State of Gujarat and Another Vs. Vaghela Dayabhai Chaturbhai and Others
Code was enacted and this becomes obvious from the following observation of the High Court:-"As we have already pointed out, the object sought to be achieved is completely a collateral object and the criteria which are adopted for the alleged classification viz. the membership of the co-operative society and the persons being Harijans, Adivasis or backward class people have no rational nexus whatever to the object of augmenting land revenue, which would be the implicit object underlying the entire Code, including this statutory power of disposal of the said lands for the benefit of the public. The Code never contemplated any exclusion of persons when such statutory power was sought to be exercised by the State by any statutory order. Therefore, this statutory order clearly violates Article 14 of the Constitution and even on that ground it must be struck down."8. For the purpose of determining the question whether the impugned Resolution is violative of Article 14 of the Constitution or not, it is necessary to examine whether the classification adopted by the State Government is based upon some intelligible differentia which distinguishes individuals and co-operative societies in whose favour grants of lease-hold rights in bhatha lands are required to be made by the Collector from others and whether the said classification bears any reasonable relation to the object underlying the Code. The High Court has proceeded on the basis that the classification made by the Resolution does not have any rational relation to the object of the Code which according to it was realization of revenue and nothing more than that. We have explained earlier that the object of the Code is to make provision for an equitable distribution of available land amongst persons who are in need of it. As mentioned earlier, the State Government is under an obligation to ensure that the ownership and the control of material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good and the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. In India which is predominantly an agricultural country, land forms the most important means of production. It is well known that unemployment among the masses is on the increase because employment opportunities are not increasing at the same rate at which the population is increasing. Consequently we find in India to day a large number of landless persons and persons with uneconomic holdings in villages who are either unemployed or under-employed. It is also equally well-known that persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes form the bulk of such landless persons or owners of uneconomic holdings who are in need of special care. It is also the settled policy of the State Governments to encourage co-operative movement, which is embarked upon with a view to preventing exploitation of economically weaker sections of society by others. The State Government in the instant case appears to have passed the impugned Resolution in order to grant leases in respect of bhatha lands in favour of landless persons or persons having very small extents of land or persons belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes and members of co-operative societies at a reasonable rent without being put to the necessity of offering bids at a public auction where it is well known that only moneyed persons can become successful bidders. The impugned Resolution lays down the procedure to be followed in the disposal of lease-h old rights in respect of bhatha lands. It does not relate to all unoccupied lands available in the State of Gujarat. The total extent of bhatha lands available in the State of Gujarat when compared with other available unoccupied lands may be a very small extent. The writ petitioners on whom the burden of proving that the impugned Resolution is discriminatory have not furnished any information about the extent of Bhatha lands available for disposal. Clauses (1) and (2) of the Resolution provide that the existing leases held by cooperative societies should be renewed on their expiry only in favour of the members of such co-operative societies subject to certain conditions for a further period of ten years on payment of revised rent which should be fixed on the basis of the factors referred to therein. Clause (3) of the Resolution provides that leases of bhatha lands granted in favour of individuals should not be renewed on their expiry but they should be disposed of in favour of bonafide agriculturists who belong to the weaker sections of society and co-operative farming societies on the basis of priority set out in clause (5) thereof. The rent payable by them should again be determined in accordance with the instructions given in the Resolution. The Resolution is designed to bring about distribution of agricultural lands as best to subserve the common good thus eliminating concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. It helps persons, who are in need of lands for their bare maintenance and who have otherwise no chance of getting them, to acquire lands at a low rate of rent.The classification made in the impugned Resolution of persons or co-operative societies who are eligible to secure grants of lease hold rights, according to us, bears a reasonable relation to the object with which the Code is enacted. It cannot be characterised as arbitrary. We do not find that there is any infirmity in the above classification. The Resolution aims at bringing about social and economic justice and assists people who are not strong enough to secure lease-hold rights of a public auction for purposes of cultivation. The leases to be granted are not for any unlimited period. At the end of the period prescribed in the leases, it will be open to the Collector to dispose them of afresh. In the above circumstances, we hold that the High Court was in error in holding that the Resolution was violative of Article 14 of the Constitution.9.
