THE AITAREYA 
BRAHMANAM OF 

THE RIGVEDA 
CONTAINING THE 
EARLIEST... 



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AITAREYA BRAHMANAM OF THE RIGVEDA, 



THE ORIGIff, PERFORMANCE, AND SENSE OF THE 

KITES OF THE VEDIC RELIGION. 



MARTIN niL'G, Ph.D„ 



BOMBAY: K^y^y' 
GOVERNMENT CENTRAL BOOK DEPOT. 
LONDON : TBUBNEB AND Co., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1863. 



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PREFACE. 



The present work is the first edition, and first 
translation of one of the most important works of the 
Brahmana literature. The text has been prepared 
from three manuscripts, two of which are in my own 
possession. The third was a copy made by a Pandit 
from another manuscript. This copy was sent to the 
press, and corrected from the two other manuscripts. 
Besides I used the text which is in Suyana's Com- 
mentary on the work, in the copy belonging to the 
Sanscrit library of the Poona College. Though it 
wo'uid not have been difficult for me to procure ten 
manuscripts of the text, I saw nowhere any need for 
it. For those two which were purchased from 
pripstly families, with whom the learning by heart of 
the Rigveda was hereditary for many centuries, 
proved so con-eel., IhuL there, was no need for compar- 
ing a larger number. Actual difference of readings 
can be hardly spoken of. For the text of the Brah- 
manam is as well preserved as that of the Saiiihita. 

In order to facilitate the reading of the text, 1 have 
introduced the European method of punctuation. One 
of my manuscripts has regular stops, marked with ver- 
tical strokes in red ink above the line; they do not, 
however, point out the end of sentences and phrases, 
but only the place where (.tie repeater ol the BrShman- 
:im used l/> ' : l"|>, v. hen failed to sonic lion;-: o ■ ,v;id 1 1 



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PREFACE. 



The editing of the text and the translation of 
the numerous stories contained in the work was a 
comparatively easy task, and might have been carried 
out as well in Europe by any respectable Sanscrit 
scholar in possession of the necessary materials 
obtainable there. But the case stands different 
with Uk; translation of the technical parts of the 
work and principally the numerous explanatory 
notes which arc indispensable for an actual under- 
standing of the book. .Though Sayana's excel- 
lent Commentary,.which I have used throughout, is a 
great help for making <>ni tin; proper meaning of many 
an obscure word, or phrase, it is not sufficient for ob- 
taining a complete insight into the real meaning of 
many terms and passages occuri'inir in the work. 
Besides, a good many passages in the Commentary 
itself, though they may convey a correct meaning, are 
hardly intelligible to European Sanscrit scholars who 
have no access to oral sources of information. The 
difficulties mainly lie in the large number of technital 
terms of the sacrificial art, which occur in all Brah- 
manas, and are, to those uninitiated into the mys- 
teries of this certainly ancient craft, for the most 
part unintelligible. It is, therefore, not surprising, 
that no Sanscrit scholar as yet ever attempted the 
translation of the whole of a Brahmana ; for the 
attempt would, in many essential points, have proved 
a failure. 

What might be expected in the explanation of 
sacrificial terms from scholars unaided by oral in- 
formation, may be learnt from the three volumes 



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PREFACE. 



V 



liit.lierto publisher! of tin.- tiTeat Sanscrit Dictionary, 
compiled by Boehtlingk and Roth. The explana- 
tions of these terms there given (as well as those of 
many words of the Samhita)are nothing but guesses, 
having no other foundation than the individual 
opinion of a scholar who never mafle himself familiar 
with the sacrificial art, even as far as it would be 
possibje in Europe, by a careful study ef the com- 
mentaries on the Sutras and Brahmanas, and who 
appears to have thought his own conjectures to 
be superior to the opinions of the greatest divines 
of Hindostan, who were especially trained for the 
sacrificial profession from times immemorial. These 
defects of a work which is in other* respects a 
monument of gigantic toil and labour, and on account 
of its containing numerous references and quotations 
extremely useful to the small number of Sanscrit 
scholars who are able to make independent researches, 
h;i.vc been iilivtuly [■[.■pcat.uflly pointed out by Professor 
Theodor GoldstUcker, one of the most accurate ' 
Sanscrit scholars in Europe. Although his remarks 
excited the wrath principally of some savans at Berlin, 
who had tried to pYaise up the work as a masterpiece 
of perfection, and ingenuity almost unparalleled in 
the history of lexicography, they are, nevertheless, 
though in some point* too severe, not quite so unde- 
i served and unjust, as the defenders of the Dictionary 
made them to appear. GoldstUcker justly does 
Hot only find fault with its explanation of ritual 
terms, but with the meanings given to many words 
in the SamhitA. Though I am far from defending 



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PREFACE. 



even the greater majority ofSayana's explanations 
of the more difficult words and sentences of the 
Samhita, it would have been at any rate advisable 
for the compilers of a Sanscrit Dictionary, which 
includes the Vedic words, to give Sayana's expla- 
nations along rflth their own. Even granted 
that all Sayana's explanations are only either 
guesses of his own, or of the great lihattaeh§ryas # 
before him, whose labours he principally used, they 
nevertheless deserve all attention as the opinions and 
observations of men who bad a much deeper know- 
ledge of the Sanscrit language in general, and 
the rites of the Vedic religion, than any European 
scholar has 'ever .attained to. It is quite erroneous to 
presuppose, as the editors of the Dictionary appear 
to do, that Say an a himself made the majority of ex- 
planations in his Commentary. All Pandits who 
hiLn: ;iny kLi«wl(:<l«'e oi' \\u: subject unanimously 
assert that he used a good many predecessors, and 
that comparatively few explanations are entirely his 
own. The so-called Kius'ika Bhashya is said to be 
more ancient than that of fayana, and also the Hava- 
na Bhashya. Both are said to Be still extant, but 
I have not yet been able to obtain copies, of fhem. 

• This i8 the name of those- Hindu scholars who not o«ly learn, aa 
the lihirttfHi ill., one of tlit Vodus i-.-miiibi.-ly t.v hrnrt, hutwlio study 
tilt meaning of tilth verso urn! ivonl, -.1 ;i-in 1).: alnr Id jjivo orally the 

iv,'l uiun 01 any ["I".'.-.- i...|.i : .i 'Ho- mini.:.;- (if this t'li-H "f 

scholars who repi-csout the Doctors of Hindu Iheology, is now very 
small. In this part of ln.li.i, tlioiio'h t lir.ro are many hundreds of parroi> 
like repeaters of the satrtil texts, thtro is not a single one to be foiinnt. 
■Vine (limit or (bar) Sim ,„LiL to he a, Ihnurts. 'i'liev art highly 
respecter!, and, ns inoanutimis ..if llrilin^at!— Hie I'limlitof UiB Oods, 
at certain occasions regularly worshipped. 



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PREFACE. 



Seeing the great difficulties, nay, impossibility of 
attaining to anything like a. real understanding of the 
sacrificial art from all the numerous books I had 
collected, I made the greatest efforts to obtain oral 
information from some of those few Brahmans^ho 
are knowr^by the name of Shrotriyas, or Shrautis, 
and. who alone are the preservers of the sacrificial 
mysteries as they descend ed from the remotest 
times. .The task was no easy one, and no Eu- 
ropean scholar in this country before me ever suc- 
ceeded*^ it. This is not to be wondered at; for the 
proper knowledge of the ritual is everywhere in 
India- now rapidly dying out, and in many parts, 
chiefly in those under British rule, it has already died 
out. Besides, the communication of these mysteries 
to foreigners is regarded by old devout Brahmans 
(and they alone have the knowledge) as such a mon- 
strous profanation of their sacred creed, and fraught 
with the most serious consequences to their position, 
that they can only, after long efforts, and under 
payment of very handsome sums, be prevailed upon 
to give information. Notwithstanding, at length I 
succeeded in procuring the assistance of a Shrauti, 
who not only had performed the small sacrifices, such 
as the Dai's'apiinuimusit. fshti, but who had even 
officiated as one of the Hotars, or Udgatars, at 
several Soma sucritiees, which are now very rarely 
brought. In order to obtain a thorough understand- 
ing of the whole course of an lshti, and a Soma sa- 
crifice, I induced him (about 18 months ago) to show 
me in some secluded plac#in my premises, the prin- 



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viii 



PREFACE. 



cipal ceremonies. After the place !iad been property 
arranged, and the necessary implements brought to the 
spot, the performance began. I noted carefully every- 
thing I saw during about five days, and always asked 
for Btplanation if I did not properly comprehend it. 
1 was always referred to the Sal ran and thd Prayogas 
or pockef books of the sacrificial priest, so that no 
deception .could take place. All information was 
conveyed to me by means of the Marathi language, 
of which 1 had by that l ime already acquired a suf- 
ficient knowledge fur tarrying on any conversation. 
In this way I obtained some sort of rough knowledge 
of the principal ceremonies (for they were generally 
only partially, in order to save time, and rapidly 
performed), which 1 completed afterwards by oral 
instruction, derived from the same and some other 
sacrificial priests, and Agnihotris, who had the sacri- 
ficial operations performed on themselves and in their 
behalf. Thus 1 was enabled to understand the 
various Sutras, and consequently the technicalities of 
the Brahmarias. Therefore the explanations of sacri- 
ficial terms, as given in the notes, can be relied 
upon as certain : fur they are neilher guesses of my 
own, nor of any other Hindu or European scholar, 
but proceed from what I have myself witnessed, and 
been taught by the only men who have inherited 
the knowledge from the most ancient times. My 
notes are therefore, for the most part, independent of 
Sayana,for I had almost as good sources as he himself 
had. lie, however, dues not appear lo !iiiv<r troubled 
himself much with a minute study of the actual 



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PREFACE. 



operations of the -aerilieial priests, but derived all his 
* knowledge almost entirely from the Sutras only. 

It had been easy for me to swell by accumulation 
of notes the work to double the size which it is now; 
but I confined myself to give only what was neces- 
sary. The remainder I may publish at some other 
occasion. . • 

I have to acknowledge with many thanks the 
willingness with which E. I. Howard, Esq., Director 
of Public Instruction of this Presidency, who is ever 
ready to promote literary pursuits .and learned re- 
searches into Indian and Iranian antiquities, under- 
cook the publication of the whole of this work for 
Government. He will be entitled to the gratitude 
of all those who may profit, by tin 1 new Sources of 
information opened up fb*the first time in it. 

I have also to render my thanks to Professor E. B. 
Cowell, at Calcutta, for the kindness to have 
. allowed nc the use of his copy of the Kfiushitaki 
BrShmanam, and to Professor Biihler at Bombay, 
for his copy of the whole Tandya Brahmanam, of 
which I have hitherto been able to procure a frag- 
ment only. • 

. MARTIN HAUG. 

Poona, 22nd November 1863. 



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INTRODUCTION. 




Mantra. This is the line of argument followed by 
the Brahmanic theologians. But this does neither 
make clear what a Mantra is, nor what we 
have to understand by a Brahmanam. Both 
terms are technical, and their full bearing, and 
characteristic difference from one another, is to be 
comprehended only from a careful study of those 
works which bear either of these titles. The Brah- 
manical divines have, of course, not lulled to give defi- 
nitions of both, and shown what topics fall under the 
head of either. But, as Sayana (in his preface to bis 
Commentary on the Aitareya B rah man am) justly 
remarks, all definitions of either term which were 
attempted, are unsatisfactory. 



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2 



INTRODUCTION. 



We have here nothing to do with the theological 
definitions of these two terms; we are only con- 
cerned with their meaning, from a literary point of 
view. And this we can state without reference to 
Brahmanic authorities. 

Each of the four Vedas (Rik, Yajus, Saman, and 
Atharvan) has a Mantra, as well as a Brahraana por- 
tion. The difference between both may be briefly 
stated as follows : That part which contains the 
sacred prayers, the invocations of the different 
deities, the sacred verses for chanting at the sacri- 
fices, the sacrificial formulas, blessings and curses, 
pronounced by priests is called mantra, 1 i. e. the 'pro- 
dace of thinking. This word is of a very early date ; 
for we find it in the Zend-Avesta in the form of 
manthra also. Its meaning there is that of a sacred 
prayer, or formula, to which a magical effect was 
ascribed, just as to the Vedic mantras. Zoroaster 
is called a manthran, i. e. a speaker of mantras, and 
one of the earliest names of the Scriptures of the 
Parsis, is muntkra s'perita, i. e, the holy prayer 
(now corrupted to mansar spent). 

This fact clearly shows, that the term mantra in 
its proper meaning was already known at that early 
period of Aryan history when the ancestors of the 
Brahmans and those of the Parsis (the ancient 
Iranians) lived as brother tribes peacefully toge- 
ther. This time was anterior to the combats of 



i Sec rnnre aljnut it in Go] da tucker, *' I'suini, Ilia Place in Sanscrit 
Uterstnr*," page OB. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



3 



the Devas and Asuras, which are so frequently men- 
tioned in the Brahmanas, ihe former representing the 
Hindus, the latter the' Iranians. 3 

At this time the whole sacred knowledge was, no 
doubt, comprised by the term mantra. The Brah- 
man am was unknown ; and there is actually nowhere 
in the whole Zend-Avesta a word to be found which 
conveys the same or a similar meaning which has 
been attached to the word " Brahmanam" in the 
Indian Literature. 

The Brahmanam always presupposes Ihe Mantra ; 
for without the latter it would have no meaning, nay, 
its very existence would he impossible. By " Brah- 
manam" we have always to understand that part of 
the Veda (Brahmanical revelation) which contains 
speculations on the meaning of the mantras, gives 
precepts for their application, relates stories of their 
origin in connection with that of sacrificial rites, and 
explains the secret meaning of the latter. It is, 
to say it in short, a kind of primitive theology and 
philosophy of the Brahmans, The objects for these 
tliiioloiricuJ, pkili'^iplri'iil, ^Jiiulmaiieal. el.\ mo logical, 
and metrical speculations were the Mantras, and the 
sacrifices, principally the great ones, for the perform- 
ance of which the Brahmans were actually trained, 
;i custom which lias obtained almost, up la th« 
present day in some parts of India (such as Maha- 
rashtra). 



= See inv E^nvi on rlia liiuTcl [.ar.eii^T. lVriLings, and Religion 
of the I'arsii, pp. SS6-2U. 



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meaning " lo grow "is at any rate ori-innl one. Thus derived 

brahmn means origi ully "growth." Thol this was tha original 
sense of the wm-d can be (.roved ft™ oihr-r masons also. Urohnia 
is the same word, in eiery respect, as the sarraW of the Zend- 
Avesta, tin' h i if Siili ■■']'; i rn.-i!ic H-li.iii--.-il according to the phonetical 
Jaws ijf the Zend lir-annuiir, into a sibilnnt. Tliia means a bunch of 
twigs tied together by a reed which is used up lo the present day 
by the Pnrsi priests when performing the Homa ceremnnv. The 
Brahman: use at all their sacrifices a bunch Df Wa grass which is 
also tied together. They call it Veda (see As'v. S'r. S. 1, 11 
raft™ ptilnyiii I'l-ml-ii/n ri'iriiE'ivt '.. i: iifri- Inning liaoded over 
to the wife of the sacriflcer thai hunch of kua"a grass, which is 
called Veda, he slinild i-i.-,k.-' lirr' r< nrat this mantra, Jic). Vi-da 
"is a synonymous word for In-ahum ; for ttm latler lerai is ofit-a 
.'\;>lniii"l (-0 Ji:L:y-i:a in lii^, ni'i.s .in 




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INTRODUCTION. 



5 



know all Vedas, and understand the whole course 
and meaning of the sacrifice. He is supposed to be a 
perfect master of divinity, and has in this capacity to 
direct and superintend the sacrificial cs' rr-ttionif/s. 
The most eminent of this class of priests laid down 
rules for the proper performance of sacrificial rites, 
explained them, and defended their own opinions, on 
such topics against those of their antagonists ; more- 
over tliey delighted in singulations on mutters of a 
more universal character, on this life, and that life, 
on the best means of securing wealth, progeny, fame, 
heaven, &c, on mind, soul, salvation, the Supreme 
Being ; the dictum of such a Brahma priest who 
passed as a great authority, was called a Bralatutaam. 



participation in Ihe Jrataj. Such expressions 
brahma," "to Blir up I"-- *■— ' - 
light on its nature. Thi 



Ihe brabma," (brahma jiuroK) throw some 
ley show (a» 'inn nun- I'.N'iu-lv nee. from sucfi 
as Tsirtlrlja Bnibmauam I, ]) that it was regarded as 



time of the p'erforr. 



ind Pratipasthfitsr put the two Gralias (S 
HiiiUlii (si!f Ait. Hi: 2, I) Hi K ctlL,:r, r 
Mlmvioir way, " Pill, ye two a;.nl,fL- 
roayyesliritup for>ne,"A:c. (Taittlr. 1 
means, tint tin™ t.wn flrahns are put t<> 
eliciting the Brahma-power, and all the 

ap.ll il. s.h'li II.' 1 ^i 1 - Tin' 

it every sarrifin' is i]».'e-sary; for it is thB 

the ceremony perfur I wilii llio fruits v, 

reignty, leader-hip, cattle, food, &e. 

