Violence in literature refers to the recurrent use of violence as a storytelling motif in classic and contemporary literature, both fiction and non-fiction. Depending on the nature of the narrative, violence can be represented either through graphic descriptions or psychological and emotional suffering. Historical literary eras have differed in their purposes for employing this thematic element, with some stories using it to symbolize a societal, psychological, or philosophical matter and others for the sole object of entertainment. 
Regardless of genre and period, literary violence has been a subject of controversy as it is often considered unethical and harmful for readers, particularly when it comes to juvenile literature.
Historical development.
Storytelling is an experience common to all cultures and periods. Having most likely started with cave drawings depicting humans, animals, and elements of nature in the preliterate age as far as 30,000 years ago, it has developed significantly with the use of spoken and written language. Regardless of its form, however, violence has been a prevalent developing theme throughout literary history.
Heroic literature.
The earliest tales of heroic deeds and adventures were told orally in the form of epic poetry, folk songs, and prayers from one generation to another. Epics describe, in stylized and lyrical language, the adventures of a hero, often with superhuman qualities, that serve to put his character to the test. Most epics feature the interference of the concerned culture's gods and deities to either hamper or facilitate the protagonist's journey. These tales tend to be either completely fictional or a blend of fiction and history.
Epics are known for their acts of grand-scale brutality. Recognized as the most ancient of literary texts, The Sumerian "Epic of Gilgamesh" (c. 2150 – 1400 BCE), discovered on clay tablets, begins with its protagonist king, corrupted by power, incessantly abusing his people; killing men and assaulting women. Themes of slaughter, sacrifice, rivalry, disease, and natural disasters are described throughout his quest for eternal life. Some acts of violence appear to be committed for the sake of glory and fame, such as the brutal duel between Gilgamesh and Enkidu for kingdom over the Babylonian land, whereas others have a greater significance to the plot.
Later epics from different cultures displayed similar, if more magnified, violence to relate their characters' struggles. Homer's "Iliad", known approximately 1500 years after Gilgamesh, recounts the ten-year Trojan War with descriptions of one warrior's grisly slaughter after the other. In addition to the graphic imagery, these deaths are often indicated with metaphorical language, such as a darkness setting upon the victim's eyes or pouring about the body. Yet of the most violent features in the epic is Achilles's manhandling of Hector's body in a display of the utter inhumanity of war; it is left to be mauled by dogs and scavenging birds, then stabbed by other Achaeans, only to be, at last, dragged around by his killer's chariot. The suffering, nevertheless, is not only physical but also emotional, an example of which being the psychological torment Helen is subject to as she blames herself for starting the war. This epic's sequel, the "Odyssey", does not fall short in its share of violence. During a ten-year journey, the protagonist is forced to witness his men suffer terrible fates as brutal storms are sent their way and they, upon landing on a variety of islands, are attacked by their inhabitants. For example, Sicily's Polyphemus, one-eyed giant son of Poseidon, eats his crew alive – two at a time. Later, cannibalistic Laestrygonians annihilate all the ships save Odysseus's and, landing on Aeaea next, his men are turned to swine by the enchantress Circe.
Generally, violence in epics presents itself as a truth and way of life that a person may follow either for goodness or evil. It is also used as a device to convey the society's cultural value of reverence and respect for their deities; any act of disobedience or offense is punishable by the concerned deity. For instance, in the "Odyssey", Zeus destroys the surviving crew, except for Odysseus, when they transgress by slaughtering the sacred cattle of the sun. Another reason for the excessive display of violence, in addition to representing the darkness of human nature and the adversities of social conflicts, is characterization. Since an epic portrays the trials inflicted upon a hero, that these trials include physical and emotional violence serves to demonstrate the strength, control, and resilience expected from him.
Religious literature.
Early Abrahamic scriptures, believed to have been predated by the aforementioned Epic of Gilgamesh, include stories of God sending his punishments upon transgressors and of humans inflicting each other with harm. A common narrative is the destruction of the cities Sodom and Gomorrah, though religious interpretations differ on the nature of the notorious sin committed by their people and the way they were destroyed. In Genesis (19:24), they are annihilated with "sulfur and fire" and Lot's wife who, despite being warned of the incoming disaster, remains behind with the wicked and is turned into a "pillar of salt". The Quran does not mention the cities by name, but the story of the prophet Lot describes a similar account, where the cities are demolished by stones raining down. Jewish, Christian, and Islamic literature mention various instances of natural calamities sent to penalize oppressors and sinners; the Red Sea, after being split by Moses to allow for his and his people's safe passage, floods the land and drowns Pharaoh's army. Fires, volcanic eruptions, windstorms, droughts, and earthquakes are also mentioned in several holy book chapters.
As for human-induced violence, the story of Cain and Abel (first sons of Adam and Eve) describes the first murder committed upon the Earth, and is virtually the same in all three religions: Cain's sacrifices to God are rejected but his brother's accepted, and out of jealousy, the first slays the latter. Other accounts of human-induced brutality include descriptions of battle, conquest, sacrifice, imprisonment, stoning, and crucifixion – among others. Typically, these accounts serve to not only educate the followers of the religions about previous nations but to warn them of the darkness of human nature as well as the consequence of sin, oppression, and God's power.
