Using Rhetorical Strategies for Persuasion There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its case. Logos Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words, the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population. Example: Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other farmers as well. In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that it could work for other farmers as well. Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case. The generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence.Example: Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when genetically modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico. In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that Mexico will be affected in the same way. Avoid Logical Fallacies These are some common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Also, watch out for these slips in other people’s arguments. Slippery slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,…, X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don’t want Z to occur A must not be allowed to occur either. Example: If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers. In this example the author is equating banning Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same thing. Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example: Even though it’s only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course. In this example the author is basing their evaluation of the entire course on only one class, and on the first day which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author must attend several classes, and possibly even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or talk to others who have previously finished the course in order to have sufficient evidence to base a conclusion on. Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that assumes that if ‘A’ occurred after ‘B’ then ‘B’ must have caused ‘A.’ Example: I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick. In this example the author assumes that if one event chronologically follows another the first event must have caused the second. But the illness could have been caused by the burrito the night before, a flu bug that had been working on the body for days, or a chemical spill across campus. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick. Genetic Fallacy: A conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of a person, idea, institute, or theory determine its character, nature, or worth. Example: The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler’s army. In this example the author is equating the character of a car with the character of the people who built the car. Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim. Example: Filthy and polluting coal should be banned. Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should be banned would be logical. But the very conclusion that should be proved, that coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it as “filthy and polluting.” Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than actually proving it. Example: George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively. In this example the conclusion that Bush is a “good communicator” and the evidence used to prove it “he speaks effectively” are basically the same idea. Specific evidence such as using everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his points with humorous stories would be needed to prove either half of the sentence. Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices. Example: We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth. In this example where two choices are presented as the only options, yet the author ignores a range of choices in between such as developing cleaner technology, car sharing systems for necessities and emergencies, or better community planning to discourage daily driving. Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions or arguments. Example: Green Peace’s strategies aren’t effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies. In this example the author doesn’t even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of the individuals in the group. Ad populum: This is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand. Example: If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want. In this example the author equates being a “true American,” a concept that people want to be associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want even though there is no inherent connection between the two. Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them. Example: The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families. In this example the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may effect the other, it does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a few individuals. Ethos Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer. There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author: Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources properly. Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately. Establish common ground with your audience. Most of the time, this can be done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument. If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic. Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc. Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your character as a writer. Pathos Pathos, or emotional appeal, appeals to an audience’s needs, values, and emotional sensibilities. Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well. Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a single child who has been abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers. Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people. Please incorporate the three appeal in this assignment, logo, pathos, and ethos. I added more information for you to succeed in this task. Please follow the check list provided.
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A crisis defines an unexpected event that results in an unstable and dangerous situation affecting one person, group, community, or an entire society. Medical crises or emergencies are the most common in different settings in life, at school, home, work, community, movie theatres, parks, and even hospitals. While individuals do not expect or wish to experience any form of crisis, it is unavoidable. Thus, individuals should know more about how to solve a specific crisis in different settings. The Crisis Intervention Procedures Manual was developed to help students from Kentucky State University learn how to respond to emergencies and assist distressed students within and outside the institution. The manual can also be used by students from similar learning institutions and colleges. When most individuals go to college, they do not know how to respond to a medical crisis, whom to call, or where to go in case of a health emergency. They may know about and react to small health issues, but the situation is different when faced with critical medical emergencies.
Typically, the manual provides a systematic approach to helping emotionally distressed students and offering procedures on how to help them. As a learning institution, colleges and universities should teach academics and help students learn about life and themselves. Some individuals face specific difficulties for various reasons, and other students should be able to and willing to notice and respond to their difficulties in a helpful and supportive manner. The programs within an institution should have a system that helps students in emotional distress, such as intervention plans for those with medical crises in need of immediate attention. This type of plan would help improve individuals’ overall health, focusing more on their physical and psychological well-being. Over the last decades, the increased financial strains and expanded educational programs in universities have left many students susceptible to various mental health problems, including stress, stress, behavioral disorders, and depression. These issues create the need for feasible and effective intervention plans and programs, as shown in the manual.