It is, aa we have seen, symbolically ri 



H.-1 lung ;» tlis sacrifice la-ts. It impresses i 
lialirr, n-iii''h ir.a:iii:-is itss-1 T in :i;i- ^ivi-.u!! cT ;>l:mi J , i-ah] a 
rr.-atinvs. TIki !-ar'ii!:,vr wMn'K hy me:,i:~ ,-.|' tl:r mys1;.':i; 
of (ha sacriiki! lo L"t 'ml-i ot'it ; for 'only llii'u he is sure of 1)1 
anything he might wish for. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



Strictly speaking, only the rule regarding the perform- 
ance of a particular rite, 4 or the authoritative opinion 
on a certain point of speculative theology went by 
this name, and we have accordingly in the works 
called Brahmanas, nothing more or less than collec- 
tions of the dicta of those Brahma priests on the 
topics mentioned. Afterwards the term Brahmanam, 
which originally signified only a single dictum, was 
applied to the whole collection. 

In a still more comprehensive sense we have to 
understand by " Brahmana," a whole kind of litera- 
ture, including the so-called Aranyakas and Upani- 
shads. 

Each Veda has a Brahmanam, or collection of the 
dicta of Brahma priests, of its own. But they also 
show in style, expression, line of argument, and ob- 
ject and tendency of their speculations, such a close 
affinity, and even identity, that the common origin 
of all Brahmanas is indisputable. They owe mainly 
their origin to those Brahmans who constituted 
themselves into regular sacrificial congregations, in 
order to perform the so-called Sattras or sacrificial 
sessions, some of which could last for many years. 
The legendary history of India knows of such sessions 
which are said to have lasted for one hundred, and 
even one thousand years.* Though these reports 



1 So are, for instance, the rules giwa for the repetition of the 
7j,;.- i( J.-.-...™j:< (!. (juol.-d as ii " I.!:-; I, n-i in" (i:i ii, -Ji). 
also 8, 8. 

' See Mahftbhirata 3, 10513, where a Suttra, llhtdtrif by name, 
is ni'iiiii'miii] as lustin;; ; ■. . r oil': Ih.insricd yens. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



7 



are extravagant, they undoubtedly show that there 
was a time in Hindostan when large bodies of 
Brahmans spent almost their whole lives in sacri- 
ficing. This time is to be sought for at a very early 
period of Indian history ; for the Brahmanas with ■ 
their frequent allusions and references to the Sattras 
of the Uishis on the banks of the Sarasvati, and 
those held by the half mythical Afigtras, and by the 
Adityas (a class of gods), or even by the cows, trees, 
snakes, &c, presuppose their existence from times 
immemorial. Likewise wc find in the Mahabharata 
frequent mention made of these sacrificial sessions 
which constitute tmv of the characteristic features 
of the earliest Brahmanic settlements in the north- 
west of Hindostan. It is chiefly at these Sattras 
that we have to look for the development and re- 
finement of the sacrificial art, and the establish- 
ment of certain rules regarding the performance of 
sacrificial ceremonies. 

When the Brahmanas were brought into that form, 
in which we possess them now, not only the whole 
kalpa (t. e. the way of performing the sacrificial cere- 
monies) was settled, save some minor points, but 
even the symbolical and mystical meaning of the 
majority of rites. It took, no doubt, many centuries 
before the almost endless number of rites and cere- 
monies, and their bewildering complications could 
form themselves into such a regular system of 
sacrificial rules, as we find already exhibited in the 
Brahmanas. For the Sutras which belong to each 
class of Brahmanas generally contain nothing novel, 

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INTRODUCTION. 



no innovation in the sacrificial art; they supply only 
the external form to a system which is already com- 
plete in the Br;'*h man ;is, and serve as text books to 
the sacrificial priests. And even in their arrangement 
they follow often their Brahmanas to which they 
belong. So for instance the fourth, fifth, and sixth 
Adhyayas of the As'valayana Sutras, which treat of 
the Agnishtoma, Soma sacrifice, and its modifica- 
tions, Ukthya, Sholas'i, and Atiratra, closely 
correspond to the three first books, and the two first 
chapters of the fourth, of the Aitareya Brahmanam ; 
and the seventh and eighth Adhyaya of those Sutras 
treat exactly of the same subjects, as the three last 
chapters of the fourth book, and the fifth and 
sixth books of our Brahmanam, viz. on the various 
parts of the Sattras, or sacrificial sessions, and 
the numerous recitations required for their per- 
formance. In many passages, the Aitareya Brah- 
manam and the As'valayana Sutras even literally 
agree. The latter could, from their very nature as a 
" string of rules" for the guidance of the sacrificial 
priests, dispense with almost all the numerous spe- 
culations of the meaning and effect of certain verses 
and rites, and all points of controversy in which 
some of the Brahmanas abound; but as regards 
the actual performance of rites, what mantras were 
required at certain occasions, and in what way 
they were to be repeated, the Sutras must give much 
more detail and be far more complete than the 
Brahmanas. From this nature of both classes of 
works, and the relation in which they stand to one 



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INTRODUCTION. 



9 



another, it would not be difficult to show, that both 
might have originated at the same time. Panini 
distinguishes between old and new Brahmanas as well 
as between old and new Kalpa works (Sutras). The 
strict distinction between a Brahmana and Siitia 
period.is, on a closer inquiry, hardly tenable. The 
Brahmanae were only more complete collections of 
the same traditional stock which was in existence on 
the sacrificial art and its meaning than the Sutras, 
which were compiled for practical purposes only. 

We may safely conclude from the complicated na- 
ture and the multitude of the Brahminicnl sacrifices 
which were already developed and almost complete at 
the time of the composition of the Vedic hymns, not 
only at that of the Brahmanas, that the compilation 
of sacrificial manuals containing all the rules for the 
actual performance of the duties of a certain class 
of priests (such as the Hotris or repeaters of the 
ltik verses, the Udgatris, the chanters of the Rik 
verses, and the Adhvaryus, the manual labourers and 
sacred cooks), was quite necessary at a very early 
time, certainly not posterior to the collection of the 
Mantras and the dicta of the Brahma priests into 
separate works. 

The Sutras contain many special rules which will 
be in vain sought for in the Brahmanas, but which 
are there simply presupposed. So we do not find> 
for instance, the description of the Dars'apurnamaishti 
;the New and Full Moon sacrifice), or that of the 
ChSturmasya-ishti, in the Aitareya Brahman am, 
though their names are occasionally mentioned, but 



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INTRODUCTION. 



we find them in the As'valayana Sutras. The recital 
of the Samidheni verses (required when kindling the 
fire at the commencement of any sacrificial rite) is 
briefly mentioned in the Bralimanas, hut minutely 
described in the Sutras (1, 2). That they were left 
out in the Brahmanam cannot be accounted for by 
assuming that their exposition was alien to the pur- 
pose of its author, or that they were unknown to him, 
but only by believing, that they were regarded as too 
trivial matters, too commonly known to deserve any 
special notice on his part. Certain modifications in 
repeating mantras (required at the great Soma sacri- 
fices), such as the IMrohanam, the Nyimkha, the 
peculiar construction and repetition of the Skolu/'t 
and Vatakhilya Shastras, &c. are in the Brahmanam 
almost as minutely and accurately described, as we 
find them in the Sutras (compare, for instance, Ait. 
Br. 4, 19 with As'v. S'r. S. 8,2). This clearly shows 
that the authors of the Brahmanas knew sb well all 
the details of the sacrificial art, as the compilers of 
the Sutras. The circumstance that many such things, 
as the recital of the Samidheni verses, &c, were 
left out in the Brahmanam, though they are neither 
very simple to comprehend, nor were they unknown, 
entitles us to assume that they were taught in sepa- 
rate treatises, which could be nothing else than works 
like the present Sutras. 

The Sutras which we possess at present are, no 
doubt, posterior to the Brahmanas to which they 
belong; but there is every reason to believe that 
there were Sutras more ancient, and simple in their 



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INTRODUCTION. 



11 



style, which served the authors of the present ones as 
itmrccs of in IV) mi iiti on, mid (lii'sc work- may have 
bei'ii cdkvuI with tin: majority r.i i' our lSrahmanas. 

Although we cannot discover any material difference 
between the Brahmanas and the Sutras so as to 
regard the tatter as developing and systematizing the 
ideas contained in the former, as is the case with the 
Vedanta philosophy in reference to the Upanishads, 
yet there exists one between the Brahmanas, and the 
Mantras and hymns. This difference is, however, 
not very great, and can be accounted for partially from 
other causes than that of age. Already the hymns 
presuppose a settled ritual, and contain many specu- 
lative ideas similar to those of the Brahmanas. 

Some scholars hold that the occurrence of sacri- 
ficial terms, or of philosophical and mystical ideas 
are suggestive of the late date of the hymn in which 
they are found. But these, circumstances do by no 
means afford any sure test as to the relative age of 
the Vedic hymns. One has even drawn a strict line 
of distinction between a Mantra and Chhandas period 
ii^iininsr to the former all the sacrificial hymns, to 
the latter those expressive of religious and devo- 
tional feelings in general, without any reference to 
sacrificial rites. But I have grave doubts whether 
this distinction will prove tenable on further inqui- 
ries, chiefly if this question as to the age of a cer- 
tain hymn is made entirely to depend upon what 
period (the Mantra or Chhandas period) it mi^ht 
belong to. There are sacrificial hymns which, to 
judge from their style and their general ideas, must 



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INTRODUCTION. 



be as ancient as any which have been assigned to 
the Chhandas period. 

I may instance here the hymn required at the 
horse sacrifice (Itigveda, 1,162) and the Nabhane- 
dishtha Sukta (10, 61; on its origin, see Ait. Br. 
5,14). The former is assigned by Max M tiller 8 
to the Mantra period (between 1000-800) on no 
other ground but because of its containing techni- 
cal terms of the sacrificial art. But this reason 
is certainly not sufficient to make it late. On 
the contrary its rather unpolished style, its poor 
iivi!is;p.ry, its beginning with the invocation of the 
most ancient triad of Indian gods, Mitrn, 
-Vuruna, and Aryaman, the very names of which 
deities are even to be met with kindred nations 
such as the Iranians and Greeks, the mentioning of 
several sacrificial priests by obsolete and uncommon 
names,— all these circumstances combined tend to 
show, that it is rather one of the earliest than nne of 
the latest productions of Vcdic poetry. We find 
in it the sacrificial art, if compared with its descrip- 
tion in the !iiah:iiiit:;ts, in its hitinu'Y, vcf <:oiit;iiiui;ij; 

all the germs of the later system. Because of almost 
all incidents attendant upon a sacrifice being men- 
tioned in this hymn, it affords us the best means for 
investigating into the extent and development of the 
sacrificial art at the time of its composition. Let us 
point out some of the most remarkable facts which 
may be elicited from it. 



* History pf Ancient Sanscrit Literature, page 653. 



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13 



In the fifth verse the names of the performing 
priests are mentioned. They are only six in number, 
viz. Hotar, Adhran/u, A rami}, Aiinhnlndha, Gra- 
vagrabka, and S'athstur. Four of these names are 
quite uncommon or obsolete. Avavij is the Prati- 
prasthatar, Agnimindha (the fire -kind ler) the Agni- 
dhra, Grav&urubha the (iramstut, and S'amstar the. 
Maiti-avun.ma ui' (he nv-.in as. The small iiuiiihr-r 
of priests at the horse sacrifice (as'vamedha), which 
was at later times, as we may learn from descriptions 
given of it in the epic poems, the greatest, most 
complicated and costly which the Brahmans used to 
perform, must surprise, principally if we consider, that 
the Agnishtoma, which was the most simple Soma 
sacrifice, required for its performance already at the 
time of the Brahmanas, and even anterior to it, 

sixteen oiiifiiilin;; pn:-s!>. 

There can be no doubt that in the most ancient 
times a comparatively small number of priests was 
sufficient for the performance of a simple animal or 
Soma sacrifice. The two most ancient offices were 
those of the Hotar and Adhvaryu; they were known 
already when the ancient Iranians separated from the 
ancestors of the Hindus; for we easily recognise 
there by the names Zota and Ratkwi (now corrupted 
to Itaspi) in the Zend-Avesta. 

The Pratiprasthutar appears to have been an 
assistant of the Adhvaryu from a very remote 
time; for we find the two As'vins called the 
two Adhvaryus (Ait. Br. 1, 18), by which ex- 
pression we can oniy understand the Adhvaryu and 



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14 INTRODUCTION. 

his constant assistant the Pratiprasthatar. That 
there was a plurality of Adhvaryus already at the 
time of the Itishis, we may learn from several pas- 
sages of the Samhita of the Rigveda (2, 37, 2 ; 8, 2, 4). 

The fourth priest here mentioned is the Agnidhra ; 
for by the term Af/mmindha we can only under- 
stand him. His office appears to be very old and 
he is once mentioned by his very name Agiuditra 
in a Vedic song (2, 36, 4). Besides we meet with 
the well known formula which he has, as the pro- 
tector of the sacrifice, to repeat as often as the 
Adhvaryu commences a set of oblations accom- 
panied by the Anuvakya and Yajyi mantras of the 
Hotav. This is astu s'raushat ( 1 , 139, 1), winch he 
has to repeat when the Adhvaryu calls upon him to 
do so, by the formula 6 s'ravaya. 7 Before he repeats 



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INTRODUCTION. 



15 



the time of the beginning of the Prayajas till the 
Svishtakrit is over. The purpose of this act as ex- 
plained by the Shrotriyas (sacrificial priests) of the 
present i!;iv is iu kojji : k-iwt.- iiii'i >■ iii .-pints ;u\ siv 
from the sacrifice. j\ow the whole ceremony, along 
with the formulas used, resembles so closely what 
is recorded in the Zend-Avesta of the angel S'raosha 
(now called Seroslt), that we can fairly conclude that 
the oifice, or at any rate the duties, of the Agnidhra 
priests were already known to the Aryas before the 
Iranians separated from the Indians. Serosh, as 
may he seen from the s-crush Ya*hl (Yns'na 57), holds 
in his hand a sword (snaitHs) in order to fight 
against the Devas, and to keep them away from the 
creation of Ormazd. He first spread the sacred grass 
or twigs ; he first repeated (jT'is'riioayat) the sacred 
prayers. His very name S'raosha reminds of the 
call s'raushat. One of the duties of the Agnidhra, 
or Agnit, was to kindle the fire. Such an office ia 
known also to the Parsi ritual. It is that of the 
A tarevaksho, i, e. who feeds tlie fire, a name often 
applied to the Kathwi, in which we have recognised 
the Adhvaryu. 

The fifth priest is the Oravnumhha, a name no 
further mentioned in other Vedic books. Soyana 
identifies him with the Gravastut 0 of the ceremonial 
of the Biahmnnas. The office of the latter ia to 
repeat the Pavamanya verses when the Soma juice 
is being prepared! But the name Grumtjrabha 



» On ki? office, see G, 1 -?. mi. WS-W. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



implies more, for it means, one who holds, or seizes 
the Gravanas 10 (Soma squeezing stones). This is 
done by the Adhvaryu himself. In ancient times 
the Soma juice was very likely extracted by that 
priest who had lo repeal tin- mantras for ilie purifi- 
cation of the Soma juice, that is, by the Gravastut. 
Such a priest who was engaged in the preparation of 
the Soma (Horaa) juice is also known in the Zend- 
Avesta. His name there is kamnan, 11 i. e. one who 
makes or prepares the hamna — saeana " libation." 

The sixth priest mentioned in the As'vamedha 
hymn is the S'amstar, i. e. the repeater of Shastras. 
This is no doubt the Maitravaruna of the later ritual, 
who is several times mentioned by the name of 
Pras'dstar in other passages of the Samhita (1, 94, 6) 
and in the Brahmanas. Sayana takes the same view. 

