1894 naval battle between China and Japan
The Battle of Pungdo (Japanese: ) was the first naval battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. It took place on 25 July 1894 off Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea, between cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy and components of the Chinese Beiyang Fleet. Both China and Japan had been intervening in Korea against the Donghak Peasant Revolution. While China tried to maintain her suzerain relationship with Korea, Japan wanted to increase her sphere of influence. 
Both countries had already sent troops to Korea as requested by different factions within the Korean government. Chinese troops from the Huai Army, were stationed in Asan, south of Seoul, numbering 3,000 men in early July, could be effectively supplied only by sea through the Bay of Asan. The Japanese plan was to blockade the entrance of the Bay of Asan, while her land forces moved overland to encircle the Chinese detachment in Asan before reinforcements arrived by sea.
Background.
In the early months of 1894, the Donghak Rebellion broke out in southern Korea and soon spread throughout the rest of the country, threatening the Korean capital, Seoul, itself. From the beginning of May, the Chinese had taken steps to prepare for the mobilization of their forces in the provinces of Zhili, Shandong and in Manchuria, as a result of the tense situation on the Korean peninsula. These actions were planned more as an armed demonstration to strengthen the Chinese position in Korea rather than as preparation for war with Japan. On June 3, the Chinese government accepted requests from the Korean government to send troops to help quell the rebellion and informed the Japanese of their action. The decision was made to send 2,500 men under the command of General Ye Zhichao to the harbour of Asan, about from Seoul. The troops destined for Korea sailed onboard three steamers chartered by the Chinese government and arrived in Asan on June 9. On June 25, an additional 400 troops arrived. Consequently, Ye Zhichao had about 2,900 soldiers under his command at Asan by the end of June. 
From the very outset, developments in Korea had been carefully observed in Tokyo. The Japanese government was quickly convinced that the Donghak Rebellion would lead to Chinese intervention in Korea. As a result, soon after learning of the Korean government's request for Chinese military help, all Japanese warships in the vicinity were immediately ordered to Pusan and Chemulpo. By June 9, , , , and had consecutively called at Chemulpo, while arrived at Pusan. A formation of 420 sailors, selected from the crews of the Japanese warships anchored in Chempulo, was immediately dispatched to Seoul and managed to enter the city the same day. There they served, temporarily, as a counterbalance to the Chinese troops camped at Asan. Simultaneously, the Japanese government elected to send a reinforced brigade (9th Brigade of the 5th Division) under the command of General Oshima Yoshimasa to Chemulpo. Altogether, with auxiliary units, there were approximately 8,000 troops in the reinforced brigade. The first battalion arrived in Korea on June 12, relieving the sailors in Seoul the following day. The rest of the reinforced brigade was transported to Chemulpo by June 27.
The Japanese were willing to withdraw the brigade under General Oshima if the Chinese first left Asan. However, when on July 16, 8,000 Chinese troops landed near the entrance of the Taedong River to reinforce Chinese troops garrisoned in Pyongyang, the Japanese delivered Li Hongzhang an ultimatum, threatening to take action if any additional troops were sent to Korea. Consequently, General Oshima in Seoul and commanders of the Japanese warships in Korean waters received orders to initiate military operations if any more Chinese troops were sent to Korea.
Despite this injunction, Li probably suspected that the Japanese were bluffing and were trying to measure Chinese readiness to make concessions. He decided, therefore, to reinforce General Ye's forces in Asan with an additional 2,500 troops, who were embarked at Dagu on board three chartered means of transport. The first two of these, "Irene" and "Fei Ching", carried a total of 1,300 troops and arrived at Asan on the night of July 23–24, escorted in Korean waters by the cruiser and the torpedo gunboat . In addition, the small cruiser was stationed at Chemulpo. At the same time, in the early morning of July 23, the Japanese had taken control of the Royal Palace in Seoul and imprisoned King Gojong, forcing him to renounce ties with China. 
