Thunderstorms & Neutron Stars Connected?
n 1931, an engineer built an antenna to study thunderstorm static that was interfering with radio communication. The antenna did detect static from storms, but it also picked up something else: radio signals coming from beyond our solar system. That discovery marked the birth of radio astronomy. By the 1960s, radio astronomy was thriving. In 1967, astronomer Jocelyn Bell Burnell detected a peculiar series of radio pulses coming from far out in space. At first, she and her colleagues theorized that the signals might be a message from a distant civilization. Soon, however, scientists determined that the signals must be coming from something called a neutron star (below)—a rapidly spinning star that gives off a radio beam from its magnetic pole.
Direction of spin Radio beam
SCIENCE CONNECTION NEUTRON STARS Find out more about what neutron stars are and how they form. You might begin your research by visiting the Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com or by consulting an encyclopedia or astronomy textbook. Then work with a partner to design a demonstration that uses a flashlight to show how a spinning neutron star emits a radio signal that sweeps past Earth like the rotating beam of a lighthouse.
1 The Nature of Science
n important part of science is asking questions. Over time, scientists observed an unusual behavior among humpback whales and wondered why they did it. Through scientific investigations, they learned that the humpbacks work together to get food. They swim in circles and blow bubbles. This makes a bubble net that traps small fish and krill—tiny shrimplike animals. Then the whales can swoop up mouthfuls of food.
What do you think? Science Journal Look at the picture below with a classmate. Discuss what you think this is. Here’s a hint: Dinner is served. Write your answer or best guess in your Science Journal.
EXPLORE G ACTIVITY
ravity is a familiar natural force. It keeps you anchored on Earth, but how does it work? Scientists learn about gravity and other concepts by making observations. Noticing things is how scientists start any study of nature. Do the activity below to see how gravity affects objects.
Observe how gravity accelerates objects 1. Collect three identical, unsharpened pencils. 2. Tape two of the pencils together. 3. Hold all the pencils at the same height, as high as you can. Drop them together and observe what happens as they fall.
Observe Did the single pencil fall faster or slower than the pair? Predict in your Science Journal what would happen if you taped 30 pencils together and dropped them at the same time as you dropped a single pencil.
FOLDABLES Reading &Study & Study Skills
Making a Know-Want-Learn Study Fold Make the following Foldable to help you identify what you already know and what you want to know about science.
1. Stack two sheets of paper in front of you so the short side of both sheets is at the top. 2. Slide the top sheet up so that about 4 cm of the bottom sheet show. 3. Fold both sheets top to bottom to form four tabs and staple along the topfold, as shown.
4. Label the top flap Science. Then, label the other flaps Know, Want, and Learned, as shown. Before you read the chapter, write what you know about science on the Know tab and what you want to know on the Want tab. 5. As you read the chapter, list the things you learn about science on the Learned tab.
What is science? Learning About the World Define science and identify questions that science cannot answer. ■ Compare and contrast theories and laws. ■ Identify a system and its components. ■ Identify the three main branches of science. ■
Vocabulary science scientific theory scientific law system
life science Earth science physical science technology
Science can be used to learn more about the world you live in.
Figure 1 Some questions about topics such as politics, literature, and art cannot be answered by science.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
When you think of a scientist, do you imagine a person in a laboratory surrounded by charts, graphs, glass bottles, and bubbling test tubes? It might surprise you to learn that anyone who tries to learn something about the world is a scientist. Science is a way of learning more about the natural world. Scientists want to know why, how, or when something occurred. This learning process usually begins by keeping your eyes open and asking questions about what you see.
Asking Questions Scientists ask many questions, too. How do things work? What do things look like? What are they made of? Why does something take place? Science can attempt to answer many questions about the natural world, but some questions cannot be answered by science. Look at the situations in Figure 1. Who should you vote for? What does this poem mean? Who is your best friend? Questions about art, politics, personal preference, or morality can’t be answered by science. Science can’t tell you what is right, wrong, good, or bad.
With new information, explanations can be modified or discarded and new explanations can be made.
Explanation still possible Explanation modified
Explanation discarded New possible explanation
Possible Explanations If learning about your world begins with asking questions, can science provide answers to these questions? Science can answer a question only with the information available at the time. Any answer is uncertain because people will never know everything about the world around them. With new knowledge, they might realize that some of the old explanations no longer fit the new information. As shown in Figure 2, some observations might force scientists to look at old ideas and think of new explanations. Science can only provide possible explanations. Why can’t science answer questions with certainty?
Scientific Theories An attempt to explain a pattern observed repeatedly in the natural world is called a scientific theory. Theories are not simply guesses or someone’s opinions, nor are theories only vague ideas. Theories in science must be supported by observations and results from many investigations. They are the best explanations that have been found so far. However, theories can change. As new data become available, scientists evaluate how the new data fit the theory. If enough new data do not support the theory, the theory can be changed to fit the new observations better.
Scientific Laws A rule that describes a pattern in nature is a scientific law. For an observation to become a scientific law, it must be observed repeatedly. The law then stands until someone makes observations that do not follow the law. A law helps you predict that an apple dropped from arm’s length will always fall to Earth. The law, however, does not explain why gravity exists or how it works. A law, unlike a theory, does not attempt to explain why something happens. It simply describes a pattern. SECTION 1 What is science?
Figure 3 Systems are a collection of structures, cycles, and processes. What systems can you identify in this classroom?
Systems in Science Scientists can study many different things in nature. Some might study how the human body works or how planets move around the Sun. Others might study the energy carried in a lightning bolt. What do all of these things have in common? All of them are systems. A system is a collection of structures, cycles, and processes that relate to and interact with each other. The structures, cycles, and processes are the parts of a system, just like your stomach is one of the structures of your digestive system. What is a system?
Classify Parts of a System Procedure Think about how your school’s cafeteria is run. Consider the physical structure of the cafeteria. How many people run it? Where does the food come from? How is it prepared? Where does it go? What other parts of the cafeteria system are necessary? Analysis Classify the parts of your school cafeteria’s system as structures, cycles, or processes.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Systems are not found just in science. Your school is a system with structures such as the school building, the tables and chairs, you, your teacher, the school bell, your pencil, and many other things. Figure 3 shows some of these structures. Your school day also has cycles. Your daily class schedule and the calendar of holidays are examples of cycles. Many processes are at work during the school day. When you take a test, your teacher has a process. You might be asked to put your books and papers away and get out a pencil before the test is distributed. When the time is over, you are told to put your pencil down and pass your test to the front of the room.
