setfit safetensors mpnet sentence-transformers text-classification generated_from_setfit_trainer arxiv:2209.11055 base_model:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 base_model:finetune:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 model-index region:us
---
base_model: sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
library_name: setfit
metrics:
- f1
pipeline_tag: text-classification
tags:
- setfit
- sentence-transformers
- text-classification
- generated_from_setfit_trainer
widget:
- text: in durankulak near varna is another important example other signs of early
    metals are found from the third millennium bc in palmela portugal los millares
    spain and stonehenge united kingdom the precise beginnings however have not be
    clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing in tamilnadu
    in approximately 1900 bc ancient iron smelting sites were functioning in tamil
    nadu in the near east about 3500 bc it was discovered that by combining copper
    and tin a superior metal could be made an alloy called bronze this represented
    a major technological shift known as the bronze age the extraction of iron from
    its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin the
    process appears to have been invented by the hittites in about 1200 bc beginning
    the iron age the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the
    success of the philistineshistorical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be
    found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations this includes the ancient
    and medieval kingdoms and empires of the middle east and near east ancient iran
    ancient egypt ancient nubia and anatolia in presentday turkey ancient nok carthage
    the greeks and romans of ancient europe medieval europe ancient and medieval china
    ancient and medieval india ancient and medieval japan amongst others many applications
    practices and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in
    ancient china such as the innovation of the blast furnace cast iron hydraulicpowered
    trip hammers and double acting piston bellowsa 16th century book by georg agricola
    de re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining
    metal ores metal extraction and metallurgy of the time agricola has been described
    as the father of metallurgy extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing
    valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer
    form in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal the ore must
    be reduced physically chemically or electrolytically extractive metallurgists
    are interested in three primary streams feed concentrate metal oxidesulphide and
    tailings waste after mining large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing
    or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either
    mostly valuable or mostly waste concentrating the particles of value in a form
    supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products
    mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive
    to leaching leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched
    solution the solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals ore
- text: '##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf
    x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate
    the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point
    of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat
    algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch
    step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical
    srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer
    tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point
    this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the
    grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not
    correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic
    with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa
    information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point
    in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related
    to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering
    a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x
    and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation
    limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf
    x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring
    the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid
    alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the
    tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle
    nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau
    m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright
    of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated
    a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given
    by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min
    leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert'
- text: authority to select projects and mandated new metropolitan planning initiatives
    for the first time state transportation officials were required to consult seriously
    with local representatives on mpo governing boards regarding matters of project
    prioritization and decisionmaking these changes had their roots in the need to
    address increasingly difficult transportation problems — in particular the more
    complicated patterns of traffic congestion that arose with the suburban development
    boom in the previous decades many recognized that the problems could only be addressed
    effectively through a stronger federal commitment to regional planning the legislation
    that emerged the intermodal surface transportation efficiency act istea was signed
    into federal law by president george h w bush in december 1991 it focused on improving
    transportation not as an end in itself but as the means to achieve important national
    goals including economic progress cleaner air energy conservation and social equity
    istea promoted a transportation system in which different modes and facilities
    — highway transit pedestrian bicycle aviation and marine — were integrated to
    allow a seamless movement of both goods and people new funding programs provided
    greater flexibility in the use of funds particularly regarding using previously
    restricted highway funds for transit development improved intermodal connections
    and emphasized upgrades to existing facilities over building new capacity — particularly
    roadway capacity to accomplish more serious metropolitan planning istea doubled
    federal funding for mpo operations and required the agencies to evaluate a variety
    of multimodal solutions to roadway congestion and other transportation problems
    mpos also were required to broaden public participation in the planning process
    and to see that investment decisions contributed to meeting the air quality standards
    of the clean air act amendments in addition istea placed a new requirement on
    mpos to conduct fiscally constrained planning and ensure that longrange transportation
    plans and shortterm transportation improvement programs were fiscally constrained
    in other words adopted plans and programs can not include more projects than reasonably
    can be expected to be funded through existing or projected sources of revenues
    this new requirement represented a major conceptual shift for many mpos and others
    in the planning community since the imposition of fiscal discipline on plans now
    required not only understanding how much money might be available but how to prioritize
    investment needs and make difficult choices among competing needs adding to this
    complexity is the need to plan across transportation modes and develop approaches
    for multimodal investment prioritization and decision making it is in this context
    of greater prominence funding and requirements that mpos function today an annual
    element is composed of transportation improvement projects contained in an areas
    transportation improvement program tip which is proposed for implementation during
    the current year the annual element is submitted to the us department of transportation
    as part of the required planning process the passage of safe accountable flexible
    efficient transportation equity act a legacy for users safetealu
- text: '##pignygiroux served as an assistant professor from 1997 2003 associate professor
    from 2003 2014 chair of the department of geography from 2015 2018 and professor
    beginning in 2014 with secondary appointments in department of geology the college
    of education social services and rubenstein school of environment natural resources
    she teaches courses in meteorology climatology physical geography remote sensing
    and landsurface processes in her work as state climatologist for vermont dupignygiroux
    uses her expertise hydrology and extreme weather such as floods droughts and storms
    to keep the residents of vermont informed on how climate change will affect their
    homes health and livelihoods she assists other state agencies in preparing for
    and adapting to current and future impacts of climate change on vermonts transportation
    system emergency management planning and agriculture and forestry industries for
    example she has published analyses of the impacts of climate change on the health
    of vermonts sugar maples a hardwood species of key economic and cultural importance
    to the state as cochair of vermonts state ’ s drought task force she played a
    key role in developing the 2018 vermont state hazard mitigation plandupignygiroux
    served as secretary for the american association of state climatologists from
    20102011 and president elect from 20192020 in june 2020 she was elected as president
    of the american association of state climatologists which is a twoyear term in
    addition to her research on climate change dupignygiroux is known for her efforts
    to research and promote climate literacy climate literacy is an understanding
    of the influences of and influences on the climate system including how people
    change the climate how climate metrics are observed and modelled and how climate
    change affects society “ being climate literate is more critical than ever before
    ” lesleyann dupignygiroux stated for a 2020 article on climate literacy “ if we
    do not understand weather climate and climate change as intricate and interconnected
    systems then our appreciation of the big picture is lost ” dupignygiroux is known
    for her climate literacy work with elementary and high school teachers and students
    she cofounded the satellites weather and climate swac project in 2008 which is
    a professional development program for k12 teachers designed to promote climate
    literacy and interest in the stem science technology engineering and mathematics
    careers dupignygiroux is also a founding member of the climate literacy and energy
    awareness network clean formerly climate literacy network a communitybased effort
    to support climate literacy and communication in a 2016 interview dupignygiroux
    stated “ sharing knowledge and giving back to my community are my two axioms in
    life watching students mature and flourish in'
- text: no solutions to x n y n z n displaystyle xnynzn for all n ≥ 3 displaystyle
    ngeq 3 this claim appears in his annotations in the margins of his copy of diophantus
    euler the interest of leonhard euler 1707 – 1783 in number theory was first spurred
    in 1729 when a friend of his the amateur goldbach pointed him towards some of
    fermats work on the subject this has been called the rebirth of modern number
    theory after fermats relative lack of success in getting his contemporaries attention
    for the subject eulers work on number theory includes the following proofs for
    fermats statements this includes fermats little theorem generalised by euler to
    nonprime moduli the fact that p x 2 y 2 displaystyle px2y2 if and only if p ≡
    1 mod 4 displaystyle pequiv 1bmod 4 initial work towards a proof that every integer
    is the sum of four squares the first complete proof is by josephlouis lagrange
    1770 soon improved by euler himself the lack of nonzero integer solutions to x
    4 y 4 z 2 displaystyle x4y4z2 implying the case n4 of fermats last theorem the
    case n3 of which euler also proved by a related method pells equation first misnamed
    by euler he wrote on the link between continued fractions and pells equation first
    steps towards analytic number theory in his work of sums of four squares partitions
    pentagonal numbers and the distribution of prime numbers euler pioneered the use
    of what can be seen as analysis in particular infinite series in number theory
    since he lived before the development of complex analysis most of his work is
    restricted to the formal manipulation of power series he did however do some very
    notable though not fully rigorous early work on what would later be called the
    riemann zeta function quadratic forms following fermats lead euler did further
    research on the question of which primes can be expressed in the form x 2 n y
    2 displaystyle x2ny2 some of it prefiguring quadratic reciprocity diophantine
    equations euler worked on some diophantine equations of genus 0 and 1 in particular
    he studied diophantuss work he tried to systematise it but the time was not yet
    ripe for such an endeavour — algebraic geometry was still in its infancy he did
    notice there was a connection between diophantine problems and elliptic integrals
    whose study he had himself initiated lagrange legendre and gauss josephlouis
inference: true
model-index:
- name: SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
  results:
  - task:
      type: text-classification
      name: Text Classification
    dataset:
      name: Unknown
      type: unknown
      split: test
    metrics:
    - type: f1
      value: 0.7425854169247909
      name: F1
---

# SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1

This is a [SetFit](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit) model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1) as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance is used for classification.

The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:

1. Fine-tuning a [Sentence Transformer](https://www.sbert.net) with contrastive learning.
2. Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.

## Model Details

### Model Description
- **Model Type:** SetFit
- **Sentence Transformer body:** [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1)
- **Classification head:** a [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Number of Classes:** 43 classes
<!-- - **Training Dataset:** [Unknown](https://huggingface.co/datasets/unknown) -->
<!-- - **Language:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->

### Model Sources

- **Repository:** [SetFit on GitHub](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit)
- **Paper:** [Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055)
- **Blogpost:** [SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://huggingface.co/blog/setfit)