Gothic literature.
The Romantic (c. 1790 – 1830) and Victorian (c. 1832 – 1901) periods revolutionized the use of violence and suffering as literary themes with the introduction of the gothic genre. Perceived as dark romanticism with a focus on the evil side of humanity, gothic fiction is aestheticized with elements of fear, mystery, degeneration, and haunting. It employs dark settings (typically old houses and castles haunted by an ominous past or owned by villainous characters, and designed with intricate gothic architecture from which the genre draws its name) and supernatural devices to draw on emotional extremes and convey a general atmosphere of dread. Violent events, such as murder and torture, are typical plot elements that are often symbolic of issues of social injustice and corruption, as well as personal and psychological struggles. The genre was inadvertently founded by English author Horace Walpole who, being the first to use the word "gothic" in a title for his 1764 novel "", originally intended it to mean "barbarous" or "of the Middle Ages". It quickly earned popularity in Europe, then America, and some of its notable contributors include Ann Radcliffe, Matthew Lewis, and Charles Brockden Brown in the 18th century, then Robert Louis Stevenson, Bram Stoker, Mary Shelley, and Edgar Allan Poe in the 19th.
As the first known gothic tale, Walpole's novel features violence that is both realistic and fantastical. Physical harm is mostly attributed to human or material causes; like the graphic death of the protagonist Manfred's son by a gigantic helmet that falls and crushes him on his wedding day. Other instances include sexual assault, bloody knight duels, abuse by oppressive authorities, and the climactic yet accidental fatal stabbing of Matilda. On the other hand, the psychological torment experienced by the characters is mostly due to supernatural characters and elements. For example, Manfred is throughout the novel mercilessly haunted by his grandfather's ghost, and several of his actions and decisions, especially those of violent nature, are driven by the constant fear of ancient magical prophecies. It is, after all, a prophecy which predicts the loss of kingdom after his son's death that pushes Manfred to attempt raping Isabella and, later, murdering her. His efforts remain unsuccessful, however, as he mistakes Matilda for her and ends up killing his own daughter. The novel's gothic aspects – gruesome violence, emotional abuse, mystic scenery, and details of setting such as medieval architecture, secret passages, and animated portraits – inspired contemporary and later authors to imitate, reform, and develop the genre.
Shelley's "Frankenstein", for example, takes it on differently. Employing gothic elements in her story, she utilizes violence for a purpose other than representing the dark, unrestricted cunning of humanity or the desire for honor and kingship. Instead, the monster's brutal behavior (first, second, and third-degree murders) is motivated by experiences and emotions that are often at the root of human psychological and depressive issues. The creation is abandoned by its scientist and left to fend for itself, but society only shuns and neglects it. The feelings of rejection and loneliness fuel its anger and in turn its temptation to harm others, according to this line spoken by the character: "This passion is detrimental to me, for you do not reflect that you are the cause of its excess" (Shelley 157). Within the gothic framework, Shelley therefore gave literary violence a new utility: it can be reflective of the flaws of human nature and society – a symbol for the emotional suffering caused by social neglect and injustice. Moreover, Frankenstein introduced the idea that knowledge – particularly the scientific – can be used as a weapon for evil just as for good. This concept dominated later works of fiction, especially within the speculative type.
But Poe, who was arguably the father of American gothic literature and the inspiration for future horror authors, innovated the genre further by focusing on human psyche and showing that true horror comes from the mind and soul. Though several of his tales consist of graphic descriptions, it is his focus on the characters' psychological trauma and twisted mentalities, supported by the presence of supernatural elements and reflected in intricate and suspenseful descriptions of setting, that heightens their horror. In "The Fall of the House of Usher", Poe instantly establishes a gothic setting: outside the old and decaying castle is a violent storm, and inside are mystifying damp rooms visited by the corpse of Madeline. The disintegration of the family estate house is symbolic of Roderick and Madeline's unstable mental and physical states; when they die in the end, the house, as described by the narrator, splits into two fragments that sink into the lake. Roderick's deteriorating condition may be explanatory of the supernatural aspects of the story; in other words, that it is his illness that makes him believe the house is haunted and that his sister is back from the dead. Regardless, the horror in the tale remains in the fact that such suffering is transcendental; a truth in the lives of some and a possibility in the lives of all. He creates suspense in his readers not with gory and bloody details, but with explorations of the human mind and the dangers it may cause or fall into. As a precursor to horror genres popular today, gothic fiction in the Romantic and Victorian eras therefore employed violence that took on connotations beyond glory as in most epics and the spiritual purposes in religious literature.
Modern and contemporary literature.
The modern era (c. 1914 – 1945) is characterized by a surge in popularity of literary genres often reputable for their violence. Crime and detective fiction, for instance, though having been published earlier in the 19th century in works such as Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" and Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", saw heightened success in the period between the two world wars. This duration, known as the Golden Age of Detective Fiction, is marked with the emergence of celebrated authors like Agatha Christie and Dorothy L. Sayers. In such stories, the protagonist investigates clues to a criminal case which, most often, is murder – and it varies in degree of brutality from one tale to another. In Christie's debut novel,