Quality and character of school life
School climate refers to the quality and character of school life. It has been described as "the heart and soul of the school ... that essence of a school that leads a child, a teacher, and an administrator to love the school and to look forward to being there each school day." A positive school climate helps people feel socially, emotionally and physically safe in schools. It includes students', parents' and school personnel's norms, beliefs, relationships, teaching and learning practices, as well as organizational and structural features of the school. According to the National School Climate Council, a sustainable, positive school climate promotes students' academic and social emotional development.
Many factors can affect the quality and character of school life. There is no consensus on the definition or dimensions of school climate. However, the factors that shape school climate are often grouped into four main dimensions. These dimensions are: safety, teaching and learning ("academic climate"), relationships ("community climate"), and the environment. Each dimension is discussed in detail below.
Positive school climate is related to many positive student outcomes. For example, positive school climate is associated to higher academic performance, better mental health, and less bullying. Improving school climate can be used as a preventative approach to reduce disruptive behavior and improve attendance, achievement, and student and parent satisfaction with school. Many assessment tools and interventions have therefore been developed to help school in the climate improve process.
Dimensions.
Safety.
All humans need to feel safe socially, mentally, and physically. Feeling safe in school influences students' learning and their general development. However, many students do not feel safe in schools. Most students are not necessarily exposed to physical violence, but many students are exposed to social, emotional, and intellectual violence. A positive school climates therefore means feeling physically and emotional safe, and having clear and consistent rules to maintain order and discipline.
Academic climate.
Academic climate refers to the teaching and learning practices promoted in the school. It is composed of three factors: leadership, teaching and learning, and professional development.
Community.
The quality of relationships between members of a school (teachers, students, and administrators) has an influence on students' behavior and achievement. The relationship between a student and their teacher affects their engagement in the classroom, self-esteem, and grades. The "community" aspect of school climate refers to the quality of relationships within a school. It also includes the school's connectedness, respect for diversity, and partnerships with other members of the community.
Institutional environment.
The physical layout, size, and material resources of a school also affect school climate. For instance, environmental variables such as classroom layout and activity schedules can influence how safe students feel and how well they perform in school. Environmental variables include the adequacy of the school setting, the maintenance and infrastructure of the building, and the accessibility and allocation of educational resources.
Theoretical frameworks.
There are several theories of school climate described in the research literature. They are ordered based on the scientific research that has supported them.
Bio-ecological theory.
Urie Bronfenbrenner's (1979) bio-ecological framework suggests that human development occurs through the complex, reciprocal interactions that an individual has with others and the surrounding environment. This theory outlines four systems of operations including a microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem, where the self is microsystem and school is part of the mesosystem. It proposes that individuals have ultimate control over their own environments, altering and modifying to their needs, however, this is only possible through self-directed actions that combine biological and environmental attributes. One cannot engage in reconstructing their environment without both of these attributes working together. More depth of this concept can be referenced in the bioecological model. In the context of school climate, individual behaviors are shaped by the school environment, in which each child is embedded. For example, the structure and condition of the school, the use of specific school practices (e.g., disciplinary), and the interpersonal relationships between students and teachers, all play a role in influencing student development.
Risk and resilience perspective.
The focus of this model is on identifying protective factors in a child's environment (e.g., supportive relationships) that promote healthy adjustment and reduce negative outcomes, despite the presence of risk. A risk factor refers to anything that increases a child's likelihood of experiencing a negative outcome in the future. For example, growing up in poverty is considered a risk factor. Children are considered resilient if they can rely on positive conditions or attributes (e.g., supportive relationships with teachers, academically challenging instruction) to buffer the negative effects of adversity. Psychological resilience has been studied since the 1970s and continues to grow in research.
Social cognitive theory.
Environmental factors affect how students view themselves as active learners within the classroom. School climate plays a role in student development through the quality of interactions with others. For example, setting appropriate academic expectations, promoting supportive teacher-student relationships, and creating a safe and secure environment where students' feel comfortable taking academic risks, all play a role in student development. Research has shown that people have the natural tendency to affiliate with others. Therefore, students living in a cooperative, helpful class are more likely to feel identity safe as they develop a sense of belonging and contribute to their class community. When students cooperate, it is evident that their learning is increased, and they develop a positive attachment to school. This capacity to work together has been a hallmark of humanity and the basis for building a civil society.
Stage-environment fit theory.
According to this theory, behavior, emotions, and thoughts are influenced by personal characteristics and the surrounding environment. In the context of school climate, the fit between students' psychological needs and the school environment plays a role in students' motivation for academic success. Because of the social nature of learning, the social identities of the teacher and each of the students is important and influences every interaction in the classroom. Students are affected behaviorally and emotionally by every encounter they have in the classroom. Humans have the tendency to conform to others. For example, if the teacher of a classroom has a confident and intelligent persona then the students are more likely to portray these same characteristics in the classroom. Adults from non-Western cultures often identify children's attention to and ability to copy adults actions as a social learning strategy and a sign of intelligence. When this external motivation to conform to others and the internal motivation to succeed tie together, this theory of being influenced by an environment come into play.
