For over two millennia, texts in Chinese herbology and traditional Chinese medicine have recorded medicinal plants that are also hallucinogens and psychedelics. Some are familiar psychoactive plants in Western herbal medicine (e.g., , i.e. "Hyoscyamus niger"), but several Chinese plants have not been noted as hallucinogens in modern works (e.g., i.e. "Caesalpinia decapetala"). Chinese herbals are an important resource for the history of botany, for instance, Zhang Hua's c. 290 "Bowuzhi" is the earliest record of the psilocybin mushroom "xiàojùn" (lit. "laughing mushroom", i.e. "Gymnopilus junonius").
Terminology.
There is a lexical gap between Chinese names and descriptions of hallucinogenic plants and English pharmacological terminology for hallucinogens, which are commonly divided into psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants.
The English lexicon has a complex semantic field for psychoactive drugs, and most terms are neologisms.
"Hallucination" (from Latin "alucinor" "to wander in mind") is defined as: "The apparent, often strong subjective perception of an external object or event when no such stimulus or situation is present; may be visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile." "Hallucinogen" (coined in 1952 from Latin "alucinor" and "-gen" "producing"): "A mind-altering chemical, drug, or agent, specifically a chemical the most prominent pharmacologic action of which is on the central nervous system (mescaline); in normal people, it elicits optic or auditory hallucinations, depersonalization, perceptual disturbances, and disturbances of thought processes."
Pharmacology divides hallucinogens into three classes. "Psychedelic" (first used in 1956 from Greek "psyche-" "mind; soul" and "delein" "to manifest"): "Pertaining to a rather imprecise category of drugs with mainly central nervous system action, and with effects said to be the expansion or heightening of consciousness, LSD, hashish, mescaline, psilocybin." "Dissociative" is a class of hallucinogen that produces feelings of "dissociation" (Latin "dissocioatus" "to disjoin, separate" from "socius" "partner, ally") meaning "(3) An unconscious separation of a group of mental processes from the rest, resulting in an independent functioning of these processes and a loss of the usual associations, a separation of affect from cognition." "Dissociative disorders" is defined as "a group of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in the functions of identity, memory, consciousness, or perception of the environment; this diagnostic group includes dissociative (older term, psychogenic) amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity (older term, multiple personality) disorder, and depersonalization disorder." "Deliriant" is a technical term introduced to distinguish hallucinogens that primarily cause "delirium" (1982, from Latin "deliro" "to be crazy" and "delira" "go out of the furrow"): "An altered state of consciousness, consisting of confusion, distractibility, disorientation, disordered thinking and memory, defective perception (illusions and hallucinations), prominent hyperactivity, agitation, and autonomic nervous system overactivity; caused by illness, medication, or toxic, structural, and metabolic disorders."
The equivalent semantic field in the Chinese lexicon comprises contemporary loanwords. "Huànjué" ( "hallucination; delusion; illusion") compounds "huàn" ( "unreal; imaginary; illusory") and ("jué"" "feeling; sensation; perception"). "Zhìhuànjì" ( "psychedelic; hallucinogen") compounds "zhì" ( "incur; cause"), "huàn" "unreal; imaginary; illusory", and "jì" ( "medicinal preparation; dose"). "Zhìhuànyào" ( "hallucinogenic drug") with "yào" ( "medicine; drug") is a less common synonym.
"Míhuànyàowù" ( "psychedelic") combines "míhuàn" ( "phantasmagoric; surreal; mysterious; psychedelic") and "yàowù" ( "medicine; pharmaceutical; medicament"). The Chinese technical names for the last two classes of hallucinogens are rare: "Yóulíyàopǐn" ( "dissociative") compounds "yóulí" ( "dissociated; drifting") and "yàopǐn" ( " medicine; chemical reagent; drug"); and "Zhìzhānwàngyào" ( "deliriant") combines "zhì" "incur; cause", "zhānwàng" ( "(medical) delirium"), and "yào" "medicine; drug".
History.
Chinese pharmaceutical literature mainly comprises texts called "bencao" (), translatable as English herbal, pharmacopoeia, or materia medica. This word compounds "ben" "(plant) root/stem; basis, origin; foundation; book" and "cao" "grass; herb; straw". Although "bencao" is sometimes misinterpreted as "roots and herbs", the approximate meaning is "[pharmaceutics whose] basis ["ben"] [is] herbs ["cao"]". These works deal with drugs of all origins, mainly vegetable but also mineral, animal, and even the human body.
