Dutch engineer (1842–1913)
 was a Dutch civil engineer and a foreign advisor to the Japanese government in Meiji period Japan. He made significant contributions in the enhancement of Japan's river systems and the development of its port facilities, which were vital in the industrialisation and infrastructure advancement of the nation during the Meiji era.
Arriving in Japan in 1873, he was instrumental in the amelioration of the Yodo River in Osaka and the Kiso River in Nagoya. He played an integral role in the development of the Yokohama and Kobe ports, turning them into significant hubs of international trade.
De Rijke's efforts were instrumental in substantially mitigating flood risks, enhancing navigational capabilities, and boosting trade and transportation, thereby accelerating Japan's modernisation.
Early life and background.
Johannis de Rijke was born in Colijnsplaat on the island of Noord-Beveland. The third of seven children, he was the son of Pieter de Rijke, a farmer and part-time dike worker, and his wife, Anna Catharina Liefbroer. Lacking the means for formal education, he was mentored by Jacobus Lebret, the district engineer in Bevelanden.
In 1865, he became chief construction foreman for the Oranjesluizen, a lock complex near Amsterdam, designed to separate the IJ lagoon from the Zuiderzee at Schellingwoude. His supervisor was Cornelis Johannes van Doorn.
In 1873, De Rijke set off from Marseille aboard the steamship Iraouaddy to Shanghai, and then to Nagasaki, along with George Escher and Dick Arnst. The journey reflected their differing statuses: Escher, a graduate engineer, travelled first class, while De Rijke and his family were in second class, and Arnst, the work boss, in third class. De Rijke was accompanied by his pregnant wife and their two children, Anna Catharina and Johannes Laurens.
Shortly after arriving in Japan, their son Pieter was born, followed by Eleazer, Els, Jacoba, and Adan in subsequent years. Tragically, Eleazer passed away at a young age in Japan. With his wife's deteriorating health, De Rijke sought a qualified tutor for his children. In 1880, upon Arnst's return to the Netherlands, De Rijke's children accompanied him, to be cared for by his former mentor Lebret, now residing in Oosterbeek. His wife succumbed to cholera in 1881. Recognising his commitment, his employer granted him a six-month leave to the Netherlands. He took another leave after four years, travelling via the United States and England.
It was during this period that he met Maria Suzanna Heck, a 25-year-old teacher and devout Calvinist, known for her correspondence with Abraham Kuyper. They married in Amsterdam. The couple had five children together: Hendrik, Santina Helenus, Stoffelina, and Wilhelmus. De Rijke, a staunch Calvinist, valued hard work, honesty, and simplicity. In 1899, he joined Kuyper's Anti-Revolutionary Party. In 1900, Maria and the children moved to the Netherlands for their upbringing. In 1891, De Rijke applied for a position in the Orange Free State (Transvaal) but was not accepted due to the absence of a suitable role.
Career and major projects.
Japan.
In 1872, encouraged by Van Doorn, De Rijke travelled to Japan to assist in the redesign of the port of Osaka.
He arrived in September 1873, along with Van Doorn and George Arnold Escher. Over the next thirty years, these civil engineers, joined later by Jack Lindo and Anthonie Rouwenhorst Mulder, executed numerous flood control and water management projects. They enhanced the ports of Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagasaki, Ujina (Hiroshima), Hakata (Fukuoka), Mikuni (Sakai), and Niigata. Notably, De Rijke's work on the breakwater at Yokkaichi has been recognised by the Japanese government as an Important Cultural Property.
De Rijke was instrumental in the improvement of various riparian zones of Japanese rivers. His significant contribution included the separation of the Kiso River, Nagara River, and Ibi River near Nagoya, known as the . He undertook works at the Kurobe alluvial fan, located on the Japan Sea coast, and took on the project of constructing a tunnel channel from Lake Biwa to Kyoto, assuming Escher's position after his return to the Netherlands.