1[ds]From a reading of the above observations of the High Court, it becomes obvious that the High Court felt that the Resolution which had been passed with a view to showing preference to members belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes, landless persons who belonged to the weaker sections of society and members of co-operative farming societies did not subserve the object of the Code i .e. realization of maximum revenue. The High Court also felt that there was no scope for the passing of any order or resolution in the nature of a welfare measure while administering the provisions of theit is felt that it is necessary to acquire excessive lands in the hands of private individuals for distribution amongst the landless and other deserving persons, it is equally necessary to observe the same rule while distributing the land which belongs to the State Government. In view o f the foregoing, we are of the view that the conclusion reached by the High Court that the basic scheme of the Code was the realization of land revenue by disposing of unoccupied lands by public auction alone appears to be baseless. We, there fore, find it difficult to agree that the impugned Resolution which provides for the disposal of bhatha lands amongst bonafide agriculturists, harijans, adivasis and backward class people and other persons mentioned therein without resorting to public auction but by having recourse to the procedure set out in it is contrary to the letter and the spirit of the code. We, therefore, set aside the finding of the High Court on the abovethe purpose of determining the question whether the impugned Resolution is violative of Article 14 of the Constitution or not, it is necessary to examine whether the classification adopted by the State Government is based upon some intelligible differentia which distinguishes individuals and co-operative societies in whose favour grants of lease-hold rights in bhatha lands are required to be made by the Collector from others and whether the said classification bears any reasonable relation to the object underlying the Code. The High Court has proceeded on the basis that the classification made by the Resolution does not have any rational relation to the object of the Code which according to it was realization of revenue and nothing more than that. We have explained earlier that the object of the Code is to make provision for an equitable distribution of available land amongst persons who are in need of it. As mentioned earlier, the State Government is under an obligation to ensure that the ownership and the control of material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good and the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. In India which is predominantly an agricultural country, land forms the most important means of production. It is well known that unemployment among the masses is on the increase because employment opportunities are not increasing at the same rate at which the population is increasing. Consequently we find in India to day a large number of landless persons and persons with uneconomic holdings in villages who are either unemployed or under-employed. It is also equally well-known that persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes form the bulk of such landless persons or owners of uneconomic holdings who are in need of special care. It is also the settled policy of the State Governments to encourage co-operative movement, which is embarked upon with a view to preventing exploitation of economically weaker sections of society by others. The State Government in the instant case appears to have passed the impugned Resolution in order to grant leases in respect of bhatha lands in favour of landless persons or persons having very small extents of land or persons belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes and members of co-operative societies at a reasonable rent without being put to the necessity of offering bids at a public auction where it is well known that only moneyed persons can become successful bidders. The impugned Resolution lays down the procedure to be followed in the disposal of lease-h old rights in respect of bhatha lands. It does not relate to all unoccupied lands available in the State of Gujarat. The total extent of bhatha lands available in the State of Gujarat when compared with other available unoccupied lands may be a very small extent. The writ petitioners on whom the burden of proving that the impugned Resolution is discriminatory have not furnished any information about the extent of Bhatha lands available for disposal. Clauses (1) and (2) of the Resolution provide that the existing leases held by cooperative societies should be renewed on their expiry only in favour of the members of such co-operative societies subject to certain conditions for a further period of ten years on payment of revised rent which should be fixed on the basis of the factors referred to therein. Clause (3) of the Resolution provides that leases of bhatha lands granted in favour of individuals should not be renewed on their expiry but they should be disposed of in favour of bonafide agriculturists who belong to the weaker sections of society and co-operative farming societies on the basis of priority set out in clause (5) thereof. The rent payable by