Munir Bashir (; ; 1930 – September 28, 1997) was an Iraqi-Assyrian oudist. Bashir is considered one of the foremost virtuosos of the Arabic oud, and is widely renowned as one of the most important figures in 20th century Middle Eastern music.
Bashir is widely regarded both for his extensive mastery of the Arabic modal system of maqam and his virtuosity in the improvisational tradition of Arabic taqsim. He is credited as being the first major figure to elevate the Arabic oud to the realm of solo concert performance, and was among the first Middle Eastern instrumentalists to gain recognition in the United States and Europe. His music is characterized by a unique style of improvisation that sometimes saw his native traditional Arabic music fused with Indian and European musical influences. Bashir also pioneered many techniques on the oud which have since become standard practice.
Bashir is the father of oudist Omar Bashir, who later received acclaim as a master oudist in his own right, and with whom he recorded several albums. He is also the brother of oudist Jamil Bashir. Although Bashir was born in Iraq, the tumultuous political landscape of violent coups and wars during his lifetime eventually led to his seeking refuge in Europe. He first gained prominence in Hungary, where he would maintain a permanent residence throughout most of his adult years. 
Life.
Early life.
Munir Bashir was born in Mosul, in northern Iraq, to an Assyrian Christian family. His exact birth year is debated, with sources suggesting a range from 1928 to 1930.
His father, Abd al-Aziz, and his brother, Jamil, were well-regarded oud soloists and vocalists; Jamil also authored an important textbook on the oud. The family began educating young Bashir in music at the age of five, with his father teaching him and Jamil the basics of the oud. Abd al-Aziz, who was also a poet, believed that the pure and historic tradition of Arab music had declined in Baghdad, which he wanted to preserve.
Bashir initially learned to play the violoncello, a European instrument that had become popular as a bass instrument in Arabic music towards the end of the 19th century. Simultaneously, he was taught to play the oud. In Arabic music, the oud holds a similar role to the piano in European music, being the instrument used to impart essential theoretical aspects of music.
Northern Iraq has a rich musical history due to the blend of various styles and traditions. In this milieu, Bashir encountered Byzantine, Kurdish, Assyrian, Turkish, Persian, and traditional Abbasid music.
Moving to Baghdad.
At the age of six, the prodigiously talented Bashir was sent to the Baghdad Conservatory, which was founded in 1934 by the distinguished Turkish musicologist Şerif Muhyi ad-Din Haydar Targan (1892–1967).
Bashir was intensely focused during his studies, and especially after earning his degree, on documenting and preserving the traditional musical styles of his country. These styles had been increasingly overshadowed by "Western" influences, particularly commercial ones, due to Iraq's turbulent history and other factors.
In 1951, Bashir accepted a teaching position at the newly founded Académie des Beaux-Arts in Baghdad. In addition to his teaching duties, he worked as an editor for Iraqi broadcasting.
Exploring outside of Iraq.
Iraq experienced intense political instability during most of Bashir's lifetime, leading Bashir to have an ambivalent relationship with his homeland. The 1950s and 1960s, in particular, marked the final years of the Hashemite monarchy, leading to the fall of Faisal II and a series of military coups shortly thereafter. Thus, although Bashir felt deeply rooted in the rich cultural heritage of Mesopotamia, this event ultimately forced him to leave Iraq and work abroad in 1958.
Bashir traveled first to Beirut. His reputation had preceded him by the time he'd arrived; he was promptly hired as an accompanist and "star soloist" for the legendary Lebanese singer Fairuz in 1953. During this time, he became acquainted with American and Latin American popular music, and started to become interested in fusing these styles with traditional Arabic music. He became intensely interested in musicology, which would eventually earn him teaching positions at conservatories in both Beirut and Baghdad.
The years 1953 and 1954 were pivotal in Bashir’s development as a virtuoso instrumentalist. His first concert as a soloist was held in Istanbul in 1953. The following year, at age 24, Bashir was first featured on Iraqi television. By 1957, he had embarked on several tours across most European countries. However, the difficult political situation in his country, and the resulting challenges it posed for working musicians, ultimately forced him to leave Iraq permanently.
Budapest.
In the early 1960s, following a brief stay in Beirut, Bashir settled in Budapest, which he would call home for the rest of his life. He married a Hungarian woman, and in 1970, their son Omar was born in the Hungarian capital. Omar would later follow in his father's footsteps, recording many duets with his father and becoming a renowned oudist in his own right.
Bashir was particularly attracted to Budapest not only for its status as a European musical metropolis, but also for the opportunity to study at the renowned "Franz Liszt Conservatory" under the supervision of Zoltán Kodály. Kodály was famous for his collaboration with Béla Bartók in preserving traditional Hungarian folk songs, and shared Bashir's commitment to safeguarding indigenous musical heritage. Bashir studied at the conservatory and completed his doctorate in musicology in 1965. 
Following Kodály's passing in 1967, Bashir briefly returned to Beirut. However, he found himself disillusioned by the evolution of Arabian music, which he perceived as deteriorating and becoming increasingly commercialized due to the mishandling of Western influences. Dismayed by these trends, which he attributed to popular singers, Bashir declined to accept engagements from them.
Ambassador of Iraqi music.
In 1973, the Iraqi Ministry of Information appointed Bashir to its culture committee. This was at a transitional time in Iraqi history, as the regime of the Ba'ath party was not yet firmly established. The party saw Bashir as a unifying cultural figure who could appeal to and integrate the Christian minority. Bashir presented himself as apolitical, and owing to his international popularity, he was deemed a suitable representative for the diverse ethnic, religious, and political groups of Iraq. Bashir enjoyed this position even throughout the shifting political landscape: for instance, in 1981, even when Saddam Hussein was in power and the influence was shifting towards the Sunnis, the government still supported the establishment of Bashir's "Iraqi Traditional Music Group", which was dedicated to showcasing the diversity of Iraqi culture.