Besides the names of the officiating priests, we 
have to examine some of the technical terms of the 
sacrificial art. fn the loth verse we liii'l t lie esprcs- 



T-.-cli is si hiutl of ufli! ring-. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



17 



sions, ishtam, vttam, abhiyurtam, vavhtttkrilitm, which 
all refer to the repetition of the Yajya mantra by 
the Ho tar when the Adhvaryu is ready to throw the 
offering into the fire. Ishtam is the technical term 
for pronouncing the \ lijvii mantra itself; abhujitrtam, 
which is the same as agvrtam, signifies the formula 
ye yajumahe (generally called iii/ur) which always 
precedes the Yajya verse; vashathrilam. is the pro- 
nunciation of the formula vavshat at the end of the 
Yajya verse ; vitam refers to the formula Ague vthi, 
which follows the vashathdra, and is itself followed 
by another vasluithara (the so-called Anuvashatkara). 

Let us now sum up the evidence furnished by 
this sacrificial hymn as bearing upon the history of 
the sacrificial art in its relationship to the mass of 
other Vedic songs on the one, anil to the Brahmanas 
on the other side- 
In examining the names of the officiating priests, 
we can here discover only two classes instead of the 
four, known to other Vedic hymns, and principally 
to the Brahmanas. We have only Adhvaryus and 
Hotris, but no Brahma priests, and no Udgiitris 
(chanters). Without the two latter classes no solemn 
sacrifice at which Soma was used could be per- 
formed even at a time far anterior to the Brahmanas. 
There is no doubt, the introduction of each of these 
two classes marks a new epoch in the history of 
the sacrificial art, just as the separation of the 
otfices of Adhvaryu and Hotar in the ante- Vedic 
times, indicates the first step in the development of 
the art of sacrificing. At that early time when the 



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INTRODUCTION. 



Iranians left their Indian brethren on account of a 
bitter religious contest, which is known in the Brah- 
m;i>;.;>s us ihe stru^srlfi boUvctn the Devas and Asurus, 
already the offices of an Adhvaryu and Hotar were 
distinct, as we may learn from ilie Zend-Avesta, 
which exhibits the religion of the Asuras (Ahura 
religion, its professors calling themselves a/iuro- 
thisiw—asara-dlkska, L e. initiated into the Asnra 
rites). 

But the offices of Udgatris and that of the Brahma 
priests were not known to the Aryas at that time; ihey 
were introduced subsequently after the separation. 
In many Vedic hymns we find, however, the duties 
pnufipiillv of tin; ft inner cluss itlie chuutiTS) mtn- 
tioned. They are often juxtaposed with those of the 
Hotars. The term for the performance of the IJotri- 
priests is s'aiiis, to praise, recite; that for that of the 
Udsii'itris stit or ydl to sine; (see, for instance, Rigveda 
Sarhh. 8, 1, 1; 6, 62, 5 ; 6, 69, 2-3) ; besides the tech- 
nical names ulttha—Shaxlm and Stoma, sama, are 
frequently to be met with (see 8, 1,16; 3, 3. 6; 6,3; 
lo, 9 ; 14, 11 ; 6, 24, 7 &c.) Now the absence of all 
such terms, indicatory of the functions of the Udgii- 
ti-is (chanters) in the As'vimiedha hymn is certainly 
remarkable. Their not occurring might, perhaps, be 
accounted for by the supposition, that the chanters 
were not required at the horse sacrifice. It is true 
several smaller sacrifices, such as the Dars'apurna- 
nnisa, the Chaturmasya lshtis and the animal sacri- 
fice (if performed apart without forming part of u 
Soma sacrifice) are performed without any chanting; 



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INTRODUCTION. 



19 



but for Soma sacrifices of whatever description, the 
chanters are as indispensalile as the Hotars. That 
the As'vamedha was connected with a Soma sacri- 
fice" 1 already at the time of the composition of the 
hymn in question, undoubtedly follows from the 
office of Grar.aririj,bha buiiit:' mentioned in it; for this 
priest is only required for the extracting of the Soma 
juice, and litis nothing whatever t'xln wit.li any of her 
sacrificial rite. The mentioning of the S'amstar 
(Mailidvaruna) is another indication that the As va- 
medha already at that early time was accompanied 
by a Soma sacrifice. For one of the principal duties 
of the Maitravaruna, who may be called the first 
assistant of the Hotar, is to repeat Shastras, which 
are only required at Soma sacrifices as the necessary 
accompaniments of all chants. 

Besides the Udgatris we miss the class of the 
Brahma priests, viz. Brahma, Brahmanachamsi, and 
Subrahmanya, whose services are required at all 
great sacrifices. The Brahma can not, even at small 
sacrifices, such as the Dars'apCimamasa lshti, be 
dispensed with. The Brahmanachamsi and Subrah- 
manya are at Soma sacrifices as indispensable as the 
Maitravaruna; the first has to repeat also Shastras 
for the. chants, the. laUer to invite every day ludra to 
the Soma feast (see the note to 6, 3, pp. 382-84). 

The iiitji.HhicI.ioii of'fhc l.'re.lima j-.nes; marks mi 
doubt a new era in the history of the sacrificial art ; 



•"■ A word in s to As'vul. S'r. tfiitras (10, S) ;i l5ri: are ,],.„ s„ ma 
rliij-a [sittijrini) required fur tile hoise saciiticc. 



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20 



INTRODUCTION. 



for to judge from the nature of his duties as super- 
intendent of the sacrifical ceremonies, he was only 
necessary at a time when the sacrifice had become 
already very complicated, and was liable to many 
mistakes. The origin of the office dates earlier than 
the Brahmanas. Unmistakeable traces of it are to be 
found already in the Samhita of the Rigveda. In one 
passage 1, 10, 1, the Brahma priests (brahmanas) are 
juxtaposed with the Hotris (arltinah) and Udgatris 
(g&yatrinak). They are there said to " raise Indra 
justaa (one raises) a reed." Similarly we find together 
i/ui/ata chant, ,•' aiiisatti \in\'.~<-. audi hnihinu h-tiutta 
make the Brahma (8, 32, 17). In 10, 91, 10 the 
Brahma is mentioned along with other priests also, 
such as the Potar, Neshtar, &c. The little work done 
by the Brahma priests, or rather their idleness, is 
mentioned, 8, 92, 30, " do not be as lazy as a Brahma 
priest" {mo shu brahmeva landrayur bhnvak). That the 
Brahma priests were thus reproached may clearly be 
seen from Ait. Bruhm. 5, 34. The Brahma priest is 
the speaker or expounder of religious matters (10, 71, 
1 1 ; 117,8), in which capacity they became the authors 
of the Brahmanas. That the Brahma was expected to 
know all secret things may be inferred from several 
passages (10, 85, 3; 16; 35 ; 3G). Brihaspati, the 
teacher of the gods, is also called brahma (10, 143, 3), 
and Aani is honoured with the same name (7, 7, 5), 
:i~ well as his pious worshippers of old, the se-e;uk.'d 
Angirasah (7, 42, 1). Sometimes the name signifies 
the Brahman as distinguished from the Kshattriya 
(brahmani rajani vu 1, 108, 7). 



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INTRODUCTION. 



It is certainly remarkable, that none of the Brahma 
priests is to be found among (he priests enumerated 
in the As'vamedha hymn, and we may safely con- 
clude, that their offices were not known at that time. 
The word brafima (neuter) itself occurs in it (in the 
seventeenth verse), " If any one in order to make 
thee sit did thee harm by kicking thee with his heels, 
or striking thee with a whip violently so that thou 
didst snort, 1 cause all to go off from thee by means 
of the Brahma, just as I make flow (the drops of 
melted butter) by means ol' a Srucli (sacrificial spoon) 
over the piece which is among tin: ready-made ofler- 
ings (tidkvaresltu)." Brahma has here very likely 
its original meaning, " the sacrificial ^rass" or a cer- 
tain bunch of it (see the note on pages 4,5). For the 

• ' i ■ i i |., i. , i,. [ ..■ - 1, i 1 1 1.* ,» ,u,.., 

does not suit the simile. In order to understand it 
fully, one has to bear in mind that the Adhvaryu after 
having cooked and made ivadv any i>ii'ci'ing(Purodas'a 
or flesh, or Cham, Ac.) generally pours from a Sruch 
some drops of melted butter over it. Wow the 
bra/ana by means of which the priest is to soothe all 
injury which the sacrificial horse may have received 
from kicking or striking;, is compared with this Sruch ; 
the drops of melted butter are then the several stalks 
of the bunch of the sacrificial grass, required at all sa- 
crifices and their taking out, and throwing away (a9 
jsdoue a'.- ail sacnlico, see nolo 8 to page 79) is 
compared to the flowing of the drops from the 
sacriiicial spoon. 

Wot only is the number of priests less, but the 



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22 



INTRODUCTION. 



verse 15th, that there was no Puronuvakya or intro- 
ductory mantra required, but the YajyS, alone was 
sufficient. The latter consisted already of the same 
parts as in the Brahmanas, viz. the Agur, the YajyS 
mantra, the Vashatkara and Anuvashatkara (see note 
32 to page 95, page 1 26, and note 1 1 to page 133-34). 
The Agur or the introductory formula ye yrydmake 
i. e. " what (gods are), those we worship by sacrific- 
ing," is very ancient, and seems to go back even 
beyond the properly so-called Vcdic times ; for we 
meet it even with the same name already in the Zend- 
Avesta {see note 11 to page 134); even a large 
number of the Parsi prayer formulas commence with 
it up to this day, viz. ynzamaide. The Vashatkara 
or the call ru/iy-lii:.!, ami tin; Auuvasiiu; !;;ira, or tin: 
second call vuushat preceded by Atine viht, i. e. 
" Agui eat (the food)" must be also very old, though 
we do not find any trace of them in the Parsi ritual, 
which circumstance can be. however, easily accounted 
for. The first call viiushat being required in the 
very moment of the offering being thrown into the 
fire, and the second at once after it, there was no 
occasion for them at the Zoroasirian sacrifices ; for 
the priests are not allowed to throw flesh, or lliima, 
or even cakes into the fire ; they have only to show 
their offerings to the sacred element. In the Sam- 
hita itself, the V.isha; Lava i= i'tvijiiciiilv iiiOJit.ioncd, 
and in hymns which show by no means a modern 
origin (see 1, 14, 8; 120, 4 ; 21, 6; 7,14, 3; 15, 6 ; 
99, 7 &c) ; some of them apparently allude to the 



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INTRODUCTION. 



23 



vashathritim, may he eat this piece offered by the 
call e&ushat ! ui (in vlhi) being one of the character- 

If;]:;- iti .•l;. , . : ;,- , i;f.v;. , ;',', , ;^v;}. 

From all we have seen as yet it clearly follows 
that the As'vametlha hymn is by no means a late, 
but a very early production of Vedic poetry, and 
that consequently a strict distinction between a 
Chhandas and Mantra period, making the former by 
about two hundred years uldcr than the latter, is 
hardly admissible. 

The same result is to be gained from a more close 
examination of other pre-eminently sacrificial hymns, 
which all would fail under the Mantra period. There 
being here no occa>ion to investigate into all hymns 
of that character, I will only here make some remarks 
on the Nabhanedishtha hymns (10,61-62). Their 
history is given in the Ait. Br&hm, itself (5, 14). 
They arc traced to Manu, the progenitor of the human 
race, who gave them to his son Nabhimedishrlia. 
He should communicate them to the ACgiias, for 
enabling them to perform successfully the covemi.miis 
of the sixth day (in the Shalaha, see note 9 to page 
279), and receive all their property as a sacrificial 
reward. 



This whole story appears to have no other founda- 
tion la but the two hymns themselves, principally the 




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24 



INTRODUCTION. 



latter. The first is very difficult to understand, the 
second is on the whole simple. Both are by tradi- 
tion ascribed to Nabhanedishtha, the son of Mann, 
whose existence is very doubtful. They differ so 
much in style, that they cannot have the same author. 
Several traits of the legend, however, are to be found 
in them. The refrain of the f irst four verses of 10, 62 
which is addressed to the Afigiras, " receive the son 
of M ami" re-occurs in the legend; also the gift of a 
thousand. In a verse of the former (10, 61, 18) the 
word nabhanedishtha occurs, but it does not mean 
there a human, but some divine being. 1 give the 
18th and 19th verses in translation. 

(18) " His relative, the wealthy Nabhanedishtha 
who, directing his thoughts towards time, speaks on 
looking forward (as follows) 1 tbis our navel is the 
highest; as often as required I was behind hini (the 
Kabhanedishtha on earth).' " 

(19) " This is my navel, here is what resides with 
me; these gods are mine; I am everything. Those 
who are first born, and those who are horn for a 
second time (by reproduction), — the cow milked that 
(seed) from the truth, (and) they are born." 14 

From these two verses as well as from 
several others in it (principally 2 and 5-8 de- 
scribing PrajSpati's illicit intercourse with his 



11 The eiplanstion given by Sskyana at tlicso difficult verses is very 
artificial- He trim to rrt out of the livmn everywhere thcelory 
told of N&hhanedUbtua in the Ait. Br. 6, It. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



2r> 



daughter, see Ait. Br. 3, 33) we may clearly 
perceive that Nabhanedishtha and the hymn in 
question refer to generation. This view is fully 
corroborated by the application of it at the sacrifice, 
as expounded by the Briihmanam, and as even pre- 
supposed in the hymn itself. 

We know from various passages of the Bnihmanas, 
that one of the principal acts of the sacrificial priests 
was to make a new body to the sacrificer, and pro- 
duce him anew by mantras, and various rites, by 
making him mystically undergo the same process to 
which he owed his natural life. So, for instance, 
the whole Fravargya ceremony (see note 1 to pages 
41-43), the Ajya and Pra-uga Shastras (see Ait. Br. 
2, 35-3K ; 3, 2) of the morning libation, and the so- 
called Shilpa Shastras (6, 27-3 1 ) of the Hoti i-priests 
are intended for this purpose. Of the latter the two 
Nabhanedishtha hymns form the two first parts, re- 
presenting the seed effused, and its transformation to 
an embryo in its rudest state (see 6, 27). Nabhane- 
dishtha is the sperm when effused; after having 
undergone some change in the womb, it is called 
Xan'is'aiiisa. 15 That the hymn originally had such 
a mystical sense, is evident from the two first 
verses : 



; -> This i'lna rim-! !i( vi-rv ol(! ; fin si Ami ;i:t limn i.-liikt'tiii't) !m^c 
of it. in tlio Zo^trur, t™liti„n. So «'i r™l in tin HuuoV n,i-h (pago 
SO in Wcslcrpranl's I'dilLon r.f :V l*i-]ii:-vi (rsQ tint l!iu ^ t] i-- 

9(!Hf (m riuwuj ymd = ;■«.■■.(.>■'.; .i.rri ui- -jntu in ,H imperii) intercepted 

ntnl oil! <>f wiiieh the three (jreat. prophets, Oslinilar(bdwi), Onhatlor 
mdii. iind Seiiosh are expected to spring at the end of ilia world. 
d 



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26 



INTRODUCTION. 



(1) " May this awful Brahma, which he (Prajapati) 
thus skilfully pronounced in words at the congregation, 
at the assembly, fill the seven Hotars on the day of 
cooking (the sacrificial food), when his (the sacri- 
ficed) parents (and other) liberal men (the priests) 
are making (his body)." 

(2) " He established (as place) for the reception 
of his gift the altar (vedi), destroying and ejecting 
the enemy with his weapons. (After having thus made 
the place safe) he then hastily under a very loud cry 
poured forth his sperm in one continuous (stream)." 

The meaning of these two verses can only be the 
following: the poet who was no doubt a sacrificial 
priest himself wishes, that the hymn which he regards 
as a revelation from Prajapati, who repeated it at the 
great sacrificial session which he is so frequently 
said to have held, may fill the seven Hotri- priests 
when they, with the same liberality as Prajapati 



the sacrifices The place for reception of the seed 
poured out mystically in prayer by the Hotars, is the 

their feet) they repeat the mantras. The reason that 
they have to regard the Vedi as the safe receptacle 

3 prepared it for tjie purpose, defending 



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INTRODUCTION. 



27 



it against the attacks of enemies. After having 
made it safe, he poured out his seed whence then all 
creatures sprang (see Ait. Br. 3, 34). 