them should again be determined in accordance with the instructions given in the Resolution. The Resolution is designed to bring about distribution of agricultural lands as best to subserve the common good thus eliminating concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. It helps persons, who are in need of lands for their bare maintenance and who have otherwise no chance of getting them, to acquire lands at a low rate of rent.The classification made in the impugned Resolution of persons or co-operative societies who are eligible to secure grants of lease hold rights, according to us, bears a reasonable relation to the object with which the Code is enacted. It cannot be characterised as arbitrary. We do not find that there is any infirmity in the above classification. The Resolution aims at bringing about social and economic justice and assists people who are not strong enough to secure lease-hold rights of a public auction for purposes of cultivation. The leases to be granted are not for any unlimited period. At the end of the period prescribed in the leases, it will be open to the Collector to dispose them of afresh. In the above circumstances, we hold that the High Court was in error in holding that the Resolution was violative of Article 14 of thea reading of the above observations of the High Court, it becomes obvious that the High Court felt that the Resolution which had been passed with a view to showing preference to members belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes, landless persons who belonged to the weaker sections of society and members offarming societies did not subserve the object of the Code i .e. realization of maximum revenue. The High Court also felt that there was no scope for the passing of any order or resolution in the nature of a welfare measure while administering the provisions of thecode. In order to examine the correctness of the above view of the High Court, it is necessary to refer to some of the relevant provisions of the Code. The Preamble of the Code provides that it had been passed as it was found expedient to consolidate and amend the law relating to Revenue officers and to the assessment and recovery of Land Revenue and to other matters connected with the Land Revenue Administration. Chapters II and III of the Code deal with constitution powers officers provision relating to the security to be furnished by certain Revenue officers and the liability of principals and sureties. Chapter V of the Code is entitled Of Lands and Land Revenue and contains sections 37 to 59. Section 37 of the Code declares that all public roads, loans and paths, the bridges, ditches, dikes, and fences, on, or beside, the same, the bed of the sea and of harbours and creeks below high watermark, and of rivers, streams, nallas, lakes, and tanks, and all canals, andand all standing and flowing water, and all lands wherever situated, which are not the property of individuals, or of aggregates of persons legally capable of holding property, and except in so far as any right of such persons may be established, in or over the same, and except as may be otherwise provided in any law for the time being in force are and are hereby declared to be, with all rights, in or over the same, or appertaining thereto, the property of the Government and it sh all be lawful for the Collector subject to the order of the State Government, to dispose of them in such manner as he may deem fit, or as may be authorised by general rules sanctioned by the Government concerned, subject always to the rights of way, and all other rights of the public or of individual legally subsisting. The aforesaid section 37 of the Code vests the rights in all properties referred to therein the State Government and provides that it is lawful for the Collector subject to the orders of the State Government to dispose of them in such manner as he may deem fit or as may be authorised by the general rules sanctioned by the Government. The State Government is thus constituted the proprietor of the several items referred to therein. While the Collector has been given the power of disposal of the land belonging to the Government, he can do so only in accordance with the other provisions of the Code and the Rules made thereunder and subject to any order or resolution passed by the State Government. The power of the State Government to make orders under section 37(1) of the Code is not in the nature of appellate or revisional powers which are dealt with separately under sections 203 and 211 o f the Code but is in the nature of an administrative power enabling the State Government to regulate the power of the Collector. Section 38 of the Code authorises the survey officers whilst survey operations are proceeding under Chapter VIII of the Code and at any other time the Collector to set apart lands which belonged to the State Government and not in the lawful occupation of any person or aggregate of persons, in unalienated villages or unalienated portions of villages, for free pasturage for the village cattle, for forest reserves, or for any other public or municipal purpose; and lands assigned specially for any such purpose shall not be otherwise used without the sanction of the Collector. Section 39 of the C ode restricts the right of grazzing on freeto the cattle of the village or