If that seems shocking today, the loss of virtue must be traced to the all-pervasive “permit raj,” with its licensing requirements to import, produce, and invest, which grew to gargantuan proportions. High-level bureaucrats quickly discovered that licenses could be bartered for favors, while politicians saw in the system the means to help important financial backers.
1950年代的印度拥有一个为世界所称道的文官集团以及政治阶层。这或许会令当今的人们感到震惊，但这种道德沦丧必须追溯到无孔不入的“许可证统治”——任何进口，生产以及投资行为都需要许可证，而且情况不断恶化。高级官员们很快发现可以利用许可证作为交易筹码，而政客们则利用这一系统去回报资助自己的那些大财主。