The Chinese botanist, academic, and researcher Hui-lin Li (1911-2002) wrote seminal articles about the history and use of hallucinogenic plants in China. Li cites a story in Li Shizhen's 1596 magnum opus "Bencao gangmu" as the first discussion about the general use of psychoactive plants. In 1561, after horrific murders in Changli, the Ming dynasty Jiajing Emperor proclaimed a nationwide edict warning about the dangers of hallucinogens.
Lang-tang ("Hyoscyamus niger"), Yün-shih ("Caesalpinia Sepiaria"), Fang-k'uei ("Peucedanum japonica") and Red Shanglu ("Phytolacca acinosa") all can cause hallucination in peoples. In the past, this significance has not been fully divulged. Plants of this kind are all toxic, which can obscure the mind, alter one's consciousness, and confuse one's perception of sight and sound. In the T'ang times, An Lu-shan [a foreign warlord in the Chinese army service] once enticed the Kitan [tribesmen surrendered to his command] to drink Lang-tang wine and buried them alive while they were unconscious. Again in the second month of the 43rd year of the Chia-ch'in period (1561 A.D.), a wandering monk, Wu Ju-hsiang of Shensi province, who possessed wizardry, arrived at Ch'ang-li and stopped over at the house of a resident, Chang Shu. Upon finding the latter's wife being very beautiful, he asked that the entire family sit together at the table with him when he was being offered a meal. He put some reddish potion in the rice and after a while the whole family became unconscious and submitted to his assault. He then blew a magic spell into the ears of Chang Shu and the latter turned crazy and violent. Chang visualized his entire family as all devils and thereby killed them all, sixteen altogether, without any blood shed. The local authorities captured Chang Shu and kept him in prison. After ten days, he spat out nearly two spittoonsful of phlegm, became conscious, and found out himself that those he killed were his parents, brothers, sisters-in-law, his wife, sons, sisters, nephews. Both Chang and Wu were committed to the death sentence. The Emperor, Shih-tsung, proclaimed throughout the country about the case. The particular magic potion must be of the kind of Lang-tang or similar drugs. When the man was under the spell, he saw everyone else as a devil. It is thus very important to find out the remedy that counteracts such a thing.
Notable plants.
The following eight examples of confirmed and possible hallucinogens recorded in Chinese herbals are primarily based on the ten in Li Hui-Lin's 1977 article. Two edible plants, with only one Chinese source and no Western ones mentioning psychoactive properties, are omitted as unlikely: "fangfeng" ( ""Saposhnikovia divaricata"; Chinese parsnip") and "longli" ( ""Nephelium" topengii"; a type of lychee").
"Langdang": "Hyoscyamus niger".
The "làngdàng" ( ""Hyoscyamus niger"; black henbane") is one of the most famous hallucinogenic drugs in Chinese herbals. The seeds, which contain psychoactive tropane alkaloids, are called" làngdàngzi" (, with "-zi" "child; seed") or "tiānxiānzi" ( "heavenly transcendent seeds").
For use in medicine, the seeds are supposedly treated by soaking in vinegar and milk to reduce their toxicity. The "Shennong Bencaojing" says, "[The seeds] when taken [when properly prepared] for a prolonged period enable one to walk for long distances, benefiting to the mind and adding to the strength ... and to communicate with spirits and seeing devils. When taken in excess, it causes one to stagger madly." Lei Xiao's 470 "Leigong paozhilun" ( "Master Lei's Treatise on the Decoction and Preparation of Drugs") states that the seed "is extremely poisonous, and when accidentally taken, it causes delirium and seeing sparks and flashes", and Zhen Chuan's c. 620 "Bencao yaoxing" ( "Nature of Drugs in Materia Medica") says the seeds "should not be taken raw as it hurts people, causing them to see devils, acting madly like picking needles".
"Yunshi": "Caesalpinia decapetala".
The "yunshi" ( ""Caesalpinia decapetala"; cat's claw") was a versatile drug plant in the Chinese pharmacopeia, and the root, flowers, and seeds were all used in medicine.
The "Shennong Bencao" says, "[The flowers] could enable one to see spirits, and when taken in excess, cause one to stagger madly. If taken over a prolonged period, they produce somatic levitation and effect communication with spirits." Tao Hongjing, who edited the official Shangqing Daoist canon, also compiled the c. 510 "Mingyi bielu" ( "Supplementary Records of Famous Physicians") that says "[The flowers] will drive away evil spirits. When put in water and burned, spirits can be summoned" and "The seeds are like "langdang" ("Hyoscyamus niger"), if burned, spirits can be summoned; but this [sorcery] method has not been observed."