### Model Labels
| Label | Examples                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 9     | <ul><li>'##hthalmic formulation of latilactobacillus sakei while the oral probiotic demonstrated no discernible benefits there is limited evidence indicating probiotics are of benefit in the management of infection or inflammation of the urinary tract one literature review found lactobacillus probiotic supplements appeared to increase vaginal lactobacilli levels thus reducing the incidence of vaginal infections in otherwise healthy adult women supplements such as tablets capsules powders and sachets containing bacteria have been studied however probiotics taken orally can be destroyed by the acidic conditions of the stomach as of 2010 a number of microencapsulation techniques were being developed to address this problem preliminary research is evaluating the potential physiological effects of multiple probiotic strains as opposed to a single strain as the human gut may contain tens of thousands of microbial species one theory indicates that this diverse environment may benefit from consuming multiple probiotic strains an effect that remains scientifically unconfirmed only preliminary evidence exists for most probiotic health claims even for the most studied probiotic strains few have been sufficiently developed in basic and clinical research to warrant approval for health claim status by a regulatory agency such as the fda or efsa and as of 2010 no claims had been approved by those two agencies some experts are skeptical about the efficacy of different probiotic strains and believe that not all subjects benefit from probiotics first probiotics must be alive when administered one of the concerns throughout the scientific literature resides in the viability and reproducibility on a large scale of observed results for specific studies as well as the viability and stability during use and storage and finally the ability to survive in stomach acids and then in the intestinal ecosystemsecond probiotics must have undergone controlled evaluation to document health benefits in the target host only products that contain live organisms shown in reproducible human studies to confer a health benefit may claim to be probiotic the correct definition of health benefit backed with solid scientific evidence is a strong element for the proper identification and assessment of the effect of a probiotic this aspect is a challenge for scientific and industrial investigations because several difficulties arise such as variability in the site for probiotic use oral vaginal intestinal and mode of applicationthird the probiotic candidate must be a taxonomically defined microbe or combination of microbes genus species and strain level it is commonly admitted that most effects of probiotics are strainspecific and cannot be extended to other probiotics of the same genus or species this calls for precise identification of the strain ie gen'</li><li>'thiosulfate – citrate – bile salts – sucrose agar or tcbs agar is a type of selective agar culture plate that is used in microbiology laboratories to isolate vibrio species tcbs agar is highly selective for the isolation of v cholerae and v parahaemolyticus as well as other vibrio species apart from tcbs agar other rapid testing dipsticks like immunochromatographic dipstick is also used in endemic areas such as asia africa and latin america though tcbs agar study is required for confirmation this becomes immensely important in cases of gastroenteritis caused by campylobacter species whose symptoms mimic that of cholera since no yellow bacterial growth is observed in case of campylobacter species on tcbs agar chances of incorrect diagnosis can be rectified tcbs agar contains high concentrations of sodium thiosulfate and sodium citrate to inhibit the growth of enterobacteriaceae inhibition of grampositive bacteria is achieved by the incorporation of ox gall which is a naturally occurring substance containing a mixture of bile salts and sodium cholate a pure bile salt sodium thiosulfate also serves as a sulfur source and its presence in combination with ferric citrate allows for the easy detection of hydrogen sulfide production saccharose sucrose is included as a fermentable carbohydrate for metabolism by vibrio species the alkaline ph of the medium enhances the recovery of v cholerae and inhibits the growth of others thymol blue and bromothymol blue are included as indicators of ph changes approximate amounts per literyeast extract 50 g proteose peptone 100 g sodium thiosulfate 100 g sodium citrate 100 g ox gall 50 g sodium cholate 30 g saccharose 200 g sodium chloride 100 g ferric citrate 10 g bromothymol blue 004 g thymol blue 004 g agar 150 gph 86 ± 02 25 °c typical colony morphologyv cholerae large yellow colonies v parahaemolyticus colonies with blue to green centers v alginolyticus large yellow mucoidal colonies v harveyiv fischeri greyishgreen to bluishgreen colonies which show luminescence in dark older colonies fail to show bioluminescence proteusenterococci partial inhibition if growth colonies are small and yellow to translucent pseudomonasaeromonas partial inhibition if growth colonies are blueba'</li><li>'penicillin binding protein 3 pbp3 the ftsl gene is a group of filamentation temperaturesensitive genes used in cell division their product pbp3 as mentioned above is a membrane transpeptidase required for peptidoglycan synthesis at the septum inactivation of the ftsl gene product requires the sospromoting reca and lexa genes as well as dpia and transiently inhibits bacterial cell division the dpia is the effector for the dpib twocomponent system interaction of dpia with replication origins competes with the binding of the replication proteins dnaa and dnab when overexpressed dpia can interrupt dna replication and induce the sos response resulting in inhibition of cell division nutritional stress can change bacterial morphology a common shape alteration is filamentation which can be triggered by a limited availability of one or more substrates nutrients or electron acceptors since the filament can increase a cells uptake – surface area without significantly changing its volume appreciably moreover the filamentation benefits bacterial cells attaching to a surface because it increases specific surface area in direct contact with the solid medium in addition the filamentation may allows bacterial cells to access nutrients by enhancing the possibility that part of the filament will contact a nutrientrich zone and pass compounds to the rest of the cells biomass for example actinomyces israelii grows as filamentous rods or branched in the absence of phosphate cysteine or glutathione however it returns to a regular rodlike morphology when adding back these nutrients filamentation protoplasts spheroplasts'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
| 26    | <ul><li>'into pellets these cost on average 70 more than raw ore finally gas requirements can significantly increase investment costs gas produced by a corex is remarkably wellsuited to feeding a midrex unit but the attraction of the low investment then fades although gas handling and processing are far more economical than converting coal into coke not to mention the associated constraints such as bulk handling high sensitivity of coking plants to production fluctuations environmental impact etc replacing coke with natural gas only makes direct reduction attractive to steelmakers with cheap gas resources this point is essential as european steelmakers pointed out in 1998theres no secret to be competitive direct reduction requires natural gas at 2 per gigajoule half the european price lusine nouvelle september 1998 la reduction directe passe au charbonthis explains the development of certain reductionmelting processes which because of the high temperatures involved have a surplus of reducing gas reductionmelting processes such as the corex capable of feeding an ancillary midrex direct reduction unit or the tecnored are justified by their ability to produce corich gas despite their higher investment cost in addition coke oven gas is an essential coproduct in the energy strategy of a steel complex the absence of a coke oven must therefore be compensated for by higher natural gas consumption for downstream tools notably hot rolling and annealing furnaces the worldwide distribution of direct reduction plants is therefore directly correlated with the availability of natural gas and ore in 2007 the breakdown was as follows natural gas processes are concentrated in latin america where many have already been developed and the middle east coalfired processes are remarkably successful in india maintaining the proportion of steel produced by direct reduction despite the strong development of the chinese steel industrychina a country with gigantic needs and a deficit of scrap metal and europe lacking competitive ore and fuels have never invested massively in these processes remaining faithful to the blast furnace route the united states meanwhile has always had a few units but since 2012 the exploitation of shale gas has given a new impetus to natural gas processeshowever because direct reduction uses much more hydrogen as a reducing agent than blast furnaces which is very clear for natural gas processes it produces much less co2 a greenhouse gas this advantage has motivated the development of ulcos processes in developed countries such as hisarna ulcored and others the emergence of mature gas treatment technologies such as pressure swing adsorption or amine gas treating has also rekindled the interest of researchers in addition to reducing co2 emissions pure hydrogen processes such as hybrit are being actively studied with a view to decarbonizing the'</li><li>'have shapes that depend on crystalline orientation often needle or plateshaped these particles align themselves as water leaves the slurry or as clay is formed casting or other fluidtosolid transitions ie thinfilm deposition produce textured solids when there is enough time and activation energy for atoms to find places in existing crystals rather than condensing as an amorphous solid or starting new crystals of random orientation some facets of a crystal often the closepacked planes grow more rapidly than others and the crystallites for which one of these planes faces in the direction of growth will usually outcompete crystals in other orientations in the extreme only one crystal will survive after a certain length this is exploited in the czochralski process unless a seed crystal is used and in the casting of turbine blades and other creepsensitive parts material properties such as strength chemical reactivity stress corrosion cracking resistance weldability deformation behavior resistance to radiation damage and magnetic susceptibility can be highly dependent on the material ’ s texture and related changes in microstructure in many materials properties are texturespecific and development of unfavorable textures when the material is fabricated or in use can create weaknesses that can initiate or exacerbate failures parts can fail to perform due to unfavorable textures in their component materials failures can correlate with the crystalline textures formed during fabrication or use of that component consequently consideration of textures that are present in and that could form in engineered components while in use can be a critical when making decisions about the selection of some materials and methods employed to manufacture parts with those materials when parts fail during use or abuse understanding the textures that occur within those parts can be crucial to meaningful interpretation of failure analysis data as the result of substrate effects producing preferred crystallite orientations pronounced textures tend to occur in thin films modern technological devices to a large extent rely on polycrystalline thin films with thicknesses in the nanometer and micrometer ranges this holds for instance for all microelectronic and most optoelectronic systems or sensoric and superconducting layers most thin film textures may be categorized as one of two different types 1 for socalled fiber textures the orientation of a certain lattice plane is preferentially parallel to the substrate plane 2 in biaxial textures the inplane orientation of crystallites also tend to align with respect to the sample the latter phenomenon is accordingly observed in nearly epitaxial growth processes where certain crystallographic axes of crystals in the layer tend to align along'</li><li>'origin of friction contact between surfaces is made up of a large number of microscopic regions in the literature called asperities or junctions of contact where atomtoatom contact takes place the phenomenon of friction and therefore of the dissipation of energy is due precisely to the deformations that such regions undergo due to the load and relative movement plastic elastic or rupture deformations can be observed plastic deformations – permanent deformations of the shape of the bumps elastic deformations – deformations in which the energy expended in the compression phase is almost entirely recovered in the decompression phase elastic hysteresis break deformations – deformations that lead to the breaking of bumps and the creation of new contact areasthe energy that is dissipated during the phenomenon is transformed into heat thus increasing the temperature of the surfaces in contact the increase in temperature also depends on the relative speed and the roughness of the material it can be so high as to even lead to the fusion of the materials involved in friction phenomena temperature is fundamental in many areas of application for example a rise in temperature may result in a sharp reduction of the friction coefficient and consequently the effectiveness of the brakes the cohesion theory the adhesion theory states that in the case of spherical asperities in contact with each other subjected to a w → displaystyle vec w load a deformation is observed which as the load increases passes from an elastic to a plastic deformation this phenomenon involves an enlargement of the real contact area a r displaystyle ar which for this reason can be expressed as where d is the hardness of the material definable as the applied load divided by the area of the contact surface if at this point the two surfaces are sliding between them a resistance to shear stress t is observed given by the presence of adhesive bonds which were created precisely because of the plastic deformations and therefore the frictional force will be given by at this point since the coefficient of friction is the ratio between the intensity of the frictional force and that of the applied load it is possible to state that thus relating to the two material properties shear strength t and hardness to obtain low value friction coefficients μ displaystyle mu it is possible to resort to materials which require less shear stress but which are also very hard in the case of lubricants in fact we use a substrate of material with low cutting stress t placed on a very hard material the force acting between two solids in contact will not only have normal components as implied so far but will also have tangential components this further complicates the description of the interactions'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| 4     | <ul><li>'dover publications isbn 0486669580 t w korner 2012 vectors pure and applied a general introduction to linear algebra cambridge university press p 216 isbn 9781107033566 r torretti 1996 relativity and geometry courier dover publications p 103 isbn 0486690466 j j l synge a schild 1978 tensor calculus courier dover publications p 128 isbn 048614139x c a balafoutis r v patel 1991 dynamic analysis of robot manipulators a cartesian tensor approach the kluwer international series in engineering and computer science robotics vision manipulation and sensors vol 131 springer isbn 0792391454 s g tzafestas 1992 robotic systems advanced techniques and applications springer isbn 0792317491 t dass s k sharma 1998 mathematical methods in classical and quantum physics universities press p 144 isbn 8173710899 g f j temple 2004 cartesian tensors an introduction dover books on mathematics series dover isbn 0486439089 h jeffreys 1961 cartesian tensors cambridge university press isbn 9780521054232'</li><li>'vibration from latin vibro to shake is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point vibration may be deterministic if the oscillations can be characterised precisely eg the periodic motion of a pendulum or random if the oscillations can only be analysed statistically eg the movement of a tire on a gravel road vibration can be desirable for example the motion of a tuning fork the reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica a mobile phone or the cone of a loudspeaker in many cases however vibration is undesirable wasting energy and creating unwanted sound for example the vibrational motions of engines electric motors or any mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted such vibrations could be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts uneven friction or the meshing of gear teeth careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations the studies of sound and vibration are closely related both fall under acoustics sound or pressure waves are generated by vibrating structures eg vocal cords these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of structures eg ear drum hence attempts to reduce noise are often related to issues of vibration machining vibrations are common in the process of subtractive manufacturing free vibration or natural vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set in motion with an initial input and allowed to vibrate freely examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and letting it go or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring the mechanical system vibrates at one or more of its natural frequencies and damps down to motionlessness forced vibration is when a timevarying disturbance load displacement velocity or acceleration is applied to a mechanical system the disturbance can be a periodic and steadystate input a transient input or a random input the periodic input can be a harmonic or a nonharmonic disturbance examples of these types of vibration include a washing machine shaking due to an imbalance transportation vibration caused by an engine or uneven road or the vibration of a building during an earthquake for linear systems the frequency of the steadystate vibration response resulting from the application of a periodic harmonic input is equal to the frequency of the applied force or motion with the response magnitude being dependent on the actual mechanical system damped vibration when the energy of a vibrating system is gradually dissipated by friction and other resistances the vibrations are said to be damped the vibrations gradually reduce or change in frequency or intensity or cease and the system rests in its equilibrium position an example of this type of vibration is the vehicular suspension dampened by the shock absorber vibration testing is accomplished by introducing a forcing function into a'</li><li>'the most cited empirical generalizations in marketing as of august 2023 the paper a new product growth for model consumer durables published in management science had approximately 11352 citations in google scholarthis model has been widely influential in marketing and management science in 2004 it was selected as one of the ten most frequently cited papers in the 50year history of management science it was ranked number five and the only marketing paper in the list it was subsequently reprinted in the december 2004 issue of management sciencethe bass model was developed for consumer durables however it has been used also to forecast market acceptance of numerous consumer and industrial products and services including tangible nontangible medical and financial products sultan et al 1990 applied the bass model to 213 product categories mostly consumer durables in a wide range of prices but also to services such as motels and industrialfarming products like hybrid corn seeds diffusion of innovation forecasting lazy user model shifted gompertz distribution'</li></ul>                                           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| 38    | <ul><li>'##ityas switching between languages is exceedingly common and takes many forms we can recognize codeswitching more often as sentence alternation a sentence may begin in one language and finish in another or phrases from both languages may succeed each other in apparently random order such behavior can be explained only by postulating a range of linguistic or social factors such as the following speakers cannot express themselves adequately in one language so they switch to another to work around the deficiency this may trigger a speaker to continue in the other language for a while switching to a minority language is very common as a means of expressing solidarity with a social group the language change signals to the listener that the speaker is from a certain background if the listener responds with a similar switch a degree of rapport is established the switch between languages can signal the speakers attitude towards the listener friendly irritated distant ironic jocular and so on monolinguals can communicate these effects to some extent by varying the level of formality of their speech bilinguals can do it by language switchingcodeswitching involves the capacity of bilingual individuals to switch between different languages within a single conversation john guiteriz notes that it is important to note that codeswitching is most commonly observed among bilingual individuals who are highly skilled in both languages and is actually prevalent in numerous bilingual communities contrary to common beliefs the patterns of language switching exhibited by the speaker can be influenced by the listeners level of proficiency in the languages or their personal language preferences codeswitching is distinct from other language contact phenomena such as borrowing pidgins and creoles and loan translation calques borrowing affects the lexicon the words that make up a language while codeswitching takes place in individual utterances speakers form and establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language form an intermediate third language speakers also practice codeswitching when they are each fluent in both languages code mixing is a thematically related term but the usage of the terms codeswitching and codemixing varies some scholars use either term to denote the same practice while others apply codemixing to denote the formal linguistic properties of languagecontact phenomena and codeswitching to denote the actual spoken usages by multilingual persons there is much debate in the field of linguistics regarding the distinction between codeswitching and language transfer according to jeanine treffersdaller considering cs codeswitching and language transfer as similar phenomena is helpful if one wants to create a theory that is as parsimonious as possible and therefore it is worth attempting to aim for'</li><li>'of new rhetoric has also been expanded in various academic disciplines for example in 2015 philosophers rutten soetaert used the new rhetoric concept to study changing attitudes in regards to education as a way to better understand if burkes ideas can be applied to this arenaburkes new rhetoric has also been used to understand the womens equality movement specifically in regards to the education of women and sharing of knowledge through print media academic amlong deconstructed print medias of the 1800s addressing human rights as an aspect of educating women about the womens rights movement generated when two peoples substances overlap burke asserts that all things have substance which he defines as the general nature of something identification is a recognized common ground between two peoples substances regarding physical characteristics talents occupation experiences personality beliefs and attitudes the more substance two people share the greater the identification it is used to overcome human division can be falsified to result in homophily sometimes the speaker tries to falsely identify with the audience which results in homophily for the audience homophily is the perceived similarity between speaker and listener the socalled i is merely a unique combination of potentially conflicting corporate wes for example the use of the people rather than the worker would more clearly tap into the lower middleclass values of the audience the movement was trying to reach reflects ambiguities of substance burke recognizes that identification rests on both unity and division since no ones substance can completely overlap with others individuals are both joined and separated humans can unite on certain aspects of substance but at the same time remain unique which is labeled as ambiguities identification can be increased by the process of consubstantiation which refers to bridging divisions between two people rhetoric is needed in this process to build unity according to burke guilt redemption is considered the plot of all human drama or the root of all rhetoric he defined the guilt as the theological doctrine of original sin as cited in littlejohn burke sees guilt as allpurpose word for any feeling of tension within a person — anxiety embarrassment selfhatred disgust and the likein this perspective burke concluded that the ultimate motivation of man is to purge oneself of ones sense of guilt through public speaking the term guilt covers tension anxiety shame disgust embarrassment and other similar feelings guilt serves as a motivating factor that drives the human drama burkes cycle refers to the process of feeling guilt and attempting to reduce it which follows a predictable pattern order or hierarchy the negative victimage scapegoat or mortification and redemption order or hierarchy society is a dramatic process in which hierarchy forms structure through power relationships the structure of social hierarchy considered in'</li><li>'between these speech traits and sexual orientation but also clarified the studys narrow scope on only certain phonetic features language and gender scholar robin lakoff not only compares gay male with female speech but also claims that gay men deliberately imitate the latter claiming this to include an increased use of superlatives inflected intonation and lisping later linguists have reevaluated lakoffs claims and concluded that these characterizations are not consistent for women instead reflecting stereotypes that may have social meaning and importance but that do not fully capture actual gendered language uselinguist david crystal correlated the use among men of an effeminate or simpering voice with a widened range of pitch glissando effects between stressed syllables greater use of fallrise and risefall tones vocal breathiness and huskiness and occasionally more switching to the falsetto register still research has not confirmed any unique intonation or pitch qualities of gay speech some such characteristics have been portrayed as mimicking womens speech and judged as derogatory toward or trivializing of women a study of over 300 flemish dutchspeaking belgian participants men and women found a significantly higher prevalence of a lisplike feature in gay men than in other demographics several studies have also examined and confirmed gay speech characteristics in puerto rican spanish and other dialects of caribbean spanish despite some similarities in gaysounding speech found crosslinguistically it is important to note that phonetic features that cue listener perception of gayness are likely to be languagedependent and languagespecific and a feature that is attributed to gayness in one linguistic variety or language may not have the same indexical meaning in a different linguistic variety or language for example a study from 2015 comparing gaysounding speech in german and italian finds slightly different acoustic cues for the languages as well as different extents of the correlation of gaysounding speech to genderatypicalsounding speech crocker l munson b 2006 speech characteristics of gendernonconforming boys oral presentation given at the conference on new ways of analyzing variation in language columbus oh mack s munson b 2008 implicit processing social stereotypes and the gay lisp oral presentation given at the annual meeting of the linguistic society of america chicago il mack sara munson benjamin 2012 the influence of s quality on ratings of mens sexual orientation explicit and implicit measures of the gay lisp stereotype journal of phonetics 40 1 198 – 212 doi101016jwocn201110002 munson b zimmerman lj 2006a the perception of sexual orientation masculini'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 36    | <ul><li>'kill masses of people the role of the authentic patriots in contrast to the sheeplike followers of the elite and more recently the theory that the federal government was trying to starve the public by forcing fertilizer limitations on farmersin a august 29th ctv news interview in response to the attack on minister freeland public safety minister marco mendicino described the attack as unacceptable and said that it was not only a threat to freeland but also a threat to democracy he said they were in consultation with the rcmp and police services to investigate increasing security details for ministers and all politicians rage farming and rage baiting are most recent iterations of clickbait and other forms of internet manipulation that use conspiracy theories and misinformation to fuel anger and engage users facebook has been blamed for fanning sectarian hatred steering users toward extremism and conspiracy theories and incentivizing politicians to take more divisive stands according to a 2021 washington post report in spite of previous reports on changes to its news feed algorithms to reduce clickbait revelations by facebook whistleblower frances haugen and content from the 2021 facebook leak informally referred to as the facebook papers provide evidence of the role the companys news feed algorithm had playedmedia and governmental investigations in the wake of revelations from facebook whistleblower frances haugen and the 2021 facebook leak provide insight into the role various algorithms play in farming outrage for profit by spreading divisiveness conspiracy theories and sectarian hatred that can allegedly contribute to realworld violence a highly criticized example was when facebook with over 25 million accounts in myanmar neglected to police rageinducing hate speech posts targeting the rohingya muslim minority in myanmar that allegedly facilitated the rohingya genocide in 2021 a us173 billion class action lawsuit filed against meta platforms inc the new name of facebook on behalf of rohingya refugees claimed that facebooks algorithms amplified hate speechin response to complaints about clickbait on facebooks news feed and news feed ranking algorithm in 2014 and again in 2016 the company introduced an anticlickbait algorithm to remove sites from their news feed that frequently use headlines that withhold exaggerate or distort informationa february 2019 article that was promoted in facebook described how outrage bait made people angry on purpose digital media companies and social media actors incite outrage to increase engagement clicks comments likes and shares which generate more advertising revenue if content does not increase engagement timeline algorithm limits the number of users that this uninteresting content can reach according to this article when geared up on its war against clickbait algorithm changed which made it'</li><li>'aposiopesis classical greek αποσιωπησις becoming silent is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished the ending to be supplied by the imagination giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue an example would be the threat get out or else — this device often portrays its users as overcome with passion fear anger excitement or modesty to mark the occurrence of aposiopesis with punctuation an emrule — or an ellipsis … may be used one classical example of aposiopesis in virgil occurs in aeneid 1135 neptune the roman god of the sea is angry with the winds whom juno released to start a storm and harass the trojan hero and protagonist aeneas neptune berates the winds for causing a storm without his approval but breaks himself off midthreatanother example in virgil occurs in the aeneid 2100 sinon the greek who is posing as a defector to deceive the trojans into accepting the trojan horse within their city wall tells about how ulixes lied to spur on the warfor an example from classical latin theater this occurs multiple times in one speech in terences adelphoe lines 159140 in the play demea has two sons he has given one to his brother micio to raise in the following scene demea has worked himself up in anger over his brothers laxer parenting style the following speech provides multiple examples of aposiopesisa biblical example is found in psalm 27 verse 13 it says unless i had believed i would see the goodness of the lord in the land of the living … the implication is that the author does not know what he would have done king lear overcome by anger at his daughters says aposiopesis also occurs at the agitated climax of mercutios queen mab speech resulting in a calming intervention by romeo dante alighieri used an aposiopesis in his divine comedy hell ix 79 citation from the translation by henry wadsworth longfellow virgil speaks to himself in syntax an aposiopesis arises when the if clause protasis of a condition is stated without an ensuing then clause or apodosis because an aposiopesis implies the trailing off of thought it is never directly followed by a period which would effectively result in four consecutive dots anacoluthon anapodoton prosiopesis quos ego figure of speech non sequitur literary device'</li><li>'and later entered his own monastery in fact aphrodito and its vicinity “ boasted over thirty churches and nearly forty monasteries ” there is no surviving record for the early years of dioscorus his father apollos was an entrepreneur and local official the commonly accepted date for the birth of dioscorus is around ad 520 although there is no evidence it is likely that dioscorus went to school in alexandria where one of his teachers might have been the neoplatonic philosopher john philoponus although alexandria was not the most prominent place for a legal education – that was the famed law school of beirut – young men did travel there for rhetorical training preliminary to the study of law these included the celebrated poet agathias a contemporary of dioscorus who at an early age published a successful collection of poems called the cycle and later became the center of a circle of prominent poets in the byzantine capital constantinopleback in aphrodito dioscorus married had children and pursued a career similar to his fathers acquiring leasing out and managing property and helping in the administration of the village his first dated appearance in the papyrus is 543 dioscorus had the assistant of the defensor civitatis of antaeopolis examine the damage done by a shepherd and his flock to a field of crops which was owned by the monastery of apa sourous but managed by dioscorus dioscorus also became engaged in legal work in 5467 after his father apollos died dioscorus wrote a formal petition to emperor justinian and a formal explanation to empress theodora about tax conflicts affecting aphrodito the village was under the special patronage of the empress and had been granted the status of autopragia this meant that the village could collect its own public taxes and deliver them directly to the imperial treasury aphrodito was not under the jurisdiction of the pagarch stationed in antaeopolis who handled the public taxes for the rest of the nome dioscoruss petition and explanation to the imperial palace described the pagarchs violations of their special tax status including theft of the collected tax money the communications to constantinople seem to have had little effect and in 551 three years after the death of theodora dioscorus travelled with a contingency of aphroditans to constantinople to present the problem to the emperor directly dioscorus may have spent three years in the capital of the byzantine empire in poetry the city was very active not only was agathias now writing there but also'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 1     | <ul><li>'a vortex ring also called a toroidal vortex is a torusshaped vortex in a fluid that is a region where the fluid mostly spins around an imaginary axis line that forms a closed loop the dominant flow in a vortex ring is said to be toroidal more precisely poloidalvortex rings are plentiful in turbulent flows of liquids and gases but are rarely noticed unless the motion of the fluid is revealed by suspended particles — as in the smoke rings which are often produced intentionally or accidentally by smokers fiery vortex rings are also a commonly produced trick by fire eaters visible vortex rings can also be formed by the firing of certain artillery in mushroom clouds and in microburstsa vortex ring usually tends to move in a direction that is perpendicular to the plane of the ring and such that the inner edge of the ring moves faster forward than the outer edge within a stationary body of fluid a vortex ring can travel for relatively long distance carrying the spinning fluid with it in a typical vortex ring the fluid particles move in roughly circular paths around an imaginary circle the core that is perpendicular to those paths as in any vortex the velocity of the fluid is roughly constant except near the core so that the angular velocity increases towards the core and most of the vorticity and hence most of the energy dissipation is concentrated near itunlike a sea wave whose motion is only apparent a moving vortex ring actually carries the spinning fluid along just as a rotating wheel lessens friction between a car and the ground the poloidal flow of the vortex lessens the friction between the core and the surrounding stationary fluid allowing it to travel a long distance with relatively little loss of mass and kinetic energy and little change in size or shape thus a vortex ring can carry mass much further and with less dispersion than a jet of fluid that explains for instance why a smoke ring keeps traveling long after any extra smoke blown out with it has stopped and dispersed these properties of vortex rings are exploited in the vortex ring gun for riot control and vortex ring toys such as the air vortex cannons the formation of vortex rings has fascinated the scientific community for more than a century starting with william barton rogers who made sounding observations of the formation process of air vortex rings in air air rings in liquids and liquid rings in liquids in particular william barton rogers made use of the simple experimental method of letting a drop of liquid fall on a free liquid surface a falling colored drop of liquid such as milk or dyed water will inevitably form a vortex ring at the interface due to the surface tension a method proposed by g i taylor to generate a vortex ring is'</li><li>'additional parameters can be input the wgplnf htplnf and vtplnf namelists define the wing horizontal tail and vertical tail respectively the basic parameters such as root chord tip chord halfspan twist dihedral and sweep are input digital datcom also accepts wing planforms which change geometry along the span such as the f4 phantom ii which had 15 degrees of outboard dihedral canards can also be analyzed in digital datcom the canard must be specified as the forward lifting surface ie wing and the wing as the aft lift surface for airfoil designations most traditional naca 4 5 and 6 airfoils can be specified in digital datcom additionally custom airfoils can be input using the appropriate namelists also twin vertical tails can be designated in digital datcom but not twin booms using the symflp and asyflp namelists flaps elevators and ailerons can be defined digital datcom allows a multitude of flap types including plain singleslotted and fowler flaps up to 9 flap deflections can be analyzed at each machaltitude combination unfortunately the rudder is not implemented in digital datcom digital datcom also offers an automated aircraft trim function which calculates elevator deflections needed to trim the aircraft other digital datcom inputs include power effects propeller and jet ground effects trim tabs and experimental data the exprxx namelist allows a user to use experimental data such as coefficient of lift coefficient of drag etc in lieu of the data digital datcom produces in the intermediate steps of its component buildup all dimensions are taken in feet and degrees unless specified otherwise digital datcom provides commands for outputting the dynamic derivatives damp as well as the stability coefficients of each components build digital datcom produces a copious amount of data for the relatively small amount of inputs it requires by default only the data for the aircraft is output but additional configurations can be output body alone wing alone horizontal tail alone vertical tail alone wingbody configuration bodyhorizontal tail configuration bodyvertical tail configuration wingbodyhorizontal tail configuration wingbodyvertical tail configuration wingbodyhorizontal tailvertical tail configurationfor each configuration stability coefficients and derivatives are output at each angle of attack specified the details of this output are defined in section 6 of the usaf digital datcom manual volume i the basic output includes cl lift coefficient cd drag coefficient cm pitching moment coefficient cn normal force coefficient ca axial force coefficient clα lift curve slope derivative of lift coefficient with respect to angle of attack cmα pitching moment curve slope derivative of pitching moment coefficient with respect to'</li><li>'textfluctuationquad textandquad vyoverline vyvy and similarly for temperature t t t ′ and pressure p p p ′ where the primed quantities denote fluctuations superposed to the mean this decomposition of a flow variable into a mean value and a turbulent fluctuation was originally proposed by osborne reynolds in 1895 and is considered to be the beginning of the systematic mathematical analysis of turbulent flow as a subfield of fluid dynamics while the mean values are taken as predictable variables determined by dynamics laws the turbulent fluctuations are regarded as stochastic variables the heat flux and momentum transfer represented by the shear stress τ in the direction normal to the flow for a given time are q v y ′ ρ c p t ′ [UNK] experimental value − k turb ∂ t [UNK] ∂ y τ − ρ v y ′ v x ′ [UNK] [UNK] experimental value μ turb ∂ v [UNK] x ∂ y displaystyle beginalignedqunderbrace vyrho cpt textexperimental valuektextturbfrac partial overline tpartial ytau underbrace rho overline vyvx textexperimental valuemu textturbfrac partial overline vxpartial yendaligned where cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure ρ is the density of the fluid μturb is the coefficient of turbulent viscosity and kturb is the turbulent thermal conductivity richardsons notion of turbulence was that a turbulent flow is composed by eddies of different sizes the sizes define a characteristic length scale for the eddies which are also characterized by flow velocity scales and time scales turnover time dependent on the length scale the large eddies are unstable and eventually break up originating smaller eddies and the kinetic energy of the initial large eddy is divided into the smaller eddies that stemmed from it these smaller eddies undergo the same process giving rise to even smaller eddies which inherit the energy of their predecessor eddy and so on in this way the energy is passed down from the large scales of the motion to smaller scales until reaching a sufficiently small length scale such that the viscosity of the fluid can effectively dissipate the kinetic energy into internal energy in his original theory of 1941 kolmogorov postulated that for very high reynolds numbers the smallscale turbulent motions are statistically isotropic ie no preferential spatial direction could be discerned in general the large scales of a flow are not isotropic since they are determined by the particular geometrical features of the boundaries the size characterizing the large scales will'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 34    | <ul><li>'or include the use of modern digital technologies many incorporate key components of active learning blended learning is a learning program in which a student learns at least in part through delivery of content and instruction via digital and online media with greater student control over time place path or pace than with traditional learning personalized learning is an educational strategy that offers pedagogy curriculum and learning environments to meet the individual students needs learning preferences and specific interests it also encompasses differentiated instruction that supports student progress based on mastery of specific subjects or skills21st century skills are a series of higherorder skills abilities and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required content and outcomes for success in 21st century society and workplaces by educators business leaders academics and governmental agencies these skills include core subjects the three rs 21st century content collaboration communication creativity critical thinking information and communication technologies ict literacy life skills and 21st century assessments digital literacy is becoming critical to successful learning for mobile and personal technology is transforming learning environments and workplaces alike it allows learning — including research collaboration creating writing production and presentation — to occur almost anywhere its robust tools support creativity of thought — through collaboration generation and production that does not require manual dexterity it fosters personalization of learning spaces by teachers and students which both supports the learning activity directly as well as indirectly through providing a greater feeling of ownership and relevancy a conducive classroom climate is one that is optimal for teaching and learning and where students feel safe and nurtured such classroom climate creations include modelling fairness and justicethe tone set by the teacher plays an important role in establishing expectations about respectful behaviour in the classroom a teacher who is calm fair and transparent about expectations and conduct serves as a model for students this includes establishing clear and appropriate consequences for breaking classroom and school rules ensuring that they are just proportional and paired with positive reinforcement positive engagement opportunities for adolescentsadolescents bring creativity enthusiasm and a strong sense of natural justice to their learning and play where learners are given meaningful opportunities to provide creative and constructive input into lesson planning and school governance processes expected benefits include increased engagement the development of skills in planning problemsolving group work and communication and a sense of pride in school activities and their own learning experience in addition finding the right choice structure for student engagement ensures these benefits overly complex choices can result in negative or no outcome in learning thoughtful classroom setupphysical classroom should be arranged so that students can work independently and easily arrange their desks for group work for example having an open space area conducive to teamwork teachers can also identify open areas outside of the classroom that could work for activities and group'</li><li>'make offering higherlevel courses such as ap classes less feasible or if there is not enough student interest to warrant offering the subject fully online courses involve a digital teacher who has many digital students with no inclass or facetoface time these courses can be facilitated either within a school or made accessible to homeschool or abroad students many virtual school options receive at least partial funding from state education initiatives and are monitored by state educational committees florida virtual school is funded through the florida education finance program fefp and is free to florida residents flvs is governed by a board of trustees appointed by the governor and its performance is monitored by the commissioner of education and reported to the state board of education and legislaturethere is much debate over the efficacy of virtual school options the consensus on blended education where students receive facetoface instruction from teachers and the online portions are only conducted in partial time is largely positive blended learning is credited with allowing students to take some agency with the pace of learning something that would not otherwise be available to them in a traditional classroom it allows students to make meaningful decisions about their learning and sets a basis for lifelong selfmotivation and learning the use of new technologies in classrooms also allows students to keep pace with innovations in learning technologies to expand the pedagogical toolset available to them such as messageboards and videos and to have instantaneous feedback and evaluation however in fully online courses the benefits of online learning are less clear as reported in one study about online mathematics for grade 8 students while more advanced students may excel in online courses the students who need the most help may suffer disproportionately to their peers when compared to traditional facetoface courses it would appear that onlineonly courses exacerbate difficulties for students with difficulties while allowing more advanced students the agency desired to excel in individual learning digital technology platforms dtp are now being implemented in numerous classrooms in order to facilitate digital learning higher education digital pedagogy is also used at the undergraduate level in varying ways including the use of digital tools for assignments hybrid or fully online courses and opencollaborative online learning digital mapping one increasingly common tool in the undergraduate classroom is digital mapping in digital mapping students use visual maps made with software like esri and arcgis to aid their work courses are typically interactive project focused and designed to for students with varied levels of skills cartographic fundamentals are taught to students through a scaffolded curriculum that combines both theory and technical skills courses also familiarize students with the practical applications of new technologies such as gps and kml scripting online courses digital peda'</li><li>'the united states hart didnt think millers introduction would help the book and approached margaret mead who refused on the grounds of neills connection with reich several months later psychoanalyst and sociologist erich fromm agreed to the project and found consensus with neill and the publisher fromms introduction placed summerhill in a history of backlash against progressive education and claimed that the perverted implementation of child freedom was more at fault than the idea of child freedom itself he wrote that summerhill was one of few schools that provided education without fear or hidden coercion and that it carried the goals of the western humanistic tradition reason love integrity and courage fromm also highlighted adult confusion about nonauthoritarianism and how they mistook coercion for genuine freedoma revised edition was edited by albert lamb and released by st martins press as summerhill school a new view of childhood in 1993 summerhill is a s neills aphoristic and anecdotal account of his famous early progressive school experiment in england founded in the 1920s summerhill school the books intent is to demonstrate the origins and effects of unhappiness and then show how to raise children to avoid this unhappiness it is an affirmation of the goodness of the child summerhill is the story of summerhill schools origins its programs and pupils how they live and are affected by the program and neills own educational philosophy it is split into seven chapters that introduce the school and discuss parenting sex morality and religion childrens problems parents problems and questions and answersthe school is run as a democracy with students deciding affairs that range from the curriculum to the behavior code lessons are noncompulsory neill emphasizes selfregulation personal responsibility freedom from fear freedom in sex play and loving understanding over moral instruction or force in his philosophy all attempts to mold children are coercive in nature and therefore harmful caretakers are advised to trust in the natural process and let children selfregulate such that they live by their own rules and consequently treat with the highest respect the rights of others to live by their own rules neills selfregulation constitutes a childs right to live freely without outside authority in things psychic and somatic — that children eat and come of age when they want are never hit and are always loved and protected children can do as they please until their actions affect others in an example a student can skip french class to play music but cannot disruptively play music during the french class against the popular image of go as you please schools summerhill has many rules however they are decided at a schoolwide meeting where students and'</li></ul> |