Parts of a System Interact In a system, structures, cycles, and processes interact. Your daily schedule influences where you go and what time you go. The clock shows the teacher when the test is complete, and you couldn’t complete the test without a pencil.
Parts of a Whole All systems are made up of other systems. For example, you are part of your school. The human body is a system—within your body are other systems. Your school is part of a system—district, state, and national. You have your regional school district. Your district is part of a statewide school system. Scientists often break down problems by studying just one part of a system. A scientist might want to learn about how construction of buildings affects the ecosystem. Because an ecosystem has many parts, one scientist might study a particular animal, and another might study the effect of construction on plant life.
The Branches of Science Science often is divided into three main categories, or branches—life science, Earth science, and physical science. Each branch asks questions about different kinds of systems.
Research Visit the Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com for information on Dian Fossey’s studies. Write a summary of your research in your Science Journal.
Life Science The study of living systems and the ways in which they interact is called life science. Life scientists attempt to answer questions like “How do whales navigate the ocean?” and “How do vaccines prevent disease?” Life scientists can study living organisms, where they live, and how they interact. Dian Fossey, Figure 4, was a life scientist who studied gorillas, their habitat, and their behaviors. People who work in the health field know a lot about the life sciences. Physicians, nurses, physical therapists, dietitians, medical researchers, and others focus on the systems of the human body. Some other examples of careers that use life science include biologists, zookeepers, botanists, farmers, and beekeepers.
Figure 4 Over a span of 18 years, life scientist Dian Fossey spent much of her time observing mountain gorillas in Rwanda, Africa. She was able to interact with them as she learned about their behavior. SECTION 1 What is science?
This physicist is studying light as it travels through optical fibers.
Scientists study a wide range of subjects.
This chemist is studying the light emitted by certain compounds. These volcanologists are studying the temperature of the lava flowing from a volcano.
Earth Science The study of Earth systems and the systems in space is Earth science. It includes the study of nonliving things such as rocks, soil, clouds, rivers, oceans, planets, stars, meteors, and black holes. Earth science also covers the weather and climate systems that affect Earth. Earth scientists ask questions like “How can an earthquake be detected?” or “Is water found on other planets?” They make maps and investigate how geologic features formed on land and in the oceans. They also use their knowledge to search for fuels and minerals. Meteorologists study weather and climate. Geologists study rocks and geologic features. Figure 5A shows a volcanologist—a person who studies volcanoes—measuring the temperature of lava. What do Earth scientists study?
Physical Science The study of matter and energy is physical science. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. The ability to cause change in matter is energy. Living and nonliving systems are made of matter. Examples include plants, animals, rocks, the atmosphere, and the water in oceans, lakes, and rivers. Physical science can be divided into two general fields—chemistry and physics. Chemistry is the study of matter and the interactions of matter. Physics is the study of energy and its ability to change matter. Figures 5B and 5C show physical scientists at work.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Careers Chemists ask questions such as “How can I make plastic stronger?” or “What can I do to make aspirin more effective?” Physicists might ask other types of questions, such as “How does light travel through glass fibers?” or “How can humans harness the energy of sunlight for their energy needs?” Many careers are based on the physical sciences. Physicists and chemists are some obvious careers. Ultrasound and X-ray technicians working in the medical field study physical science because they study the energy in ultrasound or X rays and how it affects a living system.
Science and Technology Although learning the answers to scientific questions is important, these answers do not help people directly unless they can be applied in some way. Technology is the practical use of science, or applied science, as illustrated in Figure 6. Engineers apply science to develop technology. The study of how to use the energy of sunlight is science. Using this knowledge to create solar panels is technology. The study of the behavior of light as it travels through thin, glass, fiber-optic wires is science. The use of optical fibers to transmit information is technology. A scientist uses science to study how the skin of a shark repels water. The application of this knowledge to create a material that helps swimmers slip through the water faster is technology.
Figure 6 Solar-powered cars and the swimsuits worn in the Olympics are examples of technology— the application of science.
1. What is science? 2. Compare scientific theory and scientific
6. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
law. Explain how a scientific theory can change. 3. What are the components of a system? 4. Name the three main branches of science. 5. Think Critically List two questions that can be answered by science and one that can’t be answered by science. Explain.
and contrast life science and physical science. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook. 7. Communicating In your Science Journal, describe how science and technology are related. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
SECTION 1 What is science?
Science in Action Science Skills Identify some skills scientists use. Define hypothesis. ■ Recognize the difference between observation and inference. ■ ■
Vocabulary hypothesis infer controlled experiment variable constant
You know that science involves asking questions, but how does asking questions lead to learning? Because no single way to gain knowledge exists, a scientist doesn’t start with step one, then go to step two, and so on. Instead, scientists have a huge collection of skills from which to choose. Some of these skills include thinking, observing, predicting, investigating, researching, modeling, measuring, analyzing, and inferring. Science also can advance with luck and creativity.
Science Methods Investigations often follow a general pat-
Science can be used to learn more about the world you live in.
tern. As illustrated in Figure 7, most investigations begin by seeing something and then asking a question about what was observed. Scientists often research by talking with other scientists. They read books and scientific magazines to learn as much as they can about what is already known about their question. Usually, scientists state a possible explanation for their observation. To collect more information, scientists almost always make more observations. They might build a model of what they study or they might perform investigations. Often, they do both. How might you combine some of these skills in an investigation?
Figure 7 Although there are different scientific methods for investigating a specific problem, most investigations follow a general pattern.
Repeat several times
Observe Observe Question Collect information
Investigate to learn more Model
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Conclude and communicate
Hypothesis not supported
Figure 8 It's not very heavy.
What's that metal-like sound?
It sounds like a stapler.
Investigations often begin by making observations and asking questions.