Nabhanedishtha is, according to the verses above 
quoted, the heavenly guardian of all germs of genera- 
tion; all, gods, men, beasts, &c. come from him. 
His assistance is required when the sacrificial priests 
are producing the new celestial body of the sacrificer. 
He looks down from heaven at his relative, that is, 
the seeds containing the germ of new life poured out 
mystically by the Hotara in their prayers. His navel 
is the centre of all births in the universe ; as being 
nearest (' nearest to the navel ' is the literal meaning of 
ndbhdneduhtka) he is the guardian of all seeds. Every 
seed on earth has only effect as far as he participates 
in it. We have here the Zoroastrian idea of the 
Fravashis (Frohars) who are the prototypes of all 
things existing. 1 " The word nabhanedishtha must be 
very old ; for we find it several times in the form 
nabanazdi&la in the Zend Avesta. It is an epithet of 
the Fravashis (Yas'na 1, 18. Yashts 13,156), and 
signifies the lineal descendants in future generations" 
(Vend. 4, 5-10 Westergaard). 



™ See my Essays on tha Sacred language, Writings and Religion of 
the Parsis, page 188. 

"This is the sense of tvcv.i.h nahdndtiittanAai, in the fourth 
Frargarrl of tlie VeniliiJU. In the passage in question the punishment 
consequent on [lie lui-atb nf ;,. promise i.s ai: v.i cTiicnd to so and so 
mum- iiii! 1 ii:in:di.'fn)ti.',ii. ] i r c-ra L I v men who are newest the novel 

of the offender, that is. Ids ilcsfemlmits. The Pel ikvi translation 
jru'es. in its mips si.'f.u't tlie sinic ir.anini tn :(. So it las fur iustaneo 
to 4, 5 the note : 3D;) Ha, ,hi:,:fr. "for three hundred years there 

will be danger (for tlie nabdnazditiai) " This is also the opinion of 
many Desturs. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



Although the Nabhanedishtha hymn (10, 61) is 
purely sacrificial, and composed at a time when the 
Rishis already indulged in speculations on the 
mystical meaning of sacrificial rites, no trace can 
be found, to show that it is a modern composi- 
tion. The circumstance, that it is already in the 
Aitareya BrShmanam traced to Mann, the proge- 
nitor of the human race, shows, that its origin 
is entirely lost in the depths of antiquity. The 
mentioning of Kahsh'uan in verse 16, and the 
occurrence of the "seven Hotars" (in the 1st verse) 
are no proofs of a late origin. For Kakshivan 
appears as a celebrated Rishi, who was distinguished 
as a great chanter and Soma drinker in many other 
passages, principally in the first book (see Rigveda 
Saihh. 1, 18, 1-2; 51, 13; 116, 7; 117,6; 4, 26, 1) 
who enjoyed the special favour of the As'vins. He is 
to the majority of the Vedic Rishis whose hymns are 
kept, a personage of as remote an antiquity as Kdvya 
Us'anas, the Arigiras, &c. The "seven Hotars" 19 
occur several times besides (3,29, 14; 8,49,16), 
most of them with their very names, viz. Potav, 
Neshtar, Agnid, Pras'astar, &c. (1, 15, 2-5; 9; 1,94, 
6; 10,91,10). 

The second Nabhanedishtha hymn is certainly 
later than the first, and contains the germs of the 
later legend on Nabhanedishtha. The reason that 
it was also referred to him, is certainly to be sought 



" They nte, according to tha Bralimanns (ace Ait. Br. 0, 10-12), 
Hotar, Miii trill- ;in;na. IS! jinna vioMk-HM. Arhlutvi:,;!, I'otar, _Ne:i<l:iv 
and Agnidhra, 



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INTRODUCTION. 



29 



for in the 4th verse, where is said, " This one 
(i. e, I) speaks through the navel 18 (n&bh&), hails 
you, in your residence ; hear, O sons of the gods, 
ye Itishis (to my speech)." The song is addressed 
to the Angiras, who are requested to receive the 
poet. The gift of thousand is also mentioned. 

Let us, after t!ii = discussion regarding the antiquity 
uf A-'va.mi:dha and Ni.ibhil net! i *hl ha hymns, 

return to the general question on the relationship 
between the pre-eminently sacrificial mantras, and 
the other production of Vedic poetry. 

If we look at the history of poetry with other 
nations, we nowhere find profane songs precede 
religions poetry. The latter owes its origin entirely 
to the practical worship of beings of a higher order, 
and must, as every art does, go through many phases 
before it can arrive at any state of perfection and 
refinement. Now in the collection of the hymns of 
the Rigveda, we find the religious poetry already so 
highly developed, the language so polished, the 
metres already so artificially composed, as to justify 
the assumption, that the songs which have reached 
our time, are not the earliest productions of the 
poetical genius, and the devout mind of the ancient 
Indians. Generations of poets and many family 

13 Tliis expression appears to be strange. It implies a very ancient 
idea, which must hava been current w ith the Iranians and Indians 
alike. The navel was regardsd as the asst of an internal light, by 
means of which (lie wen rn-.-avfi iviiat. tlicy calloil i-L-.tai;™. It is 
up to the present day a belief of the Parsi prteita, that the Desturs or 
High-priests have a fire in their navel, by means of which they can 
see things which are hidden. This reminds us of some phenomena Jn 

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INTKODTJCTION. 



schools in which sacred poetry was regularly taught, 
just as the art of the bards and scalds with the Celtic 
and Scandinavian nations, must have preceded that 
period to which we owe the present collection. If 
an old song was replaced by a new one, which 
appeared more beautiful and finished, the former was 
in most cases, irvccovcnibl y lost. Old and new poets 
are frequently mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda ; 
but the more modern Rishis of the Vedic period 
appear not to have regarded the productions of their 
predecessors with any particular reverence which 
might have induced them to keep their early relics. 

Now the question arises, are the finished and 
polished hymns of the Rigveda with their artificial 
metres the most ancient relics of the whole religious 
literature of the Brahmans, or are still more ancient 
pieces in the other Vedic writings to be found ? It 
is hardly credible, that the Brahmanical priests em- 
])lovi;<l at tlidc Siicri (ices in (lie earliosl umus hymns 
similar to those which were used when the ritual 
became settled. The first sacrifices were no doubt 
simple offerings performed without much ceremonial. 
A few appropriate solemn words, indicating the 
giver, the nature of the offering, the deity to 
which as well as the purpose for which it wa3 offered, 
and addresses to the objects that were offered, 
were sufficient. All this could be embodied in the 
sacrificial formulas known in later times principally 
by the name of Yajus, whilst the older one appears 
to have been Yaja (preserved in pra-yaja, anu-yuja, 
&c). The invocation of the deity by different names, 



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INTRODUCTION. 



31 



and its invitation to enjoy the meal prepared, may be 
equally old. It was justly regarded only as a kind 
ofYajus, and called Nigada 2 ® or Nisid. The latter 
term was principally applied to the enumeration of 
the titles, qualities, &c. of a particular deity, accom- 
panied with an invitation. At the most ancient 
times it appears that all sacrificial formulas were 
spoken by the Hotar alone ; the Adhvaryu was only 
his assistant, who arranged the sacrificial compound, 
provided the implements, and performed all manual 
labour. It was only at the time when regular me- 
trical verses and hymns were introduced into the 
ritual, that a part of the duties of the Hotar devolved 
on the Adhvaryu. There are in the present ritual, 
traces to be found, that the Hotar actually must have 
performed part of the duties of the Adhvaryu. 

According to the ritual which appears to have been 
in force for the last three thousand years without 
undergoing any considerable change, it is one of the 
principal duties of the Adhvaryu to give orders 
(praisha) to most of the officiating priests, to perform 
their respective duties. Now at several occasions, 
especially at the more solemn sacrifices, the order is to 
be given either by the Hotar himself, or his principal 
assistant, the Maitravaruna. So for instance, the 
order to the slaughterers of the sacrificial animal, 



™ See Madhusfld ana's PrasiMmtihril.-! in Weber's Indische 
Studicn, i. pac-e 14, and thu bhijrnvaia Purma 12, 6, 52 (in 
tilt! liraiiiiiy 1'iuii;]]; iviiiTii tin' iin/nr^niin. L c. tin' f tries of Yup'i 
mantras is called nigada. Madhusudana comprises by this name, as 
it appears, principally the Pralshas or orders by tilt) Adhyaryii to 
the other priests to do tbeir respectira duties. 

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INTRODUCTION. 



which is known by the name of AdhrigK-Praisha- 
mantra (see Ait. Br. 2, 6-7) is given by the Ho tar 
himself, though the f.ji'unilris of which it is composed 
have all characteristics of what was termed in the 
ritual Yqjvs, and consequently assigned to the Adh- 
varyu. At the Soma sacrifice all orders to the Hotar 
to repeat the Yajya mantra, before the libations ore 
thrown into the fire, are to be given by the Maitrava- 
runa, and not by the Adhvaryu. The formulas by 
which the gods are called to appear, the address to 
the fire when it is kindled are repeated by the Hotar 
not by the Adhvavyn, though they cannot be termed 
rik, the repetition of which alone was in later times 
regarded as incumbent upon the Hotar. The later 
rule, " The Hotar performs his duties with the Rig- 
veda" (in the introductory chapter to the Hiranya- 
kes'i and Apastamba S'rauta Sutras) is therefore not 
quite correct. The Hotar himself even sacrifices on 
certain occasions what is, according to the later ritual, 
to be done by the Adhvaryu alone, or, when the offer- 
ing is given as penance, by the Brahma. So, for 
instance, lie sacrifices melted butter before repealing 
the As'vina Shastra (see the note to 4, 7, page 268), 
which is, as far as its principal parts are concerned, 
certainly very ancient. 

Now if we compare the sacrificial formulas as 
contained in the Yajurveda, and principally the 
so-called Nigadas, and Nivids, preserved in the Brah- 
manas and Sutras with the bulk of the Rigveda 
hymns, we come to the conclusion, that the former 
are more ancient, and served the Rishis as a kind of 



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INTRODUCTION. 



33 



sacred text, just as passages of the Bible suggest 
ideas to religious poets among Christians. That 
Vedio poets were perfectly acquainted with several of 
such formulas and addresses which are still extant, 
can be proved beyond any doubt. 

lieserving a more detailed treatment of this im- 
portant question to a future occasion, I here instance 
only some of the most striking proofs. 

On reference to the Nivid inserted in the Vais'va- 
deva hymn at the Vais'vadeva Shastra, and my re- 
markson it (see pages212-lJi), the reader will find, 
that the great Rishi Vis'vamitra, who with some of 
his sons are the poets of many hymns which we 
now possess (as, for instance, of the whole third 
Manda la), knew this ancient sacrificial formula very 
well ; for one of its sentences setting forth the num- 
ber of deities is alluded to by him. 

Certain stereotyped formulas which occur in every 
Nivid, to whatever deity it might be addressed, 
occur in hymns and even commence them. I in- 
stance the hymn predam brahma (8, 37), which is 
certainly an allusion to the sentence which occurs 
in all Nivids, predam brahma ■predam kshattram (see 
note 25 on page 189). That the coincidence is no 
mere chance follows from some other characteristic 
Nivid terms made use of in the hymn in question ; 
compare avilha pra sunvatah with predam sumiantam 
ynjamdnam avuta in all Nivids, and hshnltriya tvam 
avasi with predam kshattram (avatli). 

The Subrahmanya formula, which is generally 
called a Nigada (see on it the note to 6, 3 on pages 



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INTRODUCTION. 



383-84) is immistakeably alluded to in the hymn, 1, 
51, principally in the first and thirteenth verses. In 
both, Indra is called mesha a ram, and vriskanas'vasya 

The call of (lie A^indlira, <<stu s'raushat, as well as 
the Agur addressed to the Hotar, hold yahsltat, were 
known to the Rishis, as we learn from 1, 139, 1. 10. 

The so-called Rituyajas which are extant in a par- 
ticular collection of sacrificial formulas, calledjiraw/io 
sukta or praUhddliyoya, occur even with their very 
words in several hymns, such as 1, 15; 2,37. (On the 
Rituyajas, see note 35 on pages 135-36.) 

The so-called Apri hymns are nothing but a 
poetical development of the more ancient Prayajas, 
and Anuyajas (Compare the note9 12 on page IS; 
14 on pages 81-82; and 25 on page 110.) 

Many hymns were directly composed not only for 
sacrificial purposes in general, but even for particular 
rites. This is principally the case with several 
hymns of Vis'vamitra. So, for instance, the whole of 
hymn 3, 8 artjanli tvdm ad/ivare (see about it, Ait. 
Br. 2, 2) refers only to the anointing, erecting, and 
decorating of the sacrificial post; 3,21 is evidently 
made for addressing the drops of melted butter which 
drip from the omentum, over which they were poured 
(see Ait. Br. 2, 12);3,52 celebrates the offering of 
the Purodas'a consisting of fried grains, pap, &c. 
which belongs to each Soma libation (see Ait. Br. 
2, 23). 

.The first ten hymns of the first book of the Rig- 
veda SamhitS contain, as it appears, the Soma ritual 



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35 



of Madhuch haii das, the son of Vis'vomitra. It 
provides, however, only for two lihations, viz. the 
morning and midday. The first hymn has exactly 
the nature of an Ajya hymn, which forma the 
principal part of the first Shastra, the so-called 
Ajya. The second and third hymns contain the 
Pra-uga Shastra, which is the second at the morn- 
ing libation, in all its particulars. The following 
seven hymns (4-10) all celebrate Indra, and it ap- 
pears from some remarks in the Ait. Br. (3, 20, page 
192), that in ancient times the midday libation be- 
longed exclusively to Indra. The ritual for the 

complicated, that we mus^ascribe to it quite a dif- 
ferent origin than to the two other libations. 

The hymns 12-23 appear to contain a more com- 
prehensive ritual of the Kanva family, which is an- 
cient. The 12th hymn (the first in this collection) is 
addressed to the Agniofthe ancestors, the pravaru, 
who must he invoked at the commencement of every 
sacrifice ;. it contains three pans of the later ritual — 
a) the pravara, b) the invocation of Agni by the 
Nigada, and c) the request to Agni to bring the gods 
(the so-called <!ci:urahiniam). The 13th is an AprI 
Sukta containing the Prayajas, which accompany the 
very I'n'H ijliui ji^ at every sacrifice. 

These three hymns were, it appears, appropriate 
to a simple Ishti, as it precedes every greater sacri- 
fice. The following hymns refer to the Soma sacri- 
fice. The loth is a Kituyfija hymn ; the liituyajas 
always precede the Ajya Shastra. The hymns from 



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INTRODUCTION. 



16-19 contain a ritual for the midday libation, and in 
20-22 we find the principal deities of the Shastras of 
the evening libation. 

The hymns from 44-50 in the first book by Pras- 
kanva, the son of Kanva, contain, if the Indra hymn 
(51) is also reckoned, all the principal deities, anil 
metres of the As'vina Shastra, the former e,ven in 
their proper order, viz. Agni, Ushus, the As'vins, 
Surya, Indra (see Ait. Br. 4, 7-11). 

These instances, which could he easily greatly 
enlarged, will, I think, suffice to show that the ritual 
of the Brahmarias in its main features, was almost 
complete at the time when the principal Rishis, such 
as the Kanvas, Vis'viimitra, Vasishlha, &c. lived. 

I must lay particular stress on the Nivids which 1 
believe to be more ancient than almost ail the hymns 
contained in the Rigveda. The principal ones (nine 
in number) are all to be found in the notes to my trans- 
lation of the 3rd Panchika (hook). That no attention 
has been paid as yet to these important documents 
by the few Vedic scholars in Europe, is principally 
owing to the circumstance of their not having been 
known to them. It being now generally believed, 
that the earliest relics of Vedic literature are to be 
found only in the Rigveda Sarohitii, it is of eourse 
incumbent on me to state briefly the reasons why I 
refer the so-called Nivids to a still more remote 
antiquity. 

The word nivid frequently occurs in the hymns, 
and even with the epithet pvrva or pitrvya old (see 



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INTRODUCTION. 



37 



1 , 89, 3 ; m, 2 ; 2, 36, G.) The Marutvatfya Nivid 31 
is, as it appeal's, even referred to by Vamadeva 
(4, 18, 7, compared with note 25 on page 189); the 
repetition of the Nivids is juxtaposed with the per- 
formance of the chanters, and the recital of the 
Shastras (6, 67, 10). The Brahmanam regards the 
Nivids, particularly that one adressed to Agni, as 
those words of Pnijiipati, by means of which he 
created all beings (see Ait. Br. 2, 33-34). That such 
an idea, which entirely coincides with the Zoroas- 
trian of Ahuramazda (Ormazd) having created the 
world through tin- yathii-ahii-vairij> prayer (see the 
19th chapter of the Yasna), must he more ancient 
than the Brahmanas, we learn from a hymn of the 
old liishi Kutsa, who is already in many Vedtc songs 
looked upon as a sage of the remote past. He says 
(1,96,2) that Agni created by means of the "first 
Nivid" the creature? of the Manus (see page 143). 
In I, 89, 3-4, an old Nivid appears to be quoted. 
For the words which follow the sentence " we call 
them with the old Nivid "bear quite the stamp of 
such a piece. 

