sentence-transformers safetensors roberta sentence-similarity feature-extraction generated_from_trainer dataset_size:21875 loss:TripletLoss arxiv:1908.10084 arxiv:1703.07737 base_model:distilbert/distilroberta-base base_model:finetune:distilbert/distilroberta-base autotrain_compatible text-embeddings-inference endpoints_compatible region:us
---
base_model: distilbert/distilroberta-base
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- sentence-similarity
- feature-extraction
- generated_from_trainer
- dataset_size:21875
- loss:TripletLoss
widget:
- source_sentence: What is the range of numbers that can be printed on each document
    using the serial number feature?
  sentences:
  - 'Alle Artikel vom 30. Januar 2018

    22-Jähriger bespuckt Polizisten : Dillinger (22) geht in der Wache auf Polizisten
    los

    St. Johann (red) Kurz nach einem Taschendiebstahl in der Bahnhofstraße hat die
    Festnahme eines Verdächtigen (22) die Polizei in Atem gehalten. Beamte aus der
    Inspektion Karcherstraße fassten den Mann aus Dillingen gegen 15.15 Uhr und brachten
    ihn

    Ausnahmezustand : Bischmisheimer (30) wirft seine Möbel aus dem Fenster

    In einem seelischen Ausnahmezustand hat ein 30 Jahre alter Mann aus Bischmisheim
    am Dienstag gegen 14 Uhr seine Wohnung verwüstet.

    Die Mannschaft der BSG Stahl Vital Dillinger ist saarländischer Betriebssportmeister
    im Hallenfußball. Im Endspiel besiegte der deutsche Vizemeister in der Ohlenbach-Sporthalle
    in Wiebelskirchen die Mannschaft von Ford Saarlouis mit 6:5 im Von Heinz Bier

    Der TV Ludweiler hat im Rahmen einer Meisterfeier erfolgreiche Leichtathleten
    geehrt. Abteilungsleiter René Schwarz sagte: „Das Jahr 2017 war ein sehr erfolgreiches
    und gutes Jahr für die Ludweiler Leichtathletik.“ Der TV habe sich unter 49

    Von Mirko Reuther Von Mirko Reuther

    Homburg (red) Wer das Kulturamt am kommenden Dienstag aufsuchen möchte, sollte
    sich auf eine kleine Änderung einstellen. Das Kulturamt der Stadt im Rathaus am
    Forum ist aufgrund einer Fortbildungsveranstaltung am Dienstag, 6. Februar, in
    der Zeit Von red

    Sechs unterschiedliche Vorhaben werden 2018 in Homburg im Rahmen der Partnerschaft
    für Demokratie gefördert. vom Theater bis zum gemeinsamen Kochen. Im Sommer kann
    man sich erneut mit Projekten bewerben. Von Ulrike Stumm

    HOmburg (red) Noch haben die Homburger Schlossberghöhlen und das Römermuseum Winterpause.
    In dieser Woche werden sie wieder geöffnet, allerdings gelten im Februar und März
    für beide Sehenswürdigkeiten verkürzte Besichtigungszeiten von 10 bis 16 Uhr.

    Neujahrsempfang am Universitätsklinikum in Homburg mit viel Prominenz. Von Thorsten
    Wolf

    Regionalverband (red) Am „Fetten Donnerstag“, 8. Februar, ist die Verwaltung des
    Regionalverbandes Saarbrücken nur bis 12 Uhr geöffnet. Am Freitag, 9. Februar,
    gilt die übliche Geschäftszeit bis 12 Uhr. Am Rosenmontag, 12. Februar, bleibt
    die

    Im Saarbrücker Repair Café können am Samstag, 3. Februar, von 11 bis 14 Uhr, im
    welt:raum am St. Johanner Markt kaputte Textilien und Elektrogeräte wieder flottgemacht
    werden. Ehrenamtliche stehen dabei helfend zur Seite. In einer Gesellschaft, die

    Englands Ikone David Beckham erhält den offiziellen Zuschlag der Profiliga MLS.
    2020 soll es losgehen.

    Eine Sicherheitslücke bedroht das Anti-Doping-System auch in Pyeongchang.

    Die Winterspiele starten in neun Tagen. Die Topathleten fiebern den Wettkämpfen
    entgegen – wer wird besonders glänzen?

    Der Saarlouiser unterschreibt beim 1. FC Saarbrücken einen Vertrag bis Saisonende
    mit Option. Dies könnte sich als cleverer Schachzug entpuppen. Von Patric Cordier

    Vor dem Ende der Wechselfrist gehen zahlreiche Transfers über die Bühne. Unter
    anderem verlässt Marc Bartra den BVB.

