Ph.D. in Psychology from New York University, and completed his postdoctoral training at Vanderbilt University.