Li Hui-Lin notes this plant "has not been noted as a hallucinogenic plant in modern works. In fact, as far as I am aware, it has not been investigated medicinally or chemically".
"Fangkui": "Peucedanum japonicum".
The "fangkui" ( "Peucedanum japonicum") root is used in Chinese medicine, and like the previous cat's claw, has not been noted as a hallucinogenic in modern works. The c. 510 "Tao Hongjing mingyi bielu" states, "Feverish people should not take it, because it causes one to be delirious and see spirits"; and Chen Yanzhi's () c. 454-473 "Xiaoping fang" ( "Minor Prescriptions") says that "fangkui", "if taken in excess, makes one become delirious and act somewhat like mad".
"P. japonicum" is also used quite extensively in Korean cuisine - not only as a culinary herb, but also as a leaf vegetable, raising the question as to what constitutes consumption 'to excess'. It may be the case that the strain of plant grown in Korea is less toxic / medicinal than that found in China, or that very substantial quantities of the plant must be eaten before any psychoactive effects are manifested. Alternatively, the psychoactive components of the plant may be deactivated by the cooking processes employed in the preparation of the plant in Korea.
"Shanglu": "Phytolacca acinosa".
The "shanglu" ( ""Phytolacca acinosa"; India pokeweed") has edible leaves and poisonous roots. China's oldest extant dictionary, the c. 3rd-century BCE "Erya" (13: 110) gives two names for pokeweed: "chùtāng" () and "mǎwěi" ( "horsetail").
Chinese herbals distinguish two kinds of "shanglu", white with white flowers and white root, and red with red flowers and purple root. The white root is edible when cooked but the red root is extremely poisonous. The "Tao Hongjing mingyi bielu" records how Daoists used the red variety, "By boiling or brewing and then taken, it can be used for abdominal parasitic worms and for seeing spirits"; Su Song's 1061 "Bencao tujing" ( "Illustrated Pharmacopeia") says, "It was much used by sorcerers in ancient times". Su Gong's 659 "Tang bencao" (唐本草 "Tang dynasty pharmacopeia") says "The red kind can be used to summon spirits; it is very poisonous. It can be only used as external application for inflammation. When ingested, it is extremely harmful, causing unceasing bloody stool. It may be fatal. It causes one to see spirits."
The 1406 "Jiuhuang Bencao" "Famine Relief Herbal" lists pokeweed as a famine food. It gives instructions for removing the poisonous phytolaccatoxin from the white roots and mentions Daoist "xian" using the flowers: "Cut them up into slices, scald, then soak and wash repeatedly (throwing away the extract) until the material is clean; then just eat it with garlic. … Plants with white flowers can (it is said) confer longevity; the immortals collected them to make savouries to take with their wine."
"Dama": "Cannabis sativa".
"Dama" ( ""Cannabis sativa"; hemp; marijuana") has been grown in China since Neolithic times. At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious, the male plants produce better fibers and the female plants produce more cannabinoids. In modern usage, the names are "xǐ" (枲 "male cannabis") and "jū" (苴 "female cannabis").
Reflecting the importance of cannabis in ancient China, the ca. 3rd century BCE "Erya" dictionary (13) has four definitions: "fén" () and "xǐshí" () mean "cannabis flower"; "xǐ" (枲) and "má" () mean "cannabis" generally and not "male cannabis"; "fú" (, lit. "reed membrane") and "mámǔ" (, "cannabis mother") mean "female cannabis"; and "bò" () and "shānmá" ( "mountain cannabis") mean "wild cannabis", possibly "C. ruderalis".
The "Shennong bencao" calls "cannabis flowers/buds" "mafen" () or "mabo" () and says: "To take much makes people see demons and throw themselves about like maniacs []. But if one takes it over a long period of time one can communicate with the spirits, and one's body becomes light []". The "Mingyi bielu" records that in the 6th century, "mabo" were, "very little used in medicine, but the magician-technicians ["shujia" ] say that if one consumes them with ginseng it will give one preternatural knowledge of events in the future." Meng Shen's c. 670 "Shiliao bencao" ( "Nutritional Therapy Pharmacopeia") says