villages to which such lands belong or have been assigned. Section 44 of the Code recognizes the existence of certain privileges of villagers or of certain classes of persons to cutor timber for domestic or other purposes even in the case of villages or lands in which the rights of the Government to the trees have been reserved under section 40 of the Code. Section 48 of the Code sets out the manner of assessment and alteration of assessment of any land. It provides that the land revenue leviable on any land shall be assessed with reference to the use of thefor the purpose of agriculture, (b) for the purpose of building and (c) for a purpose other than agriculture or building. Subsection (3) of section 48 of the Code empowers the Collector or a survey officer, subject to any rules made in this behalf, to prohibit the use for certain purposes of any land liable t o the payment of land revenue and to summarily evict any holder who uses or attempts to use the same for any such prohibited purpose. Chapter VIII lays down the procedure to be followed in the course of survey and settlement proceedings thus ensuring that there is an equitable classification of lands for purposes of levy of just assessment in the light of the relevant economic factors. The principles underlying the said procedure prohibit the levy of oppressive or excessive revenue. There is no scope for levy of extortionate revenue which may be termed as rackrent.Chapter VI of the Code deals with the provisions relating to the grant, use and relinquishment of land. Section 62 of the Code which lays down the conditions subject to which unoccupied land may be granted provides that the Collector may, subject to such rules as may from time to time be made by the State Government, require the payment of a price for unalienated land or to sell the same by auction or to annex such conditions as he may deem fit. Rule 37 of the Bombay Land Revenue Rules, 1921 (hereinafter referred to as the Rules) which are promulgated by the State Government in exercise of its powers under sections 213 and 214 of the Code provides that any unoccupied survey number not assigned for any special purpose may, at the Collectors discretion, be granted for agricultural purposes to such person as the Collectors deems fit, either upon payment of a p rice fixed by the Collector, or without charge, or may be put up to public auction. When land is granted under section 62 read with Rule 37, the grantee acquires a heritable and transferable occupancy right over the land granted, subject to the lawful conditions imposed under the grant. The proviso to section 68 of the Code, however, provides that notwithstanding any provision in the Code, it shall not be unlawful for the Collector at any time to grant permission to any person to occupy any unalienated unoccupied land for such period and on such conditions as he may, subject to rules made by the State Government in that behalf prescribe and in any such case the occupancy shall be held only for the period and subject to the conditions so prescribed. Rule 32 of the Rules provides that land may be given free of price and free of revenue, whether in perpetuity or for a term, for any of the purposes specified in column 1 referred to in the table given below that rule viz. for sites for the construction at the cost of a municipality, a panchayat or other local bodies of schools or colleges etc., for sites used or to be used in connection with any scheme under the Community Development Programme, for sites used or to be used as market yards under the management of market committees established under the Gujarat Agricultural Produce Markets Act, 1963 etc. Rule 35 of the Rules empowers the Collector to exempt from payment of land revenue without any limit lands used for sites of hospitals, dispensaries, schools etc. Under Rule 41 of the Rules, land situated in the bed of a river and not included in a survey number can, save as otherwise provided in sections 46 and 64, ordinarily be leased annually by auction to the highest bidder for the term of one year or such further period as the Collector may think fit and the accepted bid should be deemed to be the land revenue chargeable on such land. The language of this rule also enables the State Government to dispose of such lands in any other equitable way. This Rule, however, does not apply to a land which is situated in the bed of a river and which is included in a survey number. Rule 42 of the Rules empowers the Collector to dispose of unoccupied land required or suitable for building sites or other nonagricultural purpose either by public auction or in his discretion by private arrangement either upon payment of a price fixed by him, or without charge, as he deems fit.These and the other provisions of the Code and the Rules made thereunder show that it is open to the Collector to dispose of unoccupied lands belonging to the Government either for cultivation or for any other purpose in favour of individuals or aggregate of individuals either free of charge or at an upset price to be fixed by him or by public auction.
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Evaluate the case proceeding to forecast the court's decision (1 for yes, 0 for no), and elucidate the reasoning behind this prediction with important textual evidence from the case.

