Investigating the cause of Brassica-associated liver disease (BALD) in cattle: Progoitrin-derived nitrile toxicosis in rats.A large outbreak of liver toxicity in dairy cows that were consuming swede (rutabaga, Brassica napus ssp. napobrassica) crops in Southland and Otago, New Zealand in 2014 prompted the search for the toxin(s) responsible for brassica-associated liver disease (BALD).  Analysis of swede plant material showed that the ultra-dominant glucosinolate was progoitrin.  The two nitrile derivatives of progoitrin, 1-cyano-2-hydroxy-3-butene (CHB, also known as crambene) and 1-cyano-2-hydroxy-3,4-epithiobutane (CHEB), were custom-synthesised.  In this pilot trial, individual progoitrin nitriles were administered by gavage to rats in order to establish a "subtoxic" dose, i.e. the dose where apparently clinically normal rats show liver injury based on altered serum biochemical indicators and histological lesions.  We found that consecutive daily doses of 1 mmol/kg CHB produced severe pancreatic and mild liver histological lesions in the absence of notable biochemical changes in clinically normal rats.  No evidence of a cumulative effect was seen.  Single doses of 1 mmol/kg of CHEB caused elevated concentrations of serum creatinine and distinctive renal and stomach histological lesions in apparently clinically normal rats.  Consecutive daily 1 mmol/kg doses of CHEB had a considerable cumulative effect and proved severely hepato- and nephrotoxic with creatinine concentrations peaking after three daily doses.  Three other commercially available nitriles (3-butenenitrile, 4-pentenenitrile and 5-hexenenitrile) derived from minor glucosinolates in the swedes were also investigated in this pilot trial.  Single combined 1 mmol/kg doses of both progoitrin nitriles as well as these two nitriles plus small doses of the other three failed to demonstrate any synergism, however, the characteristic and apparently dominant effects of CHEB were consistently demonstrated.  The results of this pilot study confirmed the previously reported pancreatotoxicity of CHB and nephrotoxicity of CHEB.  CHEB also caused intraepithelial pustules, submucosal oedema, erosions and ulcers in the squamous portion of the stomach.  These stomach lesions, as well as the renal lesions, appear identical to those caused by another epithionitrile, 1-cyano-3,4-epithiobutane, derived from gluconapin, which was a minor glucosinolate in the swedes.  Because of the fact that cyanide can be released with the metabolism of some nitriles, we analysed cyanide in the livers of treated rats.  The liver of a rat dosed with 1 mmol/kg of 3-butenenitrile contained 0.5 μg/g of cyanide.  The hypothesis that BALD is due to nitrile toxicity requires further testing.
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