Questioning and Observing Ms. Clark placed a sealed shoe box on the table at the front of the laboratory. Everyone in the class noticed the box. Within seconds the questions flew. “What’s in the box?” “Why is it there?” Ms. Clark said she would like the class to see how they used some science skills without even realizing it. “I think that she wants us to find out what’s in it,” Isabelle said to Marcus. “Can we touch it?” asked Marcus. “It’s up to you,” Ms. Clark said. Marcus picked up the box and turned it over a few times. “It’s not heavy,” Marcus observed. “Whatever is inside slides around.” He handed the box to Isabelle. Isabelle shook the box. The class heard the object strike the sides of the box. With every few shakes, the class heard a metallic sound. The box was passed around for each student to make observations and write them in his or her Science Journal. Some observations are shown in Figure 8.
Taking a Guess “I think it’s a pair of scissors,” said Marcus. “Aren’t scissors lighter than this?” asked Isabelle, while shaking the box. “I think it’s a stapler.” “What makes you think so?” asked Ms. Clark. “Well, staplers are small enough to fit inside a shoe box, and it seems to weigh about the same,” said Isabelle. “We can hear metal when we shake it,” said Enrique. “So, you are guessing that a stapler is in the box?” “Yes,” they agreed. “You just stated a hypothesis,” exclaimed Ms. Clark. “A what?” asked Marcus.
Some naturalists study the living world, using mostly their observational skills. They observe animals and plants in their natural environment, taking care not to disturb the organisms they are studying. Make observations of organisms in a nearby park or backyard. Record your observations in your Science Journal.
SECTION 2 Science in Action
The Hypothesis “A hypothesis is a reasonable and educated
Forming a Hypothesis
possible answer based on what you know and what you observe.” “We know that a stapler is small, it can be heavy, and it is made of metal,” said Isabelle. “We observed that what is in the box is small, heavier than a pair of scissors, and made of metal,” continued Marcus.
Procedure 1. Fill a large pot with water. Drop an unopened can of diet soda and an unopened can of regular soda into the pot of water and observe what each can does. 2. In your Science Journal, make a list of the possible explanations for your observation. Select the best explanation and write a hypothesis. 3. Read the nutritional facts on the back of each can and compare their ingredients. 4. Revise your hypothesis based on this new information.
Analyzing Hypotheses “What other possible explanations fit with what you observed?” asked Ms. Clark. “Well, it has to be a stapler,” said Enrique. “What if it isn’t?” asked Ms. Clark. “Maybe you’re overlooking explanations because your minds are made up. A good scientist keeps an open mind to every idea and explanation. What if you learn new information that doesn’t fit with your original hypothesis? What new information could you gather to verify or disprove your hypothesis?” “Do you mean a test or something?” asked Marcus. “I know,” said Enrique, “We could get an empty shoe box that is the same size as the mystery box and put a stapler in it. Then we could shake it and see whether it feels and sounds the same.” Enrique’s test is shown in Figure 9.
Analysis 1. What did you observe when you placed the cans in the water? 2. How did the nutritional information on the cans change your hypothesis? 3. Infer why the two cans behaved differently in the water.
would you expect to happen?” asked Ms. Clark. “Well, it would be about the same weight and it would slide around a little, just like the other box,” said Enrique. “It would have that same metallic sound when we shake it,” said Marcus. “So, you predict that the test box will feel and sound the same as your mystery box. Go ahead and try it,” said Ms. Clark.
Figure 9 Comparing the known information with the unknown information can be valuable even though you cannot see what is inside the closed box.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Making a Prediction “If your hypothesis is correct, what
Testing the Hypothesis Ms. Clark gave the class an empty shoe box that appeared to be identical to the mystery box. Isabelle found a metal stapler. Enrique put the stapler in the box and taped the box closed. Marcus shook the box. “The stapler does slide around but it feels just a little heavier than what’s inside the mystery box,” said Marcus. “What do you think?” he asked Isabelle as he handed her the box. “It is heavier,” said Isabelle “and as hard as I shake it, I can’t get a metallic sound. What if we find the mass of both boxes? Then we’ll know the exact mass difference between the two.” Using a balance, as shown in Figure 10, the class found that the test box had a mass of 410 g, and the mystery box had a mass of 270 g.
Figure 10 Laboratory balances are used to find the mass of objects.
Organizing Your Findings “Okay. Now you have some new information,” said Ms. Clark. “But before you draw any conclusions, let’s organize what we know. Then we’ll we have a summary of our observations and can refer back to them when we are drawing our conclusions.” “We could make a chart of our observations in our Science Journals,” said Marcus. “We could compare the observations of the mystery box with the observations of the test box,” said Isabelle. The chart that the class made is shown in Table 1. Table 1 Observation Chart Questions
Does it roll or slide?
It slides and appears to be flat.
It slides and appears to be flat.
Does it make any sounds?
It makes a metallic sound when it strikes the sides of the box.
The stapler makes a thudding sound when it strikes the sides of the box.
Is the mass evenly distributed in the box?
No. The object doesn’t completely fill the box.
No. The mass of the stapler is unevenly distributed.
What is the mass of the box?
SECTION 2 Science in Action
Figure 11 Observations can be used to draw inferences. Looking at both of these photos, what do you infer has taken place?
“What have you learned from your investigation so far?” asked Ms. Clark. “The first thing that we learned was that our hypothesis wasn’t correct,” answered Marcus. “Would you say that your hypothesis was entirely wrong?” asked Ms. Clark. “The boxes don’t weigh the same, and the box with the stapler doesn’t make the same sound as the mystery box. But there could be a difference in the kind of stapler in the box. It could be a different size or made of different materials.” “So you infer that the object in the mystery box is not exactly the same type of stapler, right?” asked Ms. Clark. “What does infer mean?” asked Isabelle. “To infer something means to draw a conclusion based on what you observe,” answered Ms. Clark. “So we inferred that the things in the boxes had to be different because our observations of the two boxes are different,” said Marcus. “I guess we’re back to where we started,” said Enrique. “We still don’t know what’s in the mystery box.” “Do you know more than you did before you started?” asked Ms. Clark. “We eliminated one possibility,” Isabelle added. “Yes. We inferred that it’s not a stapler, at least not like the one in the test box,” said Marcus. “So even if your observations don’t support your hypothesis, you know more than you did when you started,” said Ms. Clark.
