Participants were eligible for inclusion if they had a BMI of 40 kg/m2 or >35 kg/m2 in presence of type 2 diabetes, were aged 30 to 60 years, and had not sustained weight loss in the previous 1 year. Exclusion criteria were a history of major abdominal or bariatric surgery, disabling cardiac or pulmonary diseases, cancer, long-term treatment with oral corticosteroids, and mental illness.