History of Japanese clothing throughout the Meiji period
Japanese clothing during the Meiji period (1867–1912) saw a marked change from the preceding Edo period (1603–1867), following the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate between 1853 and 1867, the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 – which, led by Matthew C. Perry, forcibly opened Japanese ports to American vessels, thus ending Japan's centuries-long policy of isolation – and the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which saw the feudal shogunate dismantled in favour of a Western-style modern empire.
During the Meiji period, Western-style fashion () was first adopted most widely by Japanese men in uniformed, governmental or otherwise official roles, as part of a drive towards industrialisation and a perception of modernity. Western-style uniform was first introduced as a part of government uniform in 1872, and quickly became associated with elitism, modernity, and money.
The Western trends adopted by the government were not popular with the public at large. While those in employed in the Imperial court, office workers and factory workers wore Western dress at work, many still chose to wear kimono and other traditional Japanese clothing () at home. The transition to Western-style clothing throughout wider Japanese society happened gradually, with a significant degree of resistance. This transition came to be referred to as three, distinctive periods: (1868–1883), the (1883–1890s), and an unnamed period of nativist revival afterwards in the 1890s. The period was a period wherein Western products were adopted quickly, and were mixed with elements of , such as Western-style shoes and hats being worn by men when wearing kimono. During the period, Western culture grew in popularity, and a number of clothing reforms including a Westernised system of dress. Two decades into the Meiji period, it became increasingly hard to find men with uncropped, -style hair and women with blackened teeth, styles mostly relegated to rural areas.
Following the period, due to a proliferation of Western dress over two decades, a single piece of no longer served the purpose of distinguishing someone as modern and progressive. In the final stage of the Meiji period, during the 1890s, popular culture and clothing saw a callback to nativism, in which the kimono re-established itself as the primary dress of the Japanese people, with Western-style clothing mostly relegated to formal roles, uniforms, and men in positions of power or obligation of dress. Women, having always been slower to adopt Western dress than men, continued to wear the kimono as fashionable and everyday clothing, and did not adopt Western clothing as everyday dress to nearly the same degree as Japanese men. During this time, the kimono continued to evolve as a fashionable garment, and would evolve the formalised predecessors of modern types of kimono for women during the following Taishō period (1912–1926).
Fashion trends.
At the beginning of the Meiji period, some women did adopt Western fashion, but were relatively few and far between, as all Western-style clothing was imported from Western sources. In contrast, many men in Japan at the time were required to start wearing Western-style uniforms to work, beginning with government officials in 1871; by the end of the decade, students in public universities were required to wear Western clothing, along with businessmen, teachers, doctors, bankers, nurses, and other jobs.
Western-style clothing came to represent elitism or class in the Meiji period, alongside the use of aniline dyes, particularly purple and red, the first two synthetic dyes ever created, which had previously been associated with high class status; these dyes became seen as both the colour of "progress" and as symbolism of one's support for the Empire. Though the poorest could still not afford to wear these flashy, high-status colours, those at the bottom of society also began to wear Western uniforms. Though those working practical jobs often wore tube-sleeved jackets, or else tied their kimono sleeves back with cords, the sleeves on kimono were considered an impractical safety hazard when working on machinery in factories, driving the switch towards Western clothing. In 1873, uniforms were introduced with as well.
In the early Meiji period, Western clothing was expensive, and was worn only by the richest in society. Wool had to be imported, and tailors familiar with the construction of Western clothing were difficult to find. It was more common, therefore, to wear some pieces of Western-style clothing instead of a whole outfit. (based on the French , 'hat'), along with a Western-style umbrella, were accessories commonly worn; for those with more money, leather shoes and watches were stylish contributions too.
In 1877, the Satsuma Rebellion, led by Saigō Takamori from the southern domain of Satsuma, came to an end, following the death of Saigō at the Battle of Shiroyama. A revolt led by disaffected samurai against the new Imperial government, though the revolt lasted less than a year, Saigō was branded a noble, if tragic, hero by those sympathetic to his cause; in turn, people started wearing an ikat-woven indigo and white pattern named . Saigō "peasant dress" became popular in Tokyo, and an olive brown colour previously known as was renamed -brown in his memory.
During the late 1870s to 1880s, wool became popular. In 1898 alone, the consumption of wool in Japan reached , imported entirely from England and Germany. Wool quickly became commonly used in winter clothing, a marked change from previous years, where clothing was layered to protect from the cold. Kimono overcoats were introduced, with various types known as , , and , all commonly made of wool. Also during the winter, women began to wear blankets over their shoulders, and by the end of the 1880s, red blankets had become fashionable.
In 1881, a Japanese artsian named Okajima Chiyozo created a technique of printing designs onto muslin. These became increasingly popular, and were known as muslins, after the hand-painted dye technique, with women using red or purple muslins for their and .