Social control theory.
According to this theory, delinquency occurs when an individual's feelings of attachment towards others, commitment to current or future activities, involvement (i.e., time spent) in various activities, and commitment to the beliefs/moral value system of society are weakened. The quality of a schools' climate is important for promoting students' commitment and involvement in academic activities. A strong bond with the school community strengthens students' attachment to the school and encourages compliance to school norms. The interplay of these factors reduces the likelihood of deviant behavior.
Impact.
Mental health and social-emotional well-being.
Studies have shown that school climate can directly affect students' mental health and social-emotional well-being. The quality of life within a school setting can promote the healthy social and emotional development of students. Many aspects linked to a positive school climate such as the ones described above (e.g. school belonging, respect for student opinions, and supportive relationships) are factors directly related in student psychological functioning. For instance, in a study that examined adolescents' perceptions of several dimensions of school climate, researchers emotional support from teachers and the promotion of autonomy and discussion were linked to fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents. When students perceive their classroom rules, school discipline, and overall school safety as fair, they are less likely to experience feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and depression (Grapham et al., 2006; Ozer &amp; Weinstein, 2004). A positive school climate can also help students coping with social-emotional issues to develop resiliency.
Research findings have also shown that a negative school climate can have detrimental effects on students' psychological and social-emotional well-being, leading to mental health problems. For example, a higher incidence of conflict in schools is linked to a higher rate of childhood mental health disorders. A negative school climate can also make existing social-emotional difficulties worse, and these effects can be long-term. For example, the severity of a student's mental health problems can increase over time if classroom conditions do not improve. In a study of middle school adolescents' perceptions of school climate and its effect on psychological health, researchers found that dimensions of school climate (safety, relationships, connectedness, sense of belonging, etc.) and psychological and emotional health declined over three years. Additionally, declines in school climate were linked to declines in students' psychological adjustment. Posselt and Lipson found, in 2016, that those who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety.
Academic achievement.
A positive school climate is also important for student achievement. For example, in a study of elementary student achievement in reading and mathematics, positive teacher characteristics such as setting high but achievable goals, believing in students, and commitment to students' academic success was associated with higher standardized test scores. Research has shown that when teachers perceive themselves as efficacious, the school has effective principal leadership, and relationships between students and peers are positive, student standardized test scores, GPA, and grades are higher. These relationships have been found among students in kindergarten to grade 12.
There is also a relationship between school resource allocation and student achievement. Several research studies highlight the link between student achievement and resources such as teacher education and experience, class size, teacher to student ration, school facilities, classroom materials, and financial expenditures.
Structural features of the school, such as the temperature and age of the building, can affect student performance and school attendance. In a study of students' exposure to adverse school building conditions and absenteeism, researchers found that student absenteeism was associated with visible mold and poor ventilation, among other factors. If students are absent from school, academic achievement can be affected.
Behavioral outcomes.
School climate has also been linked to behavioral problems within the school, such as bullying, delinquency, and aggressive behavior. A high-quality academic environment within the school can reduce behavioral problems. For example, both lower student and teacher reports of behavioral problems have been documented in schools where teachers provide feedback on students' homework, assist in student goal-achievement, and encourage students' commitment to academic success.
When students perceive that their school has a strong sense of solidarity and belonging, they are more likely to intervene or report when a peer engages in risk activities. Research studies have also shown that reductions in student behavioral problems, aggression, and victimization are associated with positive relationships among school staff and peers.
On teachers.
The dimensions of school climate also affect teachers significantly. Teacher retention, or getting teachers to stay in the same school for many years, is an important issue in many schools. However, many factors linked to school climate have been found to affect teacher turnover rates. For instance, poor support from administration, student discipline problems, and not feeling they can contribute to decision making in the school are all conditions that are linked to poor teacher retention. The relationships between teachers and their colleagues and the school administration, also play an important role in teacher's commitment to their profession. In addition, school climate factors can influence teachers' mental health. For instance, poor relationships with students and colleagues and low parental and community involvement are related to emotional exhaustion (burnout) in teachers. A negative school climate is also associated to teachers having more feelings of low personal accomplishment, more cynicism, and depersonalization.
Improvement.
The best way to improve school climate is different from school to school. The promotion of a positive school climate is a general process that varies based on an individual school's strengths and weaknesses across different dimensions. Nonetheless, some general guidelines, or "key practices," have been found to be effective to facilitate the process. School climate improvement can be defined as an intentional, strategic, collaborative, transparent, and coordinated "effort" to make school learning environments stronger. Research suggests that engaging all members of the community is crucial for successful school improvement efforts. According to the National School Climate Center, an effective school climate improvement process is one that engages all stakeholders in six key practices:
Measures.
In schools, obtaining