Chiefdom in Rutshuru Territory, North Kivu
The Bwito Chiefdom (French: Chefferie de Bwito) is a chiefdom located in the Rutshuru Territory of North Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is bordered to the north by Batangi Chiefdom and Kanyabayonga commune in Lubero Territory, Bwisha Chiefdom in the east, and to the north-east by Lake Edward and the Republic of Uganda. To the west, it is bordered by Bashali Chiefdom in Masisi Territory, and to the northwest by Wanyanga Chiefdom in Walikale Territory. To the south, it is bordered by Nyiragongo Territory.
The Bwito Chiefdom is predominantly governed by the Hunde people. The traditional chieftain, referred to as the "Mwami," is highly respected and plays a crucial role in maintaining law and order while conserving the cultural patrimony of the Bahunde. The region also accommodates Nande, Nyanga, and Twa (Pygmies or Bambuti) from adjacent territories, alongside a minor proportion of Hutus and Tutsis, who were resettled in the mid-20th century by Belgian colonial authorities.
Geography.
Bwito Chiefdom is situated in the eastern part of the DRC, bordering Rwanda to the northwest and Lake Edward to the northeast. The region is marked by diverse topography, including hills, fertile plains, and dense forests. The northeastern border is defined by the shores of Lake Edward, a significant water body that also serves as an international boundary with the neighboring Uganda. The lake offers opportunities for fishing and trade with nearby communities. The fertile plains and rolling hills provide an ideal ecosystem for agriculture, which is the main economic activity of the locals. The local farmers cultivate a variety of perennial, annual, and industrial crops such as maize, beans, cowpea, cassava, cabbage, potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice, carrots, soybeans, onions, bananas, peanuts, plantains, palm oil, tubers, sorghum, sugarcane, pineapples, and coffee, which contributed to regional food security and livelihoods. The Bwito Chiefdom is also rich in natural resources, including an abundance of flora and fauna in its lush forests that cover a significant portion of the area and provide habitats for various wildlife species.
Administrative divisions.
The Bwito Chiefdom is divided into smaller units called groupings ("groupements"), overseen by traditional leaders known as 'mwamis.' Each "groupement" is further subdivided into villages ("localités") and is governed by customary chiefs. The "groupement" leader is appointed by the paramount mwami and is typically a member of the royal family, who also appoints village chiefs to head individual villages.
"Groupements".
As of 2018, the Bwito Chiefdom is made up of 7 "groupements":
History.
Formerly a part of the Bwisha Chiefdom, known as Binja, the Bwito Chiefdom emerged as a distinct entity following a key administrative reorganization in 1970. On November 18, the Rutshuru Territory was divided, resulting in the establishment of the Bwito Chiefdom as a distinct entity through Ministerial Decree No. 2163. The decree defined the newly formed Chiefdom's territorial boundaries and set up its administrative structure. The local population had mixed reactions to this development. While some were optimistic about the prospect of autonomy and a unique governance structure that catered to their specific needs, others were concerned about the potential impact on inter-community relations, resource distribution, and access to essential services. The successful establishment of the Bwito Chiefdom depended on the response and adaptation of its leadership. Traditional leaders and local authorities needed to recalibrate their roles within the new administrative framework. Cooperation and collaboration between leaders from the erstwhile Bwisha Chiefdom and the nascent Bwito Chiefdom were instrumental in maintaining stability during the transitional phase.
Security problems.
Since the Masisi War of 1993 and the subsequent First and Second Congo Wars, the area has been beleaguered by pervasive security problems for the past three decades, which resulted in widespread violence, displacement of populations, and the proliferation of armed groups.
Masisi War (1993–1996).
The initial inter-ethnic war in 1993 pitted the Hundes against the Hutus, with young Nande combatants aligning with the Hunde following their violent expulsion of the Hutus from Walikale Territory and Lubero Territory. The conflict escalated as Ingilima fighters, a seasoned group from the region between Walikale and Bafwasende, entered Rutshuru Territory, specifically targeting the Bwito Chiefdom under the aegis of indigenous Hunde leadership. On May 12, 1993, during the tenure of Desire Kamoli Bukavu Shekerabeti, the Ingilima perpetrated a cataclysmic assault on Bwito Chiefdom, massacring numerous Hutus but sparing the Tutsis, who had previously extended considerations to them. 