| 40    | <ul><li>'##ear and ε a m e r displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon amer are shown to be full supercategories of various wellknown categories including the category s t o p displaystyle boldsymbol stop of symmetric topological spaces and continuous maps and the category m e t ∞ displaystyle boldsymbol metinfty of extended metric spaces and nonexpansive maps the notation a [UNK] b displaystyle boldsymbol ahookrightarrow boldsymbol b reads category a displaystyle boldsymbol a is embedded in category b displaystyle boldsymbol b the categories ε a m e r displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon amer and ε a n e a r displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon anear are supercategories for a variety of familiar categories shown in fig 3 let ε a n e a r displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon anear denote the category of all ε displaystyle varepsilon approach nearness spaces and contractions and let ε a m e r displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon amer denote the category of all ε displaystyle varepsilon approach merotopic spaces and contractions among these familiar categories is s t o p displaystyle boldsymbol stop the symmetric form of t o p displaystyle boldsymbol top see category of topological spaces the category with objects that are topological spaces and morphisms that are continuous maps between them m e t ∞ displaystyle boldsymbol metinfty with objects that are extended metric spaces is a subcategory of ε a p displaystyle boldsymbol varepsilon ap having objects ε displaystyle varepsilon approach spaces and contractions see also let ρ x ρ y displaystyle rho xrho y be extended pseudometrics on nonempty sets x y displaystyle xy respectively the map f x ρ x [UNK] y ρ y displaystyle fxrho xlongrightarrow yrho y is a contraction if and only if f x ν d ρ x [UNK] y ν d ρ y displaystyle fxnu drho xlongrightarrow ynu drho y is a contraction for nonempty subsets a b ∈ 2 x displaystyle abin 2x the distance function d ρ 2 x × 2 x [UNK] 0 ∞ displaystyle drho 2xtimes 2xlongrightarrow 0infty is defined by d ρ'</li><li>'in mathematics equivariant topology is the study of topological spaces that possess certain symmetries in studying topological spaces one often considers continuous maps f x → y displaystyle fxto y and while equivariant topology also considers such maps there is the additional constraint that each map respects symmetry in both its domain and target space the notion of symmetry is usually captured by considering a group action of a group g displaystyle g on x displaystyle x and y displaystyle y and requiring that f displaystyle f is equivariant under this action so that f g ⋅ x g ⋅ f x displaystyle fgcdot xgcdot fx for all x ∈ x displaystyle xin x a property usually denoted by f x → g y displaystyle fxto gy heuristically speaking standard topology views two spaces as equivalent up to deformation while equivariant topology considers spaces equivalent up to deformation so long as it pays attention to any symmetry possessed by both spaces a famous theorem of equivariant topology is the borsuk – ulam theorem which asserts that every z 2 displaystyle mathbf z 2 equivariant map f s n → r n displaystyle fsnto mathbb r n necessarily vanishes an important construction used in equivariant cohomology and other applications includes a naturally occurring group bundle see principal bundle for details let us first consider the case where g displaystyle g acts freely on x displaystyle x then given a g displaystyle g equivariant map f x → g y displaystyle fxto gy we obtain sections s f x g → x × y g displaystyle sfxgto xtimes yg given by x ↦ x f x displaystyle xmapsto xfx where x × y displaystyle xtimes y gets the diagonal action g x y g x g y displaystyle gxygxgy and the bundle is p x × y g → x g displaystyle pxtimes ygto xg with fiber y displaystyle y and projection given by p x y x displaystyle pxyx often the total space is written x × g y displaystyle xtimes gy more generally the assignment s f displaystyle sf actually does not map to x × y g displaystyle xtimes yg generally since f displaystyle f is equivariant if g ∈ g x displaystyle gin gx the isotropy subgroup then by equivariance we have that g ⋅ f'</li><li>'in formal ontology a branch of metaphysics and in ontological computer science mereotopology is a firstorder theory embodying mereological and topological concepts of the relations among wholes parts parts of parts and the boundaries between parts mereotopology begins in philosophy with theories articulated by a n whitehead in several books and articles he published between 1916 and 1929 drawing in part on the mereogeometry of de laguna 1922 the first to have proposed the idea of a pointfree definition of the concept of topological space in mathematics was karl menger in his book dimensionstheorie 1928 see also his 1940 the early historical background of mereotopology is documented in belanger and marquis 2013 and whiteheads early work is discussed in kneebone 1963 ch 135 and simons 1987 291 the theory of whiteheads 1929 process and reality augmented the partwhole relation with topological notions such as contiguity and connection despite whiteheads acumen as a mathematician his theories were insufficiently formal even flawed by showing how whiteheads theories could be fully formalized and repaired clarke 1981 1985 founded contemporary mereotopology the theories of clarke and whitehead are discussed in simons 1987 2102 and lucas 2000 ch 10 the entry whiteheads pointfree geometry includes two contemporary treatments of whiteheads theories due to giangiacomo gerla each different from the theory set out in the next section although mereotopology is a mathematical theory we owe its subsequent development to logicians and theoretical computer scientists lucas 2000 ch 10 and casati and varzi 1999 ch 45 are introductions to mereotopology that can be read by anyone having done a course in firstorder logic more advanced treatments of mereotopology include cohn and varzi 2003 and for the mathematically sophisticated roeper 1997 for a mathematical treatment of pointfree geometry see gerla 1995 latticetheoretic algebraic treatments of mereotopology as contact algebras have been applied to separate the topological from the mereological structure see stell 2000 duntsch and winter 2004 barry smith anthony cohn achille varzi and their coauthors have shown that mereotopology can be useful in formal ontology and computer science by allowing the formalization of relations such as contact connection boundaries interiors holes and so on mereotopology has been applied also as a tool for qualitative spatialtemporal reasoning with constraint calculi such as the region connection calculus rcc it provides the starting point for the theory of fiat boundaries developed by smith and varzi which grew out of the attempt to distinguish'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                    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| 14    | <ul><li>'blastocyst cavity and fill it with loosely packed cells when the extraembryonic mesoderm is separated into two portions a new gap arises called the gestational sac this new cavity is responsible for detaching the embryo and its amnion and yolk sac from the far wall of the blastocyst which is now named the chorion when the extraembryonic mesoderm splits into two layers the amnion yolk sac and chorion also become doublelayered the amnion and chorion are composed of extraembryonic ectoderm and mesoderm whereas the yolk sac is composed of extraembryonic endoderm and mesoderm by day 13 the connecting stalk a dense portion of extraembryonic mesoderm restrains the embryonic disc in the gestational sac like the amnion the yolk sac is a fetal membrane that surrounds a cavity formation of the definitive yolk sac occurs after the extraembryonic mesoderm splits and it becomes a double layered structure with hypoblastderived endoderm on the inside and mesoderm surrounding the outside the definitive yolk sac contributes greatly to the embryo during the fourth week of development and executes critical functions for the embryo one of which being the formation of blood or hematopoiesis also primordial germ cells are first found in the wall of the yolk sac before primordial germ cell migration after the fourth week of development the growing embryonic disc becomes much larger than the yolk sac and eventually involutes before birth uncommonly the yolk sac may persist as the vitelline duct and cause a congenital out pouching of the digestive tract called meckels diverticulum in the third week gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak gastrulation occurs when pluripotent stem cells differentiate into the three germ cell layers ectoderm mesoderm and endoderm during gastrulation cells of the epiblast migrate towards the primitive streak enter it and then move apart from it through a process called ingression on day 16 epiblast cells that are next to the primitive streak experience epithelialtomesenchymal transformation as they ingress through the primitive streak the first wave of epiblast cells takes over the hypoblast which slowly becomes replaced by new cells that eventually constitute the definitive endoderm the definitive endoderm is'</li><li>'primates are precocial at birth with the exception of humansthe duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23 months in elephants generally speaking fetuses of larger land mammals require longer gestation periods the benefits of a fetal stage means that young are more developed when they are born therefore they may need less parental care and may be better able to fend for themselves however carrying fetuses exerts costs on the mother who must take on extra food to fuel the growth of her offspring and whose mobility and comfort may be affected especially toward the end of the fetal stage in some instances the presence of a fetal stage may allow organisms to time the birth of their offspring to a favorable season'</li><li>'results in cyclopic embryos characterized by a lack of medial floor plate and ventral forebrain not all nodals result in the formation of mesoectoderm xenopus nodal related 3 xnr3 a divergent member of the tgfβ superfamily induces the expression of the protein xbra the xbra expression pattern in correlation the expression pattern another neuroinducer xlim1 result in the patterning of the organizer in xenopus this signaling in conjuncture with other nodals noggin chordin follistatin and others results in the final patterning of vertebrate central nervous system'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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| 6     | <ul><li>'##arrow infty z ± e i σ r ∗ as r ∗ → − ∞ displaystyle zpm eisigma rquad textasquad rrightarrow infty indicating that we have purely outgoing waves with amplitude a ± displaystyle apm and purely ingoing waves at the horizon the problem becomes an eigenvalue problem again because of the relation mentioned between the two problem the spectrum of z displaystyle z and z − displaystyle z are identical and thus it enough to consider the spectrum of z − displaystyle z the problem is simplified by introducing z − exp i [UNK] r ∗ [UNK] d r ∗ displaystyle zexp leftiint rphi drright the nonlinear eigenvalue problem is given by i d [UNK] d r ∗ σ 2 − [UNK] 2 − v − 0 [UNK] − ∞ σ [UNK] ∞ − σ displaystyle ifrac dphi drsigma 2phi 2v0quad phi infty sigma quad phi infty sigma the solution is found to exist only for a discrete set of values of σ displaystyle sigma'</li><li>'site software for analyzing the data is also available nasas alan stern associate administrator for science at nasa headquarters launched a public competition 7 february 2008 closing 31 march 2008 to rename glast in a way that would capture the excitement of glasts mission and call attention to gammaray and highenergy astronomy something memorable to commemorate this spectacular new astronomy mission a name that is catchy easy to say and will help make the satellite and its mission a topic of dinner table and classroom discussionfermi gained its new name in 2008 on 26 august 2008 glast was renamed the fermi gammaray space telescope in honor of enrico fermi a pioneer in highenergy physics nasa designed the mission with a fiveyear lifetime with a goal of ten years of operationsthe key scientific objectives of the fermi mission have been described as to understand the mechanisms of particle acceleration in active galactic nuclei agn pulsars and supernova remnants snr resolve the gammaray sky unidentified sources and diffuse emission determine the highenergy behavior of gammaray bursts and transients probe dark matter eg by looking for an excess of gamma rays from the center of the milky way and early universe search for evaporating primordial micro black holes mbh from their presumed gamma burst signatures hawking radiation componentthe national academies of sciences ranked this mission as a top priority many new possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to emerge from this single mission and greatly expand our view of the universe blazars and active galaxiesstudy energy spectra and variability of wavelengths of light coming from blazars so as to determine the composition of the black hole jets aimed directly at earth whether they are a a combination of electrons and positrons or b only protonsgammaray burstsstudy gammaray bursts with an energy range several times more intense than ever before so that scientists may be able to understand them betterneutron starsstudy younger more energetic pulsars in the milky way than ever before so as to broaden our understanding of stars study the pulsed emissions of magnetospheres so as to possibly solve how they are produced study how pulsars generate winds of interstellar particlesmilky way galaxyprovide new data to help improve upon existing theoretical models of our own galaxygammaray background radiationstudy better than ever before whether ordinary galaxies are responsible for gammaray background radiation the potential for a tremendous discovery awaits if ordinary sources are determined to be irresponsible in which case the cause may be anything from selfannihilating dark matter to entirely new chain reactions among inter'</li><li>'heavy nuclei in models with neutron stars specifically young pulsars or magnetars as the source of extragalactic cosmic rays heavy elements mainly iron are stripped from the surface of the object by the electric field created by the magnetized neutron stars rapid rotation this same electric field can accelerate iron nucleii up to 1020 ev the photodisintegration of the heavy nucleii would produce lighter elements with lower energies matching the observations of the pierre auger observatory in this scenario the cosmic rays accelerated by neutron stars within the milky way could fill in the transition region between galactic cosmic rays produced in supernova remnants and extragalactic cosmic rays ultrahighenergy cosmic ray'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 17    | <ul><li>'significant meltwater rerouting events occurred in eastern north america though there is still much debate among geologists as to where these events occurred they likely took place when the ice sheet receded from the adirondack mountains and the st lawrence lowlands first glacial lake iroquois drained to the atlantic in catastrophic hudson valley releases as the receding ice sheet dam failed and reestablished itself in three jokulhlaups evidence of the scale of the meltwater discharge down the hudson valley includes deeply incised sediments in the valley large sediment deposit lobes on the continental shelf and glacial erratic boulders greater than 2 metres in diameter on the outer shelf later when the st lawrence valley was deglaciated glacial lake candona drained to the north atlantic with subsequent drainage events routed through the champlain sea and st lawrence valley this surge of meltwater to the north atlantic by jokulhlaup about 13350 years ago is believed to have triggered the reduction in thermohaline circulation and the shortlived northern hemisphere intraallerød cold period finally lake agassiz was an immense glacial lake located in the center of north america fed by glacial runoff at the end of the last glacial period its area was larger than all of the modern great lakes combined and it held more water than contained by all lakes in the world today it drained in a series of events between 13000 bp and 8400 bp also into the pacific ocean large drainage events took place through the columbia river gorge dubbed the missoula floods since 2011 periodic glacial floods have occurred from the suicide basin through the mendenhall glacier in juneau alaska on 7 february 2021 part of nanda devi glacier broke away in the 2021 uttarakhand glacier burst triggering outburst flood sweeping away a power plant more than 150 people were feared dead around 9 500 bc the baltic ice lake was tapped on water as the ice front retreated north of mount billingen helgi bjornsson subglacial lakes and jokulhlaups in iceland global and planetary change 35 2002 255 – 271'</li><li>'a moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris regolith and rock sometimes referred to as glacial till that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sheet it may consist of partly rounded particles ranging in size from boulders in which case it is often referred to as boulder clay down to gravel and sand in a groundmass of finelydivided clayey material sometimes called glacial flour lateral moraines are those formed at the side of the ice flow and terminal moraines were formed at the foot marking the maximum advance of the glacier other types of moraine include ground moraines tillcovered areas forming sheets on flat or irregular topography and medial moraines moraines formed where two glaciers meet the word moraine is borrowed from french moraine mɔʁɛn which in turn is derived from the savoyard italian morena mound of earth morena in this case was derived from provencal morre snout itself from vulgar latin murrum rounded object the term was introduced into geology by horace benedict de saussure in 1779 moraines are landforms composed of glacial till deposited primarily by glacial ice glacial till in turn is unstratified and unsorted debris ranging in size from siltsized glacial flour to large boulders the individual rock fragments are typically subangular to rounded in shape moraines may be found on the glaciers surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted moraines may form through a number of processes depending on the characteristics of sediment the dynamics on the ice and the location on the glacier in which the moraine is formed moraine forming processes may be loosely divided into passive and activepassive processes involve the placing of chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with limited reworking typically forming hummocky moraines these moraines are composed of supraglacial sediments from the ice surfaceactive processes form or rework moraine sediment directly by the movement of ice known as glaciotectonism these form push moraines and thrustblock moraines which are often composed of till and reworked proglacial sedimentmoraine may also form by the accumulation of sand and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating from the ice margin these fan deposits may coalesce to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin several processes may combine to form and rework a single moraine and most moraines record a continuum of processes reworking of moraines may lead to the formation of placer deposits of gold as is'</li><li>'marine isotope stages mis marine oxygenisotope stages or oxygen isotope stages ois are alternating warm and cool periods in the earths paleoclimate deduced from oxygen isotope data derived from deep sea core samples working backwards from the present which is mis 1 in the scale stages with even numbers have high levels of oxygen18 and represent cold glacial periods while the oddnumbered stages are lows in the oxygen18 figures representing warm interglacial intervals the data are derived from pollen and foraminifera plankton remains in drilled marine sediment cores sapropels and other data that reflect historic climate these are called proxies the mis timescale was developed from the pioneering work of cesare emiliani in the 1950s and is now widely used in archaeology and other fields to express dating in the quaternary period the last 26 million years as well as providing the fullest and best data for that period for paleoclimatology or the study of the early climate of the earth representing the standard to which we correlate other quaternary climate records emilianis work in turn depended on harold ureys prediction in a paper of 1947 that the ratio between oxygen18 and oxygen16 isotopes in calcite the main chemical component of the shells and other hard parts of a wide range of marine organisms should vary depending on the prevailing water temperature in which the calcite was formedover 100 stages have been identified currently going back some 6 million years and the scale may in future reach back up to 15 mya some stages in particular mis 5 are divided into substages such as mis 5a with 5 a c and e being warm and b and d cold a numeric system for referring to horizons events rather than periods may also be used with for example mis 55 representing the peak point of mis 5e and 551 552 etc representing the peaks and troughs of the record at a still more detailed level for more recent periods increasingly precise resolution of timing continues to be developed in 1957 emiliani moved to the university of miami to have access to coredrilling ships and equipment and began to drill in the caribbean and collect core data a further important advance came in 1967 when nicholas shackleton suggested that the fluctuations over time in the marine isotope ratios that had become evident by then were caused not so much by changes in water temperature as emiliani thought but mainly by changes in the volume of icesheets which when they expanded took up the lighter oxygen16 isotope in preference to the heavier oxygen18 the cycles in the isotope ratio were found to correspond to terrestrial evidence of'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 20    | <ul><li>'medieval studies is the academic interdisciplinary study of the middle ages a historian who studies medieval studies is called a medievalist the term medieval studies began to be adopted by academics in the opening decades of the twentieth century initially in the titles of books like g g coultons ten medieval studies 1906 to emphasize a greater interdisciplinary approach to a historical subject in american and european universities the term provided a coherent identity to centres composed of academics from a variety of disciplines including archaeology art history architecture history literature and linguistics the institute of mediaeval studies at st michaels college of the university of toronto became the first centre of this type in 1929 it is now the pontifical institute of mediaeval studies pims and is part of the university of toronto it was soon followed by the medieval institute at the university of notre dame in indiana which was founded in 1946 but whose roots go back to the establishment of a program of medieval studies in 1933 as with many of the early programs at roman catholic institutions it drew its strengths from the revival of medieval scholastic philosophy by such scholars as etienne gilson and jacques maritain both of whom made regular visits to the university in the 1930s and 1940s these institutions were preceded in the united kingdom in 1927 by the establishment of the idiosyncratic department of anglosaxon norse and celtic at the university of cambridge although anglosaxon norse and celtic was limited geographically to the british isles and scandinavia and chronologically mostly the early middle ages it promoted the interdisciplinarity characteristic of medieval studies and many of its graduates were involved in the later development of medieval studies programmes elsewhere in the ukwith university expansion in the late 1960s and early 1970s encouraging interdisciplinary cooperation similar centres were established in england at university of reading 1965 at university of leeds 1967 and the university of york 1968 and in the united states at fordham university 1971 a more recent wave of foundations perhaps helped by the rise of interest in things medieval associated with neomedievalism include centres at kings college london 1988 the university of bristol 1994 the university of sydney 1997 and bangor university 2005medieval studies is buoyed by a number of annual international conferences which bring together thousands of professional medievalists including the international congress on medieval studies at kalamazoo mi us and the international medieval congress at the university of leeds there are a number of journals devoted to medieval studies including mediaevalia comitatus viator traditio medieval worlds journal of medieval history journal of medieval military history and speculum an organ of the medieval academy of america founded in 1925 and based in cambridge massachusetts another part of the infrastructure of the field is the international'</li><li>'navidad on the island of hispaniola leaving behind some spanish colonists and traders columbus reports he also left behind a caravel — evidently covering up the loss of his flagship the santa maria he reports that la navidad is located near reported gold mines and is a wellplaced entrepot for the commerce that will doubtlessly soon be opened with the great khan gran can on the mainland he speaks of a local king near navidad whom he befriended and treated him as a brother y grand amistad con el rey de aquella tierra en tanto grado que se preciava de me lhamar e tener por hermano — almost certainly a reference to guacanagarix cacique of marienin the copiador version but not the printed editions columbus alludes to the treachery of one from palos uno de palos who made off with one of the ships evidently a complaint about martin alonso pinzon the captain of the pinta although this portion of the copiador manuscript is damaged and hard to read the copiador version also mentions other points of personal friction not contained in the printed editions eg references to the ridicule columbus suffered in the spanish court prior to his departure his bowing to pressure to use large ships for ocean navigation rather than the small caravels he preferred which would have been more convenient for exploring at the end of his printed letter columbus promises that if the catholic monarchs back his bid to return with a larger fleet he will bring back a lot of gold spices cotton repeatedly referenced in the letter mastic gum aloe slaves and possibly rhubarb and cinnamon of which i heard about here columbus ends the letter urging their majesties the church and the people of spain to give thanks to god for allowing him to find so many souls hitherto lost ready for conversion to christianity and eternal salvation he also urges them to give thanks in advance for all the temporal goods found in abundance in the indies that shall soon be made available to castile and the rest of christendom the copiador version but not the printed spanish or latin editions also contains a somewhat bizarre detour into messianic fantasy where columbus suggests the monarchs should use the wealth of the indies to finance a new crusade to conquer jerusalem columbus himself offering to underwrite a large army of ten thousand cavalry and hundred thousand infantry to that end the sign off varies between editions the printed spanish letter is dated aboard the caravel on the canary islands on february 15 1493 fecha en la caravela sobra las yslas'</li><li>'##cracies the 1980s saw a general retreat for the communist bloc the soviet – afghan war 1979 – 1989 is often called the soviet unions vietnam war in comparison to the american defeat being an expensive and ultimately unsuccessful war and occupation more importantly the intervening decades had seen that eastern europe was unable to compete economically with western europe which undermined the promise of communist abundance compared to capitalist poverty the western capitalist economies had proven wealthier and stronger which made matching the soviet defense budget to the american one strain limited resources the paneuropean picnic in 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction with the subsequent fall of the berlin wall the revolutions of 1989 saw many countries of eastern europe throw off their communist governments and the ussr declined to invade to reestablish them east and west germany were reunified client state status for many states ended as there was no conflict left to fund the malta summit on 3 december 1989 the failure of the august coup by soviet hardliners and the formal dissolution of the soviet union on 26 december 1991 sealed the end of the cold war the end of the cold war left the united states the worlds sole superpower communism seemed discredited while china remained an officially communist state deng xiaopings economic reforms and socialism with chinese characteristics allowed for the growth of a capitalist private sector in china in russia president boris yeltsin pursued a policy of privatization spinning off former government agencies into private corporations attempting to handle budget problems inherited from the ussr the end of soviet foreign aid caused a variety of changes in countries previously part of the eastern bloc many officially became democratic republics though some were more accurately described as authoritarian or oligarchic republics and oneparty states many western commentators treated the development optimistically it was thought the world was steadily progressing toward free liberal democracies south africa no longer able to attract western support by claiming to be anticommunist ended apartheid in the early 1990s and many eastern european countries switched to stable democracies while some americans had anticipated a peace dividend from budget cuts to the defense department these cuts were not as large as some had hoped the european economic community evolved into the european union with the signing of the maastricht treaty in 1993 which integrated europe across borders to a new degree international coalitions continued to have a role the gulf war saw a large international coalition undo baathist iraqs annexation of kuwait but other police style actions were less successful somalia and afghanistan descended into long bloody civil wars for almost the entirety of the decade somali civil war afghan civil war 1992 – 1996 afghan civil war 1996 – 2001 russia fought a brutal war in che'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             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| 29    | <ul><li>'fossil biomarkers of green sulfur bacteria indicates that this process could have played a role in that mass extinction event and possibly other extinction events the trigger for these mass extinctions appears to be a warming of the ocean caused by a rise of carbon dioxide levels to about 1000 parts per million reduced oxygen levels are expected to lead to increased seawater concentrations of redoxsensitive metals the reductive dissolution of iron – manganese oxyhydroxides in seafloor sediments under lowoxygen conditions would release those metals and associated trace metals sulfate reduction in such sediments could release other metals such as barium when heavymetalrich anoxic deep water entered continental shelves and encountered increased o2 levels precipitation of some of the metals as well as poisoning of the local biota would have occurred in the late silurian midpridoli event increases are seen in the fe cu as al pb ba mo and mn levels in shallowwater sediment and microplankton this is associated with a marked increase in the malformation rate in chitinozoans and other microplankton types likely due to metal toxicity similar metal enrichment has been reported in sediments from the midsilurian ireviken event sulfidic or euxinic conditions which exist today in many water bodies from ponds to various landsurrounded mediterranean seas such as the black sea were particularly prevalent in the cretaceous atlantic but also characterised other parts of the world ocean in an icefree sea of these supposed supergreenhouse worlds oceanic waters were as much as 200 metres 660 ft higher in some eras during the timespans in question the continental plates are believed to have been well separated and the mountains as they are known today were mostly future tectonic events — meaning the overall landscapes were generally much lower — and even the half supergreenhouse climates would have been eras of highly expedited water erosion carrying massive amounts of nutrients into the world oceans fuelling an overall explosive population of microorganisms and their predator species in the oxygenated upper layers detailed stratigraphic studies of cretaceous black shales from many parts of the world have indicated that two oceanic anoxic events oaes were particularly significant in terms of their impact on the chemistry of the oceans one in the early aptian 120 ma sometimes called the selli event or oae 1a after the italian geologist raimondo selli 1916 – 1983 and another at the cenomanian – turonian boundary 93 ma also called the bonarelli event or oae2 after the'</li><li>'rock or facies mainland greece thus consists geologically of strips or isopic zones “ same facies ” or “ tectonostratigraphic units ” of distinct rock trending from nw to sethe regime through the oligocene evidenced in the zone structure of greece was compressional the subduction was in the trench and its forearc was the edge of the overriding plate the classical model subsequently a superimposed extensional regime moved the subduction and the trench back but not necessarily at the same rate nor did they always necessarily coincide the former reverse faults were converted to normal and many new extensional lineaments tectonic features such as pullapart basins appeared the extensional regime the start line of the extension was a transform fault that has been called the eastern mediterranean north transform emnt it trended from the sw corner of anatolia in a nw direction through the future center of the forearc across central greece well north of the future gulf of corinth at some point the new forces began to pull apart the former strikeslip fault north of anatolia merging it with the subduction and pulling out a separate forearc from the previously docked coastal ridge consisting of strips of the outer hellenides in the ionian and some other zones cw rotation of the subduction zone slab rollback moved the subduction zone away from but not parallel to the continental coastline a bathymetric view of the current configuration suggests that an angle was generated on the west by rotating the subduction zone away from the original strike of the emnt as a baseline in the cw direction about a vertex or pole on the coast of apulia italy a triangle was formed of the base line the subduction line and a chord across the arc of the subtended angle currently the vertex opposite the base line does not extend as far as the chord the east leg curves shortening the west leg the curvature demonstrates that the east leg is not as rigid as the west plate consumption varies slightly over the west leg but falls off sharply over the east it is hypothesized that the consumption on the east is expressed by short segments cutting across the scarps which nevertheless have slip vectors aligned with the western vectors over the entire arc in a wheelspoke pattern that is the azimuths of the vectors decrease regularly from west to eastthough often shown crossing the adriatic on maps the subduction does not actually do so the stress of the rotation was too great for the rock the subducting plate broke along the ktf and also along the plato – strabo trench area'</li><li>'##00 square kilometres 320000 sq mi surpassed the chagos marine protected area as the worlds largest contiguous marine reserve until the august 2016 expansion of the papahanaumokuakea marine national monument in the united states to 1510000 square kilometres 580000 sq mi in january 2016 the uk government announced the intention to create a marine protected area around ascension island the protected area will be 234291 square kilometres 90460 sq mi half of which will be closed to fishingon 13 november 2020 it was announced that the 687247 square kilometres 265348 sq mi of the waters surrounding the tristan da cunha and neighboring islands will become a marine protection zone the move will make the zone the largest notake zone in the atlantic and the fourth largest on the planet the great barrier reef marine park in queensland australia the ligurian sea cetacean sanctuary in the seas of italy monaco and france the dry tortugas national park in the florida keys usa the papahanaumokuakea marine national monument in hawaii the phoenix islands protected area kiribati the channel islands national marine sanctuary in california usa the chagos marine protected area in the indian ocean the wadden sea bordering the north sea in the netherlands germany and denmark the ascension island marine protected area which encompasses 100 the islands exclusive economic zone the following shows a list of countries and their marine protected areas as percentage of their territorial waters click show to expand managers and scientists use geographic information systems and remote sensing to map and analyze mpas noaa coastal services center compiled an inventory of gisbased decisionsupport tools for mpas the report focuses on gis tools with the highest utility for mpa processes remote sensing uses advances in aerial photography image capture popup archival satellite tags satellite imag'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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| 25    | <ul><li>'the infinite product also if [UNK] n 1 ∞ p n 2 textstyle sum n1infty pn2 is convergent then the sum [UNK] n 1 ∞ p n textstyle sum n1infty pn and the product [UNK] n 1 ∞ 1 p n textstyle prod n1infty 1pn are either both convergent or both divergent one important result concerning infinite products is that every entire function fz that is every function that is holomorphic over the entire complex plane can be factored into an infinite product of entire functions each with at most a single root in general if f has a root of order m at the origin and has other complex roots at u1 u2 u3 listed with multiplicities equal to their orders then f z z m e [UNK] z [UNK] n 1 ∞ 1 − z u n exp z u n 1 2 z u n 2 [UNK] 1 λ n z u n λ n displaystyle fzzmephi zprod n1infty left1frac zunrightexp leftlbrace frac zunfrac 12leftfrac zunright2cdots frac 1lambda nleftfrac zunrightlambda nrightrbrace where λn are nonnegative integers that can be chosen to make the product converge and [UNK] z displaystyle phi z is some entire function which means the term before the product will have no roots in the complex plane the above factorization is not unique since it depends on the choice of values for λn however for most functions there will be some minimum nonnegative integer p such that λn p gives a convergent product called the canonical product representation this p is called the rank of the canonical product in the event that p 0 this takes the form f z z m e [UNK] z [UNK] n 1 ∞ 1 − z u n displaystyle fzzmephi zprod n1infty left1frac zunright this can be regarded as a generalization of the fundamental theorem of algebra since for polynomials the product becomes finite and [UNK] z displaystyle phi z is constant in addition to these examples the following representations are of special note the last of these is not a product representation of the same sort discussed above as ζ is not entire rather the above product representation of ζz converges precisely for rez 1 where it is an analytic function by techniques of analytic continuation this function can be extended uniquely to an analytic function still denoted ζz on the whole complex plane except at'</li><li>'in mathematics a continued fraction is an expression obtained through an iterative process of representing a number as the sum of its integer part and the reciprocal of another number then writing this other number as the sum of its integer part and another reciprocal and so on in a finite continued fraction or terminated continued fraction the iterationrecursion is terminated after finitely many steps by using an integer in lieu of another continued fraction in contrast an infinite continued fraction is an infinite expression in either case all integers in the sequence other than the first must be positive the integers a i displaystyle ai are called the coefficients or terms of the continued fractionit is generally assumed that the numerator of all of the fractions is 1 if arbitrary values andor functions are used in place of one or more of the numerators or the integers in the denominators the resulting expression is a generalized continued fraction when it is necessary to distinguish the first form from generalized continued fractions the former may be called a simple or regular continued fraction or said to be in canonical form continued fractions have a number of remarkable properties related to the euclidean algorithm for integers or real numbers every rational number p displaystyle p q displaystyle q has two closely related expressions as a finite continued fraction whose coefficients ai can be determined by applying the euclidean algorithm to p q displaystyle pq the numerical value of an infinite continued fraction is irrational it is defined from its infinite sequence of integers as the limit of a sequence of values for finite continued fractions each finite continued fraction of the sequence is obtained by using a finite prefix of the infinite continued fractions defining sequence of integers moreover every irrational number α displaystyle alpha is the value of a unique infinite regular continued fraction whose coefficients can be found using the nonterminating version of the euclidean algorithm applied to the incommensurable values α displaystyle alpha and 1 this way of expressing real numbers rational and irrational is called their continued fraction representation the term continued fraction may also refer to representations of rational functions arising in their analytic theory for this use of the term see pade approximation and chebyshev rational functions consider for example the rational number 41593 which is around 44624 as a first approximation start with 4 which is the integer part 41593 4 4393 the fractional part is the reciprocal of 9343 which is about 21628 use the integer part 2 as an approximation for the reciprocal to obtain a second approximation of 4 12 45 now 9343 2 743 the remaining fractional part 743 is the reciprocal of 437 and 437 is around'</li><li>'participants as they arrive and contain short papers on each conference talk the iwota proceedings follow mathematics conference tradition and contain a modest number of papers and are published several years after the conference iwota has received support from many sources including the national science foundation the london mathematical society the engineering and physical sciences research council deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft secretaria de estado de investigacion desarrollo e innovacion spain australian mathematical sciences institute national board for higher mathematics international centre for theoretical physics indian statistical institute korea research foundation united statesindia science technology endowment fund nederlandse organisatie voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek the commission for developing countries of the international mathematical union stichting advancement of mathematics netherlands the national research foundation of south africa and birkhauser publishing ltd iwota is directed by a steering committee which chooses the site for the next meeting elects the chief local organizers and insures the appearance of the enduring themes of iwota the subthemes of an iwota workshop and the lecturers are chosen by the local organizing committee after hearing the steering committees board the board consists of its vice presidents joseph a ball j william helton chair sanne ter horst m a kaashoek igor klep christiane tretter irene sabadini victor vinnikov and hugo j woerdeman in addition past chief organizers who remain active in iwota are members of the steering committee the board governs iwota with consultation and the consent of the full steering committee honorary members of the steering committee elected in 2016 are israel gohberg deceased leiba rodman deceased tsuyoshi ando harry dym ciprian foias deceased heinz langer nikolai nikolski iwota 2024 will be held at university of kent in canterbury united kingdom main organizer is ian wood dates are august 1216 2024 iwota 2025 will be held at university of twente in enschede the netherlands main