Many Nivids, even the majority of them, are cer- 
tainly lost. But the few pieces of this kind of re- 
ligious liUT.if.iire which arc. still extant, are sufficient 
to show that they must be very ancient, and are not 
to be regarded as fabrications of the sacrificial priests 
at the times when the Brahmanas were composed- 



!l When tin? wonl nivid upunars nftris in '.'r.r i il nrfiT, Ihen the several 
p&das, of which lie Nivid consists, are to tie undHBtooi. 



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38 



INTRODUCTION. 



Their style is, in the main, just the same in which the 
hymns are composed, and far more ancient than that 
of the Brahmanas, They contain in short sentences 
the principal names, epithets, and feats of the deity 
invoked. They have no regular metre, but a kind of 
rhythmus; or even a parallelismus merabrorum as 
the ancient Hebrew poetry. 

The circumstance that in the ritual such a para- 
mount importance is attached to such half poetical, 
half prose pieces as the Kinds are (see particularly 
Ait. Br. 2, 33; 3, 10-11), clearly tends to prove, that 
they must have been regarded as very efficacious. 
This could be hardly accounted for at a time when 
leautiful and finished songs were forthcoming in 
abundance to serve the same purpose, had they not 
been very ancient, anil their emiiloyiiicn! been sanc- 
tioned hy the example of the most ancient Rishis. 

We have already seen, that several of those Kivid 
formulas which we have now were known to some 
Vedic poets, I will giye here a few more instances. 
The hymn to the Mamtas by Visvamitra (3, 47) 
is evidently based on the Marutvatiya Nivids (see 
.them on page 189); the verse to Savitar (3, 54, 
11) alludes to the Savitri Nivids (see them on page 
-208); the hymn to Dyuviprithivi (1, 160) is a po- 
etical imitation of the Dyavapritliivl Nivids (page 
209) ; the Eibhu hymn (4, 33) resembles very much 
the Ribhu Nivids (page 210), &c. 

Another proof of the high antiquity of the Nivids 
is furnished by the Zend-Avesta. The many prayer 



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INTRO IIUCTION. 



3d 



formulas in the Yas'na which commence with nivae- 
ahaijbni, i. e. 1 invite, are exactly of the same nature 
as the Nivids. 

The Nivids along with many so-called Yajus for- 
mulas, which are. preserved in the Yajurvcda, the 
Nigadas, such as the Subrahmanya and the so- 
called Japa formulas, (such as Ait. Br. 2, 3«), which 
are muttered with a low voice only, are doubtless 
the most ancient pieces of Vedie poetry. The Iiishis 
tried their poetical talent first in the composition of 
Yajyus or verses recited at the occasion of an offering 
being thrown into the fire. Thence we meet so 
many verses requesting the deity to accept the offer- 
ing, and taste it. These Yajyus were extended into 
little songs, which on account of their finished form 
were called siiklam, i. e. well, beautifully spoken. 
The principal ideas for the Yajyas were furnished by 
the sacrificial formulas in which the Yajurveda 
abounds, and those of the hymns were suggested by 
the Nigadas and Nivids. There can be hardly any 
doubt, that the oldest hymns which we possess, are 
purely sacrificial, and made only for sacrificial pur- 
poses. Those which c\ press more general ideas, or 
philosophic;!.! tiiou^iits, or confessions of sins, such 
as many of those addressed to Wu una, are compara- 
tively late. 

In order to illustrate that the development of the 
sacrificial and religious poetry of the aneient Brah- 
mans took such a course as here described, I may 
adduce the similar one which we find with the 
Hebrews. The sacrificial ritual of Moses as laid 



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INTRODUCTION. 



down in the Leviticus knows no rythmical sentences 
nor hymns which MCrniruni nifii t.bi: obhitions offered 
to Jehovah. It describes only such manual labour, 
as found with the Brahmans its place in the Yajur- 
veda, and mentions but very few and simple formulas 
which the officiating priest appears to have spoken 
when throwing the offering inlo the fire of the altar. 
They differed according to the occasion, but very 
little. The principal formula was mrrt nrh) rm mfc* " a 
fire offering of pleasant smell fur Jehovah," which 
exactly corresponds with the Vedic agnnye, indraya, 
&c. svahd ! 22 i. e. a good offering to Agni, Indra, 
&c. If it was the solemn holocaustum, then the 
word rto i. e, holocaustum, was used in addition 
(Leviticus 1,9-13); if it was the so-called zebakh 
shiamimoT sacrifice for continued welfare, the word 
oft food, bread, was added (Levit. 3, 11); if it was 
a penance the words wn a&> (Levit. 7, 5) " this is a 
penance" were required. When the priest absolved a 
sacrificer who brought an offering as a penance, 
he appears to have used a formula also, which 
is preserved in the so-frequently occurring sen- 
tence : ft ri^wi tAj irwETO yji tsji (Lev. iv, 25,31: 
v. 6, 10.) " and' lie (the priest) shall annul the 
Bin which he has committed, so that he will be 
pardoned." 3 a 



" Tha term ifiihd is io be traeal t ( i thfiwir rtlit't to |rat, with n to 
put tn, iwo, am] siund, hr n:l!!id (.*« + ddhd). It means the ifift 
Which is thrown into tha fire. 

» Tin priest !iprau i'i hnve n<l<!vi!ss«] these words to tlio sinnnr 
who was lo be a haul veil in this mutual', '* I annul the sin wliicL Ihou 
fcrnt. i".'i'Li;;i:luJ. imi lljcu slmlt Ijl- pal dvriui." 



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41 



If we compare these formulas with the psalms, 
which were composed and used for the worship of 
Jehovah, then we find exactly the same difference 
between boih, as we discover between the Yajus for- 
mulas, Nivids, &c. and the finished hymns of the 
Rigveda Samhitfi. In the same way as there is a 

con>ideiaI)li: interval of ii:m: lie: \\c en the establish- 
ment of the Mosaic ritual and the composition of the 
]i=alms, we are completely justified in supposing that 
a similar space of time intervened between the 
Bralmianical ritual with its sacrificial formulas, and 
the composition of the majority of the Vedic hymns. 
Between Moses and David there is an interval of 
five hundred years, and if we assume a similar one 
between the simple Yajus formulas, and such 
finished hymns as those addressed to Varuna which 
M. M iiller ascribes to his Ch.han.das period, we shall 
not be in the wrong. 

Another proof that the purely sacrificial poetry is 
more ancient than either profane songs or hymns of 
a more general religious character, is furnished by the 
Shi-Mag or Book of Odes, of the Chinese. Of its 
four divisions, viz. liue-fung, i. e. popular songs of the 
different territories of ancient China, ta-ya and siaoya, 
i. e. imperial songs, to be used with music at the im- 
perial festivals, and sting, i. e. hymns in honour of 
deceased emperors, and vassal kings, the latter, which 
are of a purely sacrificial character, are the most 
ancient pieces. The three last odes in this fourth 
division go back as far as the commencement of the 
S/ittnii dynasty, which ascended the dragon scat in 



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INTRODUCTION. 



the year 1766 B.C., whilst almost all other pieces 
in the collection are composed from the earlier 
part of the reign of the Chou dynasty down 
almost to Confucius' time (from 1120 d.c. till about 
600 B.C.) 

If we consider that the difference of time between 
the purely sacrificial and non-sacrificial hymns of the 
Chinese thus amounts to ahout 1,000 years, we 
would not be very vvi'onii in pre^iimiiisi similar inter- 
vals to exist between the different hymns of the 
Rigveda. Itishis like Kavya Us'anas, Kakshivat, 
HiranyastGpa, to whom several hymns are traced, 
were for the Kanvas, Vis'vamitra, Vasishtha, &c. 
ns anriiriit jx-iyonaues, its the emperors Tang (1765 
B.C.) and Wu wan g (1120 n.c.) to Confucius (born 
551 d.c.) 

On account of the utter want of Indian chronology 
for the Vedic and post-Vedic times, it will be of 
course for ever impossible to fix exactly the age of 
the several hymns of the Rigveda, as can be done 
with most of the psalms and many of the odes of 
the Shi-king. But happily we possess at least one 
astronomical date which furnishes at any rate the 
externa! proof of the high antiquity of Vedic litera- 
ture, which considerably tends to strengthen the 
internal evidence of the same fact. 1 here mean the 
well known passage in the Jyotisham, or Vedic 
calendar, about the position of the solstitial points. 
The position there given carries us back to the year 
1181 according to Archdeacon Pratt's, and to 1186 



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INTRODUCTION. 



c) te- tn-Y- tn'irii a /i lil.i rjiifirlrrs, to lie 'if rest. Liin-yti 7, 2f> : 
i/ii /)ri sic t\«, be (Cmir'neiii.) flint, tint no* ivilli an arrow and 
siring ill (iitiiiiinl.si '.vhk'li .' in- :ir n.sl (iish'i >). 
The Arabic word far the Sakshntras is J^Iq maitsit, plur. 
J jli* utnasil, " n place where to put up, quarters," from the root 
Jji to make a journey, to put up at a place as a guest. 

This name fur the con sir! kit ions must he very ancient with the 
Semitic nations, for we find it alrcady.in ilie Old Testament (Book of 

etymology in II iibi eiv (for the mot ~- : nmul, to which alone it could be 

traced, means to ti-i'i ). ami is a\ i :utly introduce:; us a foreign word 

from fume other Si-mitic i.uliiju, pKiUjiiiy 1 1 1 0 Babylonians. -The 
JtwMi i i. in ! in malm's iiml mi <:!i;)r tniii'. ption ill' tin: |ini;i,;r riiLiiuini 
of the woul ; limy tnki; i: in menu tin i- in UiTiiTiil, and then the twelve 
rlfns of lilt /inline. Hut IV- mi -hi eiiuti xt of llif tins-iije in the Book 
of i lie Kiul-s, jusl ([luihil. nln it it sriinds Ui^-fllifr "ith 1 lie mom and 
tin: k'hIiU: liii't of tin- hein'rus (" tin' ilsrs :iio:ni nml Ihe mazisloth end 
the who'e host nl the i .i.yis") ii mi 3- mill ctlly iVilir.' s, I hat its mean- 



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INTRODUCTION. 



45 



minor importance compared with the fact and the 
age of the observation itself. That an astronomical 
observation was taken by the Brahman; as early as 
the 12th century hoforc Christ is proved beyond any 
doubt by the date to be elicited from the observa- 
tion itself. If astronomical calculations of past 
events are of any worth, we must accept as set- 
tled the date of the position of the solstitial 



tlti/hr: rflhr. »■*:>„. l!u( lb- vfrv f iriiwiifin nf t lio word by means of 
the suffix n*ro iiulic-iitrs, rluir st.inuii-in,- pvlii'iilnr must be attached 
lo its menniriL" ; cniujuivp put mm u iviup:, liiciai;v a means for flying, 
vadhalro a weapuu, literally a mentis for slriking:, yvjatram the 
ktepins rfn f aeri li.-iii] lir-, Ill-rail v tin: incnris <.r [;l:i:rior satrifiruifi; 
aiuntrn a drill Id u S vr^rl, lil-r;:l[y a plan; lo whidi a thing goes 



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points as recorded in the Jyolisham. To believe 
that such an observation was imported from some 
foreign country, Babylon or China, would be absurd, 
for there is nothing in it to show, that it cannot have 
been made in the north -western part of India, or a 
closely adjacent country. A regulation of the calen- 
dar by such observation's was an absolute necessity 
for the Brahman* ; fur the proper lime of commencing 
and ending their sacrilioes, principally the so-called 
Saltras or sacrificial sessions could not he known 
without an accurate knowledge of the time of the 
sun's northern and southern progress. The know- 
ledge of the. calendar forms such an essential part of 
the ritual, that many important conditions of the 
latter cannot be carried out without I lie former. The 
sacrifices are allowed to commence only at eertain 
lucky constellations, and in certain months. So, for 
instance, as a rule, no great sacrifice can commence 
during the sun's southern progress (dahihindyann) ; 
for this is regarded up to the present day as . an 
unlucky period by the Brahmans, in which 
even to die is believed to be a misfortune. The 
great sacrifices take place generally in spring in the 
months Clutitra and Vt/ii'ak/ia (April and May). 
The Sattras which lasted for one year were, as one 
may learn from a careful perusal of the 4th book of 
the Aitareya Brahman am, nothing but an imitation 
of the sun's yearly course. They were divided into 
two distinct parts, each consisting of sis months 
of thirty days each ; in the midst of both was the 
Vishttvan, i. e. equator or central day, cutting the 



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INTRODUCTION. 



47 



whole Sattra into two halves. The ceremonies were 
in both the halves exactly the same; but they were 
in the latter half performed in an inverted order. 
This represents the increase of the days in the 
northern, and their decrease in the southern pro- 
gress ; for both, increase and decrease, take place 
exactly in the same proportions. 

In consideration that thnse Pattras were already at 
the time of the compilation of the Unihmanas an old 
institution, we certainly can find nothing surprising 
in the circumstance, that the Indian astronomers 
made the observation above mentioned so early 
as the 1 2th century n.c. For the Sattras are 
certainly as early, if not earlier than this time. 
Sattras lasting for sixty years appear even to have 
been known already to the authors of the Brahmanaa 
(see page 287). 

Now that observation proves two things beyond 
doubt. (l)That the Indians had made already such a 
considerable progress in astronomical science, early 
in the 12th century, as to enable them to take such 
observations ; (2) That by that time the whole ritual 
in its main features as laid down in the Brahmanas 
was complete. 

We do not hesitate therefore to assign the com- 
position of the bulk of the Brahmanas to the years 
1 400-1200 B.C. ; for the Saiiiliita ive require a period 
of at least oUO-GUO years, with an interval of about two 
hundred years between the end of the proper Brahmana 
period. Thus we obtain for the bulk of the Sarhhitu 
the space from 1400-2000; the oldest hymns and 



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INTRODUCTION. 



sacrificial formulas may be a few hundred yeara 
more ancient still, so that we would fix the very 
commencement of Vedic Literature between 2400- 
2000 B.C. If we consider the completely authenti- 
cated antiquity of several of the sacred book* of the 
Chinese, such as the original documents, of which the 
Shu-king, or Book of History, is composed, and the 
antiquity of the. sacrificial minis of the tshi-king, which 
all carry us back to 1700-2200 B.C., it will certainly 
not be surprising that we assign a similar antiquity 
to the most ancient parts of the Vedas. For there 
is nowhere iiiiv reason to show, that the Vedas must 
be less ancient than the earliest parts of the sacred 
books of the Chinese, but there is on the contrary 
much ground to believe, that they can fully lay claim 
to the same antiquity. Already at the time of the 
composition of the Brahman as, which as we have 
seen, cannot be later than about 1200 B.C., the three 
principal Vedas, i. p. their respective Samhitas, were 
believed to have proceeded directly from the mouth 
of Prajiipati, the lord of the creatures, who occupies 
in the early Vedic mythology the same place which 
is, in the later writings, held by Brahma-deva. This 
could not have been the case, had they not been 
very ancient. In a similar way the Chinese ascribe 
the ground text of theiy most ancient and most 
sacred book, the Y-king, i. e. Book of Changes, to 
a kind of revelation too, which was made to Fnlii, 
the Adam of the Chinese, by a Dragon horse, called 

Speculations on the nature of the sacrificial rites, 



INTRODUCTION. 



and cognate topics of a mystical character which 
form the proper sphere of the Brahmanas, com- 
menced already during the Samhiti period, as one. 
may team from such hymns as Rigyeda 1, 95, and 
the so-called Vamana Siikta 1, 164. Even at the 
time of the composition of the present Brahmanas, 
there existed already some time-hallowed sayings, 
which resemble in every respect those dicta of the ' 
Brahma priests, of which the bulk of the Brahmanas 
consists. I instance here the Brakmodyam (Ait. Br. 
5, 25), which was used already at that time at the 
conclusion of the tenth day's performance of the 
Dvadas'aha sacrifice. It is, therefore, very difficult 
to draw a strict line of separation between the 
period during which the hymns were composed, 
and that one which brought forward the speculations 
known by the name of Brahmanas. On a more 
close comparison of the mystical parts of the Samhita 
with the Brahmanas, one must come to the conclu- 
sion, that the latter were commenced already during 
period of the former. 