Survivors from Masisi Territory sought refuge in the Bwito Chiefdom, establishing settlements in border localities such as Bindja, Katsiru, Chahemba, Bishusha, and Mubirubiru. In late April, additional survivors from Walikale Territory also sought refuge. Despite proclamations from Bwito Chiefdom authorities that the conflict was primarily a concern of Walikale and Masisi territories, the Ingilima and their confederates launched a major offensive on May 12, 1993, culminating in extensive massacres of Hutus across numerous villages. The Hutus in the southern sector of the chiefdom mounted expeditions armed with machetes, spears, bows, arrows, and bamboo sticks cut into points to liberate their kin ensconced in the northern areas under Ingilima dominion and to impede their southern advance. These expeditions resulted in intense combat and casualties in Nyanzale on May 16, 1993. The situation further deteriorated in 1994 when Governor Moto Mupenda dissolved the Regional Pacification Committee and local committees, while DSP soldiers stationed in Rwindi, Kitchanga, and Pinga exhibited ethnic partiality, engaging in arbitrary detentions, plundering, and rekindling violence. The conflict reignited towards the year's end.
In 1995, Kinshasa's intervention through "Operation Kimya" sought to address the inter-ethnic strife in Bwito Chiefdom and Masisi Territory. Conducted by DSP soldiers and para-commandos from the 31st Division of Camp CETA, who had a prior history of looting in Kinshasa in 1991 and 1993, these troops exploited the chaos to further engage in pillaging and violence. The civil strife intensified in Bwito Chiefdom in April 1996 when the "Mayi-Mayi Kifuafua" assaulted DSP soldiers in Rwindi, causing them to flee and abandoning the civilian populace to the mercy of hostile armed factions, including Mayi-Mayi Kifuafua, pro-Hutu militias, Hunde, and Nande, leading to further massacres, looting, and widespread devastation.
First Congo War (1996–1997).
During the First Congo War, Bwito Chiefdom became a battleground for the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) and the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA). The involvement of AFDL and RPA led to a series of atrocities that targeted the local population, particularly the Hutu Banyarwanda, in a campaign of terror and extermination. This campaign of terror and extermination escalated following the dismantling of the Katale and Kahindo refugee camps, leading to an influx of Rwandan Hutu refugees into Bwito Chiefdom, where they integrated with the local populace. This intermingling set the stage for a brutal crackdown by AFDL and RPA forces to eliminate perceived threats and solidify their control over Zaire's natural resources within the region.
In late October 1996, mere weeks after the assault on the Katale refugee camp, AFDL/RPA units descended upon the village of Rusovu in the Tongo "groupement". At least 88 civilians, predominantly Hutu Banyarwanda, were brutally killed. The soldiers corralled the villagers into approximately 15 houses and executed them with hoes and hammers, targeting their heads. Subsequently, they set the houses ablaze. The violence escalated in November and December 1996, with AFDL/RPA forces perpetrating massacres across villages of Bambu "groupement", notably in Musanza, Marangara, Kanyangili, Kagando and Kishishe. In Musanza, Marangara, Kanyangili, Kagando, and Kishishe, at least 200 civilians, mostly Hutus, were slaughtered. In Kagando, the soldiers deceitfully assembled villagers under the pretext of distributing food and salt. Once gathered, the villagers were locked in houses that were then set on fire, killing them en masse. Further atrocities occurred in the village of Duane in the Tongo "groupement" during the same period. AFDL/RPA elements arrested 85 Hutu civilians during a combing operation. The victims were bound, confined in a house, and subsequently burned alive. Their remains were interred in small mass graves. 