organizer is felix schwenninger dates are july 1418 2025 the israel gohberg ilasiwota lecture was introduced in august 2016 and honors the legacy of israel gohberg whose research crossed borders between operator theory linear algebra and related fields this lecture is in collaboration with the international linear algebra society ilas this series of lectures will be delivered at iwota and ilas conferences in different years in the approximate ratio twothirds at iwota and onethird at ilas the first three lectures will take place at iwota lancaster uk'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 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| 30    | <ul><li>'providing a more detailed molecular and genetic understanding of cancer biology than was previously possible and offering hope for the development of new therapeutic strategies gleaned from these insights the cancer genome atlas the cancer genome atlas tcga a collaborative effort between the national cancer institute and the national human genome research institute is an example of a basic research project that is employing some of these new molecular approaches one tcga publication notes the following here we report the interim integrative analysis of dna copy number gene expression and dna methylation aberrations in 206 glioblastomastogether these findings establish the feasibility and power of tcga demonstrating that it can rapidly expand knowledge of the molecular basis of cancer in a cancer research funding announcement made by president obama in september 2009 tcga project is slated to receive 175 million in funding to collect comprehensive gene sequence data on 20000 tissue samples from people with more than 20 different types of cancer in order to help researchers understand the genetic changes underlying cancer new targeted therapeutic approaches are expected to arise from the insights resulting from such studies cancer genome project the cancer genome project at the wellcome trust sanger institute aims to identify sequence variantsmutations critical in the development of human cancers the cancer genome project combines knowledge of the human genome sequence with high throughput mutation detection techniques advances in information technology supporting cancer research such as the ncis cabig project promise to improve data sharing among cancer researchers and accelerate the discovery of new approaches for the detection diagnosis treatment and prevention of cancer ultimately improving patient outcomes researchers are considering ways to improve the efficiency costeffectiveness and overall success rate of cancer clinical trialsincreased participation in rigorously designed clinical trials would increase the pace of research currently about 3 of people with cancer participate in clinical trials more than half of them are patients for whom no other options are left patients who are participating in exploratory trials designed to burnish the researchers resumes or promote a drug rather than to produce meaningful information or in trials that will not enroll enough patients to produce a statistically significant result a major challenge in cancer treatment is to find better ways to specifically target tumors with drugs and chemotherapeutic agents in order to provide a more effective localized dose and to minimize exposure of healthy tissue in other parts of the body to the potentially adverse effects of the treatments the accessibility of different tissues and organs to antitumor drugs contributes to this challenge for example the blood – brain barrier blocks many drugs that may otherwise be effective against brain tumors in november 2009 a new experimental therapeutic approach for treating glioblastoma was published in which'</li><li>'national medical research radiological center of the ministry of health of the russian federation russian фгбу « национальныи медицинскии исследовательскии центр радиологии » нмиц радиологии министерства здравоохранения россиискои федерации is one of the largest oncological and radiological clusters in russia the main institution for radiology a reference center in the field of pathomorphological research radiation diagnostics and therapy in 2014 russias first scientific medical cluster in the field of oncology radiology and urology was established as the national medical research radiological centre of the ministry of health of the russian federation the status of the national centre allowed us to apply all aspects of modern hightech medical care available in the world the purpose of the centre is to unite the efforts of scientists and practitioners in the fight against cancer to create conditions for the introduction of the latest technologies in the field of cancer treatment to ensure the breakthrough of russian science and practice in the creation of nuclear medicinesince 2020 the center becomes as the basic organization for the cis member states in the field of oncology on the basis of the center there are two national registers the cancer register and the national radiation and epidemiological register the centre has a full range of modern diagnostic and complex and combined treatment methods for oncological diseases the сenter obtain various kinds of modern radiation installations including gamma and cyber knives the russian proton therapy complex prometheus introduces advanced technologies such as pipac x – ray surgical methods of treatment brachytherapy treatment of radiation injuriesthe centre is one of the leaders in the field of nuclear medicine development of russian radiopharmaceuticals and introduction of technologies for their use in clinical practice the use of nuclear medicine technologies in combined and complex treatment provides significant advantages in the treatment of both oncological and nononcological diseases nmrrc was established in may 2014 as a joint medical centre bringing together three of russias oldest medical research institutions in moscow and the kaluga region which formed its branches p hertsen moscow oncology research center a tsyb medical radiological research center n lopatkin research institute of urology and interventional radio'</li><li>'biomarkers include mutations on genes kras p53 egfr erbb2 for colorectal esophageal liver and pancreatic cancer mutations of genes brca1 and brca2 for breast and ovarian cancer abnormal methylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 cdkn2b and p14arf for brain cancer hypermethylation of myod1 cdh1 and cdh13 for cervical cancer and hypermethylation of p16 p14 and rb1 for oral cancer diagnosis cancer biomarkers can also be useful in establishing a specific diagnosis this is particularly the case when there is a need to determine whether tumors are of primary or metastatic origin to make this distinction researchers can screen the chromosomal alterations found on cells located in the primary tumor site against those found in the secondary site if the alterations match the secondary tumor can be identified as metastatic whereas if the alterations differ the secondary tumor can be identified as a distinct primary tumor for example people with tumors have high levels of circulating tumor dna ctdna due to tumor cells that have gone through apoptosis this tumor marker can be detected in the blood saliva or urine the possibility of identifying an effective biomarker for early cancer diagnosis has recently been questioned in light of the high molecular heterogeneity of tumors observed by nextgeneration sequencing studies prognosis and treatment predictions another use of biomarkers in cancer medicine is for disease prognosis which take place after an individual has been diagnosed with cancer here biomarkers can be useful in determining the aggressiveness of an identified cancer as well as its likelihood of responding to a given treatment in part this is because tumors exhibiting particular biomarkers may be responsive to treatments tied to that biomarkers expression or presence examples of such prognostic biomarkers include elevated levels of metallopeptidase inhibitor 1 timp1 a marker associated with more aggressive forms of multiple myeloma elevated estrogen receptor er andor progesterone receptor pr expression markers associated with better overall survival in patients with breast cancer her2neu gene amplification a marker indicating a breast cancer will likely respond to trastuzumab treatment a mutation in exon 11 of the protooncogene ckit a marker indicating a gastrointestinal stromal tumor gist will likely respond to imatinib treatment and mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of egfr1 a marker indicating a patients nonsmallcell lung carcinoma nsclc will likely respond'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 21    | <ul><li>'##corrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes inselbergs and glacial moraineshow soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil parent material climate topography relief organisms and time when reordered to climate relief organisms parent material and time they form the acronym cropt the physical properties of soils in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as crop production are texture structure bulk density porosity consistency temperature colour and resistivity soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles called soil separates sand silt and clay at the next larger scale soil structures called peds or more commonly soil aggregates are created from the soil separates when iron oxides carbonates clay silica and humus coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger relatively stable secondary structures soil bulk density when determined at standardized moisture conditions is an estimate of soil compaction soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together soil temperature and colour are selfdefining resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil these properties vary through the depth of a soil profile ie through soil horizons most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil soil water content can be measured as volume or weight soil moisture levels in order of decreasing water content are saturation field capacity wilting point air dry and oven dry field capacity describes a drained wet soil at the point water content reaches equilibrium with gravity irrigating soil above field capacity risks percolation losses wilting point describes the dry limit for growing plants during growing season soil moisture is unaffected by functional groups or specie richnessavailable water capacity is the amount of water held in a soil profile available to plants as water content drops plants have to work against increasing forces of adhesion and sorptivity to withdraw water irrigation scheduling avoids moisture stress by replenishing depleted water before stress is inducedcapillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet regions of the soil to dry areas subirrigation designs eg wicking beds subirrigated planters rely on capillarity to supply water to plant roots capillary action can result in an eva'</li><li>'an ant garden is a mutualistic interaction between certain species of arboreal ants and various epiphytic plants it is a structure made in the tree canopy by the ants that is filled with debris and other organic matter in which epiphytes grow the ants benefit from this arrangement by having a stable framework on which to build their nest while the plants benefit by obtaining nutrients from the soil and from the moisture retained there epiphytes are common in tropical rain forest and in cloud forest an epiphyte normally derives its moisture and nutrients from the air rain mist and dew nitrogenous matter is in short supply and the epiphytes benefit significantly from the nutrients in the ant garden the ant garden is made from carton a mixture of vegetable fibres leaf debris refuse glandular secretions and ant faeces the ants use this material to build their nests among the branches of the trees to shelter the hemipteran insects that they tend in order to feed on their honeydew and to make the pockets of material in which the epiphytes growthe ants harvest seeds from the epiphytic plants and deposit them in the carton material the plants have evolved various traits to encourage ants to disperse their seeds by producing chemical attractants eleven unrelated epiphytes that grow in ant gardens have been found to contain methyl salicylate oil of wintergreen and it seems likely that this compound is an ant attractant species of ant that make gardens include crematogaster carinata camponotus femoratus and solenopsis parabioticus all of which are parabiotic species which routinely share their nests with unrelated species of ant epiphytic plants that they grow include various members of the araceae bromeliaceae cactaceae gesneriaceae moraceae piperaceae and solanaceae epiphytic plants in the genus codonanthopsis including those formerly placed in codonanthe grow almost exclusively in ant gardens often associated with ants of the genus azteca the ant camponotus irritabilis not only plants the seeds of hoya elliptica in planned locations on its carton nest but also prunes the roots to accommodate its nest chambers and fertilises the areas where it wants extra plant growth to occur'</li><li>'in these minerals produce mineral deficiency in experimental animals gontzea and sutzescu 1968 as cited in chavan and kadam 1989 the latter authors state that the sprouting of cereals has been reported to decrease levels of phytic acid similarly shipard 2005 states that enzymes of germination and sprouting can help decrease the detrimental substances such as phytic acid however the amount of phytic acid reduction from soaking is only marginal and not enough to fully counteract its antinutrient effects alfalfa seeds and sprouts contain lcanavanine which can cause lupuslike disease in primates in order to prevent incidents like the 2011 ehec epidemic on 11 march 2013 the european commission issued three new tighter regulations regulation eu no 2082013 requires that the origins of seeds must always be traceable at all stages of processing production and distribution therefore a full description of the seeds or sprouts needs to be kept on record see also article 18 of regulation ec no 1782002 regulation eu no 2092013 amends regulation ec no 20732005 in respect of microbiological criteria for sprouts and the sampling rules for poultry carcasses and fresh poultry meat regulation eu no 2112013 requires that imported sprouts and seeds intended for the production of sprouts have a certificate drawn up in accordance with the model certificate in the annex of the regulation that serves as proof that the production process complies with the general hygiene provisions in part a of annex i to regulation ec no 8522004 and the traceability requirements of implementing regulation eu no 2082013 safron jeremy a 2003 the raw truth the art of preparing living foods berkeley celestial arts isbn 9781587611728 moran leslie 2007 the complete guide to successful sprouting for parrots and everyone else in the family silver springs nv critter connection isbn 9781419684791 cuddeford d 1 september 1989 hydroponic grass in practice 11 5 211 – 214 doi101136inpract115211 s2cid 219216512 nutritional improvement of cereals by fermentation source critical reviews in food science and nutrition chavan jk kadam ss 1989 shipard isabell 2005 how can i grow and use sprouts as living food nambour qld david stewart isbn 9780975825204 kavas a els n 1992 changes in nutritive value of lentils and mung beans during germination chemmikrobiol technol le'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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| 16    | <ul><li>'##hyolites with much higher eruption temperatures 850 °c to 1000 °c than normal rhyolites since 1992 the definition of lip has been expanded and refined and remains a work in progress some new definitions of the term lip include large granitic provinces such as those found in the andes mountains of south america and in western north america comprehensive taxonomies have been developed to focus technical discussions in 2008 bryan and ernst refined the definition to narrow it somewhat large igneous provinces are magmatic provinces with areal extents 1×105 km2 igneous volumes 1×105 km3 and maximum lifespans of 50 myr that have intraplate tectonic settings or geochemical affinities and are characterised by igneous pulses of short duration 1 – 5 myr during which a large proportion 75 of the total igneous volume has been emplaced they are dominantly mafic but also can have significant ultramafic and silicic components and some are dominated by silicic magmatism this definition places emphasis on the high magma emplacement rate characteristics of the lip event and excludes seamounts seamount groups submarine ridges and anomalous seafloor crustlip is now frequently used to also describe voluminous areas of not just mafic but all types of igneous rocks subcategorization of lips into large volcanic provinces lvp and large plutonic provinces lpp and including rocks produced by normal plate tectonic processes has been proposed further the minimum threshold to be included as a lip has been lowered to 50000 km2 the working taxonomy focused heavily on geochemistry which will be used to structure examples below is large igneous provinces lip large volcanic provinces lvp large rhyolitic provinces lrps large andesitic provinces laps large basaltic provinces lbps oceanic or continental flood basalts large basaltic – rhyolitic provinces lbrps large plutonic provinces lpp large granitic provinces lgp large mafic plutonic provincesaerally extensive dike swarms sill provinces and large layered ultramafic intrusions are indicators of lips even when other evidence is not now observable the upper basalt layers of older lips may have been removed by erosion or deformed by tectonic plate collisions occurring after the layer is formed this is especially likely for earlier periods such as the paleozoic and proterozoicgiant dyke swarms having lengths over 300 km are a common record of severely eroded lips both radial and linear dyke swarm configurations exist radial swarms with an areal'</li><li>'isostasy greek isos equal stasis standstill or isostatic equilibrium is the state of gravitational equilibrium between earths crust or lithosphere and mantle such that the crust floats at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density this concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at earths surface although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes such as the hawaiian islands although earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways isostasy describes the important limiting case in which crust and mantle are in static equilibrium certain areas such as the himalayas and other convergent margins are not in isostatic equilibrium and are not well described by isostatic models the general term isostasy was coined in 1882 by the american geologist clarence dutton in the 17th and 18th centuries french geodesists for example jean picard attempted to determine the shape of the earth the geoid by measuring the length of a degree of latitude at different latitudes arc measurement a party working in ecuador was aware that its plumb lines used to determine the vertical direction would be deflected by the gravitational attraction of the nearby andes mountains however the deflection was less than expected which was attributed to the mountains having lowdensity roots that compensated for the mass of the mountains in other words the lowdensity mountain roots provided the buoyancy to support the weight of the mountains above the surrounding terrain similar observations in the 19th century by british surveyors in india showed that this was a widespread phenomenon in mountainous areas it was later found that the difference between the measured local gravitational field and what was expected for the altitude and local terrain the bouguer anomaly is positive over ocean basins and negative over high continental areas this shows that the low elevation of ocean basins and high elevation of continents is also compensated at depththe american geologist clarence dutton use the word isostasy in 1889 to describe this general phenomenon however two hypotheses to explain the phenomenon had by then already been proposed in 1855 one by george airy and the other by john henry pratt the airy hypothesis was later refined by the finnish geodesist veikko aleksanteri heiskanen and the pratt hypothesis by the american geodesist john fillmore hayfordboth the airyheiskanen and pratthayford hypotheses assume that isostacy reflects a local hydrostatic balance a third hypothesis lithospheric flexure takes into account the rigidity'</li><li>'hypsometry from ancient greek υψος hupsos height and μετρον metron measure is the measurement of the elevation and depth of features of earths surface relative to mean sea levelon earth the elevations can take on either positive or negative below sea level values the distribution is theorised to be bimodal due to the difference in density between the lighter continental crust and denser oceanic crust on other planets within this solar system elevations are typically unimodal owing to the lack of plate tectonics on those bodies a hypsometric curve is a histogram or cumulative distribution function of elevations in a geographical area differences in hypsometric curves between landscapes arise because the geomorphic processes that shape the landscape may be different when drawn as a 2dimensional histogram a hypsometric curve displays the elevation y on the vertical yaxis and area above the corresponding elevation x on the horizontal or xaxis the curve can also be shown in nondimensional or standardized form by scaling elevation and area by the maximum values the nondimensional hypsometric curve provides a hydrologist or a geomorphologist with a way to assess the similarity of watersheds — and is one of several characteristics used for doing so the hypsometric integral is a summary measure of the shape of the hypsometric curve in the original paper on this topic arthur strahler proposed a curve containing three parameters to fit different hypsometric relations y d − x x ⋅ a d − a z displaystyle yleftfrac dxxcdot frac adarightz where a d and z are fitting parameters subsequent research using twodimensional landscape evolution models has called the general applicability of this fit into question as well as the capability of the hypsometric curve to deal with scaledependent effects a modified curve with one additional parameter has been proposed to improve the fithypsometric curves are commonly used in limnology to represent the relationship between lake surface area and depth and calculate total lake volume these graphs can be used to predict various characteristics of lakes such as productivity dilution of incoming chemicals and potential for water mixing bathymetry hypsometric equation hypsometer an instrument used in hypsometry which estimates the elevation by boiling water – water boils at different temperatures depending on the air pressure and thus altitude levelling topography orography hypsometric curve'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           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| 28    | <ul><li>'y p displaystyle xypleq maxxpypleq xpyp moreover if x p = y p displaystyle xpneq yp one has x y p max x p y p displaystyle xypmaxxpyp this makes the padic numbers a metric space and even an ultrametric space with the padic distance defined by d p x y x − y p displaystyle dpxyxyp as a metric space the padic numbers form the completion of the rational numbers equipped with the padic absolute value this provides another way for defining the padic numbers however the general construction of a completion can be simplified in this case because the metric is defined by a discrete valuation in short one can extract from every cauchy sequence a subsequence such that the differences between two consecutive terms have strictly decreasing absolute values such a subsequence is the sequence of the partial sums of a padic series and thus a unique normalized padic series can be associated to every equivalence class of cauchy sequences so for building the completion it suffices to consider normalized padic series instead of equivalence classes of cauchy sequences as the metric is defined from a discrete valuation every open ball is also closed more precisely the open ball b r x y [UNK] d p x y r displaystyle brxymid dpxyr equals the closed ball b p − v x y [UNK] d p x y ≤ p − v displaystyle bpvxymid dpxyleq pv where v is the least integer such that p − v r displaystyle pvr similarly b r x b p − w x displaystyle brxbpwx where w is the greatest integer such that p − w r displaystyle pwr this implies that the padic numbers form a locally compact space and the padic integers — that is the ball b 1 0 b p 0 displaystyle b10bp0 — form a compact space the decimal expansion of a positive rational number r displaystyle r is its representation as a series r [UNK] i k ∞ a i 10 − i displaystyle rsum ikinfty ai10i where k displaystyle k is an integer and each a i displaystyle ai is also an integer such that 0 ≤ a i 10 displaystyle 0leq ai10 this expansion can be computed by long division of the numerator by the denominator which is itself based on the following theorem if r n d displaystyle rtfrac nd is a rational number such that 10 k ≤ r 10 k'</li><li>'that for every sequence xn of positive integers the sum of the series [UNK] n 1 ∞ 1 a n x n displaystyle sum n1infty frac 1anxn exists and is a transcendental number'</li><li>'the proof [UNK] 0 z log γ x d x z 1 − z 2 z 2 log 2 π z log γ z − log g 1 z displaystyle int 0zlog gamma xdxfrac z1z2frac z2log 2pi zlog gamma zlog g1z and since g 1 z γ z g z displaystyle g1zgamma zgz then [UNK] 0 z log γ x d x z 1 − z 2 z 2 log 2 π − 1 − z log γ z − log g z displaystyle int 0zlog gamma xdxfrac z1z2frac z2log 2pi 1zlog gamma zlog gz'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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| 11    | <ul><li>'remain in the systemic circulation for a certain period of time during that time ultrasound waves are directed on the area of interest when microbubbles in the blood flow past the imaging window the microbubbles compressible gas cores oscillate in response to the high frequency sonic energy field as described in the ultrasound article the microbubbles reflect a unique echo that stands in stark contrast to the surrounding tissue due to the orders of magnitude mismatch between microbubble and tissue echogenicity the ultrasound system converts the strong echogenicity into a contrastenhanced image of the area of interest in this way the bloodstreams echo is enhanced thus allowing the clinician to distinguish blood from surrounding tissues targeted contrastenhanced ultrasound works in a similar fashion with a few alterations microbubbles targeted with ligands that bind certain molecular markers that are expressed by the area of imaging interest are still injected systemically in a small bolus microbubbles theoretically travel through the circulatory system eventually finding their respective targets and binding specifically ultrasound waves can then be directed on the area of interest if a sufficient number of microbubbles have bound in the area their compressible gas cores oscillate in response to the high frequency sonic energy field as described in the ultrasound article the targeted microbubbles also reflect a unique echo that stands in stark contrast to the surrounding tissue due to the orders of magnitude mismatch between microbubble and tissue echogenicity the ultrasound system converts the strong echogenicity into a contrastenhanced image of the area of interest revealing the location of the bound microbubbles detection of bound microbubbles may then show that the area of interest is expressing that particular molecular marker which can be indicative of a certain disease state or identify particular cells in the area of interest untargeted contrastenhanced ultrasound is currently applied in echocardiography and radiology targeted contrastenhanced ultrasound is being developed for a variety of medical applications untargeted microbubbles like optison and levovist are currently used in echocardiography in addition sonovue ultrasound contrast agent is used in radiology for lesion characterization organ edge delineation microbubbles can enhance the contrast at the interface between the tissue and blood a clearer picture of this interface gives the clinician a better picture of the structure of an organ tissue structure is crucial in echocardiograms where a thinning thickening or irregularity in the heart wall indicates a serious heart condition that requires'</li><li>'right side of the heart to the lungs to the descending aorta in about 25 of adults the foramen ovale does not close completely but remains as a small patent foramen ovale pfo in most of these individuals the pfo causes no problems and remains undetected throughout life pfo has long been studied because of its role in paradoxical embolism an embolism that travels from the venous side to the arterial side this may lead to a stroke or transient ischemic attack transesophageal echocardiography is considered the most accurate investigation to demonstrate a patent foramen ovale a patent foramen ovale may also be an incidental finding coronary arteries'</li><li>'p t d t displaystyle 1r1 over r2itr1cl over r2dit over dtlcd2it over dt2pt over r2cdpt over dt these models relate blood flow to blood pressure through parameters of r c and in the case of the fourelement model l these equations can be easily solved eg by employing matlab and its supplement simulink to either find the values of pressure given flow and r c l parameters or find values of r c l given flow and pressure an example for the twoelement model is shown below where it is depicted as an input signal during systole and diastole systole is represented by the sin function while flow during diastole is zero s represents the duration of the cardiac cycle while ts represents the duration of systole and td represents the duration of diastole eg in seconds i t i o sin π ∗ t s t s for t s ≤ t s displaystyle itiosinpi t over s over tstext for t over sleq ts i t 0 for t s t d t s displaystyle it0text for tstdts the windkessel effect becomes diminished with age as the elastic arteries become less compliant termed hardening of the arteries or arteriosclerosis probably secondary to fragmentation and loss of elastin the reduction in the windkessel effect results in increased pulse pressure for a given stroke volume the increased pulse pressure results in elevated systolic pressure hypertension which increases the risk of myocardial infarction stroke heart failure and a variety of other cardiovascular diseases although the windkessel is a simple and convenient concept it has been largely superseded by more modern approaches that interpret arterial pressure and flow waveforms in terms of wave propagation and reflection recent attempts to integrate wave propagation and windkessel approaches through a reservoir concept have been criticized and a recent consensus document highlighted the wavelike nature of the reservoir hydraulic accumulator – reservoir to store and stabilise fluid pressure'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 33    | <ul><li>'paranormal events are purported phenomena described in popular culture folk and other nonscientific bodies of knowledge whose existence within these contexts is described as being beyond the scope of normal scientific understanding notable paranormal beliefs include those that pertain to extrasensory perception for example telepathy spiritualism and the pseudosciences of ghost hunting cryptozoology and ufologyproposals regarding the paranormal are different from scientific hypotheses or speculations extrapolated from scientific evidence because scientific ideas are grounded in empirical observations and experimental data gained through the scientific method in contrast those who argue for the existence of the paranormal explicitly do not base their arguments on empirical evidence but rather on anecdote testimony and suspicion the standard scientific models give the explanation that what appears to be paranormal phenomena is usually a misinterpretation misunderstanding or anomalous variation of natural phenomena the term paranormal has existed in the english language since at least 1920 the word consists of two parts para and normal the definition implies that the scientific explanation of the world around us is normal and anything that is above beyond or contrary to that is para on the classification of paranormal subjects psychologist terence hines said in his book pseudoscience and the paranormal 2003 the paranormal can best be thought of as a subset of pseudoscience what sets the paranormal apart from other pseudosciences is a reliance on explanations for alleged phenomena that are well outside the bounds of established science thus paranormal phenomena include extrasensory perception esp telekinesis ghosts poltergeists life after death reincarnation faith healing human auras and so forth the explanations for these allied phenomena are phrased in vague terms of psychic forces human energy fields and so on this is in contrast to many pseudoscientific explanations for other nonparanormal phenomena which although very bad science are still couched in acceptable scientific terms ghost hunting is the investigation of locations that are reportedly haunted by ghosts typically a ghosthunting team will attempt to collect evidence supporting the existence of paranormal activity in traditional ghostlore and fiction featuring ghosts a ghost is a manifestation of the spirit or soul of a person alternative theories expand on that idea and include belief in the ghosts of deceased animals sometimes the term ghost is used synonymously with any spirit or demon however in popular usage the term typically refers to the spirit of a deceased person the belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely tied to the concept of animism an ancient belief that attributed souls to everything in nature as the 19thcentury anthropologist george frazer explained in his classic work the golden bough 1890 souls were seen as'</li><li>'alleged telekinetic mediums exposed as frauds include anna rasmussen and maria silbertpolish medium stanisława tomczyk active in the early 20th century claimed to be able to perform acts of telekinetic levitation by way of an entity she called little stasia a 1909 photograph of her showing a pair of scissors floating between her hands is often found in books and other publications as an example of telekinesis scientists suspected tomczyk performed her feats by the use of a fine thread or hair between her hands this was confirmed when psychical researchers who tested tomczyk occasionally observed the threadmany of indias godmen have claimed macrotelekinetic abilities and demonstrated apparently miraculous phenomena in public although as more controls are put in place to prevent trickery fewer phenomena are produced annemarie schaberl a 19yearold secretary was said to have telekinetic powers by parapsychologist hans bender in the rosenheim poltergeist case in the 1960s magicians and scientists who investigated the case suspected the phenomena were produced by trickery 107 – 108 swami rama a yogi skilled in controlling his heart functions was studied at the menninger foundation in the spring and fall of 1970 and was alleged by some observers at the foundation to have telekinetically moved a knitting needle twice from a distance of five feet although he wore a facemask and gown to prevent allegations that he moved the needle with his breath or body movements and air vents in the room were covered at least one physician observer who was present was not convinced and expressed the opinion that air movement was somehow the cause russian psychic nina kulagina came to wide public attention following the publication of sheila ostrander and lynn schroeders bestseller psychic discoveries behind the iron curtain the alleged soviet psychic of the late 1960s and early 1970s was shown apparently performing telekinesis while seated in numerous blackandwhite short films and was also mentioned in the us defense intelligence agency report from 1978 magicians and skeptics have argued that kulaginas feats could easily be performed by one practiced in sleight of hand or through means such as cleverly concealed or disguised threads small pieces of magnetic metal or mirrorsjames hydrick an american martial arts expert and psychic was famous for his alleged telekinetic ability to turn the pages of books and make pencils spin while placed on the edge of a desk it was later revealed by magicians that he achieved his feats by air currents psychologist richard wiseman wrote that hydrick'</li><li>'##ksha tells us that in order to be freed from the cycle of rebirth and death one must separate karma from the soul in order to find out what karma is attached to your soul you can participate in “ jatismaran ” jatismaran is remembering past lives the nineteenth century saw the rise of spiritualism involving seances and other techniques for contacting departed spirits allan kardec 1804 – 1869 sought to codify the lessons thus obtained in a set of five books the spiritist codification thespiritist pentateuch 1857 – 1868 including the spirits book 1857 and heaven and hell 1865 these books introduce concepts of how spirits evolve through a series of incarnations madame blavatsky 1831 – 1891 cofounder of the theosophical society introduced the sanskrit term akasha beginning in isis unveiled 1877 as a vague life force that was continuously redefined always vaguely in subsequent publications separately but also in isis unveiled she referred to indestructible tablets of the astral light recording both the past and future of human thought and action these concepts were combined into a single idea the akashic records espoused by alfred percy sinnett in his book esoteric buddhism 1883 the idea that the akashic records held past life data set the stage whereby western practitioners of the paranormal could sidestep the notion of forgetfulness that in traditional teachings about reincarnation had prevented memories of former lives from being accessed an early report for a human accessing past life information during a trance state comes from 1923 when edgar cayce while answering questions posed by arthur lammers publisher in a trance state spoke of lammers past lives and of reincarnation the use of hypnosis for past life regressions is said to have been developed by a r asa roy martin of sharon pennsylvania who published researches in reincarnation and beyond in 1942in 1952 the bridey murphy case in which housewife virginia tighe of pueblo colorado under hypnosis was reported by the hypnotist to have recounted memories of a 19thcentury irish woman bridey murphypast life regression is widely rejected as a psychiatric treatment by clinical psychiatrists and psychologists a 2006 survey found that a majority of a sample of doctoral level mental health professionals rated past lives therapy as certainly discredited as a treatment for mental or behavioral disorders in the west pastlife regression practitioners use hypnosis and suggestion to promote recall in their patients using a series of questions designed to elicit statements and memories about the past lifes history and identity some practitioners also use bridging techniques from a clients currentlife problem to'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           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| 18    | <ul><li>'to interpret it successfully this interpretative capacity is one aspect of graphicacy computer graphics are often used in the majority of new feature films especially those with a large budget films that heavily use computer graphics include the lord of the rings film trilogy the harry potter films spiderman and war of the worlds the majority of schools college s and universities around the world educate students on the subject of graphic design and art the subject is taught in a broad variety of ways each course teaching its own distinctive balance of craft skills and intellectual response to the clients needs some graphics courses prioritize traditional craft skills — drawing printmaking and typography — over modern craft skills other courses may place an emphasis on teaching digital craft skills still other courses may downplay the crafts entirely concentrating on training students to generate novel intellectual responses that engage with the brief despite these apparent differences in training and curriculum the staff and students on any of these courses will generally consider themselves to be graphic designers the typical pedagogy of a graphic design or graphic communication visual communication graphic arts or any number of synonymous course titles will be broadly based on the teaching models developed in the bauhaus school in germany or vkhutemas in russia the teaching model will tend to expose students to a variety of craft skills currently everything from drawing to motion capture combined with an effort to engage the student with the world of visual culture aldus manutius designed the first italic type style which is often used in desktop publishing and graphic design april greiman is known for her influential poster design paul rand is well known as a design pioneer for designing many popular corporate logos including the logo for ibm next and ups william caslon during the mid18th century designed many typefaces including itc founders caslon itc founders caslon ornaments caslon graphique itc caslon no 224 caslon old face and big caslon editorial cartoon visualization graphics semiotics'</li><li>'in automotive design a class a surface is any of a set of freeform surfaces of high efficiency and quality although strictly it is nothing more than saying the surfaces have curvature and tangency alignment – to ideal aesthetical reflection quality many people interpret class a surfaces to have g2 or even g3 curvature continuity to one another see free form surface modelling class a surfacing is done using computeraided industrial design applications class a surface modellers are also called digital sculptors in the industry industrial designers develop their design styling through the asurface the physical surface the end user can feel touch see etc a common method of working is to start with a prototype model and produce smooth mathematical class a surfaces to describe the products outer body from this the production of tools and inspection of finished parts can be carried out class a surfacing complements the prototype modelling stage by reducing time and increasing control over design iterations class a surfaces can be defined as any surface that has styling intent that is either seen touched or both and mathematically meets the definition for bezier in automotive design application class a surfaces are created on all visible exterior surfaces ex body panels bumper grill lights etc and all visible surfaces of seetouch feel parts in interior ex dashboard seats door pads etc this can also include beauty covers in the engine compartment mud flaps trunk panels and carpeting in the product design realm class a surfacing can be applied to such things like housing for industrial appliances that are injection moulded home appliances highly aesthetic plastic packaging defined by highly organic surfaces toys or furniture among the most famous users of autodesk alias software in product design is apple aerospace has styling and product design considerations in interiors like bezels for air vents and lights interior roof storage racks seats and cockpit area etc in recent years airbus used icem surf for generating the exterior surface geometry for aesthetics and aerodynamic optimisation before delivering the surface to downstream cad software like catia class a surfacing digital sculpting is similar to clay modelling with the added advantage of computing power to change or incorporate design changes in existingnew design moreover the revisions of clay modelling and refinement iteration are carried out in digital version the scanned data of a selected clay model will be taken as a point cloud data input and class a designers work on this point cloud data to generate preliminary surfaces and further refine them to class a surfaces class a surfaces are currently not standardized a team of french engineers propose a new idea for standardization – class s g0g1g2g3 – high aesthetic quality of reflections – class a g0g1g2 – good aesthetic'</li><li>'two to three years from 1892 to 1913 accompanied by his wife minnie in the early years building a mutually beneficial relationship between british and us operations which endured for eighty years long after winterbottom himself had diedwinterbottom continued to grow and consolidate the business in rhode island fending off competition in 1904 with record sales over the next ten years earning him large sums of money twentytwo years after having taken over operations in america winterbottom booked passage with a group of friends to new york aboard titanic but was delayed by business at home forcing him to postpone his passage by a week winterbottom travelled to new york aboard adriatic on april 18 1912 three days after titanic had gone down with the loss of 1500 lives adriatic returned to liverpool on the 2nd of may with some of the surviving crew and management of titanic bringing operations from the us and germany into the wbcc corporate group resulted in a near global monopoly which stabilised prices but risked the disaffection of book manufacturers who had previously been able to shop around to get the best price for their businesses winterbottom took a conciliatory approach to dissent visiting customers to negotiate deals and easing them into compliance lawyers were also kept busy ensuring that partners remained aligned making minor changes to the original agreement or by threatening his larger partners with his own resignationwinterbottom would tolerate no compromise on quality control with all production standards set by victoria mills which were subsequently applied to the ten other factories in the group significant investment in new machinery and changes in production methods were required at interlaken mills and the bamberg works keeping up with emerging technologies and markets whilst maintaining strict quality control winterbottoms uncompromising attention to detail and rejection of new stock that didnt measure up ensured consistency within all the groups operations this was not always easy to apply particularly in germany where he was forced to make changes to staffing to ensure strict compliance with his restrictive confidentiality controls which preserved corporate intellectual property rights and enforce strict competitive intelligence protocolsexports made a vital contribution to winterbottoms net income by the turn of the century a quarter of the wbcc ’ s customers were from overseas with bookcloth and tracing cloth exports from salford going to at least 50 countries the us government commissioned a study on the industry in 1899 and found that world trade was divided largely between winterbottom and two or three german firms who also sourced their best grades from manchester following fifteen years securing world markets through forging new alliances and mergers in which the merger had restored profitability to the industry whilst returning huge net profits yearonyear winterbottom'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 22    | <ul><li>'the arctic intermediate water aiw is a water mass found between the top cold relatively fresh polar water and the bottom deep water in the arctic domain bounded by the polar and arctic fronts aiw is formed in small quantities compared to other water masses and has limited influence outside of the arctic domain two types of aiw are found which are lower aiw and upper aiw separately lower aiw is the water mass with temperature and salinity maximum found at 250400m deep right above the deep water with temperature for lower aiw ranges from 0 to 3 °c and salinity greater than 349upper aiw is defined to be a denser layer on top of the lower aiw between surface cold water and the lower aiw including water masses with temperature maximum to minimum it is characterized by temperatures less than 2 °c in the salinity ranges from 347 to 349 the upper aiw is usually found at 75150m overlain by arctic surface water asw however it could be found at the sea surface in winterthere are overlaps in density for upper and lower aiw according to their definitions it is possible that water mass falling within the definition of upper aiw is below the defined lower aiw for example in norwegian sea one intermediate layer of salinity slightly less than 349 was found below the water mass with temperature and salinity maximum it is generally accepted that aiw is formed and modified in the north part of arctic domain as aiw moves from north to south along the greenland continental slope its temperature and salinity on the whole decrease southwards due to mixing with surface cold water the lower aiw is produced by the cooling and sinking of atlantic water aw which is traditionally defined with salinity greater than 35 and by the polar intermediate water piw that is colder than 0 °c with