Let us say a few words on the division made of 
the contents of the Brahmanas by the Indian divines 
and philosophers. According to the introductory 
chapters to the Hiranyakes'i (and Apastamba Sutras) 
the Brahmanas contain the following topics : — 

(1) Karmavidh&nam, or vtdhi, i. e. rules on the 
performance of particular rites. To this class all 
ihose sentences in the Brahmanas are referred which 
contain an order expressed in the potential mood, 
suchasyo/e/a, he ought to sacrifice; s'amset,he ought 
/ 



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INTRODUCTION. 



to repeat (such and such a verse) ; huryat, he ought 
to proceed (in such or such a way), &c. This is 
She principal part of the Bruhmanas, and has for 
the Brahmans about the same significance as in the 
Talmudic Literature the hahiknh has for the Jews ; 
it is simply authoritative. 

(2) Arlhavdda. This term comprises the numer- 
ous explanatory remarks on the meaning of mantras 
and particular rites, the reasons why a certain rite 
must be performed in a certain way. This is the 
speculative part, and is on account of its contain- 
ing the germs of all Hindu philosophy, and even of 
grammar, of the greatest importance. There is 
nowhere anything like an approach to a regular 
system perceptible, hut only occasional remarks 
bearing on philosophical and grammatical topics. 
For the history of grammar, the fifth Paiichika of 
the Aitareya Brahmanam is of a particular interest. 
We learn from it, that at that time not only numerous 
attempts were made to explain tin; m- aning of words 
hy etymology, hut that the Brahmans even had 
already commenced to analyse the forms bf speech 
by making distinctions between singular and plural, 
present, past, and future tenses, &c. The idea of 
taukti or final absorption in the Supreme Being, as 
taught in the later Vedanta philosophy, is even with 
most of its particulars spoken out in several of those 
explanatory remarks. I allude here to the frequently 
occurring term?, xttipii'jniii junction, miriipald identity 
pf form, mlohald identity of place, which mark in 
Ihe later times different stages of the final beatitude. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



5.1 



The principal tendency of this part is, to show the 
close connection of the visible and invisible worlds, 
between things on earth, and tlieir counterparts or 
prototypes in heaven. Pantheistic ideas pervade all 
the Brahmatias, and are already traceable in hymns 
of the Samhita. 

(3) Ninild, censure. This refers principally to 
the controversial remarks contained in all Brah- 
manas. There was amongst these ancient divines 
and metaphysicians often difference of opinion as to 
the performance of a certain rite, or the choice of a 
particular mantra, or their meaning. One criticised 
the practice of the other, and condemned its' 
application often in the strongest terms. The cen- 
sure is generally introduced by the expression " but 
this opinion is not to be attended to." The saerificers 
are often cautioned from adopting such a malprac- 
tice, by the assertion that if a priest would proceed in 
such or such a way, the sacrificer would lose his life, 
be burned by the sacrificial fire, &c. 

(4) S'ama, i. e. .praise, recommendation. This 
part comprises principally those phrases which ex- 
press that the. performance of such or such a rite, 
with the proper knowledge, produces the effect de- 
sired. They almost invariably contain the expres- 
sion, ya evan veda, t. e. who has such a knowledge. 
The extreme frequen«y of this phrase in the Brah.- 
manas, and Upanishads, is probably the reason, 
that the whole sacred knowledge was comprised 
afterwards only by the general term veda. Originally 



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INTRODUCTION. 



it appears to have applied to Bruhmana like sen- 
tences and explanations only. 

(5) Purakalpa, i. e. performance of sacrificial rites 
in former times. Under this head come the nu- 
merous stories of the fights of the Devas and A suras, 
to which the origin of many rites is attributed, as 
also all legends on the sacrifices performed by the 
gods. This very interesting part forms the histori- 
cal (or rather legendary) background of the whole 
sacrificial art. All rites were traced to the gods 
as their originators, or even to Prajapati, the Su- 
preme Being, the Lord of creatures. We can derive 
one important historical fact from the legends on the 
fight between the Devas and Asuras, viz. that the 
religious contest between the ancient Indians (re- 
presented by the Devas), and the Iranians (repre- 
sented by the Asuras, contained in the name Ahura- 
mazda=Ormazd) took place long before the time of 
the composition of the Brahmanas, that is, before the 
12th century b.c. This is another proof corrobora- 
tive of the high antiquity ascribed by Grecian writers 
to Zarathiistra (Zoroaster), the prophet of the A sura 
nation (Iranians) who did manfully battle against 
idolatry and the worship of the Devas, branded by 
him as " devils." That contest which must have 
been tasting for many years appeared to the writers 
of the Brahmanas as old as the feats of King Arthur 
appear to English writers of the nineteenth century. 

(6) Parakriti, i. e. the achievement or feat of 
another. This head comprises the stories of certain 
performances of renowned Shrotriyas, or sacrificial 



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INTRODUCTION. 



priests, of gifts presented by kings to Brahmans, the 
successes they achieved. The last book of the 



Aitareya paniciulai'ly i~ full of tJ]i = class of topics. 

These six heads are often, however, brought only 
under two principal ones, viz. vidld, and arthavada- 
The latter then comprises all that is not injunction, 
that is, all topics from 2 to 6. This philosophical 
division exactly corresponds to the division of the 



contents of the Talmud by the Jewish Rabhis into 
two principal parts, viz : halakah, i. e. rule of con- 
duct, which is as authoritative as the thorah (law 
of Moses), and haggadah, i. e. story, parable, and in 
fact everything illustrative of the former. 

II 

The Aitareya Brdhmanam in particular. 
The Aitareya Brahmanam is one of the collections 
of the sayings of ancient Brahma priests (divines 
and philosophers) illustrative and explanatory of the 
duties of the so-called Hotri-priests. The latter 
performing the principal part of their duties by means 
of the mantras, termed rtk, and contained in the 
so-called Iligveda Samhitii, the Aitareya is therefore 
one of the Brabmanas belonging to the Bigveda. 
There must have been, as we may learn from Panini 
and Patanjalis Mahabhashya, a much larger number 
of Brahmanas belonging to each Veda ; and even 
S&yana, who lived only about four hundred yean 
ago, was acquainted with more than we have now. 
To the Oigveda we know at present besides the 



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IHTR.ODUCTION. 



Aitareya, only the Kaushitaki Brahmanam, which 
is also called Sankhayana. Both appear to have 
been known to the grammarian Panini, 1 as one may 
gather from the rule (v. 1, 62) wliich he gives re- 
garding the formation of names of Brahmanas con- 
sisting of thirty and forty Adhyayas ; foT the Kau- 
shitaki actually consists of thirty and the Aitareya of 
forty Adhyayas, which were afterwards divided into 
eight Pafichikus, each of which comprises five 
Adhyayas. 

The name " Aitareya" is by Indian tradition traced 
to Itara. Sayana tells regarding the origin of the 
name arid of the Brahmana itself, in his introduction 
to the Aitareya Brahmanam, the following story, on 
the authority of the xnui/irmlih/a-viihih, i. e. men 
versed in traditional stories. An ancient Itishi 
had among his many wives one who was called 
Itard. She had a son Mahidasa by name, who is 
mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka as Mahi- 
dasa Aitareya. The Rishi perferred the sons of 
bis other wive3 to Mahidasa, and went even 
so far as to insult him once by placing all his 
other children in his lap to his exclusion. His 
mother, grieved at this ill treatment of her son, 
prayed to her family deity (Jtularleuata), the Earth 
(bhumi), who appeared in her celestial form in the 
midst of the assembly, placed him on a throne 
(simhdsana), and gave him as a token of honour for 
bis surpassing all other children in learning a boon 

i The attention of Sanscrit seLolnrs was first directed by Professor 
Weber at Berlin to this dream! ranee. 



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INTIiODUCTlON. 



50 



(vara) .which had the appearance of a Brahmaria. 
After having received this gift, a Brahmanarn con- 
sisting of forty Adhyayas, which commenced with 
the words aqnir vai.iivn'un'iiii urimio (the first sentence 
of the Aitareya), and ended with strinttte strinute 
(the two last words of the Aitareya) came forth 
through the mind of Mahidasa. Afterwards the 
Brahmanarn, commencing with atha maMvratam (the 
beginning words of the first Aitareya Aranyaka) and 
ending with dchurya itcharya (the two last words of 
the third Aranyaka)* was also revealed in the shape 
of the vow of an hermit 3 (driinyakavratarrtpum). 

The Aitareya Brahmanarn, as well as the Kaushi- 
taki, do not treat of all the sacrifices and sacrificial 
rites which are mentioned and described in the 
books of Yajurveda, which may be (principally the 
Sutras) regarded as the proper sacrificial encyclo- 
pedia?. They were, however, perfectly well known 
to the authors of these Brahmanas, as we may 
learn from the fact, that the names of several 
sacrifices, such as Vajapeya, Aptoryama (see 3, 41) 
are mentioned without the description of the 
rituals belonging to them. Several things concerning 



> This remark throws some light on the reliillonshlp in which Ilia 
five ticnti-t.-, of vJikii i.rrsout Ailarij-a AmriViika consols, ami 
each orVhich bears the narau iirr,u<n:tn, -r.uA lo «ic another. Only 
the three firirt A:-;.mrii;;:, oiv.lms In this notice retarded 

later additions, and did not form originally part of the Aitareya 
Aranyaka. 

' According to BrahmnOcl] id™, a tow, a curse, a blessing, & t . 
can assume a visible form, anil so become manifest to the mental 



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IXTIIODUCTION. 



the Hotris whoso duties principally arc treated at 
every Soma sacrifice are left out. So the ceremony 
of choosing the sacrificial priests (ritvig-varanam) 
by the sacnlioer, iiiclmiinj;; the Ilotars, is lefl mit, 
as Sayana has already observed. But every Hautra- 
prayoga, i. e. practical hand-hook" for the Hotri- 
priestB (for each sacrifice there are separate prayngas 
for each set of priests required), commences with it ; 
the topic is generally treated in the Sutras belonging 
to the Yajurveda ; the principal mantras required at 
that occasion are to be found in the first chapter of 
the TSndya Brahmanam of the Samaveda. The 
dialogue used at this occasion is interesting, and 
throws some light on the nature and character of some 
sacrifices; therefore I give here some account of it. 

The person who wishes to perform the Agnishtoma 
sacrifice, for instance, sends a delegate called 
Somapravdha to all SVotriyas (sacrificial priests) 
whose services he wishes to cii^axe for his liiiih- 
coming Soma sacrifice, to ask whether they would 
be willing to officiate at this occasion. The dia- 
logue between the Somapravaka and the Hotar is as 
follows : S. " There will he a Soma sacrifice of such 
and such one ; you are. ir-spoei.fiiily rcf[!it;sled to iiet. 
as Hotar at it." H. " What sacrifice is it ?" S. 
" The Jyotisfyoma-Agiiishtoma-Soma sacrifice." H. 
" What priests (ritvijah) will officiate ? " S. " Vishnu, 
Mitra, 4 "&c. H. "What is the reward for the 
priests'?" S. "One hundred and twelve cows." 



1 TI-jit- j.jU't^ represent the goda. 



INTRODUCTION. 



57 



If the priests have accepted the invitation, then the 
sacrificer has actually to appoint them to their re- 
spective offices. This is the varanam or selection 
(of the priests). 

The sacrificer first mentions the gods who are to 
act as his priests, " Agni (the fire) is my Hotar, Aditya 
(the sun) my Adhvaryu, the Moon my Brahma, Par- 
janya (the god of rain) my Udgatar, the Sky (akds'a) 
is my Sadasya (superintendent), the waters are my 
Hotras'aihsis {all the minor Hotri-priests) ; the rays 
my Chamasa Adhvaryus (cup-bearers). These divine 
priests I choose (for my sacrifice)." After having 
thus appointed the gods, who are to act as his 
divine priests, he now proceeds to appoint the 
" human" (mamisha) priests. This is at the Agnish- 
toma done with the following formula, " I (the name) 
of such and such a Gotra, will bring the Jyotishtoma 
sacrifice by means of its Agnishtoma part, with the 
Rathantara-Prishtha, four Stomas (the nine, fifteen, 
seventeen and twenty-one-fold), for which ten things, 
cows and so on are required, and for which as fee 
one hundred and twelve cows must be given. At 
this sacrifice be thou my Hotar." The Hotar then 
accepts the appointment by the following formula : 
" May the great thing thou -pokesf. of (unto me), the 
splendour thou spokest of, the glory thou spokest of, 
the Stoma thou spokest of, the way of performance 
thou spokest of, Ihe i:'r.ji>yiin.'jit thou spokt'Ht of, the 
satisfaction thou spokest of ; may all that thou 
spokest of come to me ; may it enter me ; may I have 
enjoyment through it. Agni is thy Hotar. He is 



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INTRODUCTION. 



thy (divine) Hotar. I am thy (human) Hotar." All 
priests are appointed in the same way, and by the 
same formulas. 

After lllia disgression let us discuss the contents 
of the Aitareya Hiahmanam. It treats in its eight 
hooks, or forty chapters, each nf which is subdivided, 
into a certain number of kandikus, i. e. small sections, 
paragraphs, as we have seen, almost exclusively of 
the duties of the seven Hotri-priests at the great 
Soma sacrifices, and the different royal inauguration 
ceremonies. All minor sacrifices and Ishtis, al- 
though they require the services of a Hotar, are 
excluded. The Hotri-priests are to be divided into 
three distinct classes: 1) The Hotar, the chief of 
all Hotri-priests. 2) The Hotrakas, i. e. the little 
llotras ; these live, Makravarui.sa. ('PrasVislar) Bia- 
manachhamsi, and Achhavaka. 3) The Hotra- 
samsinah, i. e. the repeaters of the Hotri verses; they 
are, Potar, Neshtar, and Agnidhra. 

The first thirteen chapters (the two first books, 
and the three first chapters of the third) treat of the 
duties of the chief Hotar at the Agnishtoma Soma 
sacrifice only; for this is tlie model (prakriti) of 
all Soma sacrifices which last for one day only (the 
so-called uikdhikai) ; all other Soma sacrifices of the 
same duration are mere modifications (eikriti) of it. 
It is regarded as an integral part of the Jyotishtoma, 
and said to consist of the following seven sacri- 
fices : 1) Agnishtoma, 2) A ty agnishtoma, 3) Ukthya, 
4)Shojas'i, 5) Atirutra, 6) Vijapeya, 7) Aptoryama 
(As' v. S'r. S. 6, 1 1). In many places, however, the 



INTRODUCTION. 



59 



term Jyotishtoma is equivalent to Agnislitoma, 
The Aitareya does not know these seven parts, as 
belonging together, but simply remarks, that they 
follow the Agnishtoma as their praftriti (3,41). 
The Atyagnishtoma is not even mentioned in it 
at all. 

All the duties of the Hotar at the Agnislitoma are 
mentioned almost, in the exact order in which they 
iti'i.: required. I r. ht.si.fl ^rnr- rally for five days. The 
ceremonies are then divided as follows : 

First ifoy.— Preliminary ceremonies, such as the 
election of the priests, ^ivin^ them presents (iiiadha- 
parka), the Dikshaniya Ishti, and the Diksha itself. 

Second day, — The Prayaniya or opening Ishti ; 
the buying of the Soma; the Atithya Ishti, 
Pravarsrya, and Upasad twice (once in the forenoon, 
and once in the afternoon). 

Third day. — Pravar^ya and l.'pasad twice again. 

Fourth din/.-- - Agnlpranayanam, Agni-Soma-pra- 
nayanum, lluvirdhana ptanayanam. The animal 
sacrifice. 