Continuing to Learn “So when do we get to open the box and see what it is?” asked Marcus. “Let me ask you this,” said Ms. Clark. “Do you think scientists always get a chance to look inside to see if they are right?” “If they are studying something too big or too small to see, I guess they can’t,” replied Isabelle. “What do they do in those cases?” “As you learned, your first hypothesis might not be supported by your investigation. Instead of giving up, you continue to gather information by making more observations, making new hypotheses, and by investigating further. Some scientists have spent lifetimes researching their questions. Science takes patience and persistence,” said Ms. Clark. 16
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Communicating Your Findings A big part of science is communicating your findings. It is not unusual for one scientist to continue the work of another or to try to duplicate the work of another scientist. It is important for scientists to communicate to others not only the results of the investigation, but also the methods by which the investigation was done. Scientists often publish reports in journals, books, and on the Internet to show other scientists the work that was completed. They also might attend meetings where they make speeches about their work. Scientists from around the world learn from each other, and it is important for them to exchange information freely. Like the science-fair student in Figure 12 demonstrates, an important part of doing science is the ability to communicate methods and results to others. Why do scientists share information?
Figure 12 Books, presentations, and meetings are some of the many ways people in science communicate their findings.
Problem-Solving Activity How can you use a data table to analyze and present data? uppose you were given the average temperatures in a city for the four seasons in 1997, 1998, and 1999: spring 1997 was 11°C; summer 1997 was 25°C; fall 1997 was 5°C; winter 1997 was 5°C; spring 1998 was 9°C; summer 1998 was 36°C; fall 1998 was 10°C; winter 1998 was 3°C; spring 1999 was 10°C; summer 1999 was 30°C; fall 1999 was 9°C; and winter 1999 was 2°C. How can you tell in which of the years each season had its coldest average?
Seasonal Temperatures (C) 1997
Identifying the Problem The information that is given is not in a format that is easy to see at a glance. It would be more helpful to put it in a table that allows you to compare the data.
Solving the Problem 1. Create a table with rows for seasons and columns for the years. Now insert the values you were given. You should be able to see that the four coldest seasons were spring 1998, summer 1997, fall 1997, and winter 1997. 2. Use your new table to find out which season had the greatest difference in temperatures over the three years from 1997 through 1999. 3. What other observations or comparisons can you make from the table you’ve created on seasonal temperatures? SECTION 2 Science in Action
Experiments Research Visit the Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com for information on variables and constants. Make a poster showing the differences between these two parts of a reliable investigation.
Different types of questions call for different types of investigations. Ms. Clark’s class made many observations about their mystery box and about their test box. They wanted to know what was inside. To answer their question, building a model— the test box—was an effective way to learn more about the mystery box. Some questions ask about the effects of one factor on another. One way to investigate these kinds of questions is by doing a controlled experiment. A controlled experiment involves changing one factor and observing its effect on another while keeping all other factors constant.
Variables and Constants Imagine a race in which the
Figure 13 The 400-m race is an example of a controlled experiment. The distance, track material, and wind speed are constants. The runners’ abilities and their finish times are varied.
lengths of the lanes vary. Some lanes are 102 m long, some are 98 m long, and a few are 100 m long. When the first runner crosses the finish line, is he or she the fastest? Not necessarily. The lanes in the race have different lengths. Variables are factors that can be changed in an experiment. Reliable experiments, like the race shown in Figure 13, attempt to change one variable and observe the effect of this change on another variable. The variable that is changed in an experiment is called the independent variable. The dependent variable changes as a result of a change in the independent variable. It usually is the dependent variable that is observed in an experiment. Scientists attempt to keep all other variables constant—or unchanged. The variables that are not changed in an experiment are called constants. Examples of constants in the race include track material, wind speed, and distance. This way it is easier to determine exactly which variable is responsible for the runners’ finish times. In this race, the runners’ abilities were varied. The runners’ finish times were observed.
Figure 14 Safety is the most important aspect of any investigation.
Laboratory Safety In your science class, you will perform many types of investigations. However, performing scientific investigations involves more than just following specific steps. You also must learn how to keep yourself and those around you safe by obeying the safety symbol warnings, shown in Figure 15.
In a Laboratory When scientists work in a laboratory, as shown in Figure 14, they take many safety precautions. The most important safety advice in a science lab is to think before you act. Always check with your teacher several times in the planning stage of any investigation. Also make sure you know the location of safety equipment in the laboratory room and how to use this equipment, including the eyewashes, thermal mitts, and fire extinguisher. Good safety habits include the following suggestions. Before conducting any investigation, find and follow all safety symbols listed in your investigation. You always should wear an apron and goggles to protect yourself from chemicals, flames, and pointed objects. Keep goggles on until activity, cleanup, and handwashing are complete. Always slant test tubes away from yourself and others when heating them. Never eat, drink, or apply makeup in the lab. Report all accidents and injuries to your teacher and always wash your hands after working with lab materials.
In the Field Investigations also take place outside the lab, in streams, farm fields, and other places. Scientists must follow safety regulations there, as well, such as wearing eye goggles and any other special safety equipment that is needed. Never reach into holes or under rocks. Always wash your hands after you’ve finished your field work.
Eye Safety Clothing Protection Disposal Biological Extreme Temperature Sharp Object Fume Irritant Toxic Animal Safety Open Flame
Figure 15 Safety symbols are present on nearly every investigation you will do this year. What safety symbols are on the lab the student is preparing to do in Figure 14?
SECTION 2 Science in Action
Figure 16 Accidents are not planned. Safety precautions must be followed to prevent injury.
Why have safety rules? Doing science in the class laboratory or in the field can be much more interesting than reading about it. However, safety rules must be strictly followed, so that the possibility of an accident greatly decreases. However, you can’t predict when something will go wrong. Think of a person taking a trip in a car. Most of the time when someone drives somewhere in a vehicle, an accident, like the one shown in Figure 16, does not occur. But to be safe, drivers and passengers always should wear safety belts. Likewise, you always should wear and use appropriate safety gear in the lab—whether you are conducting an investigation or just observing. The most important aspect of any investigation is to conduct it safely.
1. What are four steps scientific investigations often follow? 2. Is a hypothesis as firm as a theory? Explain. 3. What is the difference between an inference and an observation? 4. Why is it important always to use the proper safety equipment? 5. Think Critically You are going to use bleach in an investigation. Bleach can irritate your skin, damage your eyes, and stain your clothes. What safety symbols should be listed with this investigation? Explain.
