• Immunology of helminth co-infection: Helminth infection has been shown to have profound effects on the immune system. Chronic helminth infection leads to a dominant Th2 immune profile, anergy to various antigens, and significant activation of the immune system. These changes suggest that helminth co-infection may significantly affect the host immune response to HIV-1 viral replication and control. Such immune dysregulation may also increase HIV co-receptor expression and result in a cell population more susceptible to HIV infection.