Fifth day. — The squeezing, offering, and drinking 
of the Soma juice at the three great Libations, viz. 
the morning, midday, and evening Libations. The 
concluding Ishti (tidayaniya). Ablution {avablifita), 

The ceremonies of the four first days are only 
introductory, but absolutely necessary; for without 
them no one is allowed to tan ifk:e and drink the 
Soma juice. The Soma ceremony is the holiest rite, 
in the whole Brahmanical service, just as the Homa 
ceremony of tin; Parsi priests is iv^urdcd hy them ;is 



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I NTHODDCTION. 



the most sacred performance. No Parsi priest is 
allowed to perform it, if he does not very frequently 
undergo the great purification ceremony, called .the 
Barashnotn of nine nights. In the same way 
every Brahman has, as often as he brings a Soma 
sacrifice, to undergo the Diksha (see 1,3; 4, 26). 
One such ceremony is even not considered sufficient. 
For the sacrifice has, besides the Diksha, to undergo 
the Pravargya, which is a similar preparation for the 
great £oma day. Even the animal sacrifice must 
precede the solemn Smia festival ; fur it is oi' minor 
importance. The animal is instead of the sacrificer 
himself. The animal when sacrified in the fire, goes 
to the gods, and so docs the sacrificer in the shape 
of the animal (sec pane HO of the translation). The 
animal sacrifice is vicarious. Being thus received 
among the gods, the sacrificer is deemed worthy to 
enjoy the divine beverage, the Soma, and participate 
in the heavenly king, who is Soma. The drinking 
of the Soma juice makes htm a new man; though 
a new celestial body had been prepared for him at 
the Pravargya ceremony, the enjoyment of the Soma 
beverage transforms him again ; for Hie nectar of the 
gods flows for the first time in his veins, purifying 
and sanctifying him. This last birth to the complete 
enjoyment, of nil divine rights is svmholienlly indi- 
cated . in the rites of the morning libation (see 
32, 35; 38; 3, 2). 

The principal features of this Agnishtoma sacrifice 
must be very ancient. For we discover them almost 
complete with the Parsis. They also do not prepare 



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INTRODUCTION. 



61 



the corresponding Homa (Soma) juice alone, but it. 
must always be accompanied with other offerings. 
The Purodas'a of the Brahmans, which always be- 
longs to a Soma libation, is represented by the 
Darfin (holy bread), the animal offering indicated 
by the ring of hair (varas'a) taken from an ox, 
to be placed on the same table with the Homa. 
The Homa shoots are treated in . the same 
way, when brojight to the spot, as the Brahmans 
treat them. The Parsi priest sprinkles them with 
water, 5 which is exactly the iip^nyana eeveiiionv oi' 
the Brahmans. He must go round the fire with 
the Homa just as the Brahmans cany the Soma 
round the%acrificial compound (see 1, 14). The 
ceremonies of preparing and drWkingboth the Homa 
and Soma juice are quite similar." The water re- 
quired for it must be consecrated, which exactly 
corresponds to the Vasatlvaris aud Ekadhanas of 
the Bralimanical Soma service (2, 20). The Zota 
of the Pavsis drinks his cup filled with Homa in 
three turns, so does the Hotar also from the Graha. 
After the libation has been poured from the Grahas 
into the fire, and drank by the Hotar, the Stotras 
are chanted, and then the Shastras belonging to 
them recited. In a similar way the Zola priest 
repeats, shortly after having enjoyed the Homa, the 
Gathds of Zarathustra Spitama (Zoroaster), which 

1 Tbc mantra repeated at that occasion is Yas'oa 10, 1, " May 
tile water-dropa (sprinkled over the Homa) fall to lbs destruction of 
the l>evas, and De»is." 

Compare notes 8 on page 118, 5 on pnpr 1:11, Mori imffc 137, 
and my Essays on the Saa-ed Language, &c. of tlie Parsis, pjiges 
132-33, 137. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



are metrical compositions, and represent the Shastras 
of the Brahm:micif] Soma service. He must repeat 
five such Giithas, just as there are five Shastras, at 
the morning and midday libations, and at the Ukthya 
Soma sacrifice at the evening libations also. 

These are only a few of the points of comparison 
which I could easily enlarge ; but they will be 
sufficient to show, that the Agnishtoma Soma 
sacrifice was originally the same ceremony as the 
ftonia rite of the Parsi priests. The opinions of 
both the Brahmans and Parsis on the effect of the 
drinking of the Soma (Homal juice are besides 
exactly the same. The Brahmans behave that it 
leads to heaven ; so do the Parsi priests. They say, 
that Homa is a plant, and a great angel. Any one 
who has drunk the Homa juice becomes united^ 
with this angel, and after his death an inhabitant of 
paradise. For the juice which is in the body of the 
priest who has drunk him, goes to heaven, and 
connects him mystically with the angel. 

With particular care are the so-called Shastras or 
recitations of the Hotri priests treated in the 
Aitarcyy. Bn'ihmfmum. The fifth chapter of the se- 
cond, and the three first chapters of the third book are 
entirely taken up with the exposition of the Shastras 
of the Hotar at the morning, midday, and evening 
libations. As the reader may learn from a perusal 
principally of the third book, ihc Shastras always 
belong to Stotras or performances by the Sama 
singers, viz. the Udgatar or chief singer, the Fras- 
f.otar.who chants the prelude, and the Pratihartar 



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INTRODUCTION. 



who chants the response. Their recitations must be 
very ancient, as we have seen; for they are by 
the name uhlha (exactly corresponding to ukhdhem 
in the Zend language) frequently mentioned in the 
Sanihita. A closer examination of them will throw 
much light on the history of the composition of the 
Vedic hymns. As ancient as the Shastras are the 
Stomas, the exposition of which, forms one of the 
topics of the Swmaveda Briihmanas (see note 
18 on page 237-38). The word stoma is in the 
form stoma also known in the Zend-Avesta. 
The Parsi priests understand by it a particular 
sacrificial ceremony of minor importance, which 
consists in consecrating a meal (meat is at this 
occasion indispensable; ) in the honour of an an^el 
or a deceased person, to be enjoyed afterwards by 
the whole party assembled. That the idea of " sacri- 
ficial rite" was attached also by the Brahmans to the 
word, clearly follows from the terms, Agnishtoma 
and Jyotishtoma. The musical performance which 
was originally alone called a Stoma, formed a neces- 
sary part of certain sacrifices, and was then, as pars 
pro toto, applied to the whole rite. 

The universal character of the Agnishtoma and its 
meaning is treated especially in the fourth chapter of 
the third book. In its last chapter, and in the two 
first of the fourth, the principal modifications of the 
Agnishtoma are mentioned, and briefly described, 
viz. the Ukthya, Sholas'i, and Atiratra, along with 
the As'vina Shastra. 

The Atiratra sacrifice introduces, however, the 



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()4 INTRODUCTION. 

Sattras or sacrificial sessions, tin; principal rules for 
the Hotri performances of which are laid down in 
the third chapter of the fourth book. They are ap- 
plicable for Sattras which last for a whole year. 
The two last chapters of the fourth, and the first four 
chapters of the fifth book describe very minutely 
th'c duties of the Ho tar during the ten prinicpal 
days of the Dvadas'iiha, which may be performed as a 
Sattra, or as a Ahina (a Soma sacrifice lasting for 
more than one, and less than thirteen days). 

The last chapter of the fifth book is taken up with 
miscellaneous matter, such as the penances required 
of an Agnihotri when he becomes guilty of some 
fault, or if some misfortune should befal him regard- 
ing his duties towards his sacred fir*, and the ques- 
tion, whether the Agnihotram (daily burnt offering) is 
to be offered before or after sunrise; it further treats 
of the duties of the Brahma priest, how he has to 
perform the penances for mistakes committed by any 
one of the performing priests. 

The whole sixth book treats, after some remarks 
on the offices of the Gravastut and Subrahmanya, 
almost exclusively of the duties of the six minor 
Hotri-priests, principally at the great Soma sacrifices, 
which last for one week at least, or for a series of 
weeks (shalaka). We find in it descriptions of the 
so-called Shiipa Shastras, or "skilful (rather very 
artificial) recitations" of the minor Hotars. These 
Shastras, principally the Valakhilyas, the Vrishakapi, 
Evayamarut, and the so-called Kamtapa hymns, are 
no doubt the latest additions, looking like decora- 



INTRODUCTION. 



6§ 



lions, to the ritual of the Hotri- priests. The whole 
book has the appearance of a supplement to the 
fourth and fifth. 

The seventh and eighth books treat principally of 
the sacrifices of the Kshattriyas and the 1 relationship 
in which the princes stand to the Erahnians. They 
are, from an historical point of view, the most import- 
ant part of the whole Bmhmanam. 

The seventh book describes first the division of 
the sacrificial animal into thirty-six single pieces, 
and their distributirui among the officiating priests, 
the sacrifker, his wife, and other persons connected 
with the performance of the sacrifice. 

Then follow s a chapter of penances for neglects on 
the part of an Agnihotri, or mishaps which might 
hciii! Iiini. Tiii. i~ a ci manna! ion nf I hi: tilth chap- 
ter in the fifth book. 

In the third chapter we are introduced to tlje rites 
of the princely iniingnration ceremonies connected 
with a sacrifice, by the story of S'unalis'cpa. On 
account of its containing Rik verses, as well as 
Gathas (stanzas) it was to be told to the king on the 
day of its inauguration by the Hotar. The story, is 
highly interesting; for it proves beyond doubt the 
existence of human sacrifices among the ancient 
Bralimans, and shows that they were in a half savage 
state; for we find here a Brahman selling his son to 
a prince to be immolated. 

Kow three kinds of such inauguratory sacrifices 
for the king, called Riijaswjas, are described, viz 
9 * 

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60 



Abhishelta, Punara 
principal part of all these ceremonies consists in 
the sprinkling of holy water over the head of the 
kings, which is called oUufafe. It corresponds to 

mans a/this occasion did not allow the king to 
drink the proper Soma juice, but that he had to drink 
instead of it, a beverage prepared from the roots and 
leaves of several trees. The enjoyment of the Son™ 
juice was a privilege reserved by the Brahmans to 
themselves alone. The king was, properly speaking, 
even not entitled to bring a sacrifice at all. It was 
only for the sake of the most extravagant gifts which 
the shrewd lirahmans extorted from kings for their 
offices, that they allowed him to bring a sacrifice. 
But before he could do so, he was to be made first 
a Brahman himself; at the conclusion of the cere- 
mony he had, however, to resign his Brahman ship, 
and return to his former caste. 

The last chapter of the Br'ihmanam is taken up 
with the appointment by the king of a duly qualified 
Brahman to the office of a house- priest, who is 
called purahita, i. e. president, superintendent. The 
word, as well as the office, must he very ancient ; for 
we find it not only in the Safrfhita of the Kigveda, 
but even in the Zend-Avesta. It is, as to etymology, 
the same word as paradMta, 7 which is generally 



INTRODUCTION. 



tRe epithet of one of the most ancient Iranian heroes, 
of Hatakyanha (see Yashts 5, 20 ; 9,3; 15, 7; 17,24 
ed. Westergaard) the Hosheng of the Shahnamah. 
The later Iranian legends, as preserved in the 
Shahnamah, made of the paradkatns a whole dy- 
nasty of kings, which they call Peshdadians (the 
modern Persian corruption of the primitive para- 
dht'ilu) w\\<i then prcs'.cd < j i he Kayanians (the Kavis 
of the Vedas). This shows that the institution of a 
Purohita, who was not only a mere house-priest, 
but a political functionary, gees back to that early 
pevK.ni of history when the Irnyii;>rrs am.] Indians 
lived peacefully together as one nation. The Para- 
dhatas of the Iranian kings appear however not to 
have been as successful in making the Shahs of Iran 
their slaves, as the Indian Purohitas were in enslav- 
ing the Indian Rajas in the bonds of a spiritual 
thraldom. How far the Brahmans must have 
succeeded in carrying out their designs of a spiritual 
supremacy over the royal caste, every reader may 
learn from this last chapter, and convince himself at 
ihe same lime that, liiivavchical rule " as knuwn in 
the world more than a thousand years before the 
foundation of the See of St. Peter. 

The ceremonial part of the last book is much en- 
livened by short stories of kings who were said to 
have performed the "great inauguration ceremony," 
and of course attained to supreme rule over thn 
whole earth (that is to say, of three or four Indian 
principalities). It is an imitation of the ceremony 
by which the gods are said to have installed Indra 
to the sovereignty over them. The whole concludes 



68 



INTRODUCTION. 



with the description of a magical performance (the* 
are called hritya) by means of which a king can 
destroy secretly all his enemies. 

After this siimmalV statement r jt the ei'titent.s n, 
the A i tare y a Brabmanam, the question arises whe- 
ther the work in its present form is the composition 
of one author or of several. Although there is, as 
we have seen, a certain plan perceptible, in the ar- 
mnurn it'll t lit" the ful)jt:('i matter, we mny easily 
tinguish some repetitions, discrepancies, and inter- 
polations, which are hardly explicable if the book 
had only one author. So we find the Ajya hymn 
at the morning libation twice explained in 2, 40 and 
41, but with slight differences; the origin of the 
formula, agrdr deseddhah is mentioned twice 2, 33 
and 39, hut in the former passage it is called Niviri, 
whilst in the latter the name " Purnruk" is given 
I.) i:. The ft mr kamiikiis in the ;i'ci.ini In'.: 

38-41 appear, to be a kind of appendix taken from 
pomi- other source. The piece r ">, i~ is iiirntic;. ! with 
1, '3 ; 5 and 17 treat in the main of the same topic, 
the relation between Stotriya and Anurupa at the 
Ahina sacrifices. There are several repetitions in the 
8th book; so the 13th kandika is identical with 
the 18th and the 14th with the 19th. The 10th and 
llth kandikas in the seventh book are evidently in- 
terpolations, interrupt int; the context, and exhibiting 
a different style. The latter is very remarkable on 
account of. its mentioning two other Vedic S'akhas 
by their names, viz. Paingya and K&ughltaki ; it 
appears to have appertained to an old treatise on 
astronomy. 

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INTRODUCTION. 



The myil! of ;1)C Bi';:limavnm i* on the- whoh: 
uniform. There are certain phrases which constantly 
re-occur in the work, as for instance, " what is at the 
sacrifice appropriate, that is successful, when the 
verse (which i- repeated) alludes to the ceremony 
which is being performed ; " "(he who should observe 
a Hotar do so contrary to the precept) should tell 
him 8 that the sacrificer would die ; thus it always 
happens;" "This is done for production (prajatyui)," 
&c. The language is, of course, like that of all 
Brahmanas, moreTecent than that of the Samhita ; 
but it is, however, not the classical Sanscrit. Purely 
Vedic forms occur, such as the infinitive forms in 
tos, e.g. kartlos, arttos, roddhns, mathitos (see 1, 10; 
2, 20) generally dependent on Wvara, i. e. able, who 
has the power, {Is'varah korttok, he has the power 
to do ; h'varo roddkoh, he has the power to obstruct, 
&c), startavai (from stri) ; stomebkir instead of 
stomdir (4, 15) &c. 

The bulk of the work appears to have proceeded 
from one author ; somo additions were made after- 
wards. As regards the materials which our author, 
whom we may (with Sayana in various places of 
his commentary) call the Aitareya Rishi, that is, 
the Rishi of the Aitareya Sakha of the Rigveda, 
used for the compilation of his work, we can 
principally distinguish four kinds, viz. 1) Sa- 
cred texts and formulas, such as the Adhiigu 
Praisha mantra {2,6, 7), the Nivid (2,34) &c. 

s The Tihrsse U always eiSlpiicat ; it i. onl; ija cunm lirtiyfit, if an* 
si. i mill i .- L J I:;: i. ; in if the ir.i' " tiiti ■,[' II;. v. hi 'If jj!i[-?.wis (.'III; Hisl 
ouo which is here (snd in the translation) giTtn. 



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70 



INTRODUCTION. 



which are, -as we have seen, more ancient than the 
majority of the hymns; 2) Gallia, i.e. stanzas, 
principally impromptus on sacrificial things, and 
topics of a more worldly nature, and Itihasas, i. e. 
stories; 3) Rules on the performance of the duties of 
the Hotripriests; 4) Iheuhgicnt expositions of the 
meaning of mantras, sacred rites, &c. according to 
the teaching of the most eminent Brahma priests 
who preceded our author. 

These materials were worked together by him, but 
not without many additions of his own, and with the 
view to present to the followers of his S'iikha a kind 
of encyclopedia of theological learning, and a supple- 
ment fo their Veda. The theology of his Sakha being 
founded on the hymns of the llishis, and the latter 
being repeated by the Hotri-priests only at the 
sacrifices, he confined himself for the most part to 
the speculations of the Hotris and their duties. The 
aim of our author was like that of all other 
Brahmana compilers, a double one, viz. to serve 
practical as well as theoretical ends. From a prac- 
tical point of view it was to be a guide to the re- 
peaters of the mantras of the Rigveda in some of 
their most important performances; but as regards 
the theoretical one, the author intended to instruct 
them on the real ends of their profession, viz. to make 
the sacrificer, by means of the mystical power ascrib- 
ed to the rlfantras, either attain to anything he might 
wish for, or if the Hotar should from some reason 
or other choose to do so, to deprive him through 
the same power of his property, children, and life. 



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INTRODUCTION. 