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Code was enacted and this becomes obvious from the following observation of the High Court:-"As we have already pointed out, the object sought to be achieved is completely a collateral object and the criteria which are adopted for the alleged classification viz. the membership of the co-operative society and the persons being Harijans, Adivasis or backward class people have no rational nexus whatever to the object of augmenting land revenue, which would be the implicit object underlying the entire Code, including this statutory power of disposal of the said lands for the benefit of the public. The Code never contemplated any exclusion of persons when such statutory power was sought to be exercised by the State by any statutory order. Therefore, this statutory order clearly violates Article 14 of the Constitution and even on that ground it must be struck down."8. For the purpose of determining the question whether the impugned Resolution is violative of Article 14 of the Constitution or not, it is necessary to examine whether the classification adopted by the State Government is based upon some intelligible differentia which distinguishes individuals and co-operative societies in whose favour grants of lease-hold rights in bhatha lands are required to be made by the Collector from others and whether the said classification bears any reasonable relation to the object underlying the Code. The High Court has proceeded on the basis that the classification made by the Resolution does not have any rational relation to the object of the Code which according to it was realization of revenue and nothing more than that. We have explained earlier that the object of the Code is to make provision for an equitable distribution of available land amongst persons who are in need of it. As mentioned earlier, the State Government is under an obligation to ensure that the ownership and the control of material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good and the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. In India which is predominantly an agricultural country, land forms the most important means of production. It is well known that unemployment among the masses is on the increase because employment opportunities are not increasing at the same rate at which the population is increasing. Consequently we find in India to day a large number of landless persons and persons with uneconomic holdings in villages who are either unemployed or under-employed. It is also equally well-known that persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes form the bulk of such landless persons or owners of uneconomic holdings who are in need of special care. It is also the settled policy of the State Governments to encourage co-operative movement, which is embarked upon with a view to preventing exploitation of economically weaker sections of society by others. The State Government in the instant case appears to have passed the impugned Resolution in order to grant leases in respect of bhatha lands in favour of landless persons or persons having very small extents of land or persons belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes and members of co-operative societies at a reasonable rent without being put to the necessity of offering bids at a public auction where it is well known that only moneyed persons can become successful bidders. The impugned Resolution lays down the procedure to be followed in the disposal of lease-h old rights in respect of bhatha lands. It does not relate to all unoccupied lands available in the State of Gujarat. The total extent of bhatha lands available in the State of Gujarat when compared with other available unoccupied lands may be a very small extent. The writ petitioners on whom the burden of proving that the impugned Resolution is discriminatory have not furnished any information about the extent of Bhatha lands available for disposal. Clauses (1) and (2) of the Resolution provide that the existing leases held by cooperative societies should be renewed on their expiry only in favour of the members of such co-operative societies subject to certain conditions for a further period of ten years on payment of revised rent which should be fixed on the basis of the factors referred to therein. Clause (3) of the Resolution provides that leases of bhatha lands granted in favour of individuals should not be renewed on their expiry but they should be disposed of in favour of bonafide agriculturists who belong to the weaker sections of society and co-operative farming societies on the basis of priority set out in clause (5) thereof. The rent payable by them should again be determined in accordance with the instructions given in the Resolution. The Resolution is designed to bring about distribution of agricultural lands as best to subserve the common good thus eliminating concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. It helps persons, who are in need of lands for their bare maintenance and who have otherwise no chance of getting them, to acquire lands at a low rate of rent.The classification made in the impugned Resolution of persons or co-operative societies who are eligible to secure grants of lease hold rights, according to us, bears a reasonable relation to the object with which the Code is enacted. It cannot be characterised as arbitrary. We do not find that there is any infirmity in the above classification. The Resolution aims at bringing about social and economic justice and assists people who are not strong enough to secure lease-hold rights of a public auction for purposes of cultivation. The leases to be granted are not for any unlimited period. At the end of the period prescribed in the leases, it will be open to the Collector to dispose them of afresh. In the above circumstances, we hold that the High Court was in error in holding that the Resolution was violative of Article 14 of the Constitution.9.