salinity in the range 344347 amount of aiw varies with different seasons for example the upper aiw in iceland sea increased from about 10 of the total volume in fall to over 21 in winter in the same time both asw and lower aiw show significant summertowinter decreases which might contribute to the new upper aiw similar process can also be found in greenland sea but with a smaller amount of formed upper aiw'</li><li>'sociohydrology socio from the latin word socius meaning ‘ companion and hydrology from the greek υδωρ hydor meaning water and λογος logos meaning study is an interdisciplinary field studying the dynamic interactions and feedbacks between water and people areas of research in sociohydrology include the historical study of the interplay between hydrological and social processes comparative analysis of the coevolution and selforganization of human and water systems in different cultures and processbased modelling of coupled humanwater systems the first approach to sociohydrology was the term hydrosociology which arises from a concern about the scale of impact of human activities on the hydrological cycle sociohydrology is defined as the humanswater interaction and later as “ the science of people and water ” which introduces bidirectional feedbacks between human – water systems differentiating it from other related disciplines that deal with water furthermore sociohydrology has been presented as one of the most relevant challenges for the anthropocene in relationship with its aims at unraveling dynamic crossscale interactions and feedbacks between natural and human processes that give rise to many water sustainability challenges socio ‐ hydrology is also predicted to be an important license for modellers in traditional hydrology human activities are typically described as boundary conditions or external forcings to the water systems scenariobased approach this traditional approach tends to make long term predictions unrealistic as interactions and bidirectional feedbacks between human and water systems cannot be capturedfollowing the increased hydrological challenges due to humaninduced changes hydrologists started to overcome the limitation of traditional hydrology by accounting for the mutual interactions between water and society and by advocating for greater connection between social science and hydrologysociohydrologists argue that water and human systems change interdependently as well as in connection with each other and that their mutual reshaping continues and evolves over time on the one hand society importantly alters the hydrological regime it modifies the frequency and severity of floods and droughts through continuous water abstraction dams and reservoirs construction flood protection measures urbanization etc in turn modified water regimes and hydrological extremes shape societies which respond and adapt spontaneously or through collective strategiesin general to explain the coevolution of human and water systems sociohydrology should draw on different disciplines and include historical studies comparative analysis and process based modeling most of the sociohydrological efforts to date have focused on investigating recurring social behavior and societal development resulting from their coevolution with hydrological systems the'</li><li>'as a mass throughput but rather as a pressure throughput and having units of pressure times volume per second p 1 displaystyle p1 and p 2 displaystyle p2 are the upstream and downstream pressures c displaystyle c is the conductance having units of volumetime which are the same units as pumping speed for a vacuum pumpthis definition proves useful in vacuum systems because under conditions of rarefied gas flow the conductance of various structures is usually constant and the overall conductance of a complex network of pipes orifices and other conveyances can be found in direct analogy to a resistive electrical circuit for example the conductance of a simple orifice is c 15 d 2 displaystyle c15d2 literssec where d displaystyle d is measured in centimeters'</li></ul>                                                                                          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| 15    | <ul><li>'phenotypic plasticity refers to some of the changes in an organisms behavior morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes eg morphological physiological behavioural phenological that may or may not be permanent throughout an individuals lifespanthe term was originally used to describe developmental effects on morphological characters but is now more broadly used to describe all phenotypic responses to environmental change such as acclimation acclimatization as well as learning the special case when differences in environment induce discrete phenotypes is termed polyphenism generally phenotypic plasticity is more important for immobile organisms eg plants than mobile organisms eg most animals as mobile organisms can often move away from unfavourable environments nevertheless mobile organisms also have at least some degree of plasticity in at least some aspects of the phenotype one mobile organism with substantial phenotypic plasticity is acyrthosiphon pisum of the aphid family which exhibits the ability to interchange between asexual and sexual reproduction as well as growing wings between generations when plants become too populated water fleas daphnia magna have shown both phenotypic plasticity and the ability to genetically evolve to deal with the heat stress of warmer urban pond waters phenotypic plasticity in plants includes the timing of transition from vegetative to reproductive growth stage the allocation of more resources to the roots in soils that contain low concentrations of nutrients the size of the seeds an individual produces depending on the environment and the alteration of leaf shape size and thickness leaves are particularly plastic and their growth may be altered by light levels leaves grown in the light tend to be thicker which maximizes photosynthesis in direct light and have a smaller area which cools the leaf more rapidly due to a thinner boundary layer conversely leaves grown in the shade tend to be thinner with a greater surface area to capture more of the limited light dandelion are well known for exhibiting considerable plasticity in form when growing in sunny versus shaded environments the transport proteins present in roots also change depending on the concentration of the nutrient and the salinity of the soil some plants mesembryanthemum crystallinum for example are able to alter their photosynthetic pathways to use less water when they become water or saltstressedbecause of phenotypic plasticity it is hard to explain and predict the traits when plants are grown in natural conditions unless an explicit environment index can be obtained to quantify environments identification of such'</li><li>'result in what are known as designer babies the concept of a designer baby is that its entire genetic composition could be selected for in an extreme case people would be able to effectively create the offspring that they want with a genotype of their choosing not only does human germline engineering allow for the selection of specific traits but it also allows for enhancement of these traits using human germline editing for selection and enhancement is currently very heavily scrutinized and the main driving force behind the movement of trying to ban human germline engineeringin a 2019 animal study with liang guang small spotted pigs increased muscle mass was achieved with precise editing of the myostatin signal peptide myostatin is a negative regulator of muscle growth so through mutating the signal peptide regions of the gene muscle growth could be promoted in the experimental pigs the myostatin genes in 955 pig embryos were mutated at several locations with crispr and implanted into five surrogates resulting in 16 piglets it was found that only specific mutations to the myostatin signal peptide resulted in increased muscle mass in the piglets mainly due to an increase in muscle fibers a similar animal study created a knockout in the myostatin gene in mice which also increased their muscle mass this showed that muscle mass could be increased with germline editing which is likely applicable to humans because humans also have the myostatin gene to regulate muscle growth human germline engineering may then result in intentionally increased muscle mass with applications such as gene doping human germline engineering is a widely debated topic and in more than 40 countries it is formally outlawed while there is no current legislation explicitly prohibiting germline engineering in the united states the consolidated appropriation act of 2016 bans the use of us fda funds to engage in research regarding human germline modification in april 2015 a research team published an experiment in which they used crispr to edit a gene that is associated with blood disease in nonliving human embryos this experiment was unsuccessful but gene editing tools are used in labs scientists using the crisprcas9 system to modify genetic materials have run into issues when it comes to mammalian alterations due to the complex diploid cells studies have been done in microorganisms regarding loss of function genetic screening and some studies have been done using mice as a subject because rna processes differ between bacteria and mammalian cells scientists have had difficulties coding for mrnas translated data without the interference of rna studies have been done using the cas9 nuclease that uses a single guide rna to allow for larger knockout regions in mice and this was'</li><li>'the individual would experience stress and anxiety there has been reported success in confirming a mouse model of autism by changing the mouses environmentin any of these experiments the ‘ autistic ’ mice have a ‘ normal ’ socializing partner and the scientists observing the mice are unaware blind to the genotypes of the mice the gene expression profile of the central nervous system cns is unique eighty percent of all human genes are expressed in the brain 5000 of these genes are solely expressed in the cns the human brain has the highest amount of gene expression of all studied mammalian brains in comparison tissues outside of the brain will have more similar expression levels in comparison to their mammalian counterparts one source of the increased expression levels in the human brain is from the nonprotein coding region of the genome numerous studies have indicated that the human brain have a higher level of expression in regulatory regions in comparison to other mammalian brains there is also notable enrichment for more alternative splicing events in the human brain gene expression profiles also vary within specific regions of the brain a microarray study showed that the transcriptome profile of the cns clusters together based on region a different study characterized the regulation of gene expression across 10 different regions based on their eqtl signals the cause of the varying expression profiles relates to function neuron migration and cellular heterogeneity of the region even the three layers of the cerebral cortex have distinct expression profilesa study completed at harvard medical school in 2014 was able to identify developmental lineages stemming from single base neuronal mutations the researchers sequenced 36 neurons from the cerebral cortex of three normal individuals and found that highly expressed genes and neural associated genes were significantly enriched for singleneuron snvs these snvs in turn were found to be correlated with chromatin markers of transcription from fetal brain gene expression of the brain changes throughout the different phases of life the most significant levels of expression are found during early development with the rate of gene expression being highest during fetal development this results from the rapid growth of neurons in the embryo neurons at this stage are undergoing neuronal differentiation cell proliferation migration events and dendritic and synaptic development gene expression patterns shift closer towards specialized functional profiles during embryonic development however certain developmental steps are still ongoing at parturition consequently gene expression profiles of the two brain hemispheres appear asymmetrical at birth at birth gene expression profiles appear asymmetrical between brain hemispheres as development continues the gene expression profiles become similar between the hemispheres given a healthy adult expression profiles stay relatively consistent from the late twenties into the late forties from'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 23    | <ul><li>'interleukin29 il29 is a cytokine and it belongs to type iii interferons group also termed interferons λ ifnλ il29 alternative name ifnλ1 plays an important role in the immune response against pathogenes and especially against viruses by mechanisms similar to type i interferons but targeting primarily cells of epithelial origin and hepatocytesil29 is encoded by the ifnl1 gene located on chromosome 19 in humans it is a pseudogene in mice meaning the il29 protein is not produced in them il29 is with the rest of ifnλ structurally related to the il10 family but its primary amino acid sequence and also function is more similar to type i interferons it binds to a heterodimeric receptor composed of one subunit ifnl1r specific for ifnλ and a second subunit il10rb shared among the il10 family cytokines il29 exhibits antiviral effects by inducing similar signaling pathways as type i interferons il29 receptor signals through jakstat pathways leading to activated expression of interferonstimulated genes and production of antiviral proteins further consequences of il29 signalization comprise the upregulated expression of mhc class i molecules or enhanced expression of the costimulatory molecules and chemokine receptors on pdc which are the main producers of ifnαil29 expression is dominant in virusinfected epithelial cells of the respiratory gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also in other mucosal tissues and skin hepatocytes infected by hcv or hbv viruses stimulate the immune response by producing il29 ifnλ in general rather than type i interferons it is also produced by maturing macrophages dendritic cells or mastocytesit plays a role in defense against pathogens apart from viruses it affects the function of both innate and adaptive immune system besides described antiviral effects il29 modulates cytokine production of other cells for example it increases secretion of il6 il8 and il10 by monocytes and macrophages enhances the responsiveness of macrophages to ifnγ by increased expression of ifngr1 stimulates t cell polarization towards th1 phenotype and also b cell response to il29 was reported the impact of il29 on cancer cells is complicated depending on cancer cell type it shows protective tumor inhibiting effects in many cases such as skin lung colorectal or hepatocellular cancer but shows tumor promoting effects on multiple'</li><li>'the ability to induce gvl but not gvh after hsct would be very beneficial for those patients there are some strategies to suppress the gvhd after transplantation or to enhance gvl but none of them provide an ideal solution to this problem for some forms of hematopoietic malignancies for example acute myeloid leukemia aml the essential cells during hsct are beside the donors t cells the nk cells which interact with kir receptors nk cells are within the first cells to repopulate hosts bone marrow which means they play important role in the transplant engraftment for their role in the gvl effect their alloreactivity is required because kir and hla genes are inherited independently the ideal donor can have compatible hla genes and kir receptors that induce the alloreaction of nk cells at the same time this will occur with most of the nonrelated donor when transplanting hsc during aml tcells are usually selectively depleted to prevent gvhd while nk cells help with the gvl effect which prevent leukemia relapse when using nondepleted tcell transplant cyclophosphamide is used after transplantation to prevent gvhd or transplant rejection other strategies currently clinically used for suppressing gvhd and enhancing gvl are for example optimization of transplant condition or donor lymphocyte infusion dli after transplantation however none of those provide satisfactory universal results thus other options are still being inspected one of the possibilities is the use of cytokines granulocyte colonystimulating factor gcsf is used to mobilize hsc and mediate t cell tolerance during transplantation gcsf can help to enhance gvl effect and suppress gvhd by reducing levels of lps and tnfα using gcsf also increases levels of treg which can also help with prevention of gvhd other cytokines can also be used to prevent or reduce gvhd without eliminating gvl for example kgf il11 il18 and il35 graftversushost disease hematopoietic stem cell transplantation'</li><li>'which is thought to be critical for kinase activity it is thought that irak2 and irakm are catalytically inactive because they lack this aspartate residue in the kd the cterminal domain does not seem to show much similarity between irak family members the cterminal domain is important for the interaction with the signaling molecule traf6 irak1 contains three traf6 interaction motifs irak2 contains two and irakm contains oneirak1 contains a region that is rich in serine proline and threonine prost it is thought that irak1 undergoes hyperphosphorylation in this region the prost region also contains two proline p glutamic acid e serine s and threonine trich pest sequences that are thought to promote the degradation of irak1 interleukin1 receptors il1rs are cytokine receptors that transduce an intracellular signaling cascade in response to the binding of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin1 il1 this signaling cascade results in the initiation of transcription of certain genes involved in inflammation because il1rs do not possess intrinsic kinase activity they rely on the recruitment of adaptor molecules such as iraks to transduce their signals il1 binding to il1r complex triggers the recruitment of the adaptor molecule myd88 through interactions with the tir domain myd88 brings irak4 to the receptor complex preformed complexes of the adaptor molecule tollip and irak1 are also recruited to the receptor complex allowing irak1 to bind myd88 irak1 binding to myd88 brings it into close proximity with irak4 so that irak4 can phosphorylate and activate irak1 once phosphorylated irak1 recruits the adaptor protein tnf receptor associated factor 6 traf6 and the irak1traf6 complex dissociates from the il1r complex the irak1traf6 complex interacts with a preexisting complex at the plasma membrane consisting of tgfβ activated kinase 1 tak1 and two tak binding proteins tab1 and tab2 tak1 is a mitogenactivated protein kinase kinase kinase mapkkk this interaction leads to the phosphorylation of tab2 and tak1 which then translocate to the cytosol with traf6 and tab1 irak1 remains at the membrane and is targeted for degradation by ubiquitination once the tak1traf'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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| 13    | <ul><li>'##ch art telematic art bio art genetic art interactive art computer animation and graphics and hacktivism and tactical media these latter two ‘ genres ’ in particular have a strong focus on the interplay of art and political activism since the end of the 1990s the first online databases came into being as exemplified by the universitybased archive of digital art rhizome platform located in new york netzspannung until 2005 the database project compart in which early phase of digital art is addressed and the collaborative online platform monoskop in terms of institutional resources media art histories spans diverse organisations archives research centres as well as private initiatives already at this early stage in the development of the field the actors of media art histories were connected by way of digital communication especially by socalled mailing lists such as nettime or rohrpost both channels of communication that remain prime resources for the new media art community in the last few years there was a significant increase of festivals and conferences dedicated to new media art though the dominant festivals in the field continue to be the ars electronica the transmediale the isea intersociety for the electronic arts and siggraph special interest group on graphics and interactive techniques to this day museums and research facilities specializing in new media art are the exception nevertheless zkm zentrum fur kunst und medientechnologie or specific focuses in collections including the whitney museum the new york museum of modern art or the walker art center serve as important spaces for exchange beyond museums that reach a wider audience there are more and more smaller museums and galleries that focus on new media art such as the berlinbased dam – digital art museum additionally archives in which are exhibited artifacts situated at the intersection of the histories of media art and technology are important resources including collections such as that of werner nekes or those cabinets of wonder and curiosity incorporated in art history museums even given this increase in festivals however a variety of significant research initiatives have been discontinued these include the ludwig boltzmann institute for mediaartresearch the daniel langlois foundation for art science and technology and media art net this difficulty in establishing sustainable funding structures as well as support for access to shared data for the scientific research of new media art was made public and addressed by the liverpool declaration scholars and artists based at institutions all over the globe signed the declaration in a call to develop systematic strategies to fulfill the task that digital culture and its research demands in the 21st century already in the late 1990s it became clear that media art research is spread over many disciplines and the need became urgent to give it common ground therefore'</li><li>'lithuanian plaque located on the lithuanian academy of sciences honoring nazi war criminal jonas noreika in 2020 cryptokitties developer dapper labs released the nba topshot project which allowed the purchase of nfts linked to basketball highlights the project was built on top of the flow blockchain in march 2021 an nft of twitter founder jack dorseys firstever tweet sold for 29 million the same nft was listed for sale in 2022 at 48 million but only achieved a top bid of 280 on december 15 2022 donald trump former president of the united states announced a line of nfts featuring images of himself for 99 each it was reported that he made between 100001 and 1 million from the scheme nfts have been proposed for purposes related to scientific and medical purposes suggestions include turning patient data into nfts tracking supply chains and minting patents as nftsthe monetary aspect of the sale of nfts has been used by academic institutions to finance research projects the university of california berkeley announced in may 2021 its intention to auction nfts of two patents of inventions for which the creators had received a nobel prize the patents for crispr gene editing and cancer immunotherapy the university would however retain ownership of the patents 85 of funds gathered through the sale of the collection were to be used to finance research the collection included handwritten notices and faxes by james allison and was named the fourth pillar it sold in june 2022 for 22 ether about us54000 at the time george church a us geneticist announced his intention to sell his dna via nfts and use the profits to finance research conducted by nebula genomics in june 2022 20 nfts with his likeness were published instead of the originally planned nfts of his dna due to the market conditions at the time despite mixed reactions the project is considered to be part of an effort to use the genetic data of 15000 individuals to support genetic research by using nfts the project wants to ensure that the users submitting their genetic data are able to receive direct payment for their contributions several other companies have been involved in similar and often criticized efforts to use blockchainbased genetic data in order to guarantee users more control over their data and enable them to receive direct financial compensation whenever their data is being sold molecule protocol a project based in switzerland is trying to use nfts to digitize the intellectual copyright of individual scientists and research teams to finance research the projects whitepaper explains the aim is to represent the copyright of scientific papers as nfts and enable their trade'</li><li>'a clipping path or deep etch is a closed vector path or shape used to cut out a 2d image in image editing software anything inside the path will be included after the clipping path is applied anything outside the path will be omitted from the output applying the clipping path results in a hard aliased or soft antialiased edge depending on the image editors capabilitiesby convention the inside of the path is defined by its direction reversing the direction of a path reverses what is considered inside or outside an inclusive path is one where what is visually inside the path corresponds to what will be preserved an exclusive path of opposite direction contains what is visually outside the path by convention a clockwise path that is nonselfintersecting is considered inclusive a compound path results from the combination of multiple paths inclusive and exclusive and the boolean operations that ultimately determine what the combined path contains for instance an inclusive path which contains a smaller exclusive path results in a shape with a hole defined by the exclusive path one common use of a clipping path is to cull objects that do not need to be rendered because they are outside the users viewport or obscured by display elements such as a hud clipping planes are used in 3d computer graphics in order to prevent the renderer from calculating surfaces at an extreme distance from the viewer the plane is perpendicular to the camera a set distance away the threshold and occupies the entire viewport used in realtime rendering clipping planes can help preserve processing for objects within clear sight the use of clipping planes can result in a detraction from the realism of a scene as the viewer may notice that everything at the threshold is not rendered correctly or seems to disappear spontaneously the addition of fog — a variably transparent region of color or texture just before the clipping plane — can help soften the transition between what should be in plain sight and opaque and what should be beyond notice and fully transparent and therefore does not need to be rendered clipping path services are professional offerings provided by companies for extracting objects or people from still imagery and typically includes other photo editing and manipulation services addressees of such services are primarily photography and graphic design studios advertising agencies web designers as well as lithographers and printing companies clipping path service companies commonly reside in developing countries such as bangladesh philippine india pakistan and nepal which can provide their services at comparatively low cost to developed countries fostering outsourcing of such activities silhouette'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                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| 42    | <ul><li>'the tree this is why rapidly growing populations yield trees with long tip branches if the rate of exponential growth is estimated from a gene genealogy it may be combined with knowledge of the duration of infection or the serial interval d displaystyle d for a particular pathogen to estimate the basic reproduction number r 0 displaystyle r0 the two may be linked by the following equation r r 0 − 1 d displaystyle rfrac r01d for example one of the first estimates of r 0 displaystyle r0 was for pandemic h1n1 influenza in 2009 by using a coalescentbased analysis of 11 hemagglutinin sequences in combination with prior data about the infectious period for influenza compartmental models infectious disease epidemics are often characterized by highly nonlinear and rapid changes in the number of infected individuals and the effective population size of the virus in such cases birth rates are highly variable which can diminish the correspondence between effective population size and the prevalence of infection many mathematical models have been developed in the field of mathematical epidemiology to describe the nonlinear time series of prevalence of infection and the number of susceptible hosts a well studied example is the susceptibleinfectedrecovered sir system of differential equations which describes the fractions of the population s t displaystyle st susceptible i t displaystyle it infected and r t displaystyle rt recovered as a function of time d s d t − β s i displaystyle frac dsdtbeta si d i d t β s i − γ i displaystyle frac didtbeta sigamma i and d r d t γ i displaystyle frac drdtgamma i here β displaystyle beta is the per capita rate of transmission to susceptible hosts and γ displaystyle gamma is the rate at which infected individuals recover whereupon they are no longer infectious in this case the incidence of new infections per unit time is f t β s i displaystyle ftbeta si which is analogous to the birth rate in classical population genetics models the general formula for the rate of coalescence is λ n t n 2 2 f t i t 2 displaystyle lambda ntn choose 2frac 2ftit2 the ratio 2 n 2 i t 2 displaystyle 2n choose 2it2 can be understood as arising from the probability that two lineages selected uniformly at random are both ancestral to the sample this probability is the ratio of the number of ways to pick two lineages without replacement from the set of lineages and from the set of all infections n 2 i t 2 ≈ 2 n 2 i t 2 displaystyle'</li><li>'dna sense strand looks like the messenger rna mrna transcript and can therefore be used to read the expected codon sequence that will ultimately be used during translation protein synthesis to build an amino acid sequence and then a protein for example the sequence atg within a dna sense strand corresponds to an aug codon in the mrna which codes for the amino acid methionine however the dna sense strand itself is not used as the template for the mrna it is the dna antisense strand that serves as the source for the protein code because with bases complementary to the dna sense strand it is used as a template for the mrna since transcription results in an rna product complementary to the dna template strand the mrna is complementary to the dna antisense strandhence a base triplet 3 ′ tac5 ′ in the dna antisense strand complementary to the 5 ′ atg3 ′ of the dna sense strand is used as the template which results in a 5 ′ aug3 ′ base triplet in the mrna the dna sense strand will have the triplet atg which looks similar to the mrna triplet aug but will not be used to make methionine because it will not be directly used to make mrna the dna sense strand is called a sense strand not because it will be used to make protein it wont be but because it has a sequence that corresponds directly to the rna codon sequence by this logic the rna transcript itself is sometimes described as sense dna strand 1 antisense strand transcribed to → rna strand sensedna strand 2 sense strandsome regions within a doublestranded dna molecule code for genes which are usually instructions specifying the order in which amino acids are assembled to make proteins as well as regulatory sequences splicing sites noncoding introns and other gene products for a cell to use this information one strand of the dna serves as a template for the synthesis of a complementary strand of rna the transcribed dna strand is called the template strand with antisense sequence and the mrna transcript produced from it is said to be sense sequence the complement of antisense the untranscribed dna strand complementary to the transcribed strand is also said to have sense sequence it has the same sense sequence as the mrna transcript though t bases in dna are substituted with u bases in rna the names assigned to each strand actually depend on which direction you are writing the sequence that contains the information for proteins the sense information not on which strand is depicted as on the top or on the bottom which is arbitrary the only biological information that is important for labeling strands is the relative locations of the'</li><li>'in molecular biology and genetics the sense of a nucleic acid molecule particularly of a strand of dna or rna refers to the nature of the roles of the strand and its complement in specifying a sequence of amino acids depending on the context sense may have slightly different meanings for example the negativesense strand of dna is equivalent to the template strand whereas the positivesense strand is the nontemplate strand whose nucleotide sequence is equivalent to the sequence of the mrna transcript because of the complementary nature of basepairing between nucleic acid polymers a doublestranded dna molecule will be composed of two strands with sequences that are reverse complements of each other to help molecular biologists specifically identify each strand individually the two strands are usually differentiated as the sense strand and the antisense strand an individual strand of dna is referred to as positivesense also positive or simply sense if its nucleotide sequence corresponds directly to the sequence of an rna transcript which is translated or translatable into a sequence of amino acids provided that any thymine bases in the dna sequence are replaced with uracil bases in the rna sequence the other strand of the doublestranded dna molecule is referred to as negativesense also negative − or antisense and is reverse complementary to both the positivesense strand and the rna transcript it is actually the antisense strand that is used as the template from which rna polymerases construct the rna transcript but the complementary basepairing by which nucleic acid polymerization occurs means that the sequence of the rna transcript will look identical to the positivesense strand apart from the rna transcripts use of uracil instead of thymine sometimes the phrases coding strand and template strand are encountered in place of sense and antisense respectively and in the context of a doublestranded dna molecule the usage of these terms is essentially equivalent however the codingsense strand need not always contain a code that is used to make a protein both proteincoding and noncoding rnas may be transcribed the terms sense and antisense are relative only to the particular rna transcript in question and not to the dna strand as a whole in other words either dna strand can serve as the sense or antisense strand most organisms with sufficiently large genomes make use of both strands with each strand functioning as the template strand for different rna transcripts in different places along the same dna molecule in some cases rna transcripts can be transcribed in both directions ie on either strand from a common promoter region or be transcribed from within introns on either strand see ambisense below the'</li></ul>                                                                                                    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| 27    | <ul><li>'2nev1 where u is the ion velocity solving for u the following relation is found u 2 n e v 1 m displaystyle usqrt frac 2nev1m lets say that for at a certain ionization voltage a singly charged hydrogen ion acquires a resulting velocity of 14x106 ms−1 at 10kv a singly charged deuterium ion under the sample conditions would have acquired roughly 14x106141 ms−1 if a detector was placed at a distance of 1 m the ion flight times would be 114x106 and 14114x106 s thus the time of the ion arrival can be used to infer the ion type itself if the evaporation time is known from the above equation it can be rearranged to show that m n − 2 e v 1 u 2 displaystyle frac mnfrac 2ev1u2 given a known flight distance f for the ion and a known flight time t u f t displaystyle ufrac ft and thus one can substitute these values to obtain the masstocharge for the ion m n − 2 e v 1 t f 2 displaystyle frac mn2ev1leftfrac tfright2 thus for an ion which traverses a 1 m flight path across a time of 2000 ns given an initial accelerating voltage of 5000 v v in si units is kgm2s3a1 and noting that one amu is 1×10−27 kg the masstocharge ratio more correctly the masstoionisation value ratio becomes 386 amucharge the number of electrons removed and thus net positive charge on the ion is not known directly but can be inferred from the histogram spectrum of observed ions the magnification in an atom is due to the projection of ions radially away from the small sharp tip subsequently in the farfield the ions will be greatly magnified this magnification is sufficient to observe field variations due to individual atoms thus allowing in field ion and field evaporation modes for the imaging of single atoms the standard projection model for the atom probe is an emitter geometry that is based upon a revolution of a conic section such as a sphere hyperboloid or paraboloid for these tip models solutions to the field may be approximated or obtained analytically the magnification for a spherical emitter is inversely proportional to the radius of the tip given a projection directly onto a spherical screen the following equation can be obtained geometrically m r s c r e e n r t'</li><li>'transport of cancer proteins and in delivering microrna to the surrounding healthy tissue it leads to a change of healthy cell phenotype and creates a tumorfriendly environment microvesicles play an important role in tumor angiogenesis and in the degradation of matrix due to the presence of metalloproteases which facilitate metastasis they are also involved in intensification of the function of regulatory tlymphocytes and in the induction of apoptosis of cytotoxic tlymphocytes because microvesicles released from a tumor cell contain fas ligand and trail they prevent differentiation of monocytes to dendritic cells tumor microvesicles also carry tumor antigen so they can be an instrument for developing tumor vaccines circulating mirna and segments of dna in all body fluids can be potential markers for tumor diagnostics rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of joints in the early stage there are abundant th17 cells producing proinflammatory cytokines il17a il17f tnf il21 and il22 in the synovial fluid regulatory tlymphocytes have a limited capability to control these cells in the late stage the extent of inflammation correlates with numbers of activated macrophages that contribute to joint inflammation and bone and cartilage destruction because they have the ability to transform themselves into osteoclasts that destroy bone tissue synthesis of reactive oxygen species proteases and prostaglandins by neutrophils is increased activation of platelets via collagen receptor gpvi stimulates the release of microvesicles from platelet cytoplasmic membranes these microparticles are detectable at a high level in synovial fluid and they promote joint inflammation by transporting proinflammatory cytokine il1 in addition to detecting cancer it is possible to use microvesicles as biological markers to give prognoses for various diseases many types of neurological diseases are associated with increased level of specific types of circulating microvesicles for example elevated levels of phosphorylated tau proteins can be used to diagnose patients in early stages of alzheimers additionally it is possible to detect increased levels of cd133 in microvesicles of patients with epilepsy circulating microvesicles may be useful for the delivery of drugs to very specific targets using electroporation or centrifugation to insert drugs into microvesicles targeting specific cells it is possible to target the drug very efficiently this targeting can help by reducing necessary'</li><li>'as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of drexlers theoretical and public work which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology and highvisibility experimental advances that drew additional widescale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter in the 1980s two major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in the modern era first the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which enabled visualization of individual atoms and bonds and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989 the microscopes developers gerd binnig and heinrich rohrer at ibm zurich research laboratory received a nobel prize in physics in 1986 binnig quate and gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year second fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by harry kroto richard smalley and robert curl who together won the 1996 nobel prize in chemistry c60 was not initially described as nanotechnology the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes sometimes called graphene tubes or bucky tubes which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices the discovery of carbon nanotubes is largely attributed to sumio iijima of nec in 1991 for which iijima won the inaugural 2008 kavli prize in nanoscience in the early 2000s the field garnered increased scientific political and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies exemplified by the royal societys report on nanotechnology challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology which culminated in a public debate between drexler and smalley in 2001 and 2003meanwhile commercialization of products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging these products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter some examples include the silver nano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent nanoparticlebased transparent sunscreens carbon fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes for stainresistant textilesgovernments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology such as in the us with the national nanotechnology initiative which formalized a sizebased definition of nanotechnology and established funding for research on the nanoscale and in europe via the european framework programmes for research and technological development by the mid2000s new and serious scientific attention began to flourish projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected capabilities goals and applications nano'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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| 12    | <ul><li>'in mathematics a composition of an integer n is a way of writing n as the sum of a sequence of strictly positive integers two sequences that differ in the order of their terms define different compositions of their sum while they are considered to define the same partition of that number every integer has finitely many distinct compositions negative numbers do not have any compositions but 0 has one composition the empty sequence each positive integer n has 2n−1 distinct compositions a weak composition of an integer n is similar to a composition of n but allowing terms of the sequence to be zero it is a way of writing n as the sum of a sequence of nonnegative integers as a consequence every positive integer admits infinitely many weak compositions if their length is not bounded adding a number of terms 0 to the end of a weak composition is usually not considered to define a different weak composition in other words weak compositions are assumed to be implicitly extended indefinitely by terms 0 to further generalize an arestricted composition of an integer n for a subset a of the nonnegative or positive integers is an ordered collection of one or more elements in a whose sum is n the sixteen compositions of 5 are 5 4 1 3 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1compare this with the seven partitions of 5 5 4 1 3 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1it is possible to put constraints on the parts of the compositions for example the five compositions of 5 into distinct terms are 5 4 1 3 2 2 3 1 4compare this with the three partitions of 5 into distinct terms 5 4 1 3 2 conventionally the empty composition is counted as the sole composition of 0 and there are no compositions of negative integers there are 2n−1 compositions of n ≥ 1 here is a proof placing either a plus sign or a comma in each of the n − 1 boxes of the array 1 [UNK] 1 [UNK] … [UNK] 1 [UNK] 1 [UNK] n displaystyle big overbrace 1square 1square ldots square 1square 1 nbig produces a unique composition of n conversely every composition of n determines an assignment of pluses and commas since there are n − 1 binary choices the result follows the same argument shows that the number of compositions of n into exactly k parts a kcomposition is given by the binomial coefficient n − 1 k −'</li><li>'displaystyle ykbf tesum i1infty tialpha kigamma kesum i1infty tibeta kiquad k1dots n we arrive at the wronskian determinant formula τ α → β → γ → n t y 1 t y 2 t [UNK] y n t y 1 ′ t y 2 ′ t [UNK] y n ′ t [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] y 1 n − 1 t y 2 n − 1 t [UNK] y n n − 1 t displaystyle tau vec alpha vec beta vec gamma nbf tbeginvmatrixy1bf ty2bf tcdots ynbf ty1bf ty2bf tcdots ynbf tvdots vdots ddots vdots y1n1bf ty2n1bf tcdots ynn1bf tendvmatrix which gives the general n displaystyle n soliton τ displaystyle tau function let x displaystyle x be a compact riemann surface of genus g displaystyle g and fix a canonical homology basis a 1 … a g b 1 … b g displaystyle a1dots agb1dots bg of h 1 x z displaystyle h1xmathbf z with intersection numbers a i ∘ a j b i ∘ b j 0 a i ∘ b j δ i j 1 ≤ i j ≤ g displaystyle aicirc ajbicirc bj0quad aicirc bjdelta ijquad 1leq ijleq g let ω i i 1 … g displaystyle omega ii1dots g be a basis for the space h 1 x displaystyle h1x of holomorphic differentials satisfying the standard normalization conditions [UNK] a i ω j δ i j [UNK] b j ω j b i j displaystyle oint aiomega jdelta ijquad oint bjomega jbij where b displaystyle b is the riemann matrix of periods the matrix b displaystyle b belongs to the siegel upper half space s g b ∈ m a t g × g c b t b im b is positive definite displaystyle mathbf s gleftbin mathrm mat gtimes gmathbf c colon btb textimbtext is positive definiteright the riemann θ displaystyle theta function on c g displaystyle mathbf c g corresponding to the period matrix b displaystyle b is defined to be θ z b [UNK] n ∈ z g e i π n'</li><li>'combinatorial chemistry comprises chemical synthetic methods that make it possible to prepare a large number tens to thousands or even millions of compounds in a single process these compound libraries can be made as mixtures sets of individual compounds or chemical structures generated by computer software combinatorial chemistry can be used for the synthesis of small molecules and for peptides strategies that allow identification of useful components of the libraries are also part of combinatorial chemistry the methods used in combinatorial chemistry are applied outside chemistry too combinatorial chemistry had been invented by furka a eotvos lorand university budapest hungary who described the principle of it the combinatorial synthesis and a deconvolution procedure in a document that was notarized in 1982 the principle of the combinatorial method is synthesize a multicomponent compound mixture combinatorial library in a single stepwise procedure and screen it to find drug candidates or other kinds of useful compounds also in a single process the most important innovation of the combinatorial method is to use mixtures in the synthesis and screening that ensures the high productivity of the process motivations that led to the invention had been published in 2002 synthesis of molecules in a combinatorial fashion can quickly lead to large numbers of molecules for example a molecule with three points of diversity r1 r2 and r3 can generate n r 1 × n r 2 × n r 3 displaystyle nr1times nr2times nr3 possible structures where n r 1 displaystyle nr1 n r 2 displaystyle nr2 and n r 3 displaystyle nr3 are the numbers of different substituents utilizedthe basic principle of combinatorial chemistry is to prepare libraries of a very large number of compounds then identify the useful components of the libraries although combinatorial chemistry has only really been taken up by industry since the 1990s its roots can be seen as far back as the 1960s when a researcher at rockefeller university bruce merrifield started investigating the solidphase synthesis of peptides in its modern form combinatorial chemistry has probably had its biggest impact in the pharmaceutical industry researchers attempting to optimize the activity profile of a compound create a library of many different but related compounds advances in robotics have led to an industrial approach to combinatorial synthesis enabling companies to routinely produce over 100000 new and unique compounds per yearin order to handle the vast number of structural possibilities researchers often create a virtual library a computational