 
Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products; and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, apricots, and oregano.
Half of Turkey's land is agricultural, and farming employs about 15% of the workforce, but under half a million farmers. It provides about 10% of exports and over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP). Over 380 billion lira of agricultural subsidy is budgeted for 2024.
Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine. Turkey is the European Union's fourth largest vegetable supplier and seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products.
Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. Strategic planning is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, but no plan for 2024 onwards has yet been published. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.
History.
Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented. Atatürk, who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture. Governments initiated many projects, such as the controversial Southeastern Anatolia Project, but later much agriculture was privatized.
The population increased a lot in the 20th century, so there was more demand for food and agricultural land. From 1880 to 1950 agricultural output growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land. Then growth accelerated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors – for example due to the Marshall Plan. By the 1970s higher yielding varieties of wheat had been planted, but einkorn continued to be consumed by locals.
The increase in agricultural land continued until the 1990s when it started to decrease. Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized, and by the end of the 20th century only 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture.
Formerly widespread in the west and centre of the country, in 1933 opium growing was strictly controlled. In the 20th century growing tobacco was economically important in provinces such as Samsun, and was supported by the state, but in the early 21st century it was discouraged by governments keen to reduce smoking in Turkey. During the early 21st century farmers shifted to growing more profitable crops such as fruit and vegetables, instead of wheat and corn.4
Environment.
Issues.
Half of Turkey's land is agricultural. Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases half from cattle. Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation (cows and sheep belching methane) has been the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, followed by agricultural soils.38 According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. The Aegean Region may be the most at risk from climate change. However coffee can now be grown in the country.
14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, compared to 23% trashed by consumers before eating and 5% leftovers. Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly. Deliberate burning of field residue can cause wildfires in Turkey. Agriculture on steep land can increase the risk of flooding.32 In 2020 over 900 thousand tonnes of ammonia was emitted.
Water.
At around 1300 m3 freshwater per person per year, Turkey is water-stressed and at risk of water scarcity, mainly due to wasteful irrigation. Water pricing is being considered. Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped, showing that high-risk regions are Karapınar, Aralık, Ceylanpınar and Lake Tuz basins. Solar power is occasionally used to pump water to combat drought, which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes. The irrigation part of the Eastern Anatolia Project is controversial.
Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which loses 35% to 60% of water through evaporation, seepage, and leakage. This old-fashioned irrigation may quickly deplete groundwater and run off the farm. Runoff is causing nitrogen pollution in some river basins. This can cause eutrophication which threatens aquatic life and a project is ongoing to map and combat this. As of 2023[ [update]] 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation. Farmers are reluctant because of the installation cost of drip installation, and more government support has been suggested. Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet. Charging for water used by agriculture has been suggested.
Regions and soils.
The most important regions for agriculture are the Mediterranean, Aegean, Black Sea, Thrace and Marmara, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and transition regions.8
By the mid-20th century erosion had reduced the amount of arable land, but the government is combating desertification and erosion in various ways. However, soil erosion is forecast to increase with climate change, with about 30% occurring on agricultural land. The main types of soil in Turkey are calisols, cambisols and leptosols, and fluvisols. Degraded soil could be improved.11Soil surveys have been done at least since the 1950s, and the ministry has published soil maps. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey. A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to sequester carbon. There is a public soil database, but as of 2023 the weblink does not work. Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils is important, and in 2017 total SOC down to 0.7 m was estimated at 9.23 Pg. Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/km2. Accumulation of soil organic matter depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity.
Crops.
Crops can be grown in all regions and there is livestock on high mountains and in arid regions. Wheat, sugar beet, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops; and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts, apricots, oregano and raisins.
As of 2023[ [update]] most cultivated land is for grain. In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced; 32 million tonnes of vegetables; and 27 million tonnes of fruit, beverages and spice crops; and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed, dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables. Due to rotation a third of arable land is fallow each year.8
Cereals.
In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals, and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the United States and Syria. However, in hotter and colder years less cereal is produced. About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown, but less than half that each of barley and corn. Most wheat is winter wheat. Wheat yields average 2 and a half tonnes a hectare, and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown. Barley is not usually irrigated, so yield depends on rainfall. Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley. Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed. Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct.
Fruit, vegetables and legumes.
Citrus fruits are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions. Many tomatoes are exported. Most vegetable and fruit exports are to the EU. Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs. In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy. Geothermal heat can also be used to dry fruit. Tropical fruit such as mangoes can be grown in greenhouses. In 2023 hydroponics was starting to be used in these geothermal greenhouses. Although banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region is increasing, some farmers are switching to avocados as they are more profitable because they need less water.
About 4 million tonnes of grapes are grown annually, ranking sixth in the world. The country has the fifth largest area of vineyard, and about 3% of the harvest is used for Turkish wine. Raisins are exported to the EU and the United Kingdom.
There are almost 200 million olive trees, and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil a year, that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. "Edremit" (Ayvalık) is the main variety in northern Turkey and "Memecik" in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown.
Lentils are grown in the south-east.
Nuts and oilseeds.
About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero, the Italian producer of Nutella spread, buys the most. The agriculture ministry is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees, as national supply does not meet domestic demand. Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion has been training pistachio farmers.
Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace, and more sunflower oil is consumed than olive oil, as it is cheaper. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens.
Herbs, medicines and spices.
There are about a thousand species of herbs, medicines and spices, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves, sage, aniseed and cumin being the top export earners. Much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı. Turkey produces most of the world's oregano, and garlic is grown. Opium is grown for medicines.
Livestock.
There are about 150 thousand km2 of pasture. Much more meat is produced from cattle than sheep. A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq. Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year. The meat and milk board regulates the meat market.
The main animal feed crops are alfalfa, silage corn, oats, vetch, and sainfoin. Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed. Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease.
Cattle.
In 2022 there were 17 million cattle of which about 70% were dairy. Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy. About 80% of cattle farm expenditure is on feed, with half of the ingredients being imported. In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef. Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste.
Sheep, goats and buffalo.
Turkey is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep, including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha. Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese is made from sheep milk. Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture. In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand water buffalos.
Aquaculture.
There are over 400 marine aquaculture facilities. Sea bass ("Dicentrarchus labrax") and sea bream ("Sparus aurata") are farmed, and mostly trout (rainbow trout and brown trout) in inland waters, these 3 being the most farmed, with about 150 thousand tonnes a year of each. Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla, İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces.
Government support is provided, although subsidies for seabream and seabass ended in 2016. In 2021, US$1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported, and Turkey was the world's top producer of seabass and seabream. Most exports are to the EU and EU directives are followed.
Other livestock.
Over a million tonnes of poultry meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year, and over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey.
Policy, regulation and research.
It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically. Seeds and bulbs are stored long term. The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions, however in the first 2 decades of the 21st century farming