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6. Drawing Conclusions While waiting outside your classroom door, the bell rings for school to start. According to your watch, you still have 3 min to get to your classroom. Based on these observations, what can you conclude about your watch? For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook. 7. Using a Word Processor Describe the different types of safety equipment you should use if you are working with a flammable liquid in the lab. For more help, refer to the Technology Skill Handbook.
Models in Science Why are models necessary? Just as you can take many different paths in an investigation, you can test a hypothesis in many different ways. Ms. Clark’s class tested their hypothesis by building a model of the mystery box. A model is one way to test a hypothesis. In science, a model is any representation of an object or an event used as a tool for understanding the natural world. Models can help you visualize, or picture in your mind, something that is difficult to see or understand. Ms. Clark’s class made a model because they couldn’t see the item inside the box. Models can be of things that are too small or too big to see. They also can be of things that can’t be seen because they don’t exist anymore or they haven’t been created yet. Models also can show events that occur too slowly or too quickly to see. Figure 17 shows different kinds of models.
Describe various types of models. Discuss limitations of models.
Models can be used to help understand difficult concepts.
Solar system model
Models help scientists visualize and study complex things and things that can’t be seen.
Dinosaur model SECTION 3 Models in Science
Types of Models Most models fall into three basic types—physical models, computer models, and idea models. Depending on the reason that a model is needed, scientists can choose to use one or more than one type of model.
A basic type of map used to represent an area of land is the topographic map. It shows the natural features of the land, in addition to artificial features such as political boundaries. Draw a topographic map of your classroom in your Science Journal. Indicate the various heights of chairs, desks, and cabinets, with different colors.
Physical Models Models that you can see and touch are called physical models. Examples include things such as a tabletop solar system, a globe of Earth, a replica of the inside of a cell, or a gumdrop-toothpick model of a chemical compound. Models show how parts relate to one another. They also can be used to show how things appear when they change position or how they react when an outside force acts on them. Computer Models Computer models are built using computer software. You can’t touch them, but you can view them on a computer screen. Some computer models can model events that take a long time or take place too quickly to see. For example, a computer can model the movement of large plates in the Earth and might help predict earthquakes. Computers also can model motions and positions of things that would take hours or days to calculate by hand or even using a calculator. They can also predict the effect of different systems or forces. Figure 18 shows how computer models are used by scientists to help predict the weather based on the motion of air currents in the atmosphere. What can computer models do?
Figure 18 A weather map is a computer model showing weather patterns over large areas. Scientists can use this information to predict the weather and to alert people to potentially dangerous weather on the way.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Figure 19 Models can be created using various types of tools.
Idea Models Some models are ideas or concepts that describe how someone thinks about something in the natural world. Albert Einstein is famous for his theory of relativity, which involves the relationship between matter and energy. One of the most famous models Einstein used for this theory is the mathematical equation E mc 2. This explains that mass, m, can be changed into energy, E. Einstein’s idea models never could be built as physical models, because they are basically ideas.
Making Models The process of making a model is something like a sketch artist at work, as shown in Figure 19. The sketch artist attempts to draw a picture from the description given by someone. The more detailed the description is, the better the picture will be. Like a scientist who studies data from many sources, the sketch artist can make a sketch based on more than one person’s observation. The final sketch isn’t a photograph, but if the information is accurate, the sketch should look realistic. Scientific models are made much the same way. The more information a scientist gathers, the more accurate the model will be. The process of constructing a model of King Tutankhamun, who lived more than 3,000 years ago, is shown in Figure 20. How are sketches like scientific models?
Using Models When you think of a model, you might think of a model airplane or a model of a building. Not all models are for scientific purposes. You use models, and you might not realize it. Drawings, maps, recipes, and globes are all examples of models.
Thinking Like a Scientist Procedure 1. Pour 15 mL of water into a test tube. 2. Slowly pour 5 mL of vegetable oil into the test tube. 3. Add two drops of food coloring and observe the liquid for 5 min. Analysis 1. Record your observations of the test tube’s contents before and after the oil and the food coloring were added to it. 2. Infer a scientific explanation for your observations.
SECTION 3 Models in Science
VISUALIZING THE MODELING OF KING TUT Figure 20
ore than 3,000 years ago, King Tutankhamun ruled over Egypt. His reign was a short one, and he died when he was just 18. In 1922, his mummified body was discovered, and in 1983 scientists recreated the face of this most famous of Egyptian kings. Some of the steps in building the model are shown here.
This is the most familiar image of the face of King Tut—the gold funerary mask that was found covering his skeletal face.
A First, a scientist used measurements and X rays to create a cast of the young king’s skull. Depth markers (in red) were then glued onto the skull to indicate the likely thickness of muscle and other tissue.
B Clay was applied to fill in the area between the markers.
C Next, the features were sculpted. Here, eyelids are fashioned over inlaid prosthetic, or artificial, eyes.
D When this model of King Tut’s face was completed, the long-dead ruler seemed to come to life.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Models Communicate Some models are used to communicate observations and ideas to other people. Often, it is easier to communicate ideas you have by making a model instead of writing your ideas in words. This way others can visualize them, too.
Models Test Predictions Some models are used to test predictions. Ms. Clark’s class predicted that a box with a stapler in it would have characteristics similar to their mystery box. To test this prediction, the class made a model. Automobile and airplane engineers use wind tunnels to test predictions about how air will interact with their products.
Models Save Time, Money, and Lives Other models are used because working with and testing a model can be safer and less expensive than using the real thing. Some of these models are shown in Figure 21. For example, crash-test dummies are used in place of people when testing the effects of automobile crashes. To help train astronaunts in the conditions they will encounter in space, NASA has built a special airplane. This airplane flies in an arc that creates the condition of weightlessness for 20 to 25 s. Making several trips in the airplane is easier, safer, and less expensive than making a trip into space.
Figure 21 Models are a safe and relatively inexpensive way to test ideas.
Wind tunnels can be used to test new airplane designs or changes made to existing airplanes.
Crash-test dummies are used to test vehicles without putting people in danger.