In 1987, during the Iran–Iraq War, Bashir realized a lifelong dream: he organized the inaugural "Babylon International Festival of dance, music, and theatre". which he led for several years.
However, Bashir rarely spent time in Baghdad and ultimately left Iraq after the First Gulf War in 1991. His guest performances, primarily in Europe, provided a broad and receptive audience, thereby offering an excellent platform for showcasing his highly original and mature style of improvisation and composition. Most of his recordings were also made in Europe.
In his final years, he focused on establishing his son Omar as his musical successor. The two made several duo recordings together, including the particularly acclaimed *Duo de 'ûd* album with Omar in February 1994, which is considered a classic of Bashir’s oeuvre due to its exemplary blend of traditional folk material with extensive improvisation. Omar later became established as a virtuoso oudist in his own right.
Munir Bashir passed away from heart failure in 1997 in Budapest at the age of 68, shortly before his scheduled departure for a tour in Mexico.
Instrumental style.
General characteristics.
Bashir is universally regarded as one of the most important oudists of the 20th century, as well as in the general history of the instrument. Bashir pioneered a distinctive sound on the oud, diverging sharply from the urban "showmanship" seen in the typical "Egyptian" style of Farid Al-Atrash, as well as the heavily jazz-influenced music of Lebanese artist Rabih Abou-Khalil, who enjoyed considerable popularity in Europe. Bashir instead pursued a more emotionally intimate style, which would eventually become his signature sound.
Bashir was particularly renowned for his mastery of solo improvisation (taqsīm) over the traditional modes (maqāmat) of Arabic music. His peers regarded him as an unparalleled virtuoso in this domain. Bashir was the first person to perform solo concerts featuring only the oud, which had previously been relegated to the realm of background accompaniment. Bashir's pioneering role in this regard elevated the status of the oud to being one of the primary lead instruments of Middle Eastern music, and paved the way for many contemporary oudists to follow.
Throughout his musical journey, Bashir consistently challenged the stereotype that the oud was merely the Arabic version of the western "campfire guitar". His efforts elevated the instrument's status and expanded its musical possibilities.
Tunings.
In many musical traditions, stringed instruments often employ various tunings to suit specific pieces. Bashir, following this practice, experimented extensively with different tunings. The standard tuning for the Arabic oud – distinct from its Turkish counterpart, which has a slightly different history – is typically:
Building on older traditions of the Iraqi oud school, including that of his elder brother, Munir Bashir developed a signature tuning that bears his name:
A notable feature of this tuning is the duplication of the highest course in F with an additional course tuned an octave lower. This innovation creates a rich, full sound in the high melody course, aligning with Bashir's focus on melodic forms.
The Bashir school further developed another tuning variation that incorporates an F-course on the bass strings, which tuned an octave lower than in the previous example. Optionally, two F-strings can be added, tuned an octave apart. This arrangement frames the melody course in the fingerboard's center with bass courses, resulting in a remarkably full sound and enabling unique melodies. However, this complex tuning system demands exceptional picking technique from the musician.
Picking technique.
Like other lute-family instruments (such as the mandolin and sitar), the oud is played by plucking the strings with a plectrum (pick). In Arabic, this pick is called a "risha", which historically was crafted from the pin feather of an eagle. Bashir was particularly known for having meticulous picking technique with the risha, emphasizing a clean and nimble technique, in contrast to the "heavier" approach favored by many other oud players at the time.
Bashir was particularly known for his ability to perform rapid, asymmetrically accented melodies on the instrument in a precise and fluid manner. Such melodies and complex rhythms are commonplace within traditional Arabic music, which places greater emphasis on such complex rhythmic patterns than European music. However, prior to Bashir, such virtuosity was rarely seen on the oud, due in part to the limitations of traditional technique: the location of the risha in the palm and the doubled strings can lead to considerable difficulty in playing such parts cleanly on the instrument. Bashir's innovative technique made it possible to play these kinds of lines on the oud, to the extent that such ability today is often seen as a hallmark of virtuosity in modern oud playing. Bashir's exceptional picking skills are especially evident in his ability to perform these techniques in fast, complex meters like 10/8 metre with seemingly effortless virtuosity, hiding the significant challenges in this method.
The ability to play such melodic lines on the instrument is 
Bashir's approach to foreign musical forms is also reflected in his experimentation with alternative picking techniques. He incorporated fingerpicking, a technique cultivated in guitar playing – especially in flamenco – as a key element of his mature style. However, after brief experimentation, he abandoned the use of a thumb-plectrum ("mezrab"), a technique he encountered during his studies of the Indian sitar.
Improvisation.
Bashir's improvisations were steeped in the Arabic tradition of taqsim, or musical improvisation within the Arabic maqam modal system. In taqsim, the musician creatively brings out the sound of one or mote maqams by playing a sequence of structured melodic lines that bring out the important sub-chords or "ajnas" of the maqam and establish its unique characteristic sound. The taqsim typically follows certain thematic guidelines of development, within which the musician is free to explore or sometimes depart if they so wish. One may draw a comparison to traditional jazz improvisation, which also takes place within the guidelines of traditional jazz standards, song forms, and so on. The criteria of taqsim are different from other musical traditions, but just as artful.
Bashir was known