enumeration of all possible structures of a given pharmacophore with all available reactants such a library can consist of thousands to'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 37    | <ul><li>'fits the form conjunction introduction bob likes apples bob likes oranges therefore bob likes apples and bob likes orangesconjunction elimination is another classically valid simple argument form intuitively it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction a displaystyle a and b displaystyle b therefore a displaystyle a or alternatively a displaystyle a and b displaystyle b therefore b displaystyle b in logical operator notation a ∧ b displaystyle aland b [UNK] a displaystyle vdash a or alternatively a ∧ b displaystyle aland b [UNK] b displaystyle vdash b a conjunction a ∧ b displaystyle aland b is proven false by establishing either ¬ a displaystyle neg a or ¬ b displaystyle neg b in terms of the object language this reads ¬ a → ¬ a ∧ b displaystyle neg ato neg aland b this formula can be seen as a special case of a → c → a ∧ b → c displaystyle ato cto aland bto c when c displaystyle c is a false proposition if a displaystyle a implies ¬ b displaystyle neg b then both ¬ a displaystyle neg a as well as a displaystyle a prove the conjunction false a → ¬ b → ¬ a ∧ b displaystyle ato neg bto neg aland b in other words a conjunction can actually be proven false just by knowing about the relation of its conjuncts and not necessary about their truth values this formula can be seen as a special case of a → b → c → a ∧ b → c displaystyle ato bto cto aland bto c when c displaystyle c is a false proposition either of the above are constructively valid proofs by contradiction commutativity yes associativity yes distributivity with various operations especially with or idempotency yes monotonicity yes truthpreserving yeswhen all inputs are true the output is true falsehoodpreserving yeswhen all inputs are false the output is false walsh spectrum 1111 nonlinearity 1 the function is bent if using binary values for true 1 and false 0 then logical conjunction works exactly like normal arithmetic multiplication in highlevel computer programming and digital electronics logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator usually as a keyword such as and an algebraic multiplication or the ampersand symbol sometimes doubled as in many languages also provide shortcircuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations where 0 corresponds to false and 1'</li><li>'into the truth value of them on the other hand some signs can be declarative assertions of propositions without forming a sentence nor even being linguistic eg traffic signs convey definite meaning which is either true or false propositions are also spoken of as the content of beliefs and similar intentional attitudes such as desires preferences and hopes for example i desire that i have a new car or i wonder whether it will snow or whether it is the case that it will snow desire belief doubt and so on are thus called propositional attitudes when they take this sort of content bertrand russell held that propositions were structured entities with objects and properties as constituents one important difference between ludwig wittgensteins view according to which a proposition is the set of possible worldsstates of affairs in which it is true is that on the russellian account two propositions that are true in all the same states of affairs can still be differentiated for instance the proposition two plus two equals four is distinct on a russellian account from the proposition three plus three equals six if propositions are sets of possible worlds however then all mathematical truths and all other necessary truths are the same set the set of all possible worlds in relation to the mind propositions are discussed primarily as they fit into propositional attitudes propositional attitudes are simply attitudes characteristic of folk psychology belief desire etc that one can take toward a proposition eg it is raining snow is white etc in english propositions usually follow folk psychological attitudes by a that clause eg jane believes that it is raining in philosophy of mind and psychology mental states are often taken to primarily consist in propositional attitudes the propositions are usually said to be the mental content of the attitude for example if jane has a mental state of believing that it is raining her mental content is the proposition it is raining furthermore since such mental states are about something namely propositions they are said to be intentional mental states explaining the relation of propositions to the mind is especially difficult for nonmentalist views of propositions such as those of the logical positivists and russell described above and gottlob freges view that propositions are platonist entities that is existing in an abstract nonphysical realm so some recent views of propositions have taken them to be mental although propositions cannot be particular thoughts since those are not shareable they could be types of cognitive events or properties of thoughts which could be the same across different thinkersphilosophical debates surrounding propositions as they relate to propositional attitudes have also recently centered on whether they are internal or external to the agent or whether they are mindde'</li><li>'relations emphasize the role inflectional morphology in english the subject can or must agree with the finite verb in person and number and in languages that have morphological case the subject and object and other verb arguments are identified in terms of the case markers that they bear eg nominative accusative dative genitive ergative absolutive etc inflectional morphology may be a more reliable means for defining the grammatical relations than the configuration but its utility can be very limited in many cases for instance inflectional morphology is not going to help in languages that lack inflectional morphology almost entirely such as mandarin and even with english inflectional morphology does not help much since english largely lacks morphological case the difficulties facing attempts to define the grammatical relations in terms of thematic or configurational or morphological criteria can be overcome by an approach that posits prototypical traits the prototypical subject has a cluster of thematic configurational andor morphological traits and the same is true of the prototypical object and other verb arguments across languages and across constructions within a language there can be many cases where a given subject argument may not be a prototypical subject but it has enough subjectlike traits to be granted subject status similarly a given object argument may not be prototypical in one way or another but if it has enough objectlike traits then it can nevertheless receive the status of object this third strategy is tacitly preferred by most work in theoretical syntax all those theories of syntax that avoid providing concrete definitions of the grammatical relations but yet reference them often are perhaps unknowingly pursuing an approach in terms of prototypical traits in dependency grammar dg theories of syntax every headdependent dependency bears a syntactic function the result is that an inventory consisting of dozens of distinct syntactic functions is needed for each language for example a determinernoun dependency might be assumed to bear the det determiner function and an adjectivenoun dependency is assumed to bear the attr attribute function these functions are often produced as labels on the dependencies themselves in the syntactic tree eg the tree contains the following syntactic functions attr attribute ccomp clause complement det determiner mod modifier obj object subj subject and vcomp verb complement the actual inventories of syntactic functions will differ from the one suggested here in the number and types of functions that are assumed in this regard this tree is merely intended to be illustrative of the importance that the syntactic functions can take on in some theories of syntax and grammar dependency grammar headdirectionality parameter'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 35    | <ul><li>'##capes structure robin thwaites brian slater 2004 the concept of pedodiversity and its application in diverse geoecological systems 1 zinck j a 1988 physiography and soils lecturenotes for soil students soil science division soil survey courses subject matter k6 itc enschede the netherlands'</li><li>'decaying carcasses of salmon that have completed spawning and died numerical modeling suggests that residence time of mdn within a salmon spawning reach is inversely proportional to the amount of redd construction within the river measurements of respiration within a salmonbearing river in alaska further suggest that salmon bioturbation of the river bed plays a significant role in mobilizing mdn and limiting primary productivity while salmon spawning is active the river ecosystem was found to switch from a net autotrophic to heterotrophic system in response to decreased primary production and increased respiration the decreased primary production in this study was attributed to the loss of benthic primary producers who were dislodged due to bioturbation while increased respiration was thought to be due to increased respiration of organic carbon also attributed to sediment mobilization from salmon redd construction while marine derived nutrients are generally thought to increase productivity in riparian and freshwater ecosystems several studies have suggested that temporal effects of bioturbation should be considered when characterizing salmon influences on nutrient cycles major marine bioturbators range from small infaunal invertebrates to fish and marine mammals in most marine sediments however they are dominated by small invertebrates including polychaetes bivalves burrowing shrimp and amphipods shallow and coastal coastal ecosystems such as estuaries are generally highly productive which results in the accumulation of large quantities of detritus organic waste these large quantities in addition to typically small sediment grain size and dense populations make bioturbators important in estuarine respiration bioturbators enhance the transport of oxygen into sediments through irrigation and increase the surface area of oxygenated sediments through burrow construction bioturbators also transport organic matter deeper into sediments through general reworking activities and production of fecal matter this ability to replenish oxygen and other solutes at sediment depth allows for enhanced respiration by both bioturbators as well as the microbial community thus altering estuarine elemental cyclingthe effects of bioturbation on the nitrogen cycle are welldocumented coupled denitrification and nitrification are enhanced due to increased oxygen and nitrate delivery to deep sediments and increased surface area across which oxygen and nitrate can be exchanged the enhanced nitrificationdenitrification coupling contributes to greater removal of biologically available nitrogen in shallow and coastal environments which can be further enhanced by the excretion of ammonium by bioturbators and other organisms residing in bioturbator burrows while both nitrification and denitrification are enhanced by bioturbation the effects of bioturbat'</li><li>'resistance was reported due to calcium carbonate precipitation resulting from microbial activity the increase of soil strength from micp is a result of the bonding of the grains and the increased density of the soil research has shown a linear relationship between the amount of carbonate precipitation and the increase in strength and porosity a 90 decrease in porosity has also been observed in micp treated soil light microscopic imaging suggested that the mechanical strength enhancement of cemented sandy material is caused mostly due to pointtopoint contacts of calcium carbonate crystals and adjacent sand grainsonedimensional column experiments allowed the monitoring of treatment progration by the means of change in pore fluid chemistry triaxial compression tests on untreated and biocemented ottawa sand have shown an increase in shear strength by a factor of 18 changes in ph and concentrations of urea ammonium calcium and calcium carbonate in pore fluid with the distance from the injection point in 5meter column experiments have shown that bacterial activity resulted in successful hydrolysis of urea increase in ph and precipitation of calcite however such activity decreased as the distance from the injection point increased shear wave velocity measurements demonstrated that positive correlation exists between shear wave velocity and the amount of precipitated calciteone of the first patents on ground improvement by micp was the patent “ microbial biocementation ” by murdoch university australia a large scale 100 m3 have shown a significant increase in shear wave velocity was observed during the treatment originally micp was tested and designed for underground applications in water saturated ground requiring injection and production pumps recent work has demonstrated that surface percolation or irrigation is also feasible and in fact provides more strength per amount of calcite provided because crystals form more readily at the bridging points between sand particles over which the water percolatesbenefits of micp for liquefaction prevention micp has the potential to be a costeffective and green alternative to traditional methods of stabilizing soils such as chemical grouting which typically involve the injection of synthetic materials into the soil these synthetic additives are typically costly and can create environmental hazards by modifying the ph and contaminating soils and groundwater excluding sodium silicate all traditional chemical additives are toxic soils engineered with micp meet green construction requirements because the process exerts minimal disturbance to the soil and the environment possible limitations of micp as a cementation technique micp treatment may be limited to deep soil due to limitations of bacterial growth and movement in subsoil micp may be limited to the soils containing limited amounts of fines due to the reduction in pore'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 5     | <ul><li>'hemolithin sometimes confused with the similar space polymer hemoglycin is a proposed protein containing iron and lithium of extraterrestrial origin according to an unpublished preprint the result has not been published in any peerreviewed scientific journal the protein was purportedly found inside two cv3 meteorites allende and acfer086 by a team of scientists led by harvard university biochemist julie mcgeoch the report of the discovery was met with some skepticism and suggestions that the researchers had extrapolated too far from incomplete data the detected hemolithin protein was reported to have been found inside two cv3 meteorites allende and acfer 086 acfer086 where the complete molecule was detected rather than fragments allende was discovered in agemour algeria in 1990 according to the researchers mass spectrometry hemolithin is largely composed of glycine and hydroxyglycine amino acids the researchers noted that the protein was related to “ very high extraterrestrial ratios of deuteriumhydrogen dh such high dh ratios are not found anywhere on earth but are consistent with longperiod comets and suggest as reported that the protein was formed in the protosolar disc or perhaps even earlier in interstellar molecular clouds that existed long before the sun ’ s birtha natural development of hemolithin may have started with glycine forming first and then later linking with other glycine molecules into polymer chains and later still combining with iron and oxygen atoms the iron and oxygen atoms reside at the end of the newly found molecule the researchers speculate that the iron oxide grouping formed at the end of the molecule may be able to absorb photons thereby enabling the molecule to split water h2o into hydrogen and oxygen and as a result produce a source of energy that might be useful to the development of lifeexobiologist and chemist jeffrey bada expressed concerns about the possible protein discovery commenting the main problem is the occurrence of hydroxyglycine which to my knowledge has never before been reported in meteorites or in prebiotic experiments nor is it found in any proteins thus this amino acid is a strange one to find in a meteorite and i am highly suspicious of the results likewise lee cronin of the university of glasgow stated the structure makes no sense hemolithin is the name given to a protein molecule isolated from two cv3 meteorites allende and acfer086 its deuterium to hydrogen ratio is 26 times terrestrial which is consistent with it having formed in an interstellar molecular cloud or later in'</li><li>'mars surface via telepresence from mars orbit permitting rapid exploration and use of human cognition to take advantage of chance discoveries and feedback from the results obtained so farthey found that telepresence exploration of mars has many advantages the astronauts have near realtime control of the robots and can respond immediately to discoveries it also prevents contamination both ways and has mobility benefits as wellreturn of the sample to orbit has the advantage that it permits analysis of the sample without delay to detect volatiles that may be lost during a voyage home this was the conclusion of a meeting of researchers at the nasa goddard space flight center in 2012 similar methods could be used to directly explore other biologically sensitive moons such as europa titan or enceladus once the human presence in the vicinity becomes possible in august 2019 scientists reported that a capsule containing tardigrades a resilient microbial animal in a cryptobiotic state may have survived for a while on the moon after the april 2019 crash landing of beresheet a failed israeli lunar lander'</li><li>'soil neutron absorption elements cl fe ti s etc monitoring of the neutron component of the natural radiation background and estimation of neutron radiation dose at the martian surface from galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events the potential to monitor seasonal changes of the neutron environment due to variations of atmospheric and subsurface properties astrobiology life on mars water on mars'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| 8     | <ul><li>'airbus a380 boeing 787 airbus a400m airbus a350 sukhoi superjet 100 atr 42 atr 72 600 agustawestland aw101 agustawestland aw189 agustawestland aw169 irkut mc21 bombardier global express bombardier cseries learjet 85 comac arj21 comac c919 and agustawestland aw149'</li><li>'an air data inertial reference unit adiru is a key component of the integrated air data inertial reference system adirs which supplies air data airspeed angle of attack and altitude and inertial reference position and attitude information to the pilots electronic flight instrument system displays as well as other systems on the aircraft such as the engines autopilot aircraft flight control system and landing gear systems an adiru acts as a single fault tolerant source of navigational data for both pilots of an aircraft it may be complemented by a secondary attitude air data reference unit saaru as in the boeing 777 designthis device is used on various military aircraft as well as civilian airliners starting with the airbus a320 and boeing 777 an adirs consists of up to three fault tolerant adirus located in the aircraft electronic rack an associated control and display unit cdu in the cockpit and remotely mounted air data modules adms the no 3 adiru is a redundant unit that may be selected to supply data to either the commanders or the copilots displays in the event of a partial or complete failure of either the no 1 or no 2 adiru there is no crosschannel redundancy between the nos 1 and 2 adirus as no 3 adiru is the only alternate source of air and inertial reference data an inertial reference ir fault in adiru no 1 or 2 will cause a loss of attitude and navigation information on their associated primary flight display pfd and navigation display nd screens an air data reference adr fault will cause the loss of airspeed and altitude information on the affected display in either case the information can only be restored by selecting the no 3 adirueach adiru comprises an adr and an inertial reference ir component the air data reference adr component of an adiru provides airspeed mach number angle of attack temperature and barometric altitude data ram air pressure and static pressures used in calculating airspeed are measured by small adms located as close as possible to the respective pitot and static pressure sensors adms transmit their pressures to the adirus through arinc 429 data buses the ir component of an adiru gives attitude flight path vector ground speed and positional data the ring laser gyroscope is a core enabling technology in the system and is used together with accelerometers gps and other sensors to provide raw data the primary benefits of a ring laser over older mechanical gyroscopes are that there are no moving parts it is rugged and lightweight frictionless and does not resist a change in pre'</li><li>'##level requirements but usually not both in general cast position papers were issued to harmonize review of software projects conducted under do178b or do254 but they were also intended to inform the development and eventual release of do178c and supporting publications as much of the discussion and rationale recorded in the casts is not included in the newer publications the casts remain a source of insight into the updated standards this cast15 position paper is no longer provided on the faas publications site as the teams concerns were addressed by faq 81 in do248c supporting information for do178c and do278a and by changes and clarification in the release of do178 revision c the faq was originated by european certification authorities who were concerned with the risk of applicants developing untraceable and unverifiable gaps in their requirements and it does not recommend merging high and low levels of requirements into a single level the note the applicant may be required to justify software development processes that produce a single level of requirements was added to do178c section 50 page 31however neither publication completely incorporates the full discussion of this topic that is recorded cast15 much of the same content of the original cast15 position paper is published in the 2012 easa certification memo easa cmswceh002 section 23 merging highlevel and lowlevel requirements do178cdo178b provides guidance for merging highlevel and lowlevel software requirements nominally in the do178cdo178b context the highlevel requirements for a certified software product are distinct from the lowlevel software requirements the former being outputs of the software requirements process and the latter being outputs of the software design process highlevel requirements are essentially those system requirements that are allocated to the software product an outside view of what the full software product shall be and do lowlevel requirements are the results of decomposition and elaboration of requirements such that the source code may be produced reviewed and tested directly from the lowlevel requirements an inside view of how the software product shall be implemented to do itin some applications the systemhighlevel requirements are of sufficient simplicity and detail that the source code can be produced and verified directly in this situation the systemhighlevel requirements are also considered to be lowlevel requirements which means that in addition to accomplishing the objectives for highlevel requirements the same requirements must also accomplish the objectives for lowlevel requirementsthe concern that prompted cast15 is that some applicants for software certification interpreted the above guidance as permitting'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               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| 10    | <ul><li>'alternative upstream 3 splice sites by recruiting u2af35 and u2af65 to specific ese pyrimidine sequences in the exon of the premrna transcriptsr proteins can also alternatively select different downstream 5 splice sites by binding to ese upstream of the splice site the suspected mechanism is that alternative 5 splice sites are chosen when sr proteins bind to upstream ese and interacts with u170k and together recruit u1 to the 5 splice sitein constitutive splicing sr proteins bind to u2af and u170k to bridge the gap between the two components of the spliceosome to mark the 3 and 5 splice sites constitutively spliced exons have many different sr protein binding sequences that act as constitutive splicing enhancers the difference between alternative and constitutive splicing is that during alternative splicing the splice site choice is regulated exon independent roles exon independent roles of sr proteins are called exon independent because it is not known if sr proteins must bind to exons in order for them to perform exon independent activities sr proteins can bind to u1 and u2af while they are bound to the 3 and 5 splice sites at the same time without binding to the premrna transcript the sr protein thus creates a bridge across the intron in what is called a crossintron interaction sr proteins also recruit the trisnrnp molecule u4u6 · u5 to the maturing spliceosome complex by interacting with rs domains in the trisnrnp sr proteins might be able to bind directly to the 5 splice site and recruit the u1 complex of the spliceosome sr proteins can be either shuttling sr proteins or nonshuttling sr proteins some sr proteins associate with rna export factor tap a nuclear export factor to shuttle rna out of the nucleus the shuttling property of the sr protein is determined by the phosphorylation status of the rs domain when hyperphosphorylated sr proteins bind to premrna transcripts but sr proteins become partially dephosphorylated during transcription allowing them to interact with nxf1 thus the phosphorylation of the rs domain determines if the sr proteins stays with the rna transcript after cotranscription splicing and while the mrnp matures if the rs domain remains phosphorylated then the sr protein will not shuttle from the nucleus to the cytosol the phosphorylated sr protein will be'</li><li>'##ps also adenylates rhoa and cell division cycle 42 cdc42 leading to a disaggregation of the actin filament network as a result the host cells actin cytoskeleton control is disabled leading to cell roundingibpa is secreted into eukaryotic cells from h somni a gramnegative bacterium in cattle that causes respiratory epithelium infection this effector contains two fic domains at the cterminal region ampylation of the ibpa fic domain of rho family gtpases is responsible for its cytotoxicity both fic domains have similar effects on host cells ’ cytoskeleton as vops the ampylation on a tyrosine residue of the switch 1 region blocks the interaction of the gtpases with downstream substrates such as pak drra is the doticm type iv translocation system substrate drra from legionella pneumophila it is the effector secreted by l pneumophila to modify gtpases of the host cells this modification increases the survival of bacteria in host cells drra is composed of rab1b specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor gef domain a cterminal lipid binding domain and an nterminal domain with unclear cytotoxic properties research works show that nterminal and fulllength drra shows ampylators activity toward hosts rab1b protein ras related protein which is also the substrate of rab1b gef domain rab1b protein is the gtpase rab to regulate vesicle transportation and membrane fusion the adenylation by bacteria ampylators prolong gtpbound state of rab1b thus the role of effector drra is connected toward the benefits of bacterias vacuoles for their replication during the infection plants and yeasts have no known endogenous ampylating enzymes but animal genomes are endowed with a single copy of a gene encoding a ficdomain ampylase that was likely acquired by an early ancestor of animals via horizontal gene transfer from a prokaryote the human protein referred to commonly as ficd had been previously identified as huntingtin associated protein e hype an assignment arising from a yeast twohybrid screen but of questionable relevance as huntingtin and hypeficd are localised to different cellular compartments cg9523 homologues in drosophila melanogaster cg9523 and c'</li><li>'in cellular biology inclusions are diverse intracellular nonliving substances ergastic substances that are not bound by membranes inclusions are stored nutrientsdeutoplasmic substances secretory products and pigment granules examples of inclusions are glycogen granules in the liver and muscle cells lipid droplets in fat cells pigment granules in certain cells of skin and hair and crystals of various types cytoplasmic inclusions are an example of a biomolecular condensate arising by liquidsolid liquidgel or liquidliquid phase separation these structures were first observed by o f muller in 1786 glycogen glycogen is the most common form of glucose in animals and is especially abundant in cells of muscles and liver it appears in electron micrograph as clusters or a rosette of beta particles that resemble ribosomes located near the smooth endoplasmic reticulum glycogen is an important energy source of the cell therefore it will be available on demand the enzymes responsible for glycogenolysis degrade glycogen into individual molecules of glucose and can be utilized by multiple organs of the bodylipids lipids are triglycerides in storage form is the common form of inclusions not only are stored in specialized cells adipocytes but also are located as individuals droplets in various cell type especially hepatocytes these are fluid at body temperature and appear in living cells as refractile spherical droplets lipid yields more than twice as many calories per gram as does carbohydrate on demand they serve as a local store of energy and a potential source of short carbon chains that are used by the cell in its synthesis of membranes and other lipid containing structural components or secretory productscrystals crystalline inclusions have long been recognized as normal constituents of certain cell types such as sertoli cells and leydig cells of the human testis and occasionally in macrophages it is believed that these structures are crystalline forms of certain proteins which is located everywhere in the cell such as in nucleus mitochondria endoplasmic reticulum golgi body and free in cytoplasmic matrixpigments the most common pigment in the body besides hemoglobin of red blood cells is melanin manufactured by melanocytes of the skin and hair pigments cells of the retina and specialized nerve cells in the substantia nigra of the brain these pigments have protective functions in skin and aid in the sense of sight in the retina but their functions'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       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| 41    | <ul><li>'distinctive the unique and the special in any place partners initially focused on design and culture as resources for livability in the early 1980s partners launched a program to document the economic value of design and cultural amenities the economics of amenity program explored how cultural amenities and the quality of life in a community are linked to economic development and job creation this work was the catalyst for a significant array of economic impact studies of the arts across the globecore concepts used by partners were cultural planning and cultural resources which they saw as the planning of urban resources including quality design architecture parks the natural environment animation and especially arts activity and tourism from the late 1970s onwards unesco and the council of europe began to investigate the cultural industries from the perspective of cities it was nick garnham who when seconded to the greater london council in 19834 set up a cultural industries unit to put the cultural industries on the agenda drawing on rereading and adapting the original work by theodor adorno and walter benjamin in the 1930s which had seen the culture industry as a kind of monster and influenced also by hans magnus enzensberger he saw the cultural industries as a potentially liberating force this investigation into the cultural industries of the time found that a city and nation that emphasized its development of cultural industries added value exports and new jobs while supporting competitiveness continues to expand a citys and nations growth in the global economythe first mention of the creative city as a concept was in a seminar organized by the australia council the city of melbourne the ministry of planning and environment victoria and the ministry for the arts victoria in september 1988 its focus was to explore how arts and cultural concerns could be better integrated into the planning process for city development a keynote speech by david yencken former secretary for planning and environment for victoria spelled out a broader agenda stating that whilst efficiency of cities is important there is much more needed the city should be emotionally satisfying and stimulate creativity amongst its citizensanother important early player was comedia founded in 1978 by charles landry its 1991 study glasgow the creative city and its cultural economy was followed in 1994 by a study on urban creativity called the creative city in britain and germany as well as being the centre of a creative economy and being home to a sizeable creative class creative cities have also been theorized to embody a particular structure this structure comprises three categories of people spaces organizations and institutions the upperground the underground and the middlegroundthe upper ground consists of firms and businesses engaged in creative industries these are the organizations that create the economic growth one hopes to find in a creative city by taking the creative product of the citys residents'</li><li>'economically active males in rural areas are employed in nonagricultural work compared to 50 percent in france suggesting that there are no economic opportunities in rural areas in egypt outside of farming egypt had similar levels of urbanization in the late 1940s to sweden switzerland and france but significantly lower levels of industrialization based on the normal relationship davis and golden found between urbanization and industrialization egypt had higher levels of urbanization than expected dyckman gives an example of a consequence of urbanization in cairo when he explains that urban dwellers actually have lower literacy rates than those in surrounding villages due to a lack of development both the unesco report and davis and golden identify south korea as an example of an overurbanized country davis and golden discussed how following the removal of the japanese after world war ii urbanization continued but economic growth stagnated population growth and urbanization were driven by migration from overpopulated rural areas even though the majority of jobs available were still in the agricultural sector the 172 percent of koreas population that were urban dwellers in 1949 were attributed largely to the presence of rural migrants developed country developing country migration industrialization rural flight urban primacy urbanization'</li><li>'dampen street noise and improve air quality current leading examples as of 2018 which need to be described and explained here in greater detail include the hammarby sjostad district in stockholm sweden freiburg germany bedzed in hackbridge sutton england a suburb of london and serenbe near atlanta georgia in the us a suburb in western sydney australia newington was the home to the athletes of the 2000 summer olympics and 2000 summer paralympics it was built on a brownfield site and it was developed by mirvac lend lease village consortium from 1997 redevelopment of the village was completed in 1999 but further development is still occurring after the games newington stimulated the australian market for green products and it became a solar village housing approximately 5000 people unfortunately the development failed to build neighborhood centers with walkto services which perpetuates automobile dependence furthermore newington does not provide any affordable housing key sustainable urbanism thresholds high performance buildings solar panels are installed in every home in newington “ at the time of its construction it was the largest solar village in the world … the collective energy generated by these photovoltaic panels will prevent 1309 tons of co2 from entering the atmosphere per year the equivalent of 262 cars being taken off the road ” by using window awnings wool insulation slab construction and efficient water fixtures over 90 percent of the homes are designed to consume 50 percent less energy and water than conventional homes sustainable corridors and biophilia at newington 90 percent of the plantings are native species 21 acres of the development site is incorporated into the millennium parklands 40 percent of stormwater runoff infiltrates the groundwater supply and the rest is cleansed onsite and channeled to the ponds in the parklands providing important habitats in addition the haslams creek was rehabilitated from a concrete channel to a natural watercourse dongtan is a development in eastern chongming island which is roughly a onehour trip from downtown shanghai it was once planned as “ the world ’ s first ecocity ” attempting to become an energy selfsufficient carbonneutral and mostly carfree ecocity housing 500000 residents the first phase of the development is supposed to complete by 2010 and entire development by 2050 but the dongtan project has been delayed indefinitely due to financial issues among other thingskey sustainable urbanism thresholds compactness dongtan is planned to achieve densities of 84112 people per acre which will support efficient mass transit social infrastructure and a range of businesses most homes will midrise apartment buildings clustered toward the city center parks lakes and other public open space will be scattered around the densely'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 3     | <ul><li>'of wages gary beckers household production functions and similar topics note that people often purchase goods and then combine them with time to produce something that has meaning or practicality to them which produce utility conformity reciprocity cultural anthropology westernization'</li><li>'##ltering food productioncarole l crumleys burgundian landscape project 1974 – present is carried out by a multidisciplinary research team aimed at identifying the multiple factors which have contributed to the longterm durability of the agricultural economy of burgundy francethomas h mcgoverns inuitnorse project 1976 – present uses archaeology environmental reconstruction and textual analysis to examine the changing ecology of nordic colonizers and indigenous peoples in greenland iceland faeroes and shetlandin recent years the approaches to historical ecology have been expanded to include coastal and marine environments stellwagen bank national marine sanctuary project 1984 – present examines massachusetts usa cod fishing in the 17th through 19th centuries through historical recordsflorida keys coral reef ecoregion project 1990 – present researchers at the scripps institute of oceanography are examining archival records including natural history descriptions maps and charts family and personal papers and state and colonial records in order to understand the impact of overfishing and habitat loss in the florida keys usa which contains the third largest coral reef in the world monterey bay national marine sanctuary historical ecology 2008 – present seeks to collect relevant historical data on fishing whaling and trade of the furs of aquatic animals in order form a baseline for environmental restorations of the california usa coast historical ecology is interdisciplinary in principle at the same time it borrows heavily from the rich intellectual history of environmental anthropology western scholars have known since the time of plato that the history of environmental changes cannot be separated from human history several ideas have been used to describe human interaction with the environment the first of which is the concept of the great chain of being or inherent design in nature in this all forms of life are ordered with humanity as the highest being due to its knowledge and ability to modify nature this lends to the concept of another nature a manmade nature which involves design or modification by humans as opposed to design inherent in natureinterest in environmental transformation continued to increase in the 18th 19th and 20th centuries resulting in a series of new intellectual approaches one of these approaches was environmental determinism developed by geographer friedrich ratzel this view held that it is not social conditions but environmental conditions which determine the culture of a population ratzsel also viewed humans as restricted by nature for their behaviors are limited to and defined by their environment a later approach was the historical viewpoint of franz boas which refuted environmental determinism claiming that it is not nature but specifics of history that shape human cultures this approach recognized that although the environment may place limitations on societies every environment will impact each culture differently julian stewards'</li><li>'in respect of a certain social action performed towards neighbours indiscriminately an individual is only just breaking even in terms of inclusive fitness if he could learn to recognise those of his neighbours who really were close relatives and could devote his beneficial actions to them alone an advantage to inclusive fitness would at once appear thus a mutation causing such discriminatory behaviour itself benefits inclusive fitness and would be selected in fact the individual may not need to perform any discrimination so sophisticated as we suggest here a difference in the generosity of his behaviour according to whether the situations evoking it were encountered near to or far from his own home might occasion an advantage of a similar kind traditional sociobiology did not consider the divergent consequences between these basic possibilities for the expression of social behavior and instead assumed that the expression operates in the recognition manner whereby individuals are behaviorally primed to discriminate which others are their true genetic relatives and engage in cooperative behavior with them but when expression has evolved to be primarily locationbased or contextbased — depending on a societys particular demographics and history — social ties and cooperation may or may not coincide with blood ties reviews of the mammal primate and human evidence demonstrate that expression of social behaviors in these species are primarily locationbased and contextbased see nurture kinship and examples of what used to be labeled as fictive kinship are readily understood in this perspective social cooperation however does not mean people see each other as family or familylike nor that people will value those known not to be related with them more than the ones who are or simply neglect relatedness'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 39    | <ul><li>'time begins there is an incubation period where no strength develops once enough time has passed for the molten material to begin solidifying the joint strength begins to develop before plateauing at the maximum strength if power is applied after full joint strength is achieved the strength will start to decline slowly the joint gap is the distance between the electrofusion fitting and the pipe material when no joint gap is present the resulting joint strength is high but not maximum as joint gap increases the joint strength increases to a point then begins to decline fairly sharply at larger gaps sufficient pressure cannot build during the fusion time and the joint strength is low the effect of joint gap on strength is why the scraping of the pipes before welding is a critical step uneven or inconsistent scraping can result in areas where the joint gap is large leading to low joint strength pipe materials with higher molecular weights mw or densities will have slower material flow rates when in the molten state during fusion despite the differences in flow rates the final joint strength is generally consistent over a fairly wide range of pipe molecular weights'</li><li>'transport between two contacting bodies such as particles in a granular medium the contact pressure is the factor of most influence on overall contact conductance as contact pressure grows true contact area increases and contact conductance grows contact resistance becomes smallersince the contact pressure is the most important factor most studies correlations and mathematical models for measurement of contact conductance are done as a function of this factor the thermal contact resistance of certain sandwich kinds of materials that are manufactured by rolling under high temperatures may sometimes be ignored because the decrease in thermal conductivity between them is negligible no truly smooth surfaces really exist and surface imperfections are visible under a microscope as a result when two bodies are pressed together contact is only performed in a finite number of points separated by relatively large gaps as can be shown in fig 2 since the actual contact area is reduced another resistance for heat flow exists the gasesfluids filling these gaps may largely influence the total heat flow across the interface the thermal conductivity of the interstitial material and its pressure examined through reference to the knudsen number are the two properties governing its influence on contact conductance and thermal transport in heterogeneous materials in generalin the absence of interstitial materials as in a vacuum the contact resistance will be much larger since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant one can characterise a surface that has undergone certain finishing operations by three main properties of roughness waviness and fractal dimension among these roughness and fractality are of most importance with roughness often indicated in terms of a rms value σ displaystyle sigma and surface fractality denoted generally by df the effect of surface structures on thermal conductivity at interfaces is analogous to the concept of electrical contact resistance also known as ecr involving contact patch restricted transport of phonons rather than electrons when the two bodies come in contact surface deformation may occur on both bodies this deformation may either be plastic or elastic depending on the material properties and the contact pressure when a surface undergoes plastic deformation contact resistance is lowered since the deformation causes the actual contact area to increase the presence of dust particles acids etc can also influence the contact conductance going back to formula 2 calculation of the thermal contact conductance may prove difficult even impossible due to the difficulty in measuring the contact area a displaystyle a a product of surface characteristics as explained earlier because of this contact conductanceresistance is usually found experimentally by using a standard apparatusthe results of such experiments are usually published in engineering literature on journals such as journal of heat transfer international journal of heat and mass transfer etc unfortunately a'</li><li>'##ta are bosons eg photons and gluons all these fields have zeropoint energy recent experiments advocate the idea that particles themselves can be thought of as excited states of the underlying quantum vacuum and that all properties of matter are merely vacuum fluctuations arising from interactions of the zeropoint fieldthe idea that empty space can have an intrinsic energy associated with it and that there is no such thing as a true vacuum is seemingly unintuitive it is often argued that the entire universe is completely bathed in the zeropoint radiation and as such it can add only some constant amount to calculations physical measurements will therefore reveal only deviations from this value for many practical calculations zeropoint energy is dismissed by fiat in the mathematical model as a term that has no physical effect such treatment causes problems however as in einsteins theory of general relativity the absolute energy value of space is not an arbitrary constant and gives rise to the cosmological constant for decades most physicists assumed that there was some undiscovered fundamental principle that will remove the infinite zeropoint energy and make it completely vanish if the vacuum has no intrinsic absolute value of energy it will not gravitate it was believed that as the universe expands from the aftermath of the big bang the energy contained in any unit of empty space will decrease as the total energy spreads out to fill the volume of the universe galaxies and all matter in the universe should begin to decelerate this possibility was ruled out in 1998 by the discovery that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down but is in fact