Tlie Ilotris could learn from such a book how great 
their power was as the preservers of the sacred Rik 
verses. Every one who wished to perform a sacri- 
fice as the only means for obtaining the favour of the 
gods, was entirely given up to the hands of the 
Hotri- priests, who could do with him what they 
pleased. 

The mantras referred to are, for the most part, to 
be found in the liigveda SaiTibita which we have 
at present. There are, however, several quoted, 
which are not to be met with in it, whence we must 
conclude, that the Samhitii of the Aitareyins be- 
longed to a Sakha different from that one (the 
S'akala Sakha) which is at present only known to 
us. As'valayana, in his S'lauta Sutras, which are, 
as we have seen, founded on the Aitareya Brahma- 
nam, generally supplies the text of those mantras 
which are wanting in the Samhita. Several of them 
are in the Atharvaveda Samhita, but they generally 
show different readings. In comparing both, those 
in the A'svalayana Sutras, and those in the Athar- 
vaveda SailihUa, we find that, if there is any dif- 
ference, the text of the Atharva is then always in- 
correct. It is remarkable that wc do not only dis- 
cover some relationship between the supposed Sakha 
of the Aitareyins and the Alharvaveda Samhita, but 
also between the Aitareya and Gopatha Brahmanam. 
"Whole kandikas of the Aitareya, such as those on 
the Vashatkara (3, 7-8) on Atiratra (4, 5) are almost 
literally to be found in the Gopatha Brahmanam of 
the Atharvaveda. 

The author's own additions consisted principally 

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ft 



INTRODUCTION. 



in critical remarks, recommending certain practices, 
and rejecting others, statement of reasons, why a 
particular rite must be performed in a particular 

ritual. The author does never, however, speak in 
the first person ;-for the whole has the appearance 
of a tradition having descended from him. He is 
referred to only in the third person by the Wards, 
taddha smdha, " this he told." The theologians 
whose opinions are either accepted or rejected, are 
generally mentioned in the thin] person plunil by 
the words "they say." Now and then they are 
called mahdvadah, i. e. the speakers of great things. 
But their real name appears to have been Brakma- 
vddins, t. e. the speakers on Brahma (theologians, 
divines), . which term we frequently meet in the 
Taittiriya Veda (Black Yajurveda). 

The work was, like the other I! nil i man as, no doubt, 
iike the Sauiiiiia, iu\!llv li;m<U-il i.;uivn. S.nrrc exter- 
nal mark is stil! visible. At the end of each Adhyiya 
the last word, or phrase, is put twice. The same 
fact we observe in all other Briilrmanas as well as 
in the Siitras. This was evidently a mark for the 
.■epeater as well as the hearer by which fo rcei.euise 
the end of a chapter, each of which formed a little 
treatise for itself. 

Regarding the repetition of the Brahmanam we 
have to remark, that it is done in a very slow tone, 
hut quite monotonously, whilst the Brahmanas of 
the Yajurveda are recited with the proper accents, 
like the Safhhitas. Of very frequent occurrence in 
it is the Pluti, i. e. the lengthening of a vowel to 

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INTRODUCTION. 



73 



three moras marked by ^. This Pluti is used in 
three cases, (1) to ask a question, (2) to deliberate or 
consider whether a tiling should be done or not, and 
(3) to give some-emphasis to a certain word. In the 
two first cases it expresses exactly the idea of our 
sign of interrogation, in the latter that of our under- 
■ lining or italicising of certain important words. 

Let us make before we conclude some remarks on 
.the principal sacrificial and theological ideas (as far 
as they have not been touched already) which 
pervade the Aitarcya Brahmanam. 

The sacrifice is regarded as the means for obtain- 
ing power over this and the other world, over visible as 
well as invisible beihgs, animate as well as inanimate 
creatures. Who knows its proper application, and 
tins it duly puiiii'iiit'd, is in i'aet looked upon a.-- the 
real master of the world ; for any desire he may 
entertain, if it be even the most ambition*, e;io he 
gratified, any object he has in view can be obtained 
bv means .of it. The Yiijna (saerli'k/e) !aken as a 
whole is conceived to be a kind of machinery, in 
which every- piece must tally with the other, or 
a serf of iar^e chain in which no link is allowed 
to be wanting, or a # staircase, by which one may 
ascend to heaven, or as a personage, endowed with 
all the characteristics of a human body. It exists 
from eternity, and proceeded from the Supreme 
Being (Prajapati or Brahma) along with the Trai- 
vidyd, i. e. the three-fold sacred science (the Rik' 
verses, the Samans or chants, -and the Yajus or 
sacrificial formulas). The creation of the world 
h 



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74 INTRODUCTION. 

itself was even regarded as the fruit of a sacrifice 
performed iby the Supreme Being. The Yajna 
exists :i> ii.11 i:i\i = :ljlo linn;:' ill all times, it is like the 
latent power of electricity in an electrifying machine, 
requiring only the operation of a suitable apparatus 
in order to be elicited. It is supposed to extsuid, 
when unrolled, from the Ahavaniya or sacrificial , 
fire into which all oblations are thrown, to heaven, 
, forming thus a bridge or ladder,- by means of, 
which the saerificer can communicate with the 
world of gods and spirits, and even ascend when 
alive -to their abodes. The term for beginning 
the sacrificial operations is "to spread the sa- 
crifice ;" this means that the invisible thing, represent- 
ing the ideal sacrifice which was lying dormant, 
as it were, is set into motion, in consequence of 
which its several parts or limbs are unfolding them- 
selves, and thus the whole becomes extended. This 
ideal sacrifice stands in the closest relationship with 
all the sacrificial implements, the sacrificial place, 
and all the sacred verses and words spoken during 
its actual performance. The sacrifice being often 
represented as ;i kind of being with a body like that 
of men, certain ceremonies form his head, others 
his neck, others his eyes, &c. the most important 
thing at a sacrifice is, that all its several parts should 
tally together, and that consequently there should 
neither anything be in excess, nor deficient in it. 
This agreeing of the several parts of the sacrifice 
constitutes its riipa, i. e. form. The proper form is 
obtained, when the mantras which are repeated are in 



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INTRODUCTION. 



strictest accordance with the ceremony for which they 
are repeated, or (if the sacrifice lasts for several or 
many days) when they have the characteristics of the 
respective days. If the form is vitiated, the whole 
sacrifice is lost. Mistakes being, on account of the so 
extremely complicated ritual, unavoidable, the sacrifi- 
cial being was to be attended by a physician in the 
person of. the Brahma priest (5, 34). Each mistake 
must be made good by a j>rinjas' 'cltitta , i. e. penance, 
or propitiatory offering. 

The power and significance of the Hotri-priests at 
a sacrifice consists in their being the masters of the 
sacred word, which is iVo^uentlv personified by Vdch, 
i. e. Speech, who is identical with Sarusvati, the god- 
dess of learning in .the later Hindu Pantheon. Speech * 
has, according to the opinion of the earliest Hindu 
divines, the power of vivifying and killing. The 
sacred words pronounced by the Ho tar effect, by 
dint of the innate power of Vach, the spiritual birth 
of the sacrificer, form his body, raise him up to 
heaven, connect him with the prototypes of those 
things which he wishes to obtain (such as children, 
cattle, &c.) and make him attain to his full life term, 
which is a hundred years ; but they are at the same 
time a weapon by means of which the sacrificer's 
enemies, "or he himself (if the Hotar have any 
evil designs against him) can be killed, and all evil 
consequences of sin (this is termed pdpman) be 
destroyed. The power and effect of Speech as regards 
the obtaining' of any particular thing wished for, 
mainly lies in the form in which it is uttered. Thence 



76 



INTRODUCTION. 



the great importance of the metres, and the choice of 
words and terras. Each metre is the invisible master 
of something obtainable in this world ; it is, as it 
were, its exponent, and ideal. This great significance 
of the metrical speecri is derived from the number 
of syllables of which it consists ; for each tiling has, 
(just as in the Pytliogoreim system) a certain numeri- 
cal proportion. The Gii yatr'i metre, which consists of 
three times pighf. syllables, is the most sacred, and 
is the proper metre for Agni, the god of fire, and 
chaplain of the gods. It expresses the idea of Brahma; 
therefore the sacrifice!- must use it when he wislies for 
anything closely connected with the Brahma, such as 
acquirement of sacred knowledge, and the thorough 
* understanding of all problems of theology. The Trish- 
tubh, which consists of four times eleven syllables, 
expresses the idea of strength, and royal power; 
thence it is the proper metre by which Indra, the 
king of the gods, is to be invoked. Any one 
wishing to obtain strength and royal power, princi- 
pally a Kshattriya, must use it. A ^riety of it, the * 
Ushnih metre of twenty-eight syllables, is to be 
employed by a sacrifieer who aspires for longevity, 
for twenty-eight is the symbol of life. The Jagatl, 
a metre of forty- eight syllables, expresses the idea of 
cattle. Any one who wishes for wealth In cattle, 
must use it. The same idea (or that of th& sacrifice) 
is expressed by the Pankti metre (five times eight 
syllables). The Brihati, which consists of thirty-six 
syllables, is to be used when a sacrifieer is aspiring 
to fame and renown ; for this metre is the exponent 



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INTRODUCTION. 



77 



of those ideas. The Anushtubh metre, of thirty-two 
syllables, is the symbol of the eelest'a'l world ; ihencea 
candidate foraplace in heaven has to use it. The Viraj 
ofOiiriy syllables, is fond imd satisfaction ; thence one 
who wishes for plenty' of food, must employ it. 

The words contained in those diilerent fsu'lriual 
forms must always be appropriate to the occasion. If 
the oblation is given to Agni,'the verse repeated must 
contain his name, or an allusion to it ; were it to con- 
tain the nathe of Indra, or one of his characteristics, 
the offering would be thrown away. Every act, even 
the most trifling one, is at the sacrificial perform- 
ance accompanied with mantras, and always such 
a verse is to be chosen as contains (or is made to 
contain by interpretation) an allusion to it. This will 
all be clear to the reader on reference, for instance, 
to 2, 2, where the mantras connected with every 
particular pet of the ceremony of anointing and erect- 
ing the sacrificial post is given. 

Of almost equal importance with the metres are the 
so-called Stomas, based also on numerical proportions. 
Each Stoma contains a certain number of verses, 
chanted according to one and the same tune. The 
number is very often obtained only by frequent repe- 
tion of the same triplet of verses (see about .the par- 
ticulars of the Stomas note 18 on p;i!;es '237-33 of the 
translation). Each has, just its the metres, its peculiar 
symbolical meaning. The Trivrit (nine-fold) Stoma, 
is, for instance, the symbol of Brahma, an,d theological 
wisdom, and has Agni, the house-priest of the gods, 
for its deity : the Panchadas'a (fifteen-fold) is the 
* 

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INTRODUCTION. 



svinlio! of roya! power :md thence appropriate to Indra, 
and the Kshattriyas : the Saptadas'a (seventeen-fold) 
is the exponent of wealth in cattle ; thence a Vais'ya 
should use it, or any other sacrificer who wishes to 
obtain wealth : the Ekavims' a- (twenty-one-fold) is the 
symbol of generation : thence it is principally to be 
used at the third libation, many rites of which refer 
to the propagation of progeny. The oilier Stomas, 
such as the Trinava. (tu-en ty-seven . .fold), Trayas- 
trims'a ( thirty -three-fold) &c. have a similarly symbo- 
lical meaning. 

Besides the Stomas, the so-called Prishthas (the 
name of certain Samara and their combinations) are 
a necessary requisite at all t!n> Soma Ki.eritii-eri. Tfioy 
form the centre of all the ceremonies, and the principal 
one of them is always regarded a3 the womb (yont) of 
the sacrificial bein^. They are ^enentiK' only used 
at the midday libation. The two principal Prishthas 
are the Rathantara and Biihat Samans (abMtvd Suva 
nonuma, and tndiniddld kav&mahe). They can be 
vised singly, or along with one of their kindred (see 
notes 29 on pace 193, 14 on page 282, and 4, 28). 
The name Prishtha means " back," for they are 
regarded on the whole as the back of the sacrifice. 

All these things, metres (chhandas), Stomas and 
Prishthas, are believed to he as eternal and divine, ae 
the words themselves they contain. The earliest Hindu 
divines did not only believe in a primitive revelation 
of the words pf the' sacred texts, but even in that of the 
various forms, which might be used for their repetition 
or chanting. These forms along with their contents, 

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INTRODUCTION. 



79 



the everlasting Veda words, arc symbols expressive of 
things of the invisible world, and in several respects 
comparable to the Platonic ideas. They are in the 
hands of the sacrificial priests the instruments for 
accomplishing anything they might wish for in be- 
half of the sacrificer. But a great deal depends upon 
the way of using those spiritual instruments. -It is 
a matter of importance whether a mantra is repeated 
without stopping, or pada by pada (quarter by 
quarter), or half verse by 'half verse. The four feet 
(padas), of which many metres are composed, repre- 
sent the four feet of animals. The repot.:! ion of such 
a verse, fjalf verse by half verse, that is, with two 
stops only, represents the sacriileer who us a human 
being," has two legs. By thus combining the ideas 
of four and two-footed beings, the sacrificer is mys- 
tically placed amidst cattle, and obtains them, in 
future, in the largest ip;autir.v. Another important 
point.is, whether the mantra is repeated, updms'u, i. e. 
with an almost inaudible voice, or ttishnlm, i. e. 
silently, or with a low and slow voice (niandrasvara), 
or* with a middle to.ne (madhyuma), or very loud 
(utluma). (See 3, 44). . ' 

Among the large numberof the sacred words, there 
are always some which have a destructive quality, 
and must, therefore, be used with great caution. In 
order to protect the sacrificer, as well as himself, 
from the dangerous effects of such words, ihe repeat- 
er must, by moans of eei'tuiu other won.:,-, or formu- 
las, deprive them of their destructive power, and 
thus propitiate them. This is generally called s'dnti 



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80 



INTRODUCTION. 



(propitiation, appeasing). Such dangerous words are 
for instance, vdushat (see 3, 8) and rudra, the name 
of S'iva, the god of destruction (3, 34). 
The sacrifices who is the object of all these mystical 
operations on the part of the priests by means of 
their mantras, chants, and manual labour, is not 
allowed to remain inactive, but he himself has to 
repeat certain mantras, expressive of his desires. 
When, for instance, the Hotar is performing the 
mystical operation of placing him among cattle, be 
must say, "May I become rich in cattle!" When ' 
tlm s;imc priest makes ;i firm standing phuv (u pia- 
thttlia) for Mm, he must say, " May I go to my place !" 
Tims he obtains tlit fulfilment of any desire which 
might be obtainable by means of a particular verse, 
or mode of repeating, or chant, or performance^ of a 
particular rite, when he repeats the appropriate 
formula at the right time and occasion. For what 
he himself speaks, connects htm with the ideals of 
his wishes, which are brought within' his grasp by 
the priest. 

The objects sacrificed for are manifold, viz. off- 
spring, cattle, .wealth, fame, theological learning, skill 
for performance of sacrifices, and heaven. For gain- 
ing heaven a Soma sacrifice is indispensable. For the 
sacred Soma juice has, according to the opinion^ of 
the ancient Hindu theologians, pre-eminently the 
power of uniting the sacrificer on this earth with the 
celestial king Soma, and make him thus one of his 
subjects, and consequently an associate of the gods, 
and an inhabitant of the celestial world. 



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On page ?(^, line 12-1.5 and line 3, is the read- 

ing *|fT."3 , F'i'^wei*r doubtful. 1 have adopted it upon the 
Authority of one manuscript only. The two others (as 
well as Sayana) read q?aP3l° {yatra eUtms' cAafitasun) . 
But it is open to objection. For there is nothing in the 
preceding to which the deiiiou-s.rauie c/iwii' nr^hl in- 
referred. The rare word traita (see my note on page -190 
of the translation) appears to hare been very early 
misunderstood. 

The list of small errors in the text is, notwithstanding the 
great pah.s I took iu corieeiiiig, greater (ban I expected. 
T!ic,,e ivlm u.-ie [be [cl are i'<m n.^tcH I i<> i.iiin cef !iicir copies 
according lo ibis Jm. (n (he ihree ibnns, from page iil-!)(i 



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the stopping ia not quite correct. I had first followed the 
stopping of one of my manuscripts, lint afterwards aban- 
doned it. Hie first 60 pages have been reprinted, and the 
principle of stopping carried out in the latter part (from 
9/-2IG) been adopted. In a second edition it will be easy 
to make all uniform avid quite correct. If any doubt should 
arise, the translation will give help. 




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