Throughout the manual, the author uses simple, easy to understand language by all students and those outside the university. More importantly, the author divides the manual into subsections, each with different topics. The manual starts with an introduction, where it defines crisis interventions and the concepts used to improve students’ mental health at the university. It analyses the counselors’ services and responsibilities at the university and calls individuals to help individuals in distress. At the end of the introduction, the manual illustrates how individuals can identify students in distress. Student’s behaviors and actions inconsistent with those in previous observations could be an inarticulate attempt to draw attention and let others know that something is wrong with them. An individual’s ability to recognize emotional distress’ signs and symptoms are the most significant factor in a successful crisis resolution. The manual also identifies and elaborates the types of crises that students are likely to experience at school. The manual identifies physical and sexual abuse, depression, disorientation, substance abuse, suicidal thoughts, traumatic incident stress, violence, anxious behaviors, and post-traumatic stress disorder as some of the conditions experienced by students and young adults. In a case where a student experience anxiety, the manual recommends that they should talk more about their thoughts and feelings, remain calm, be clear about their issues and stay in a quiet and safe environment until the symptoms subside. To an extent, students should find it imperative to take care of other’ students emotional and psychological well-being by being attentive to how they behave and how their actions could imply psychological distress.
The author appeals to ethos by providing relevant data and information about treating and helping distressed students at Kentucky State University and other similar settings. It presents a detailed plan on responding and assisting students in distress or experiencing episodic mental issues. The manual provides definitions and critical steps on overcoming specific medical crises and gives the names and contacts of the individuals that students can call to help with the crisis. These serve as the main foundation of the intervention manual. A plan without specific processes and contact information would not be complete or feasible as students do not know what to do or whom to call in case of an emergence. The manual also appeals to pathos by giving examples, specific symptoms of certain medical conditions and illustrates how to solve them among university students. These examples give readers a clear picture of some of the issues experienced by students and find the importance of knowing how to solve them. Distressed students experience a range of challenges in their social lives and their attempts to learn and attend all classes. Thus, it would help if someone could help them during a crisis. Lastly, the author appeals to logos by providing logical arguments and information in a well-structured document, with each section discussing something different. In the introduction, the manual states that “As part of provision of personal counseling, programs should have a system that assists students in acute emotional distress, including an intervention plan for students in personal crisis who require immediate attention,”(5) This statement provides the logic behind the development of the manual in the university, to improve mental health and solve any medical crisis.
Over the past few years, the increased social, political, and economic issues have led to increased numbers of mental disorders among youths or young adults, especially those in school in the United States (Twenge, 2019). The cultural trends and continuous use of social media in the last decade have also led to mood disorders and suicide-related behaviors among youths (Rosenberg, 2019). These events have increased the need for better mental health services and interventions for different medical issues. The intervention manual developed by Betty White Student Health Services (2014) for Kentucky State University is an essential element that could help to solve a crisis in mental health clinics and agencies. It focuses on treating and helping individuals manage different mental conditions. Different individuals experience various mental disorders that may have similar symptoms. Thus, it would be difficult to distinguish the specific issue that an individual is experiencing. It is even more difficult if a patient experiences an episode while waiting to see a doctor. Due to these instances, mental health agencies could implement the manual to guide and help employees and nurses to identify individuals in distress and more likely to experience a mental breakdown and solve the crisis immediately and effectively after it happens.
Under the manual’s guidance, the agencies can also set up personal counselling programs for different individuals or with family members, solve crises through direct or cooperative arrangements between nurses, doctors, and psychiatrists, and create, plan and facilitate group meetings with individuals experiencing similar issues. It would also guide the facility to offer psycho-education training, providing crucial lessons to youths and families, increasing their knowledge and awareness concerning individuals’ physical, emotional, and mental needs. Fundamentally, mental health clinics could need and use the manual to improve their operations, enhance their response rates to different patients and issues, and provide quality care to youths experiencing specific issues including, anxiety, depression, stress, and eating disorders.
Betty White Student Health Services. (2014). Crisis Intervention Procedures Manual: Assisting the Distressed Student. Kentucky State University. https://www.kysu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Crisis-Intervention-Procedures-Manual-Joy-Harris.pdf
Rosenberg, J. (2019, March 20). Mental health issues on the rise among adolescents, young adults. AJMC. https://www.ajmc.com/view/mental-health-issues-on-the-rise-among-adolescents-young-adults
Twenge, J. (2019). The mental health crisis among America’s youth is real – and staggering. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/the-mental-health-crisis-among-americas-youth-is-real-and-staggering-113239