Japanese strategy.
Planning to strengthen their forces in Korea, the Imperial Japanese Navy redeployed the main component of the Combined Fleet to Korean waters, since the ships stationed there at the time, , and , were considered insufficient to prevent Chinese reinforcements from landing at Asan, and, in the event of hostilities breaking out, would not be able to provide support to Japanese troops on the Korean peninsula. Consequently, on July 23, fifteen major warships and seven torpedo boats, under the command of Vice-Admiral Itō, left Sasebo and headed for Gunsan on the western coast of Korea. Gunsan, chosen due to its strategic location and telegraphic connection with Japan, would become a temporary naval base for the Japanese Fleet.
A Flying Squadron under Rear-Admiral Tsuboi, comprising the cruisers , and , was detached from the main fleet in order to rendezvous with the cruiser "Yaeyama" and the gunboat "Ōshima", which were stationed in Chemulpo, near the island of Pungdo. Together they were to patrol the western coast and prevent the landing of Chinese reinforcements. "Musashi", which was also stationed at Chemulpo, was not to join the patrol but instead accompany the main fleet at Gunsan. However, the orders wired for the commanders of the three ships at Chemulpo never came through as the telegraph line was severed by Donghaks. As a result, "Yaeyama" and "Oshima" remained at Chemulpo, ignorant of the order to rendezvous with the Flying Squadron. 
Chinese strategy.
With tensions increasing over the situation on the Peninsula, the Chinese government chartered three British steamers to carry reinforcements to Korea in late July to bolster their position there. The three troopships were escorted by the cruiser "Jiyuan" and the gunboats "Kwang-Yi" and . Captain Fang Boqian received word of the Japanese actions in Seoul and Chempulo from the commander of "Weiyuan", and on July 25 immediately sent "Irene" and "Fei Ching" back to Dagu, while "Weiyuan" was ordered back to Weihaiwei to inform Admiral Ding Ruchang of the situation unfolding in Korea. Fang Boqian decided to remain at Asan Bay along with the cruiser "Jiyuan" and the torpedo gunboat "Kwang-Yi" to await the last of the transports, "Kowshing", which left Dagu on July 23 with 1,200 Chinese troops and 12 pieces of artillery on board.
After the takeover of Chemulpo and Seoul by Japanese troops, events eased a little. Fearing escalating tensions in relations with Japan, the Chinese withheld sending reinforcements to Asan. Furthermore, at the beginning of July, the Chinese withdrew most of their ships stationed in Korean waters. However, to prevent the Japanese from perceiving the Chinese actions as a sign of weakness, Li Hongzhang decided to send reinforcements to Korea – though they were to be stationed in the north, at Pyongyang. For the Chinese, this move would allow for the potential withdrawal of General Ye's forces from Asan while expressing goodwill as far as peaceful settlement of the conflict was concerned. At the same time, with the forces stationed at Pyongyang, the Chinese would not lose control over the development of events. If the Japanese remained at Chemulpo and Seoul, it would be possible to launch a large offensive in 1895 to drive the Japanese from Korea. 
The Chinese cruiser "Jiyuan" and torpedo gunboat "Kwang-Yi", in port in Asan since 23 July, left on the morning of 25 July to rendezvous with the troopship "Kowshing" and gunboat "Tsao-kiang", which were en route from Tianjin. At 7:45 am, near Pungdo, a small island (also known as "Feng Island" in Western sources) sitting next to the two navigable channels out of the Bay of Asan, in Korean territorial waters, the two Chinese ships were fired upon by the Japanese cruisers "Akitsushima", "Naniwa", and "Yoshino". Chinese ships returned fire at 0752 hours.
Events during the Battle.
Initial sighting.