Astronauts train in a special aircraft that models the conditions of space. SECTION 3 Models in Science
Limitations of Models
The model of Earth’s solar system changed as new information was gathered.
The solar system is too large to be viewed all at once, so models are made to understand it. Many years ago, scientists thought that Earth was the center of the universe and the sky was a blanket that covered the planet. Later, through observation, it was discovered that the objects you see in the sky are the Sun, the Moon, stars, and other planets. This new model explained the solar system differently. Earth was still the center, but everything else orbited it.
An early model of the solar system had Earth in the center with everything revolving around it.
Models Change Still later, through more observation, it was discovered that the Sun is the center of the solar system. Earth, along with the other planets, orbits the Sun. In addition, it was discovered that other planets also have moons that orbit them. A new model, shown in Figure 22B, was developed to show this. Earlier models of the solar system were not meant to be misleading. Scientists made the best models they could with the information they had. More importantly, their models gave future scientists information to build upon. Models are not necessarily perfect, but they provide a visual tool to learn from.
Later on, a new model had the Sun in the center with everything revolving around it.
1. What type of models can be used to model weather? How are they used? 2. How are models used in science? 3. How do consumer product testing services use models to ensure the safety of the final products produced? 4. Make a table describing three types of models, their advantages and limitations. 5. Think Critically Explain how some models are better than others for certain situations.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
6. Concept Mapping Develop a concept map to explain models and their uses in science. How is this concept map a model? For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook. 7. Using Proportions On a map of a state, the scale shows that 1cm is approximately 5km. If the distance between two cities is 1.7cm on the map,how many kilometers separate them? For more help, refer to the Math Skill Handbook.
Evaluating Scientific Explanation Believe it or not? Look at the photo in Figure 23. Do you believe what you see? Do you believe everything you read or hear? Think of something that someone told you that you didn’t believe. Why didn’t you believe it? Chances are you looked at the facts you were given and decided that there wasn’t enough proof to make you believe it. What you did was evaluate, or judge the reliability of what you heard. When you hear a statement, you ask the question “How do you know?” If you decide that what you are told is reliable, then you believe it. If it seems unreliable, then you don’t believe it.
Evaluate scientific explanations. Evaluate promotional claims.
Vocabulary critical thinking
Evaluating scientific claims can help you make better decisions.
Critical Thinking When you evaluate something, you use critical thinking. Critical thinking means combining what you already know with the new facts that you are given to decide if you should agree with something. You can evaluate a scientific explanation by breaking it down into two parts. First you can look at and evaluate the observations made during the scientific investigation. Do you agree with what the scientists saw? Then you can evaluate the inferences—or conclusions made about the observations. Do you agree with what the scientists think their observations mean?
Figure 23 In science, observations and inferences are not always agreed upon by everyone. Do you see the same things your classmates see in this photo?
Table 2 Favorite Foods People‘s Preference
hamburgers with ketchup
Evaluating the Data A scientific investigation always contains observations— often called data. These might be descriptions, tables, graphs, or drawings. When evaluating a scientific claim, you might first look to see whether any data are given. You should be cautious about believing any claim that is not supported by data.
Are the data specific? The data given to back up a claim
Figure 24 These scientists are writing down their observations during their investigation rather than waiting until they are back on land. Do you think this will increase or decrease the reliability of their data?
should be specific. That means they need to be exact. What if your friend tells you that many people like pizza more than they like hamburgers? What else do you need to know before you agree with your friend? You might want to hear about a specific number of people rather than unspecific words like many and more. You might want to know how many people like pizza more than hamburgers. How many people were asked about which kind of food they liked more? When you are given specific data, a statement is more reliable and you are more likely to believe it. An example of data in the form of a frequency table is shown in Table 2. A frequency table shows how many times types of data occur. Scientists must back up their scientific statements with specific data.
Take Good Notes Scientists must take thorough notes at the time of an investigation, as the scientists shown in Figure 24 are doing. Important details can be forgotten if you wait several hours or days before you write down your observations. It is also important for you to write down every observation, including ones that you don’t expect. Often, great discoveries are made when something unexpected happens in an investigation.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
Your Science Journal During this course, you will be keeping a science journal. You will write down what you do and see during your investigations. Your observations should be detailed enough that another person could read what you wrote and repeat the investigation exactly as you performed it. Instead of writing “the stuff changed color,” you might say “the clear liquid turned to bright red when I added a drop of food coloring.” Detailed observations written down during an investigation are more reliable than sketchy observations written from memory. Practice your observation skills by describing what you see in Figure 25.
Can the data be repeated? If your friend told you he could hit a baseball 100 m, but couldn’t do it when you were around, you probably wouldn’t believe him. Scientists also require repeatable evidence. When a scientist describes an investigation, as shown in Figure 26, other scientists should be able to do the investigation and get the same results. The results must be repeatable. When evaluating scientific data, look to see whether other scientists have repeated the data. If not, the data might not be reliable.
Figure 25 Detailed observations are important in order to get reliable data. Write down at least five sentences describing what you see in this photo.
Evaluating the Conclusions When you think about a conclusion that someone has made, you can ask yourself two questions. First, does the conclusion make sense? Second, are there any other possible explanations? Suppose you hear on the radio that your school will be running on a two-hour delay in the morning because of snow. You look outside. The roads are clear of snow. Does the conclusion that snow is the cause for the delay make sense? What else could cause the delay? Maybe it is too foggy or icy for the buses to run. Maybe there is a problem with the school building. The original conclusion is not reliable unless the other possible explanations are proven unlikely.
Figure 26 Working together is an important part of science. Several scientists must repeat an experiment and obtain the same results before data are considered reliable.
Evaluating Promotional Materials Scientific processes are not used only in the laboratory. Suppose you saw an advertisement in the newspaper like the one in Figure 27. What would you think? First, you might ask, “Does this make sense?” It seems unbelievable. You would probably want to hear some of the scientific data supporting the claim before you would believe it. How was this claim tested? How is the amount of wrinkling in skin measured? You might also want to know if an independent laboratory repeated the results. An independent laboratory is one that is not hired by or related in any way to the company that is selling the product or service. It has nothing to gain from the sales of the product. Results from an independent laboratory usually are more reliable than results from a laboratory paid by the selling company. Advertising materials are designed to get you to buy a product or service. It is important that you carefully evaluate advertising claims and the data that support them before making a quick decision to spend your money.
