Questions for discussion Questions for discussion n n
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Questions for discussion
Questions for discussion n n n What is matter? What does matter include? Mention the elements of matter? How would you consider an argument is logical? Give examples. How would you consider an argument is relevant? Give examples. What part of the argument can you rebut? What is the effective way to rebut?
Matter 1. 2. Define ‘matter’ Mention elements of matter
What is matter? n n Matter is the content of the speech. Matter includes arguments, evidence presented to support those arguments, examples and analysis. Matter also includes substantive matter, rebuttal, and points of information. The content of the question and the content of the answer are matter in debate in which points of information are used.
The Elements of matter n n Logic An argument is logical if its conclusion follows from the premise. It does not mean that the premise must be capable of being proved absolutely. debaters tend to grapple with issues that are incapable of absolute proof and their cases consist of the gradual accumulation of arguments tending towards one conclusion.
Example of Logic n n A debate on the topic That capital punishment should not be allowed. The affirmative may state the following premise: that capital punishment will cause wrongly convicted, innocent people to die. The correct conclusion to lead the audience is weight is added to the overall proposition that capital punishment should not be allowed. Good debaters develop the premise into an argument and use evidence to show that the premise is likely to be correct.
Relevance n n An argument is relevant if it is likely to add weight to the overall proposition that the team is trying to prove. The proposition must be relevant to the issues in contention in the debate. Relevance is especially important in debates given the short period of time available to each speaker – there is no time for irrelevance.
Rebuttal may require establishing: n that the opposing argument is based on an error of fact, or an erroneous interpretation of fact; n that the opposing argument is irrelevant to the proof of the topic; n that the opposing argument is illogical (the conclusion does not logically flow from the premise); n that the opposing argument, while itself correct, involves unacceptable implications; and n that the opposing argument, while itself correct, should be accorded little weight. n The structure of rebuttal should be assessed in the method category while the content of the rebuttal should be assessed in the matter category.
Inexperienced habit in rebuttal n n Inexperienced debaters typically adopt a ‘point-bypoint’ style of rebuttal, listing every argument and example and rebutting them in sequence. This is hard to achieve in the allocated time and it makes no acknowledgment of the relative importance of different aspects of the opposing case. A far more effective style of rebuttal is for the speaker to identify the important strategic issues in the debate and to attack these issues and the important examples which support these issues.
The Onus of Proof n n n In most debates, there is no onus of proof. Both affirmative and negative teams must provide arguments. The affirmative team must assert positively that the proposition under debate is true; the negative team must assert positively that it is untrue. It is not enough for a negative team to rely entirely on rebutting the arguments of the affirmative. In some forms of parliamentary debate, it is acceptable for a negative team to rely entirely on rebuttal.
Taking the audience into account n n Speakers should pitch their arguments so that the particular audience can understand their case. Adjudicators may take the audience into account when assessing the persuasiveness of the arguments.
The quality of arguments n the quality of arguments is assessed by distinguishing a strong argument from a weak one (from the viewpoint of an average reasonable person).
Argument by example n n n The effective use of examples will add persuasive quality to the argument. If an argument is removed from the abstract by the use of familiar or compelling examples, an audience will be more willing to accept the argument. Good speakers identify a few compelling examples, explain their relevance and explore them in sufficient depth. Examples are an important aspect of matter. Usually they’ll be most effective when used to support an argument which has been already constructed. Examples should be used as a support for argument, not as a substitute for it.
References to experts n n Debaters will occasionally find that an expert on an issue has expressed a view which supports their team’s argument. Citing an expert in support of a case is legitimate and is an aspect of matter to be acknowledged by adjudicators. Authorities should be cited in support of an argument, not as a substitute for argument. The fact that an expert holds an opinion usually proves no more than that the expert holds that opinion.
New matter from third negative speakers n n The rule The final speaker in the debate may not introduce new matter. The purpose of the rule is to prevent unfairness in the debate. It is unfair for an issue to be raised at a point in the debate when the opposing team has no opportunity to respond. Without this rule, a negative team would be able to allocate a substantial part of its case to the final speaker, and the affirmative team would have no opportunity to respond.
n n n A number of conclusions follow from identifying the purpose of the rule: the use of fresh examples to further illustrate an earlier argument is not new matter; an argument which rebuts opposing arguments or defends the negative case is not new matter; and new matter generally consists of an entirely new issue which has not been canvassed in the debate. Where new matter is introduced, the adjudicator simply does not hear such material, and it scores no matter marks. The speaker may also incur a method penalty for a failure of organisation – the argument should have been led earlier in the debate.
The ‘invalid’ case n n A failure of relevance occurs when teams adopt arguments which, even if accepted as true, simply fail to address the topic under debate. This is a particular risk for negative teams when they incorrectly predict the approach of the affirmative team. In a debate on the topic That we would prefer small government, the affirmative may argue that small government is preferable to big government. It would be an invalid for the negative to argue that big government can be effective (without reference to the benefits or otherwise of small government). It is invalid because the negative team’s arguments can be accepted without rejecting the arguments of the affirmative team.
The ‘hung’ case n In a hung case, the first speaker establishes a premise, the second speaker establishes another premise, and only after the second premise can the conclusion be drawn. In other words, it’s not possible to prove a final conclusion at the end of the first speaker’s speech.
n For example, in a debate on the topic That euthanasia is wrong, the affirmative structures its case such that the first speaker argues that euthanasia means the taking of life; the second speaker argues that taking life is wrong in all circumstances. If the premises are valid, the conclusion follows that euthanasia is wrong in all cases.
n In this example, it’s impossible to conclude that euthanasia is wrong after the first speech – it is only by considering the first and second speeches together that the conclusion can be drawn. This structure does not allow each speech to affirm or negate the topic in itself. Hung cases are not permitted.
Humorous arguments n Humorous arguments should be judged according to the same requirements as all other arguments – they must be relevant and logical. Humour will also have an impact on the assessment of manner.