Jumping Hurdles: Peptides Able To Overcome Biological Barriers.The cell membrane, the gastrointestinal tract, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are good examples of biological barriers that define and protect cells and organs.  They impose different levels of restriction, but they also share common features.  For instance, they all display a high lipophilic character.  For this reason, hydrophilic compounds, like peptides, proteins, or nucleic acids have long been considered as unable to bypass them.  However, the discovery of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) opened a vast field of research.  Nowadays, CPPs, homing peptides, and blood-brain barrier peptide shuttles (BBB-shuttles) are good examples of peptides able to target and to cross various biological barriers.  CPPs are a group of peptides able to interact with the plasma membrane and enter the cell.  They display some common characteristics like positively charged residues, mainly arginines, and amphipathicity.  In this field, our group has been focused on the development of proline rich CPPs and in the analysis of the importance of secondary amphipathicity in the internalization process.  Proline has a privileged structure being the only amino acid with a secondary amine and a cyclic side chain.  These features constrain its structure and hamper the formation of H-bonds.  Taking advantage of this privileged structure, three different families of proline-rich peptides have been developed, namely, a proline-rich dendrimer, the sweet arrow peptide (SAP), and a group of foldamers based on γ-peptides.  The structure and the mechanism of internalization of all of them has been evaluated and analyzed.  BBB-shuttles are peptides able to cross the BBB and to carry with them compounds that cannot reach the brain parenchyma unaided.  These peptides take advantage of the natural transport mechanisms present at the BBB, which are divided in active and passive transport mechanisms.  On the one hand, we have developed BBB-shuttles that cross the BBB by a passive transport mechanism, like diketoperazines (DKPs), (N-MePhe)n, or (PhPro)n.  On the other hand, we have investigated BBB-shuttles that utilize active transport mechanisms such as SGV, THRre, or MiniAp-4.  For the development of both groups, we have explored several approaches, such as the use of peptide libraries, both chemical and phage display, or hit-to-lead optimization processes.  In this Account, we describe, in chronologic order, our contribution to the development of peptides able to overcome various biological barriers and our efforts to understand the mechanisms that they display.  In addition, the potential use of both CPPs and BBB-shuttles to improve the transport of promising therapeutic compounds is described.
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