During the 1880s, the use of Western clothing in Japan became more complex, with the wearing of a single Western accessory no longer impressive enough as a mark of one's progressiveness. Despite this change, people still continued wearing kimono at home; during this time, the type of clothing one might wear in society evolved to change based on one's activity and location. Western clothing came to be seen as workwear, worn in situations where Western-style chairs and desks were present, whereas Japanese clothing was worn in the home, where tatami mats were dominant. There was an aphorism that noted if there was a chair (common in more Western-style settings), was appropriate, whereas was for sitting on the floor. Japanese clothing became leisurewear, with Western styles become standard in the public sphere. However, as this fashion structure developed, women's clothing began to revert to back to traditional Japanese clothing; outside of high-status women who wore Western dress such as the Empress, members of the high nobility and the wives of officials, the kimono had re-established its place as everyday clothing for women unlikely to hold jobs or status requiring Western uniform in the same fashion as men.
In the 1890s, nativism grew stronger in Japan, and Western clothing likewise became less popular, with rules for Western-style dress growing lax for public events. The kimono became popular again as a marker of native pride, and people started wearing Japanese dress to events, though not to parties. During this period, it was considered disdainful for women to wear Western clothing.
By the end of the Meiji period in 1912, it became apparent that the influx of Western clothing, and the ideas of what a progressive, modern Japan looked like, had affected everyday and fashionable clothing at a deeper level than just that of the clothing people chose to wear. Ceremonial and auspicious colours, which had once been white, gold, silver and scarlet for weddings, had now changed to just white; for funerals, close family members previously wore white while others wore black, but now, everyone wore black.
Coats.
Overcoats were one of the many ways in which a piece of Western clothing could be added to an outfit. Coats and jackets existed previous to Western influences, but with new imported textiles, the number of varieties increased greatly. There were new coats known as , sleeveless cloaks with an attached cape, to be worn over the baggy kimono sleeves; ; and , all made of wool. By the 1880s, women started wearing coats, a rising fashionable article.
Scarves.
One popular article of Western clothing was the (collar-winder), a scarf worn over the kimono. The white (towel) was also used as a scarf early on, but vanished once people learned it was an article used to dry one's body. Men particularly adopted the white silk crepe , which was looped around the neck many times. In the 1880s, square plaid shawls became popular too. Men wore shawls both over kimono and business suits.
Hair and hats.
During the 1880s, (hats) became popularised in Japan. In July 1871, haircutting was made voluntary in an effort to convince Japanese men to move over to the Western hair styles such as , cropped hair, over the Japanese (shaved pate). Following this, men started cutting off their topknot as the Emperor did in 1872. Both men and women started with Western-style hair trends, and men started growing mustaches and beards. As they changed their hairstyles, hats became common too. Also around 1872, local governments reinforced their efforts and announced that direct exposure to the head was harmful, so they started advocating for hats to protect oneself. For grand ceremonies, there were hats that were ship-shaped, lesser ceremonies called for silk hats, and if one was wearing a frock coat to a ceremony (usually lower civil workers), they only wore a top hat. Like Western-style clothing at the time, hats also became a symbol of elitism.
Etiquette books.
Many new to Western clothing and styles of etiquette found it difficult to know what to wear, with codes or notices of dress often given out on what would be acceptable to an event. Many relied on etiquette books made during the Edo period and early Meiji period. Others relied on their personal experience from traveling abroad.
, "The Clothing, Food, and Dwellings of the West", was a popular book series published between 1866 and 1870, by Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835–1901). Fukuzawa was a member of the first shogunal delegation that went to both the United States and Europe. It detailed images of Western-style clothing, furniture, and objects. It also described how to wear clothing, but only for men. The first book of this series sold 150,000 copies in the first year.
Women's fashion.
A small minority of women adopted Western fashions early on; they were mostly students, geisha, or foreigners' mistresses. Most other women considered Western dress as something to accessorise with, not completely wear. In the 1870s, women rarely participated in events including balls and social gatherings. It was not until late 1886 that a Westernised clothing system was designed for women. In September 1886, the reform for the wives of was designed, and in November 1886, for the . However, despite the clothing reforms being introduced, Western-style clothing was uncomfortable for most, so it took time for women to start wearing it.
For most women, the Western style came by occupation or status instead of general fashion. Female factory workers were required to start wearing Western-style uniforms with (trousers) in 1873. Female students and teachers also wore with Western-style shoes occasionally. For those who did wear Western styles outside of a uniform, it was difficult to obtain such clothing. Many women simply left their sizes in Paris to order a new wardrobe each year, while others might purchase their clothing in their travels to America or Europe, as early adopters were typically rich. Later on, Western-style clothing was produced in Japan.
Despite Western fashion adoption, not everything was as popular as in the West. For example, Western women were wearing crinolines, yet Japanese women rarely did. Some prostitutes in Nagasaki wore them for exotic impact, but not many others. Geisha, game for new experiments in fashion, were some of the first women to adopt Western-style clothing as more than just an accessory, though by the 1930s in the following Taishō period, no geisha wore Western clothing as part of their work.
After the Empress moved to wear Western clothing in 1886, imperial married princesses, wives of officials, and ladies-in-waiting had to wear Western clothing. For wives of officials,