accelerating meaning empty space does indeed have some intrinsic energy the discovery of dark energy is best explained by zeropoint energy though it still remains a mystery as to why the value appears to be so small compared to the huge value obtained through theory – the cosmological constant problemmany physical effects attributed to zeropoint energy have been experimentally verified such as spontaneous emission casimir force lamb shift magnetic moment of the electron and delbruck scattering these effects are usually called radiative corrections in more complex nonlinear theories eg qcd zeropoint energy can give rise to a variety of complex phenomena such as multiple stable states symmetry breaking chaos and emergence many physicists believe that the vacuum holds the key to a full understanding of nature and that studying it is critical in the search for the theory of everything active areas of research include the effects of virtual particles quantum entanglement the difference if any between inertial and gravitational mass variation in the speed of light a reason for the observed value of the cosmological constant and the nature of dark energy zeropoint energy evolved from historical'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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| 2     | <ul><li>'in this case the domain is the set of all possible maps which are generally implemented as raster grids a raster grid is a twodimensional array of cells tomlin called them locations or points each cell occupying a square area of geographic space and being coded with a value representing the measured property of a given geographic phenomenon usually a field at that location each operation 1 takes one or more raster grids as inputs 2 creates an output grid with matching cell geometry 3 scans through each cell of the input grid or spatially matching cells of multiple inputs 4 performs the operation on the cell values and writes the result to the corresponding cell in the output grid originally the inputs and the output grids were required to have the identical cell geometry ie covering the same spatial extent with the same cell arrangement so that each cell corresponds between inputs and outputs but many modern gis implementations do not require this performing interpolation as needed to derive values at corresponding locations tomlin classified the many possible map algebra operations into three types to which some systems add a fourth local operators operations that operate on one cell location at a time during the scan phase a simple example would be an arithmetic operator such as addition to compute map3 map1 map2 the software scans through each matching cell of the input grids adds the numeric values in each using normal arithmetic and puts the result in the matching cell of the output grid due to this decomposition of operations on maps into operations on individual cell values any operation that can be performed on numbers eg arithmetic statistics trigonometry logic can be performed in map algebra for example a localmean operator would take in two or more grids and compute the arithmetic mean of each set of spatially corresponding cells in addition a range of gisspecific operations has been defined such as reclassifying a large range of values to a smaller range of values eg 45 land cover categories to 3 levels of habitat suitability which dates to the original imgrid implementation of 1975 a common use of local functions is for implementing mathematical models such as an index that are designed to compute a resultant value at a location from a set of input variables focal operators functions that operate on a geometric neighborhood around each cell a common example is calculating slope from a grid of elevation values looking at a single cell with a single elevation it is impossible to judge a trend such as slope thus the slope of each cell is computed from the value of the corresponding cell in the input elevation grid and the values of its immediate neighbors other functions allow for the size and shape of the neighborhood eg a'</li><li>'in mathematics specifically the field of algebra sklyanin algebras are a class of noncommutative algebra named after evgeny sklyanin this class of algebras was first studied in the classification of artinschelter regular algebras of global dimension 3 in the 1980s sklyanin algebras can be grouped into two different types the nondegenerate sklyanin algebras and the degenerate sklyanin algebras which have very different properties a need to understand the nondegenerate sklyanin algebras better has led to the development of the study of point modules in noncommutative geometry let k displaystyle k be a field with a primitive cube root of unity let d displaystyle mathfrak d be the following subset of the projective plane p k 2 displaystyle textbf pk2 d 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 [UNK] a b c a 3 b 3 c 3 displaystyle mathfrak d100010001sqcup abcbig a3b3c3 each point a b c ∈ p k 2 displaystyle abcin textbf pk2 gives rise to a quadratic 3dimensional sklyanin algebra s a b c k ⟨ x y z ⟩ f 1 f 2 f 3 displaystyle sabcklangle xyzrangle f1f2f3 where f 1 a y z b z y c x 2 f 2 a z x b x z c y 2 f 3 a x y b y x c z 2 displaystyle f1ayzbzycx2quad f2azxbxzcy2quad f3axybyxcz2 whenever a b c ∈ d displaystyle abcin mathfrak d we call s a b c displaystyle sabc a degenerate sklyanin algebra and whenever a b c ∈ p 2 [UNK] d displaystyle abcin textbf p2setminus mathfrak d we say the algebra is nondegenerate the nondegenerate case shares many properties with the commutative polynomial ring k x y z displaystyle kxyz whereas the degenerate case enjoys almost none of these properties generally the nondegenerate sklyanin algebras are more challenging to understand than their degenerate counterparts let s deg displaystyle stextdeg be a degenerate sklyanin algebra s deg displaystyle stextdeg contains nonzero zero divisors the hilbert series of s de'</li><li>'translating equations of the second degree into churchs rra illustrating his method using the formulae e1 e2 and e4 in chapter 11 of lof this translation into rra sheds light on the names spencerbrown gave to e1 and e4 namely memory and counter rra thus formalizes and clarifies lofs notion of an imaginary truth value gottfried leibniz in memoranda not published before the late 19th and early 20th centuries invented boolean logic his notation was isomorphic to that of lof concatenation read as conjunction and nonx read as the complement of x recognition of leibnizs pioneering role in algebraic logic was foreshadowed by lewis 1918 and rescher 1954 but a full appreciation of leibnizs accomplishments had to await the work of wolfgang lenzen published in the 1980s and reviewed in lenzen 2004 charles sanders peirce 1839 – 1914 anticipated the primary algebra in three veins of work two papers he wrote in 1886 proposed a logical algebra employing but one symbol the streamer nearly identical to the cross of lof the semantics of the streamer are identical to those of the cross except that peirce never wrote a streamer with nothing under it an excerpt from one of these papers was published in 1976 but they were not published in full until 1993 in a 1902 encyclopedia article peirce notated boolean algebra and sentential logic in the manner of this entry except that he employed two styles of brackets toggling between and with each increment in formula depth the syntax of his alpha existential graphs is merely concatenation read as conjunction and enclosure by ovals read as negation if primary algebra concatenation is read as conjunction then these graphs are isomorphic to the primary algebra kauffman 2001ironically lof cites vol 4 of peirces collected papers the source for the formalisms in 2 and 3 above 13 were virtually unknown at the time when 1960s and in the place where uk lof was written peirces semiotics about which lof is silent may yet shed light on the philosophical aspects of lof kauffman 2001 discusses another notation similar to that of lof that of a 1917 article by jean nicod who was a disciple of bertrand russells the above formalisms are like the primary algebra all instances of boundary mathematics ie mathematics whose syntax is limited to letters and brackets enclosing devices a minimalist syntax of this nature is a boundary notation boundary notation is free of infix operators prefix or postfix operator symbols the very well known curly braces of'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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| 19    | <ul><li>'examination detects central arterial vessels and cfm exploration reveals their radial position ceus examination shows central tumor filling of the circulatory bed during arterial phase and completely enhancement during portal venous phase during this phase the center of the lesion becomes hypoechoic enhancing the tumor scar during the late phase the tumor remains isoechoic to the liver which strengthens the diagnosis of benign lesion it is a benign tumor made up of normal or atypical hepatocytes it has an incidence of 003 its development is induced by intake of anabolic hormones and oral contraceptives the tumor is asymptomatic but may be associated with right upper quadrant pain in case of internal bleeding 2d ultrasound shows a welldefined unencapsulated solid mass it may have a heterogeneous structure in case of intratumoral hemorrhage doppler examination shows no circulatory signal ceus exploration is quite ambiguous and cannot always establish a differential diagnosis with hepatocellular carcinoma thus during the arterial phase there is a centripetal and inhomogeneous enhancement during the portal venous phase there is a moderate wash out during late phase the appearance is isoechoic or hypoechoic due to lack of kupffer cells malignant liver tumors develop on cirrhotic liver hepatocellular carcinoma hcc or normal liver metastases they are single or multiple especially metastases have a variable generally imprecise delineation may have a very pronounced circulatory signal hepatocellular carcinoma and some types of metastases have a heterogeneous structure the result of intratumoral circulatory disorders consequence of hemorrhage or necrosis and are firm to touch even rigid the patients general status correlates with the underlying disease vascular and parenchymal decompensation for liver cirrhosis weight loss lack of appetite and anemia with cancer it is the most common liver malignancy it develops secondary to cirrhosis therefore ultrasound examination every 6 months combined with alpha fetoprotein afp determination is an effective method for early detection and treatment monitoring for this type of tumor clinically hcc overlaps with advanced liver cirrhosis long evolution repeated vascular and parenchymal decompensation sometimes bleeding due to variceal leakage in addition to accelerated weight loss in the recent past and lack of appetite hcc appearance on 2d ultrasound is that of a solid tumor with imprecise del'</li><li>'barriers to control access to their internal environment polar compounds cannot diffuse across these cell membranes and the uptake of useful molecules is mediated through transport proteins that specifically select substrates from the extracellular mixture this selective uptake means that most hydrophilic molecules cannot enter cells since they are not recognised by any specific transporters in contrast the diffusion of hydrophobic compounds across these barriers cannot be controlled and organisms therefore cannot exclude lipidsoluble xenobiotics using membrane barriers however the existence of a permeability barrier means that organisms were able to evolve detoxification systems that exploit the hydrophobicity common to membranepermeable xenobiotics these systems therefore solve the specificity problem by possessing such broad substrate specificities that they metabolise almost any nonpolar compound useful metabolites are excluded since they are polar and in general contain one or more charged groups the detoxification of the reactive byproducts of normal metabolism cannot be achieved by the systems outlined above because these species are derived from normal cellular constituents and usually share their polar characteristics however since these compounds are few in number specific enzymes can recognize and remove them examples of these specific detoxification systems are the glyoxalase system which removes the reactive aldehyde methylglyoxal and the various antioxidant systems that eliminate reactive oxygen species the metabolism of xenobiotics is often divided into three phases modification conjugation and excretion these reactions act in concert to detoxify xenobiotics and remove them from cells in phase i a variety of enzymes act to introduce reactive and polar groups into their substrates one of the most common modifications is hydroxylation catalysed by the cytochrome p450dependent mixedfunction oxidase system these enzyme complexes act to incorporate an atom of oxygen into nonactivated hydrocarbons which can result in either the introduction of hydroxyl groups or n o and sdealkylation of substrates the reaction mechanism of the p450 oxidases proceeds through the reduction of cytochromebound oxygen and the generation of a highlyreactive oxyferryl species according to the following scheme o2 nadph h rh → nadp h2o rohphase i reactions also termed nonsynthetic reactions may occur by oxidation reduction hydrolysis cyclization decyclization and addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen carried out by mixed function oxidases often in the liver these oxidative reactions typically involve a cytochrome p450 monooxygenase often abbreviated cyp'</li><li>'an indeterminate lesion and further evaluation may be performed by obtaining a physical sample of the lesion ultrasound ct scan and mri may be used to evaluate the liver for hcc on ct and mri hcc can have three distinct patterns of growth a single large tumor multiple tumors poorly defined tumor with an infiltrative growth patterna systematic review of ct diagnosis found that the sensitivity was 68 95 ci 55 – 80 and specificity was 93 95 ci 89 – 96 compared with pathologic examination of an explanted or resected liver as the reference standard with triplephase helical ct the sensitivity was 90 or higher but these data have not been confirmed with autopsy studieshowever mri has the advantage of delivering highresolution images of the liver without ionizing radiation hcc appears as a highintensity pattern on t2weighted images and a lowintensity pattern on t1weighted images the advantage of mri is that it has improved sensitivity and specificity when compared to ultrasound and ct in cirrhotic patients with whom it can be difficult to differentiate hcc from regenerative nodules a systematic review found that the sensitivity was 81 95 ci 70 – 91 and specificity was 85 95 ci 77 – 93 compared with pathologic examination of an explanted or resected liver as the reference standard the sensitivity is further increased if gadolinium contrastenhanced and diffusionweighted imaging are combined mri is more sensitive and specific than ctliver image reporting and data system lirads is a classification system for the reporting of liver lesions detected on ct and mri radiologists use this standardized system to report on suspicious lesions and to provide an estimated likelihood of malignancy categories range from lirads lr 1 to 5 in order of concern for cancer a biopsy is not needed to confirm the diagnosis of hcc if certain imaging criteria are met macroscopically liver cancer appears as a nodular or infiltrative tumor the nodular type may be solitary large mass or multiple when developed as a complication of cirrhosis tumor nodules are round to oval gray or green if the tumor produces bile well circumscribed but not encapsulated the diffuse type is poorly circumscribed and infiltrates the portal veins or the hepatic veins rarelymicroscopically the four architectural and cytological types patterns of hepatocellular carcinoma are fibrolamellar pseudoglandular adenoid pleomorphic giant cell and'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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| 32    | <ul><li>'##nification the moon appears to subtend an angle of about 52° by convention for magnifying glasses and optical microscopes where the size of the object is a linear dimension and the apparent size is an angle the magnification is the ratio between the apparent angular size as seen in the eyepiece and the angular size of the object when placed at the conventional closest distance of distinct vision 25 cm from the eye the linear magnification of a thin lens is where f textstyle f is the focal length and d o textstyle dmathrm o is the distance from the lens to the object for real images m textstyle m is negative and the image is inverted for virtual images m textstyle m is positive and the image is upright with d i textstyle dmathrm i being the distance from the lens to the image h i textstyle hmathrm i the height of the image and h o textstyle hmathrm o the height of the object the magnification can also be written as note again that a negative magnification implies an inverted image the image recorded by a photographic film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted when measuring the height of an inverted image using the cartesian sign convention where the xaxis is the optical axis the value for hi will be negative and as a result m will also be negative however the traditional sign convention used in photography is real is positive virtual is negative therefore in photography object height and distance are always real and positive when the focal length is positive the images height distance and magnification are real and positive only if the focal length is negative the images height distance and magnification are virtual and negative therefore the photographic magnification formulae are traditionally presented as the maximum angular magnification compared to the naked eye of a magnifying glass depends on how the glass and the object are held relative to the eye if the lens is held at a distance from the object such that its front focal point is on the object being viewed the relaxed eye focused to infinity can view the image with angular magnification here f textstyle f is the focal length of the lens in centimeters the constant 25 cm is an estimate of the near point distance of the eye — the closest distance at which the healthy naked eye can focus in this case the angular magnification is independent from the distance kept between the eye and the magnifying glass if instead the lens is held very close to the eye and the object is placed closer to the lens than its focal point so that the observer focuses'</li><li>'in optical testing a ronchi test is a method of determining the surface shape figure of a mirror used in telescopes and other optical devices in 1923 italian physicist vasco ronchi published a description of the eponymous ronchi test which is a variation of the foucault knifeedge test and which uses simple equipment to test the quality of optics especially concave mirrors 1 a ronchi tester consists of a light source a diffuser a ronchi gratinga ronchi grating consists of alternate dark and clear stripes one design is a small frame with several evenly spaced fine wires attached light is emitted through the ronchi grating or a single slit reflected by the mirror being tested then passes through the ronchi grating again and is observed by the person doing the test the observers eye is placed close to the centre of curvature of the mirror under test looking at the mirror through the grating the ronchi grating is a short distance less than 2 cm closer to the mirrorthe observer sees the mirror covered in a pattern of stripes that reveal the shape of the mirror the pattern is compared to a mathematically generated diagram usually done on a computer today of what it should look like for a given figure inputs to the program are line frequency of the ronchi grating focal length and diameter of the mirror and the figure required if the mirror is spherical the pattern consists of straight lines the ronchi test is used in the testing of mirrors for reflecting telescopes especially in the field of amateur telescope making it is much faster to set up than the standard foucault knifeedge test the ronchi test differs from the knifeedge test requiring a specialized target the ronchi grating which amounts to a periodic series of knife edges and being more difficult to interpret this procedure offers a quick evaluation of the mirrors shape and condition it readily identifies a turned edge rolled down outer diameter of the mirror a common fault that can develop in objective mirror making the figure quality of a convex lens may be visually tested using a similar principle the grating is moved around the focal point of the lens while viewing the virtual image through the opposite side distortions in the lens surface figure then appear as asymmetries in the periodic grating image'</li><li>'angles instead of one stereoscopic image from the right angle and distance leon gaumont introduced ives pictures in france and encouraged eugene estanave to work on the technique estanave patented a barrier grid technique for animated autostereograms animated portrait photographs with line sheets were marketed for a while mostly in the 1910s and 1920s in the us magic moving picture postcards with simple 3 phase animation or changing pictures were marketed after 1906 maurice bonnett improved barrier grid autostereography in the 1930s with his reliephographie technique and scanning cameras on 11 april 1898 john jacobson filed an application for us patent no 624043 granted 2 may 1899 for a stereograph of an interlaced stereoscopic picture and a transparent mount for said picture having a corrugated or channeled surface the corrugated lines or channels were not yet really lenticular but this is the first known autostereogram that used a corrugated transparent surface rather than the opaque lines of most barrier grid stereograms french nobel prize winning physicist gabriel lippmann represented eugene estanave at several presentations of estanaves works at the french academy of sciences on 2 march 1908 lippmann presented his own ideas for photographie integrale based on insect eyes he suggested to use a screen of tiny lenses spherical segments should be pressed into a sort of film with photographic emulsion on the other side the screen would be placed inside a lightproof holder and on a tripod for stability when exposed each tiny lens would function as a camera and record the surroundings from a slightly different angle than neighboring lenses when developed and lit from behind the lenses should project the lifesize image of the recorded subject in space he could not yet present concrete results in march 1908 but by the end of 1908 he claimed to have exposed some integral photography plates and to have seen the resulting single fullsized image however the technique remained experimental since no material or technique seemed to deliver the optical quality desired at the time of his death in 1921 lippmann reportedly had a system with only twelve lenses on 11 april 1898 john jacobson filed an application for us patent no 624043 granted 2 may 1899 for a stereograph of an interlaced stereoscopic picture and a transparent mount for said picture having a corrugated or channeled surfacein 1912 louis cheron described in his french patent 443216 a screen with long vertical lenses that would be sufficient for recording stereoscopic depth and the shifting of the relations of objects to each other as the viewer moved while he suggested pinholes for integral photographyin june 1912 swiss nobel prize winning physiologist'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              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| 31    | <ul><li>'axiom of regularity is assumed the literature contains occasional philosophical and commonsense objections to the transitivity of parthood m4 and m5 are two ways of asserting supplementation the mereological analog of set complementation with m5 being stronger because m4 is derivable from m5 m and m4 yield minimal mereology mm reformulated in terms of proper part mm is simonss 1987 preferred minimal system in any system in which m5 or m5 are assumed or can be derived then it can be proved that two objects having the same proper parts are identical this property is known as extensionality a term borrowed from set theory for which extensionality is the defining axiom mereological systems in which extensionality holds are termed extensional a fact denoted by including the letter e in their symbolic names m6 asserts that any two underlapping objects have a unique sum m7 asserts that any two overlapping objects have a unique product if the universe is finite or if top is assumed then the universe is closed under sum universal closure of product and of supplementation relative to w requires bottom w and n are evidently the mereological analog of the universal and empty sets and sum and product are likewise the analogs of settheoretical union and intersection if m6 and m7 are either assumed or derivable the result is a mereology with closure because sum and product are binary operations m6 and m7 admit the sum and product of only a finite number of objects the unrestricted fusion axiom m8 enables taking the sum of infinitely many objects the same holds for product when defined at this point mereology often invokes set theory but any recourse to set theory is eliminable by replacing a formula with a quantified variable ranging over a universe of sets by a schematic formula with one free variable the formula comes out true is satisfied whenever the name of an object that would be a member of the set if it existed replaces the free variable hence any axiom with sets can be replaced by an axiom schema with monadic atomic subformulae m8 and m8 are schemas of just this sort the syntax of a firstorder theory can describe only a denumerable number of sets hence only denumerably many sets may be eliminated in this fashion but this limitation is not binding for the sort of mathematics contemplated here if m8 holds then w exists for infinite universes hence top need be assumed only if the universe is infinite and m8 does not hold top postulating w is not controversial but bottom postulating'</li><li>'by john smith it is a declaration about a different speaker and it is false the term “ i ” means different things so “ i am spartacus ” means different things a related problem is when identical sentences have the same truthvalue yet express different propositions the sentence “ i am a philosopher ” could have been spoken by both socrates and plato in both instances the statement is true but means something different these problems are addressed in predicate logic by using a variable for the problematic term so that “ x is a philosopher ” can have socrates or plato substituted for x illustrating that “ socrates is a philosopher ” and “ plato is a philosopher ” are different propositions similarly “ i am spartacus ” becomes “ x is spartacus ” where x is replaced with terms representing the individuals spartacus and john smith in other words the example problems can be averted if sentences are formulated with precision such that their terms have unambiguous meanings a number of philosophers and linguists claim that all definitions of a proposition are too vague to be useful for them it is just a misleading concept that should be removed from philosophy and semantics w v quine who granted the existence of sets in mathematics maintained that the indeterminacy of translation prevented any meaningful discussion of propositions and that they should be discarded in favor of sentences p f strawson on the other hand advocated for the use of the term statement categorical proposition probabilistic proposition'</li><li>'bundle theory originated by the 18th century scottish philosopher david hume is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection bundle of properties relations or tropes according to bundle theory an object consists of its properties and nothing more thus there cannot be an object without properties and one cannot conceive of such an object for example when we think of an apple we think of its properties redness roundness being a type of fruit etc there is nothing above and beyond these properties the apple is nothing more than the collection of its properties in particular there is no substance in which the properties are inherent the difficulty in conceiving and or describing an object without also conceiving and or describing its properties is a common justification for bundle theory especially among current philosophers in the angloamerican tradition the inability to comprehend any aspect of the thing other than its properties implies this argument maintains that one cannot conceive of a bare particular a substance without properties an implication that directly opposes substance theory the conceptual difficulty of bare particulars was illustrated by john locke when he described a substance by itself apart from its properties as something i know not what the idea then we have to which we give the general name substance being nothing but the supposed but unknown support of those qualities we find existing which we imagine cannot subsist sine re substante without something to support them we call that support substantia which according to the true import of the word is in plain english standing under or upholdingwhether a relation of an object is one of its properties may complicate such an argument however the argument concludes that the conceptual challenge of bare particulars leaves a bundle of properties and nothing more as the only possible conception of an object thus justifying bundle theory bundle theory maintains that properties are bundled together in a collection without describing how they are tied together for example bundle theory regards an apple as red four inches 100 mm wide and juicy but lacking an underlying substance the apple is said to be a bundle of properties including redness being four inches 100 mm wide and juiciness hume used the term bundle in this sense also referring to the personal identity in his main work i may venture to affirm of the rest of mankind that they are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed each other with inconceivable rapidity and are in a perpetual flux and movementcritics question how bundle theory accounts for the properties compresence the togetherness relation between those properties without an underlying substance critics also question how any two given properties are determined to be properties of'</li></ul>                     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| 24    | <ul><li>'##cific art to move the work is to destroy the work outdoor sitespecific artworks often include landscaping combined with permanently sited sculptural elements it is sometimes linked with environmental art outdoor sitespecific artworks can also include dance performances created especially for the site more broadly the term is sometimes used for any work that is more or less permanently attached to a particular location in this sense a building with interesting architecture could also be considered a piece of sitespecific art in geneva switzerland the contemporary art funds are looking for original ways to integrate art into architecture and the public space since 1980 the neon parallax project initiated in 2004 is conceived specifically for the plaine de plainpalais a public square of 95000 square meters in the heart of the city the concept consists of commissioning luminous artistic works for the rooftops of the buildings bordering the plaza in the same way advertisements are installed on the citys glamorous lakefront the 14 artists invited had to respect the same legal sizes of luminous advertisements in geneva the project thus creates a parallax both between locations and messages but also by the way one interprets neon signs in the public realmsitespecific performance art sitespecific visual art and interventions are commissioned for the annual infecting the city festival in cape town south africa the sitespecific nature of the work allows artists to interrogate the contemporary and historic reality of the central business district and create work that allows the citys users to engage and interact with public spaces in new and memorable ways'</li><li>'regions of the united states receive the greatest environmental benefits provided by scv roofs which are reduced rainwater input into storm water retention systems during rainfall and increased energy performance ratings in buildings scv and green roofs increase energy efficiencies of buildings by stabilizing roof surface temperatures in other regions of the united states the greatest environmental benefits of green roof design may be different based upon the type of climate the area possesses recent advancements in soil engineering and plastic technologies allow vegetated roofs the ability to adapt to different locations within the humid subtropical region of the united states soil media moisture content and capacity levels can be regulated by using soil elements that adapt to the climate of each specific geographic location and client needs the amount of moisture retained depends on the maximum moisture retention capacity the permeability and the depth of the soil media high density plastics permit scv roof systems to withstand the weather elements and adjust to varying building types of the region as defined by green roof industry standards extensive green roofs have a soil media of less than 6 inches in depth and intensive green roofs have a soil media of more than 6 inches in depth most scv roofs that are greater than 6 inches in depth are expensive and found on residential high rise structures often containing pools and other amenities an scv roofs requires a unique soil media mixture to adapt to the harsh weather conditions and physical characteristics of the southern united states expanded shall and clay are typically used to form a base and comprise up to 90 of some soil media mixtures used throughout the united states perlite vermiculite ash tire crumbs sand peat moss and recycled vegetation are some of the other elements utilized in soil media engineering albedo and heat transfer rates are key variables to consider when designing an scv roof and do not have a significant effect on green roofs in the northern continental united states there are three basic scv and green roof systems available in todays market builtup modular and mat these systems vary from manufacture to manufacture and are composed of different materials such as foam high density plastic and fabrics many of the systems have geographic limitations and do not perform well in humid subtropical regions based upon the intent of the system and the materials being used multilayered systems containing the following functional layers root barrier protection layer drainage layer filter layer growing medium and plant level selfcontained units typically square in shape that require only the soil medium and vegetative layer for a functioning green roof these systems are easy to install and remove some modular systems are pregrown at nurseries to client specifications forming an instant vegetative layer singledlayered systems of this type are drained'</li><li>'of urban desire sarah bergmanns pollinator pathway combines art ecology and urban planning just dont call it a bee thing seattle metropolitan deena prichep july 9 2012 part science part art pollinator pathway connects seattle green spaces the salt blog npr claire thompson september 19 2012 bee boulevard an urban corridor becomes a haven for native pollinators grist tracey byrne february 14 2015 pollinator pathway® what is it really about beepeeking online journal promoting environmental stewardship and the enhancement of urban ecosystems'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     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| 7     | <ul><li>'the spiral cochlear ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the modiolus the conical central axis of the cochlea these bipolar neurons innervate the hair cells of the organ of corti they project their axons to the ventral and dorsal cochlear nuclei as the cochlear nerve a branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve cn viii neurons whose cell bodies lie in the spiral ganglion are strung along the bony core of the cochlea and send fibers axons into the central nervous system cns these bipolar neurons are the first neurons in the auditory system to fire an action potential and supply all of the brains auditory input their dendrites make synaptic contact with the base of hair cells and their axons are bundled together to form the auditory portion of eighth cranial nerve the number of neurons in the spiral ganglion is estimated to be about 35000 – 50000two apparent subtypes of spiral ganglion cells exist type i spiral ganglion cells comprise the vast majority of spiral ganglion cells 9095 in cats and 88 in humans and exclusively innervate the inner hair cells they are myelinated bipolar neurons type ii spiral ganglion cells make up the remainder in contrast to type i cells they are unipolar and unmyelinated in most mammals they innervate the outer hair cells with each type ii neuron sampling many 1520 outer hair cells in addition outer hair cells form reciprocal synapses onto type ii spiral ganglion cells suggesting that the type ii cells have both afferent and efferent roles the rudiment of the cochlear nerve appears about the end of the third week as a group of ganglion cells closely applied to the cephalic edge of the auditory vesicle the ganglion gradually splits into two parts the vestibular ganglion and the spiral ganglion the axons of neurons in the spiral ganglion travel to the brainstem forming the cochlear nerve'</li><li>'at workplaces such as domtar in kinsgsport mill tn 3m in hutchinson mn and northrop grumman in linthicum md there are currently no standards or regulations for workers that already have a hearing loss osha provides recommendations only for addressing the needs of these employees who are exposed to high noise levels communication and the use of hearing protection devices with hearing aids are some of the issues that these workers face hearing protection is required to protect the residual hearing of workers even if there is a diagnosis of severe to profound deafness specialized hearing protectors are available passive hearing protectors that supply no amplification to the users active hearing protectors that contain a power supply communication headsetsappropriate hearing protection should be determined by the worker with the hearingimpairment as well as the professional running the conservation program hearing aids that are turned off are not acceptable forms of hearing protection not only do hearing aids amplify helpful sounds but they also amplify the background noise of the environment the worker is in these employees may want to continue to wear their amplification because of communication needs or localization but amplifying the noise may exceed the osha 8hour permissible exposure limit pel of 90 dba professionals in charge of the hearing conservation program may allow workers to wear hearing aids under earmuffs on a casebycase basis however when in hazardous noise hearing aids should not be worn hearing aids must be removed and audiometric testing requirements must be followed see above employers should consider using manual techniques to obtain thresholds instead of a microprocessor audiometer this is dependent on the severity of the hearing loss hearing aids can be worn during the testing instructions but then should be removed immediately afterwards there are not regulations to protect children from excessive noise exposure but it is estimated that 52 million kids have noiseinduced hearing loss nihl due to increased worry among both parents and experts regarding nihl in children it has been suggested that hearing conservation programs be implemented in schools as part of their studies regarding health and wellness the necessity for these programs is supported by the following reasons 1 children are not sheltered from loud noises in their daily lives and 2 promoting healthy behaviors at a young age is critical to future application the creation of a hearing conservation program for children will strongly differ from those created for the occupational settings discussed above while children may not be exposed to factory of industrial noise on a daily basis they may be exposed to noise sources such as firearms music power tools sports and noisy toys all of these encounters with noise cumulatively increases their risk for developing noiseinduce'</li><li>'noise reduction technology is used to provide noise protection like passive options but also use circuitry to give audibility to sounds that are below a dangerous level about 85 db and try to limit the average output level to about 82 to 85 db to keep the exposure at a safe levelstrategies to help protect your hearing from firearms also include using muzzle brakes and suppressors shooting fewer rounds and avoiding using a firearm with a short barrel it is recommended to shoot outdoors or in a soundtreated environment rather than a reverberant environment an enclosed area with soundreflecting surfaces if there are multiple people shooting make sure there is a large distance between the shooters and that they are not firing at the same time types of ear protection include earmuffs external this ear protection fits snug around the persons external ear earplugs internal these are ear protection that fit inside of the persons ear canal there are many different types of ear plugs the most commonly known are foam musician or custom earplugs that are made from a mold of a persons ear helmet covering various parts of the head including the earsin some occasions multiple types of ear protection can be used together to increase the nrr for example foam earplugs can be worn inconjunction with earmuffs each type of ear protection has what is called a noise reduction rating nrr this gives the consumer an estimate of how much noise is being reduced before reaching the individuals ear it is important for the consumer to know that this is only a single number estimate derived from a laboratory experiment and the nrr will vary per individual wearing the hearing protection niosh and osha have derating values to help give the person an idea of how much sound is being attenuated while wearing the hearing protection osha uses a half derating while niosh uses 70 for preformed earplugs 50 for formable earplugs and 25 for earmuffsbut all such derating are not consistent with each other and do not take into account the individual characteristics of the worker therefore no derating allows the specialist to predict the noise attenuation of a particular model for a particular worker that is the use of laboratory test results nrr snr hml ets does not predict the effectiveness of the protection of a particular worker at all the range of actual values may be for example from 0 to 35 decibels earmuff style hearing protection devices are designed to fit over the outer ear or pinna earmuff hpds typically consist of two ear cups and a head band ear cups are'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
| 0     | <ul><li>'an acoustic network is a method of positioning equipment using sound waves it is primarily used in water and can be as small or as large as required by the users specifications the simplest acoustic network consists of one measurement resulting in a single range between sound source and sound receiver bigger networks are only limited by the amount of equipment available and computing power needed to resolve the resulting data the latest acoustic networks used in the marine seismic industry can resolve a network of some 16000 individual ranges in a matter of seconds the principle behind all acoustic networks is the same distance speed x travel time if the travel time and speed of the sound signal are known we can calculate the distance between source and receiver in most networks the speed of the acoustic signal is assumed at a specific value this value is either derived from measuring a signal between two known points or by using specific equipment to calculate it from environmental conditions the diagram below shows the basic operation of measuring a single range at a specified time the processor issues a signal to the source which then sends out the sound wave once the sound wave is received another signal is received at the processor resulting in a time difference between transmission and reception this gives the travel time using the travel time and assumed speed of the signal the processor can calculate the distance between source and receiverif the operator is using acoustic ranges to position items in unknown locations they will need to use more than the single range example shown above as there is only one measurement the receiver could be anywhere on a circle with a radius equal to the calculated range and centered on the transmitter if a second transmitter is added to the system the number of possible positions for the receiver is reduced to two it is only when three or more ranges are introduced into the system is the position of the receiver achieved'</li><li>'its rather low operating frequency of around 1 kilohertz gave it a very broad beam unsuitable for detecting and localising small targets in peacetime the oscillator was used for depth finding where the lack of directionality was not a concern and fessenden designed a commercial fathometer using a carbon microphone as receiver for the submarine signal company submarine signals – marine hazard signaling system underwater acoustics – study of the propagation of sound in water underwater acoustic communication – wireless technique of sending and receiving messages through water hydrophone – underwater microphone list of reginald fessenden patents frost gary lewis 2001 inventing schemes and strategies the making and selling of the fessenden oscillator technology and culture 42 3 462 – 488 doi101353tech20010109 s2cid 110194817 project muse 33762 fay h j w february 1917 submarine signaling fessenden oscillator journal of the american society for naval engineers 29 1 101 – 113 doi101111j155935841917tb01183x rolt kenneth d 1994 the fessenden oscillator history electroacoustic model and performance estimate j acoust soc am 95 5 2832 bibcode1994asaj952832r doi1011211409629'</li><li>'with earthenware vessels inserted in the walls of the choir expressly for acoustic purposes in england a set of eleven jars survives high in the chancel walls of st andrews church at lyddington rutlandat st peter mancroft in norwich two lshaped trenches accommodating a number of acoustic jars were discovered beneath the wooden floor on which the choir stalls had previously stood the trenches had rubble walls and concrete bottoms and the surfaces were rendered over earthenware jars were built into the walls at intervals of about three feet with the mouths facing into the trench the jars were about 9 ½ inches long and 8 inches across at their widest narrowing to 6 inches at the mouth a similar discovery was made at st peter parmentergate in the same city at fountains abbey in yorkshire several earthenware vessels were discovered mortared into the base of the choir screen their necks protruding through the stonework both their use in roman times and usefulness have been debated thomas noble howe wrote in his commentary on vitruvius de architectura these vessels bronze or clay may be another example of vitruvius singling out a highly technical feature of greek architecture that was uncommon but between eight and sixteen potential sites with evidence of echea have been identified it is debatable whether such vessels amplified or deadened sound echea were used with a due regard to the laws and harmony of physics according to roman writer vitruvius there is also the possibility that echea were not used at all as they may have never existed brill states that it is possible that vitruvius following the teachings on harmony by aristoxenus took speculation for realitythe utility of the medieval jars has also been called into question the chronicler of metz in the only medieval source on the purpose of the jars mocks the prior for believing that they might have improved the sound of the choir and the archaeologist ralph merrifield suggested that their use might have owed more to a tradition of votive deposits than to the theories of vitruviusfrom an acoustical perspective there is little consensus on the effect of echea and it is an active area of research for certain archaeoacousticians modern experiments have indicated that their effect would have been to absorb the resonance of certain frequencies acting as a helmholtz resonator rather than to amplify sound however in 2011 at the acoustics of ancient theatres conference p karampatzakis and v zafranas presented evidence that vitruvius account of sound amplification was possible through the construction of a hypothetical model'</li></ul>                                                                                                                                                                 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## Evaluation