On December 31, 1996, in Bukombo "groupement", AFDL/RPA soldiers gathered approximately 300 civilians, primarily Hutus, under the guise of holding a meeting. Once gathered, the soldiers opened fire, killing men, women, and children indiscriminately. Before departing, the soldiers looted medical supplies and destroyed the local hospital. The violence continued into 1997. On March 11, elements of the AFDL/RPA massacred dozens of civilians in the village of Mushababwa in the Bambu "groupement". As in previous incidents, the soldiers gathered the villagers ostensibly for a meeting, then opened fire indiscriminately, killing many on the spot. Just two days later, on March 13, 1997, the village of Kazuba in Bukombo "groupement" faced a similar fate. Hundreds of civilians were killed after being assembled by the pastor of the Adventist church at the behest of the soldiers. Many were shot within the church, while others were burned alive in their homes. The indiscriminate killings spared no one, with men, women, and children all falling victim. The spate of killings culminated between April 12 and April 19, 1997, in the village of Kabizo. Over one hundred civilians, mainly Hutus, were assembled under false pretenses by the soldiers. Most victims were bludgeoned to death, and their bodies incinerated, with one source reporting 157 fatalities.
Second Congo War (1998–2002).
In the Second Congo War, the region once again became embroiled in conflict when Laurent-Désiré Kabila attempted to assert his independence from former allies. This move was allegedly due to ethnic tensions and suspicions that Tutsis were aligned with Rwanda's interests rather than those of the DRC. Laurent-Désiré Kabila viewed the Tutsis as a potential threat to his regime, leading to heightened animosity. In response, the Tutsis, supported by RPA, rapidly mobilized and formed the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) to compel Laurent-Désiré Kabila to step down. On August 2, 1998, at 4 p.m., Commander Sylvain Buki, on behalf of the 10th Brigade of the FAC (Force Aérienne Congolaise), read a press release on the airwaves of the Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) station in Goma, announcing the deposition of the President of the Republic. This message was echoed by the 12th Brigade stationed in Bukavu, signaling a significant escalation in hostilities. Subsequently, violence resumed in Bwito Chiefdom, and clashes between government troops and the RCD forces and their allies intensified. The chiefdom experienced numerous massacres, particularly in the Rutshuru-Kanyabayonga axis, which became perilous for travelers, including the area known as Mayi ya Moto. Several people lost their lives, and vehicles were looted. In the villages of Bwito, terror reigned for an extended period as the RDC and RPA forces subjected the locals to looting, burning of houses, and raping women and girls. Entire villages were left in ruins, and their communities were shattered by the brutality of the conflict. Amidst the chaos, centers under the control of RCD soldiers and the RPA saw an opportunity to expand their influence. These centers became refuge points for displaced people fleeing from the destruction of their villages, such as Nyanzale and Kitchanga. Some of the displaced people sought shelter in the Virunga National Park to escape violence. During this period, attacks on vehicles became commonplace, with both sides engaging in looting and resorting to violence against passengers. The rebels killed passengers or used them as carriers for transporting looted goods.
National Congress for the Defence of the People.
Following the end of the Second Congo War in 2003, the region fell into a state of turmoil as remnants of RCD rebels occupied the area. Among them was General Laurent Nkunda, a Tutsi from Mirangi village in Mutanda "groupement", who had been a senior officer in the RCD rebel military group since 1998. In December 2006, Nkunda established his armed movement, the Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple (CNDP), settling in Bwiza, a locality straddling the Rutshuru and Masisi territories. Nkunda's return from the war in Bukavu, where he fought alongside Colonel Jules Mutebutsi, another Tutsi who rebelled against the FARDC ("Forces armées de la république démocratique du Congo") in 2004. In Bwiza, Nkunda actively recruited men and raised awareness for his CNDP movement, which he chaired himself. He also led attacks on the FARDC forces based in Bwito Chiefdom and Masisi Territory after the 2006 elections. These attacks resulted in the division of Bwito Chiefdom into two parts. One part remained under the control of the central government, including the "groupements" of Kanyabayonga, Kihondo, Bambo, and Mutanda. The other part came under the management of the CNDP and included the "groupements" of Bishusha,