Figure 27 All material should be read with an analytical mind. What does this advertisement mean?
1. Explain what is meant by critical thinking and give an example. 2. What types of scientific claims should be verified? 3. Name two parts of a scientific explanation. Give examples of ways to evaluate the reliability of each part. 4. How can vague claims in advertising be misleading? 5. Think Critically An advertisement on a food package claims it contains Glistain, a safe, taste enhancer. Make a list of at least ten questions you would ask when evaluating the claim.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
6. Classifying Watch three television commercials and read three magazine advertisements. In your Science Journal, record the claims that each advertisement made. Classify each claim as being vague, misleading, reliable, and/or scientific. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook. 7. Researching Information Visit your school library and choose an article from a news magazine. Pick one that deals with a scientific claim. Learn more about the claim and evaluate it using the scientific process. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
What is the right answer?
cientists sometimes develop more than one explanation for observations. Can more than one explanation be correct? Do scientific explanations depend on judgment?
What You’ll Investigate Can more than one explanation apply to the same observation?
Materials cardboard mailing tubes *empty shoe boxes
length of rope scissors
Goals ■ Make a hypothesis to explain an
observation. ■ Construct a model to support your hypothesis. ■ Refine your model based on testing.
Safety Precautions WARNING: Be careful when punching holes with sharp tools.
Procedure 1. You will be shown a cardboard tube with four ropes coming out of it, one longer than the others. Your teacher will show you that when any of the three short ropes—A, C, or D—is pulled, the longer rope, B, gets shorter. Pulling on rope B returns the other ropes to their original lengths. 2. Make a hypothesis as to how the teacher’s model works. 3. Sketch a model of a tube with ropes based on your hypothesis. Check your sketch to be sure that your model will do what you expect. Revise your sketch if necessary.
4. Using a cardboard tube and two lengths of rope, build a model according to your design. Test your model by pulling each of the ropes. If it does not perform as planned, modify your hypothesis and your model to make it work like your teacher’s model.
Conclude and Apply 1. Compare your model with those made by others in your class. 2. Can more than one design give the same result? Can more than one explanation apply to the same observation? Explain. 3. Without opening the tube, can you tell which model is exactly like your teacher’s?
Make a display of your working model. Include sketches of your designs. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
Identifying Parts of an Investigation
cience investigations contain many parts. How can you identify the various parts of an investigation? In addition to variables and constants, many experiments contain a control. A control is one test, or trial, where everything is held constant. A scientist compares the control trial to the other trials.
What You’ll Investigate What are the various parts of an experiment to test which fertilizer helps a plant grow best?
Materials description of fertilizer experiment
Goals ■ Identify parts of an experiment. ■ Identify constants, variables, and
controls in the experiment. ■ Graph the results of the experiment
and draw appropriate conclusions.
Procedure 1. Read the description of the fertilizer experiment. 2. List factors that remained constant in the experiment. 3. Identify any variables in the experiment. 4. Identify the control in the experiment.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Science
5. Identify one possible hypothesis that the gardener could have tested in her investigation.
6. Describe how the gardener went about testing her hypothesis using different types of fertilizers.
7. Graph the data that the gardener collected in a line graph.
sured the height of the plants each week and gardener was interested in helping her plants recorded her data. After eight weeks of careful grow faster. When she went to the nursery, observation and record keeping, she had the folshe found three fertilizers available for her plants. lowing table of data. One of those fertilizers, fertilizer A, was recommended to her. However, she decided to conduct a test to determine which of Plant Height (cm) the three fertilizers, if any, helped her Week Fertilizer Fertilizer Fertilizer No plants grow fastest. The gardener A B C Fertilizer planted four seeds, each in a separate 1 0 0 0 0 pot. She used the same type of pot and 2 2 4 1 1 the same type of soil in each pot. She 3 5 8 5 4 fertilized one seed with fertilizer A, 4 9 13 8 7 one with fertilizer B, and one with fertilizer C. She did not fertilize the fourth 5 14 18 12 10 seed. She placed the four pots near 6 20 24 15 13 one another in her garden. She made 7 27 31 19 16 sure to give each plant the same 8 35 39 22 20 amount of water each day. She mea-
Conclude and Apply 1. Describe the results indicated by your
5. Does every researcher need the
graph. What part of an investigation have you just done? 2. Based on the results in the table and your graph, which fertilizer do you think the gardener should use if she wants her plants to grow the fastest? What part of an investigation have you just done? 3. Suppose the gardener told a friend who also grows these plants about her results. What is this an example of? 4. Suppose fertilizer B is much more expensive than fertilizers A and C. Would this affect which fertilizer you think the gardener should buy? Why or why not?
same hypothesis for an experiment? What is a second possible hypothesis for this experiment (different from the one you wrote in step 5 in the Procedure section)? 6. Did the gardener conduct an adequate test of her hypothesis? Explain why or why not.
Compare your conclusions with those of other students in your class. For more help, refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
SCIENCE AND HISTORY
SCIENCE CAN CHANGE THE COURSE OF HISTORY!
Women in Science s your family doctor a man or a woman? To your great-grandparents, such a question would likely have seemed odd. Why? Because 100 years ago, there were only a handful of women in scientific fields such as medicine. Women then weren’t encouraged to study science as they are today. But that does not mean that there were no female scientists back in your great-grandparents’ day. Many women managed to overcome great barriers and, like the more recent Nobel prizewinners featured in this article, made discoveries that changed the world.
Nobel prizes are given every year in many areas of science.
Maria Goeppert Mayer Dr. Maria Goeppert Mayer won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 for her work on the structure of an atom. An atom is made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons exist in the nucleus, or center, of the atom. The electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. Mayer proposed a similar shell model for the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus. This model greatly increased human understanding of atoms, which make up all forms of matter. About the Nobel prize, she said, “To my surprise, winning the prize wasn’t half as exciting as doing the work itself. That was the fun—seeing it work out.”
Rita LeviMontalcini In 1986, the Nobel Prize in Medicine went to Dr. Rita Levi-Montalcini, a biologist from Italy, for her discovery of growth factors. Growth factors regulate the growth of cells and organs in the body. Because of her work, doctors are better able to understand why tumors form and wounds heal.