### Metrics
| Label   | F1     |
|:--------|:-------|
| **all** | 0.7426 |

## Uses

### Direct Use for Inference

First install the SetFit library:

```bash
pip install setfit
```

Then you can load this model and run inference.

```python
from setfit import SetFitModel

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SetFitModel.from_pretrained("udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-ocontrastive-3e-300samples-20iter")
# Run inference
preds = model("##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert")
```

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## Training Details

### Training Set Metrics
| Training set | Min | Median   | Max |
|:-------------|:----|:---------|:----|
| Word count   | 1   | 369.2581 | 509 |

| Label | Training Sample Count |
|:------|:----------------------|
| 0     | 300                   |
| 1     | 300                   |
| 2     | 300                   |
| 3     | 300                   |
| 4     | 300                   |
| 5     | 300                   |
| 6     | 300                   |
| 7     | 300                   |
| 8     | 300                   |
| 9     | 300                   |
| 10    | 300                   |
| 11    | 295                   |
| 12    | 300                   |
| 13    | 278                   |
| 14    | 300                   |
| 15    | 300                   |
| 16    | 300                   |
| 17    | 300                   |
| 18    | 300                   |
| 19    | 300                   |
| 20    | 300                   |
| 21    | 300                   |
| 22    | 300                   |
| 23    | 300                   |
| 24    | 300                   |
| 25    | 300                   |
| 26    | 300                   |
| 27    | 300                   |
| 28    | 300                   |
| 29    | 300                   |
| 30    | 300                   |
| 31    | 300                   |
| 32    | 284                   |
| 33    | 300                   |
| 34    | 300                   |
| 35    | 300                   |
| 36    | 300                   |
| 37    | 300                   |
| 38    | 300                   |
| 39    | 300                   |
| 40    | 300                   |
| 41    | 300                   |
| 42    | 300                   |

### Training Hyperparameters
- batch_size: (16, 16)
- num_epochs: (3, 8)
- max_steps: -1
- sampling_strategy: oversampling
- num_iterations: 20
- body_learning_rate: (2e-05, 0.01)
- head_learning_rate: 0.01
- loss: CosineSimilarityLoss
- distance_metric: cosine_distance
- margin: 0.25
- end_to_end: False
- use_amp: False
- warmup_proportion: 0.1
- max_length: 512
- seed: 42
- eval_max_steps: -1
- load_best_model_at_end: True

### Training Results
| Epoch      | Step     | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
|:----------:|:--------:|:-------------:|:---------------:|
| 0.0000     | 1        | 0.3121        | -               |
| 0.0778     | 2500     | 0.0449        | -               |
| 0.1556     | 5000     | 0.0196        | -               |
| **0.2333** | **7500** | **0.0425**    | **0.089**       |
| 0.3111     | 10000    | 0.0068        | -               |
| 0.3889     | 12500    | 0.0034        | -               |
| 0.4667     | 15000    | 0.0029        | 0.1051          |
| 0.5444     | 17500    | 0.0402        | -               |
| 0.6222     | 20000    | 0.0156        | -               |
| 0.7000     | 22500    | 0.0009        | 0.1067          |
| 0.7778     | 25000    | 0.045         | -               |
| 0.8556     | 27500    | 0.0014        | -               |
| 0.9333     | 30000    | 0.0004        | 0.1201          |
| 1.0111     | 32500    | 0.0041        | -               |
| 1.0889     | 35000    | 0.0056        | -               |
| 1.1667     | 37500    | 0.0005        | 0.1324          |
| 1.2444     | 40000    | 0.0021        | -               |
| 1.3222     | 42500    | 0.0007        | -               |
| 1.4000     | 45000    | 0.0005        | 0.1424          |

* The bold row denotes the saved checkpoint.
### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- SetFit: 1.0.3
- Sentence Transformers: 2.7.0
- Transformers: 4.40.1
- PyTorch: 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets: 2.19.1
- Tokenizers: 0.19.1

## Citation

### BibTeX
```bibtex
@article{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2209.11055,
    doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2209.11055},
    url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055},
    author = {Tunstall, Lewis and Reimers, Nils and Jo, Unso Eun Seo and Bates, Luke and Korat, Daniel and Wasserblat, Moshe and Pereg, Oren},
    keywords = {Computation and Language (cs.CL), FOS: Computer and information sciences, FOS: Computer and information sciences},
    title = {Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts},
    publisher = {arXiv},
    year = {2022},
    copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
}
```

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