• Th1/Th2 Immune Bias: An important immunologic consequence of helminth infection is the polarization of the immune response to a TH2 subset. This immune modulation by helminth species appears to be important in tempering TH1 cell mediated inflammation and subsequent tissue damage to the host. Such modulation may be detrimental to the HIV-1 infected host by limiting the Th1 immune response that may be important for the control of HIV-1 replication. The TH2/TH1 response to infection is directly influenced by parasite biology. Helminth infection results in specific nematode-elicited macrophages (NeMacs) that directly induce naïve T cells to differentiate into Th2 cells. Cytokine mimics produced by some parasites are also able to directly induce Th2 cells. Other non-protein molecules produced by helminths are able to interact with dendritic cells and induce Th2 cells and Treg cells that produce IL-10 and directly lead to a Th2 shift in naïve T cells.