Although she was a bright student, Dr. Levi-Montalcini almost did not go to college. “[My father] believed that a professional career would interfere with the duties of a wife and mother,” she once said. “At 20, I realized that I could not possibly adjust to a feminine role as conceived by my father, and asked him permission to engage in a professional career.” Lucky for the world, her dad agreed—and the rest is Nobel history!
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow In 1977, Dr. Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, a nuclear physicist, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovering a way to measure substances in the blood that are present in tiny amounts, such as hormones and drugs. The discovery made it possible for doctors to diagnose problems that they could not detect before. Upon winning the prize, Yalow spoke out against discrimination of women. She said, “The world cannot afford the loss of the talents of half its people if we are to solve the many problems which beset us.”
CONNECTIONS Research Write short biographies about recent Nobel prizewinners in physics, chemistry, and medicine. In addition to facts about their lives, explain why the scientists were awarded the prize. How did their discoveries impact their scientific fields or people in general?
For more information, visit science.glencoe.com
Section 1 What is science?
Section 3 Models in Science
1. Science is a way of learning more about the natural world. It can provide only possible explanations for questions.
1. A model is any representation of an object or an event used as a tool for understanding the natural world.
2. A scientific law describes a pattern in nature.
2. There are physical, computer, and idea models.
3. A scientific theory attempts to explain patterns in nature.
3. Models can communicate ideas; test predictions; and save time, money, and lives. How is this model used?
World Trade Center
4. Systems are a collection of structures, cycles, and processes that interact. Can you identify structures, cycles, and processes in this system?
Federal Reserve Bank
4. Models change as more information is learned.
Section 4 Evaluating Scientific Explanations
5. Science can be divided into three branches—life science, Earth science, and physical science. 6. Technology is the application of science.
Section 2 Science in Action 1. Science involves using a collection of skills.
1. An explanation can be evaluated by looking at the observations and the conclusions in an experiment. 2. Reliable data are specific and repeatable by other scientists. 3. Detailed notes must be taken during an investigation. 4. To be reliable, a conclusion must make sense and be the most likely explanation.
2. A hypothesis is a reasonable guess based on what you know and observe. 3. An inference is a conclusion based on observation. 4. Controlled experiments involve changing one variable while keeping others constant. 5. You should always obey laboratory safety symbols. You should also wear and use appropriate gear in the laboratory.
CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE
After You Read
Without looking at the chapter or at your Foldable, write what you learned about science on the Learned fold of your Know-Want-Learn Study Fold. Reading &Study & Study Skills
Complete the following concept map. when applied is
can be divided into
which is the study of
which is the study of
which is divided into
Living systems and the ways in which they interact
Earth systems and the systems in space
Vocabulary Words a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
which is the study of
which is the study of
Matter and interactions of matter
Energy and its ability to change matter
constant controlled experiment critical thinking Earth science hypothesis infer life science model
i. physical science j. science k. scientific law l. scientific theory m. system n. technology o. variable
Explain the relationship between the words in the following sets.
1. hypothesis, scientific theory 2. constant, variable 3. science, technology 4. science, system 5. Earth science, physical science 6. critical thinking, infer 7. scientific law, observation
Make a note of anything you don’t understand so that you’ll remember to ask your teacher about it.
8. model, system 9. controlled experiment, variable 10. scientific theory, scientific law CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the question.
1. What does infer mean? A) make observations C) replace B) draw a conclusion D) test 2. Which is an example of technology? A) a squirt bottle C) a cat B) a poem D) physical science 3. Which branch of science includes the study of weather? A) life science C) physical science B) Earth science D) engineering 4. What explains something that takes place in the natural world? A) scientific law C) scientific theory B) technology D) experiments 5. Which of the following cannot protect you from splashing acid? A) goggles C) fire extinguisher B) apron D) gloves 6. If the results from your investigation do not support your hypothesis, what should you do? A) Do nothing. B) You should repeat the investigation until it agrees with the hypothesis. C) Modify your hypothesis. D) Change your data to fit your hypothesis. 7. Which of the following is NOT an example of a scientific hypothesis? A) Earthquakes happen because of stresses along continental plates. B) Some animals can detect ultrasound frequencies caused by earthquakes. C) Paintings are prettier than sculptures. D) Lava takes different forms depending on how it cools.
8. An airplane model is an example of what type of model? A) physical C) idea B) computer D) mental 9. Using a computer to make a threedimensional picture of a building is a type of which of the following? A) model C) constant B) hypothesis D) variable 10. Which of the following increases the reliability of a scientific explanation? A) vague statements B) notes taken after an investigation C) repeatable data D) several likely explanations
11. Is evaluating a play in English class science? Explain. 12. Why is it a good idea to repeat an experiment a few times and compare results? Explain. 13. How is using a rock hammer an example of technology? Explain. 14. Why is it important to record and measure data accurately during an experiment? 15. What type of model would most likely be used in classrooms to help young children learn science? Explain.
16. Comparing and Contrasting How are scientific theories and laws similar? How are they different?
Chapter 17. Drawing Conclusions When scientists study how well new medicines work, one group of patients receives the medicine. A second group does not. Why? 18. Forming Hypotheses Make a hypothesis about the quickest way to get to school in the morning. How could you test your hypothesis? 19. Making Operational Definitions How does a scientific law differ from a state law? Give examples of both types of laws. 20. Making and Using Tables Mohs hardness scale measures how easily an object can be scratched. The higher the number is, the harder the material is. Use the table below to identify which material is the hardest and which is the softest.
Assessment Test Practice
Sally and Rafael have just learned about the parts of the solar system in science class. They decided to build a large model to better understand it. Mars Earth Venus Mercury
Uranus Neptune Pluto
21. Write a Story Write a story illustrating what science is and how it is used to investigate problems.
TECHNOLOGY Go to the Glencoe Science Web site at science.glencoe.com or use the Glencoe Science CD-ROM for additional chapter assessment.
Study the diagram and answer the following questions.
1. According to this information, Rafael and Sally’s model of the solar system best represents which kind of scientific model? A) idea B) computer C) physical D) realistic 2. According to this model, all of the following are represented EXCEPT ___________. F) the Sun G) the Moon H) planets J) stars