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and at any other time the Collector to set apart lands which belonged to the State Government and not in the lawful occupation of any person or aggregate of persons, in unalienated villages or unalienated portions of villages, for free pasturage for the village cattle, for forest reserves, or for any other public or municipal purpose; and lands assigned specially for any such purpose shall not be otherwise used without the sanction of the Collector. Section 39 of the C ode restricts the right of grazzing on freeto the cattle of the village or villages to which such lands belong or have been assigned. Section 44 of the Code recognizes the existence of certain privileges of villagers or of certain classes of persons to cutor timber for domestic or other purposes even in the case of villages or lands in which the rights of the Government to the trees have been reserved under section 40 of the Code. Section 48 of the Code sets out the manner of assessment and alteration of assessment of any land. It provides that the land revenue leviable on any land shall be assessed with reference to the use of thefor the purpose of agriculture, (b) for the purpose of building and (c) for a purpose other than agriculture or building. Subsection (3) of section 48 of the Code empowers the Collector or a survey officer, subject to any rules made in this behalf, to prohibit the use for certain purposes of any land liable t o the payment of land revenue and to summarily evict any holder who uses or attempts to use the same for any such prohibited purpose. Chapter VIII lays down the procedure to be followed in the course of survey and settlement proceedings thus ensuring that there is an equitable classification of lands for purposes of levy of just assessment in the light of the relevant economic factors. The principles underlying the said procedure prohibit the levy of oppressive or excessive revenue. There is no scope for levy of extortionate revenue which may be termed as rackrent.Chapter VI of the Code deals with the provisions relating to the grant, use and relinquishment of land. Section 62 of the Code which lays down the conditions subject to which unoccupied land may be granted provides that the Collector may, subject to such rules as may from time to time be made by the State Government, require the payment of a price for unalienated land or to sell the same by auction or to annex such conditions as he may deem fit. Rule 37 of the Bombay Land Revenue Rules, 1921 (hereinafter referred to as the Rules) which are promulgated by the State Government in exercise of its powers under sections 213 and 214 of the Code provides that any unoccupied survey number not assigned for any special purpose may, at the Collectors discretion, be granted for agricultural purposes to such person as the Collectors deems fit, either upon payment of a p rice fixed by the Collector, or without charge, or may be put up to public auction. When land is granted under section 62 read with Rule 37, the grantee acquires a heritable and transferable occupancy right over the land granted, subject to the lawful conditions imposed under the grant. The proviso to section 68 of the Code, however, provides that notwithstanding any provision in the Code, it shall not be unlawful for the Collector at any time to grant permission to any person to occupy any unalienated unoccupied land for such period and on such conditions as he may, subject to rules made by the State Government in that behalf prescribe and in any such case the occupancy shall be held only for the period and subject to the conditions so prescribed. Rule 32 of the Rules provides that land may be given free of price and free of revenue, whether in perpetuity or for a term, for any of the purposes specified in column 1 referred to in the table given below that rule viz. for sites for the construction at the cost of a municipality, a panchayat or other local bodies of schools or colleges etc., for sites used or to be used in connection with any scheme under the Community Development Programme, for sites used or to be used as market yards under the management of market committees established under the Gujarat Agricultural Produce Markets Act, 1963 etc. Rule 35 of the Rules empowers the Collector to exempt from payment of land revenue without any limit lands used for sites of hospitals, dispensaries, schools etc. Under Rule 41 of the Rules, land situated in the bed of a river and not included in a survey number can, save as otherwise provided in sections 46 and 64, ordinarily be leased annually by auction to the highest bidder for the term of one year or such further period as the Collector may think fit and the accepted bid should be deemed to be the land revenue chargeable on such land. The language of this rule also enables the State Government to dispose of such lands in any other equitable way. This Rule, however, does not apply to a land which is situated in the bed of a river and which is included in a survey number. Rule 42 of the Rules empowers the Collector to dispose of unoccupied land required or suitable for building sites or other nonagricultural purpose either by public auction or in his discretion by private arrangement either upon payment of a price fixed by him, or without charge, as he deems fit.These and the other provisions of the Code and the Rules made thereunder show that it is open to the Collector to dispose of unoccupied lands belonging to the Government either for cultivation or for any other purpose in favour of individuals or aggregate of individuals either free of charge or at an upset price to be fixed by him or by public auction.