De Rijke is credited with establishing the Kanda River sewer network in Tokyo. Elementary schools in Aichi Prefecture conduct a tour of wajū for third graders, educating them about its history and the challenges faced in its construction. This programme aims to foster an appreciation of the effort and history behind the creation of the wajū, and to ensure its legacy is passed on to future generations.
Following 1891, De Rijke was appointed an Imperial officer of the Meiji Home Ministry, rising to the position of Vice Minister. He frequently grappled with the challenges of Japanese bureaucracy and corruption, which he found conflicted with his Reformed principles.
Among the five Dutch engineers of that period, De Rijke stayed the longest in Japan, and later worked in China. His prestigious position in Japan stood in contrast to the potential difficulties that his lack of a formal engineering title would have caused him in the Netherlands.
In 2002, Dutch filmmaker Louis van Gasteren released "In a Japanese Rapids; Dutch Watermen in Japan 1872 - 1903," a documentary about De Rijke and Escher. That same year, Van Gasteren edited a book titled "In a Japanese Rapid" and three years later, he published "The Eternal Rice with Japanese Tea," featuring letters from the Dutch "watermen".
Tone River.
De Rijke's inaugural undertaking in Japan involved the enhancement of the Tone River, which was affected by significant navigable depth issues arising from siltation. Addressing this issue required detailed topographical survey data, which was not readily available in Japan at the time. Following De Rijke's arrival, an extensive levelling project was commenced in the area. Jack Lindo had already established a baseline level (the Tokyo level) for this purpose.
While levelling was a known concept in Japan, logistical challenges in procuring appropriate survey instruments hampered progress. De Rijke noted in a letter dated 7 June 1884, "The Japanese still work astonishingly slowly. Now, after a year of measuring, I still cannot even determine the gradient”.
He later collaborated with Rouwenhorst Mulder on this project; they devised a plan in 1887, which commenced in 1888. The project was executed on a grand scale, employing 3,000 individuals, including many prisoners. The canal was completed by 1890.
Yodo River Regulation.
A significant undertaking was the regulation of the Yodo River, aimed at enhancing its utility as a navigational channel between Osaka and Kyoto. The impetus for this project arose from the progressive shallowing of the river at its mouth, attributed to sediment accumulation. This sedimentation, a consequence of soil erosion in the upstream mountainous regions, considerably augmented the river's sediment load, depositing in the lower stretches and the delta. Consequently, a contemporary bank protection design was implemented at the points of severe erosion. The Dutch engineers De Rijke and Escher introduced the construction of groynes, drawing inspiration from the brushwood groynes used in the Netherlands. The onsite execution of these projects was significantly influenced by Foreman Johannes Westerweel.
A notable environmental concern was the deforestation at the summit of Mount Kabatayama, leading to pronounced surface erosion and additional sediment deposition in the Yodo River. As a remedial measure, the engineers recommended prohibiting logging activities on the mountain slopes and advocated for the reforestation of the mountain's apex. These interventions, over time, proved successful in mitigating the silting issues in the downstream sections of the river. These initiatives were termed "mountain works" by De Rijke, initially comprising fascine bundles ( on the slopes, later evolving into hedge-like structures.
Concurrently, the collapse of a retaining wall along the Minato River presented an additional challenge. This was addressed by constructing a bank with a gentle incline, reinforced with stone deposits.
The primary phase of the Yodo River improvements spanned the years 1875-1876. This phase involved deepening the river's channel along the 44 km stretch between Osaka and Kyoto, creating a "summer bed." By installing groynes and dumps, the engineers ensured the maintenance of this low-water bed through focused water currents. During periods of high discharge, the entire winter bed was utilized for drainage, effectively preventing hazardous flooding. This methodology mirrored the techniques employed in the normalization of the Rhine and later, the Meuse rivers in the Netherlands.
