We introduce a new analytical framework to quantify the changes in a machine learning algorithm's output distribution following the inclusion of a few data points in its training set, a notion we define as leave-one-out distinguishability (LOOD).  This problem is key to measuring data **memorization** and information **leakage** in machine learning, and the **influence** of training data points on model predictions.  We illustrate how our method broadens and refines existing empirical measures of memorization and privacy risks associated with training data. We use Gaussian processes to model the randomness of machine learning algorithms, and validate LOOD with extensive empirical analysis of information leakage using membership inference attacks. Our theoretical framework enables us to investigate the causes of information leakage and where the leakage is high.  For example, we analyze the influence of activation functions, on data memorization.  Additionally, our method allows us to optimize  queries that disclose the most significant information about the training data in the leave-one-out setting.  We illustrate how optimal queries can be used for accurate **reconstruction** of training data.
Leave-one-out Distinguishability in Machine Learning
Jiayuan Ye Anastasia Borovykh Soufiane Hayou Reza Shokri