of fibers are from 0 01 to 4 the optimum concentration depends upon the specific papermaking process and fiber characteristics for example j e williamson wet laid systems in nonwovens u2014 theory process performance and testing p 142 u201d conventional papermaking machines generally are produced at 0 3 to 0 7 whereas wet laid nonwovens are in the range of 0 01 to 0 05 solids the resulting pulp can be formed into a sheet using a variety of papermaking processes it is preferred that the sheet be made without any chemicals fillers or additives traditionally employed by the papermaking industry to enhance paper properties for other applications or reduce costs a wide range of equipment is available g a smook handbook for pulp and paper technologists 2 nd edition angus wilde publications vancouver 1992 p 195 ff to alter fiber properties from the standpoint of both papermaking and end use paper properties conical refiners e g jordan claflin disk refiners and valley or hollander beaters are commonly employed to this end this equipment impacts fiber morphology in a variety of ways including fiber length reduction and fibrillation the relative extent to which these effects occur depends upon the specific design and operation of the refiner beater from a cellulose ether manufacturing perspective reduction of fiber length and less fibrillation are generally considered desirable since these requirements lead to higher bulk density that translates into higher reactor loading it may however be necessary to balance these requirements in order to attain good papermaking machine operation and paper characteristics both dry and.