During the early morning of July 25, Rear-Admiral Tsuboi's squadron arrived at the rendezvous point near Pungdo island without sighting "Yaeyama" or "Ōshima". Speculating that their commanders had mistakenly headed for the main Island of Pungdo, which was located just under to the south, Tsuboi set course for the island. Approaching Pungdo at 6.30 am, the Japanese vessels spotted two warships heading south-west; they turned out to be the Chinese cruiser "Jiyuan" and the torpedo gunboat "Kwang-yi". Tsuboi correctly assumed them to be the escorts of the Chinese troop transports. At the same time Tsuboi sought to continue to investigate why the two Japanese warships from Chemulpo had not arrived at the prearranged location. For these reasons, Tsuboi made a straight course for the Chinese warships, simultaneously sounding general quarters.
The commander of "Jiyuan", Captain Fang Boqian, had spotted the Japanese warships at approximately the same time and was alarmed by their appearance. The Chinese ships increased their speed and headed south-west in order to escape the closed waters of Asan Bay. Noticing the Chinese maneuver, the Japanese cruisers in turn increased their speed to , in line ahead formation with "Yoshino" leading "Naniwa" and "Akitsushima". Tsuboi clearly desired to outmaneuver the Chinese and prevent their escape to open water; however, realizing that this would not be possible, he executed a turn to port bearing west, in order to converge with the Chinese.
Engagement.
At around 7.45 am the distance between the flagship "Yoshino" and "Jiyuan" was roughly ; for a short while the Japanese and Chinese warships were steaming on a convergent heading, observing each other, but at 7.52 am the cruiser "Naniwa" unexpectedly opened fire on "Jiyuan". Immediately after "Naniwa" opened fire, "Yoshino" and "Akitsushima" followed suit. 
"Yoshino" and "Naniwa" concentrated their fire on the leading "Jiyuan", while "Akitsushima" concentrated its fire on the torpedo gunboat "Kwang-yi", which was trailing over a kilometre behind the stern of the Chinese cruiser. Although the Chinese warships had not been caught by surprise and soon returned fire, the Japanese had gained the advantage. The first projectiles fired by "Yoshino" and "Naniwa" hit "Jiyuan"'s conning tower, demolishing it and damaging the steering mechanism. The next volley of shells then put both forward heavy barbette-mounted guns out of action. Furthermore, the hail of Japanese shelling started numerous fires in the midship section, which, though relatively minor, caused panic among the Chinese gun crews on the upper deck. It was only through the intervention of some of the officers, armed with revolvers, that the gunners were rounded up and returned to their positions. After getting the situation under control, "Jiyuan" managed to escape to the open sea; its crew soon repaired the steering mechanism, which allowed the cruiser to regain her manoeuvrability.
Destruction of "Kwang-yi".
"Kwang-yi", following "Jiyuan", did not fare as well. Like "Jiyuan", the vessel was hit at the beginning of the battle; however, the damage inflicted by the Japanese gunfire was much more serious. Shells fired by "Akitsushima" penetrated the hull of the warship below the waterline at least once and damaged her boiler room. The heavily damaged "Kwang-yi" was rapidly taking on water; as a result, Captain Lin Kuohsiang ordered the ship to be beached. Enveloped in smoke and steam, and with fires raging on board, "Kwang-yi" turned southeast and stranded herself on the shore on some shoals, being fired upon by "Naniwa" all the while. After being abandoned by her crew, the wreck of "Kwang-yi" was destroyed by raging fires and internal explosions. At least 37 crew members were killed, while another 71, including the captain, Lin Kuohsiang, reached the shore. After a failed attempt to join Chinese troops at Asan, they were taken on board the Royal Navy torpedo cruisers and at the end of July and transported to Chefoo.
Pursuit of "Jiyuan".
The destruction of "Kwang-yi" took the Japanese squadron no more than a quarter of an hour and did not hinder the pursuit of "Jiyuan". The plight of the single Chinese cruiser seemed dire, largely because the Japanese had the advantage of speed. At about 8.10 am, "Yoshino" and "Naniwa" were almost abeam of the