End times in Norse mythology
In Norse mythology, ( or ; ) is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including the gods Odin, Thor, Týr, Freyr, Heimdall, and Loki); it will entail a catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors, Líf and Lífþrasir. is an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history of Germanic studies.
The event is attested primarily in the "Poetic Edda", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In the "Prose Edda" and in a single poem in the "Poetic Edda", the event is referred to as , a usage popularised by 19th-century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his "Der Ring des Nibelungen" operas, (1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German.
Etymology.
The Old Norse compound word has a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear: , the genitive plural of (n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants, and . Writing in the early 20th century, philologist Geir Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossing as 'the doom or destruction of the gods' and as 'the twilight of the gods.' The plural noun has several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.' The word as a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of the gods.'
The singular form is found in a stanza of the "Poetic Edda" poem "Lokasenna", and in the "Prose Edda". The noun means 'twilight' (from the verb 'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology, or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of (spelled ǫ) and (spelled ø) in Old Icelandic after c. 1200
(nevertheless giving rise to the calque 'Twilight of the Gods' in the German reception of Norse mythology).
Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding in the "Poetic Edda" include ( means age, 'end of an age') from a stanza of , from two stanzas of , ('when the gods die') from , ('when the gods will be destroyed') from , , and , ('destruction of the age') from , ('end of the gods') from , and, in the "Prose Edda", ('when the sons of Muspell move into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of .
Presence in literature.
"Poetic Edda".
The "Poetic Edda" contains various references to :
In the "Poetic Edda" poem , references to begin from stanza 40 until 58, with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, a (a female seer) recites information to Odin. In stanza 41, the says:
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The then describes three roosters crowing: In stanza 42, the herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar (Old Norse "hider, deceiver") crows in the forest Gálgviðr. The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla, and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43.
After these stanzas, the further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir. Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. The describes the state of humanity:
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The "sons of Mím" are described as being "at play," though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources. Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans. The Hrym comes from the east, his shield before him. The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes, causing waves to crash. "The eagle shrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse," and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east. The fire inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth.
The continues that Jötunheimr, the land of the , is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. The dwarfs groan by their stone doors. Surtr advances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and the women sink.
The gods then do battle with the invaders: Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir, causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son, the god Baldr). Odin's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat by Thor. Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from the Serpent's venom. The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses. After this, people flee their homes, and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens.
The sees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr. They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of the past, and the runic alphabet. In stanza 61, in the grass, they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together.
The says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé, where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably. Stanzas 65, found in the version of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norse ), which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem. In stanza 66, the ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr, corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. The then "sinks down." It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post- world.
The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to in stanza 39 of the poem "Vafþrúðnismál". In the poem, Odin, disguised as Gagnráðr, faces off with the wise Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir–Vanir War, and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men."
In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous" ("Mighty Winter"). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir and that they will hide in the forest of , that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that after this daughter will continue her mother's path.
In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in the temples of the gods, and that Thor's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks the about his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this. Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after .
 is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem . Here, the valkyrie Sigrún's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane's burial mound. Helgi is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or if has occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither.
"Prose Edda".
Snorri Sturluson's "Prose Edda" quotes heavily from and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided in .
"Gylfaginning" chapters 26 and 34.
In the "Prose Edda" book "Gylfaginning", various references are made to . is first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure of High, king of the hall, tells Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn, including that her apples will keep the gods young until .
In chapter 34, High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the god Týr to lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there until . Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin."
As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi (which are turned into iron) in three places. There, venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the Skaði. Loki's wife Sigyn collects the venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting in earthquakes. Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of .
chapter 51.
Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of interspersed with various quotes from , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that the first sign of will be , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 of . Next, High describes that the wolf will swallow the sun, then his brother will swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds.
High relates that the great serpent Jörmungandr, also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in the "Prose Edda" as being made from the human nails of the dead, is released from its mooring and sets sail on the surging sea, steered by a named Hrym. At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to the heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea.
During all of this, the sky splits into two.