The riverbank and groyne constructions were based on traditional Dutch fascine mattress designs, assembled and installed under Westerweel's supervision. In safeguarding the embankments, another Dutch method involving Fascine was employed, overseen by specialist Foreman Josinus Kalis. Notably, local materials like bamboo and rice straw were utilized instead of the customary willow wood and rye straw from Holland. A hallmark of the Dutch engineers' approach was their aim to address multiple objectives through their projects, such as curbing soil erosion, disease prevention, and agricultural enhancement, all within an integrated framework that viewed a river's catchment area as a cohesive system requiring balanced water distribution.
Mikuni Harbour Project.
In the latter half of the 19th century, the port of Mikuni, historically a hub of national trade on the Kitamaebune shipping route, faced a decline due to sediment deposits from the Kuzuryū River. Recognising its strategic importance, the local populace in 1875 petitioned the Japanese government for improvements. This led to the involvement of Escher and de Rijke.
Escher's tenure began in 1876 with an ambitious design including an arc breakwater to counteract gravel run-off, and a basin with an average water depth of three metres. Beyond the maritime aspects, Escher's vision extended to urban development, notably designing an Elementary school in Mikuni. However, financial constraints and contractual terminations led to Escher's return to the Netherlands, leaving the project incomplete.
In 1877, Johannis de Rijke assumed the mantle. De Rijke, already grappling with existing responsibilities, faced a challenging task exacerbated by frequent disputes with Japanese executive staff and a devastating cholera outbreak in the summer of 1879. His wife's illness added further personal strain, and necessitated her temporary relocation to Kobe for health reasons.
De Rijke's tenure was marked by significant alterations to Escher's initial plans. Concerns over budget miscalculations and the structural integrity of the arc breakwater, deemed inadequate against the formidable waves, led to a comprehensive redesign. De Rijke's proposal incorporated five layers of fascine mattresses and timber piles, bound by iron chains, and included the addition of four spur dikes. These changes, however, resulted in a tripling of construction costs, imposing a heavy financial burden on the local inhabitants.
In a desperate bid to generate revenue, the port was prematurely opened for trade in 1880, despite the incomplete state of construction. This decision proved to be ill-fated; the following year witnessed the partial destruction of the arc breakwater by strong ocean waves. Nonetheless, construction persevered, with the project finally reaching completion in 1885. The total cost escalated to 7.5 times Escher's original estimate, but the completion of Mikuni port reinstated its status as a modern trade hub and a pivotal transit point.
Escher and de Rijke's legacy of engineering solutions employed at Mikuni port included the adoption by Japanese engineers of the fascine mattress technique. The project not only resolved the issue of drift sand but also became a learning ground for Japanese officials and engineers, facilitating the transmission of valuable construction methodologies.
Locally, the harbour dam is referred to as "Essuru Tsutsumi" or "Escher's Harbour Dam", a homage to its original designer. This dam continues to be an integral component of the Mikuni harbour infrastructure.
Kiso Delta Regulation.
The city of Nagoya, along with its surrounding areas, has historically grappled with the challenges posed by water management, frequently facing flooding from the Kiso Delta at the confluences of the Kiso River, the Nagara River, and the Ibi River. Efforts to regulate these rivers date back to the Edo period, yet these early attempts largely failed to yield significant results. In the period spanning 1878 to 1900, De Rijke undertook extensive research in this region and subsequently developed a comprehensive plan aimed at segregating the three rivers in the lower stretches of the Kiso Delta.
The proposed project was a monumental undertaking, with an estimated cost of 9.74 million yen, a figure representing over 10% of the national budget at the time. The execution of this ambitious plan extended until the year 1912, reflecting the scale and complexity of the intervention required to address the long-standing water management challenges in this region.
Kiso Lock Construction.
The alteration of the confluence points of the Kiso River and the Nagara River consequentially disrupted the direct shipping route between these rivers. The resultant disparity in water levels between the two rivers rendered a simple crossing infeasible. To address this issue, the construction of a lock was proposed as