Amino acid starvation induced by protease inhibition produces differential alterations in redox status and the thiol proteome in organogenesis-stage rat embryos and visceral yolk sacs.The process of embryonic nutrition in rodent conceptuses during organogenesis has been shown to involve a dominant histiotrophic mechanism where essential developmental substrates and micronutrients are supplied as whole maternal proteins or cargoes associated with proteins.  The histiotrophic nutrition pathways (HNP) responsible for uptake and initial processing of proteins across maternal-conceptal interfaces involve uptake via receptor mediated endocytosis and protein degradation via lysosomal proteolysis.  Chemical inhibition of either process can lead to growth deficits and malformation in the embryo (EMB), but selective inhibition of either HNP component will elicit a different subset of developmental perturbations.  In vitro, whole embryo culture exposure of GD10 or GD11 rat conceptuses to the natural protease inhibitor, leupeptin, leads to significant reductions in all measured embryonic growth parameters as well as a myriad of other effects.  Leupeptin doses of 10 μM or 20 μM over a 26-h period (GD10-GD11) and 50 μM over a 3 h pulse period produced significant decreases in the clearance of FITC-albumin from culture media.  The near complete loss of acid soluble fluorescence and increased total visceral yolk sac (VYS) protein content confirmed the selective inhibition of proteolysis.  Inhibition of lysosomal proteolysis thus deprives the developing EMB of essential nutrient amino acids producing conditions akin to amino acid starvation, but may also cause direct effects on pathways critical for normal growth and differentiation.  Following leupeptin exposure for 26 or 6 h, total glutathione (GSH) concentrations dropped significantly in the VYS, but only slightly in yolk sac (YSF) and amniotic (AF) fluids.  Cys concentrations increased in VYS and EMB, but dropped in YSF and AF fluids.  Redox potentials (Eh) for the glutathione disulfide (GSSG)/glutathione (GSH) redox couple trended significantly toward the positive, confirming the net oxidation of conceptual tissues following leupeptin treatment.  Analysis of the thiol proteome showed few alterations to specific pathways mapped to the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Pathway database, but did reveal significant increases in concentrations of proteins associated with glycolysis/gluconeogenesis in the VYS and decreased concentrations proteins associated with ribosome biogenesis and function in the EMB.  A subset of proteins elevated by >2-23-fold in the VYS were identified as serum (blood) proteins and represent the maternal-side proteins captured by the VYS and which are not degraded in the lysosomes as a result of leupeptin's inhibitory action.  The observed constellation of proteins decreased in the EMB by leupeptin represent proteins from several adaptive pathways that are commonly altered in responses to amino acid starvation.  These studies show clear differential responses to protease inhibition in VYS and EMB during organogenesis and suggest the possibility for additional roles of redox regulation, cellular adaptations and metabolic insufficiency caused by protease inhibition.
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