    Ministerpräsidentin Kramp-Karrenbauer schaltet sich in den Finanzskandal beim
    Landessportverband für das Saarland LSVS ein. Von Ute Kirch und Tobias Fuchs

    Der saarländische Profiboxer unterschreibt bei einem US-Promoter und kämpft als
    nächstes in Mexiko. Helfen soll der neue Trainer Karl-Heinz Krüger. Von Stefan
    Regel

    saarbrücken (red) Nachwuchsspieler Tomas Polansky rückt beim 1. FC Saarbrücken
    Tischtennis kommende Saison in die erste Mannschaft auf. Der tschechische Nationalspieler
    wird nach zwei Jahren in der zweiten Mannschaft des FCS in der 2. Bundesliga

    Calgary (dpa) Eishockey-Star Jaromir Jagr wird seine Karriere in Europa fortführen.
    Wie die Calgary Flames aus der Profiliga NHL mitteilten, wird der 45-Jährige zu
    seinem Heimatclub HC Kladno in Tschechien wechseln. Für den zweifachen

    Saarbrücken (red) Rolf Lacour ist tot. Der frühere Weltklasse-Ringer verstarb
    in der Nacht zu Sonntag in Köllerbach. Er wurde 80 Jahre alt. Lacour war der erfolgreichste
    Sportler des Saarländischen Ringer-Verbandes. 1965 wurde er Vize-Weltmeister im

    Willingen (sid) Skisprung-Bundestrainer Werner Schuster hat für die Olympia-Generalprobe
    in Willingen sein stärkstes Aufgebot nominiert. Auf der Mühlenkopfschanze werden
    die fünf Pyeongchang-Starter Richard Freitag, Andreas Wellinger, Markus

    Gemeinderat : Gemeinderat tagt am 2. Februar

    (red) Um den Jahresabschluss der Glückauf-Halle für das Wirtschaftsjahr 2015 geht
    es unter anderem im öffentlichen Teil der nächsten Gemeinderatssitzzung in Spiesen-Elversberg.
    Die findet statt am Freitag, 2. Februar, 17.30 Uhr, im Sitzungssaal des

    (red) Nach seinem gefeierten Programm „Freiheit!“ schlägt der Musikkabarettist
    Lars Reichow ein neues Kapitel auf. Zum 25-jährigen Bühnenjubiläum geht er mit
    einer gehörigen Portion „Lust“ auf Tournee: Lust auf Wahrheit. Lust auf Musik.
    Lust auf

    Das Ambulante Hospiz St. Josef Neunkirchen sucht ehrenamtliche Hospizhelfer. „Menschenwürdig
    leben bis zuletzt“ – unter diesem Tenor steht die Arbeit im ambulanten Hospiz
    St. Josef Neunkirchen, das ehrenamtliche Mitarbeiter braucht. Am Dienstag, 20.

    Seniorenlotsen gesucht : Landkreis sucht weitere Seniorenlotsen

    Ehrenamtliche sollen älteren Menschen im Alltag mit Rat und Tat zur Seite stehen.

    Kreis sucht Tageseltern : Tagesmütter und Tagesväter werden gesucht

    (red) Für die am 20. Februar beginnende Qualifizierung zur Tagesmutter, beziehungsweise
    zum Tagesvater beim Kreisjugendamt sind noch Plätze frei. Die Qualifizierung umfasst
    160 Unterrichtsstunden und ein Praktikum von 40 Stunden in einer

    Neunkirchen. Am heutigen Mittwoch wird Hannelore Fuchs 94 Jahre alt. Glück und
    Gesundheit wünschen Verwandte und Bekannte.

    Beim Tag der offenen Tür staunten die Besucher über die Vielfalt in der Erzieherausbildung
    an der Edith-Stein-Schule in Neunkirchen. Von Jörg Gustav Jacobi-Vogelgesang

    Ortsräte Schiffweiler : Das meiste Geld fließt in den Kita-Neubau

    An diesem Mittwoch, 17 Uhr, stimmt der Gemeinderat Schiffweiler in seiner Sitzung
    im Rathaus über den Haushaltssanierungsplan 2011 bis 2021, das Investitionsprogramm
    2017 bis 2021 sowie den Haushaltsplan und die Haushaltssatzung für das Jahr 2018
    Von Mathias Huckert

    Bereits am 20. September, so die Polizeiinspektion Neunkirchen, ereignete sich
    in einer Neunkircher Spielothek ein Diebstahl. Der Beschuldigte entwendete dem
    Geschädigten offenbar 70 Euro aus dessen Geldbörse, die kurz unbeaufsichtigt an
    einem

    Mit dem Foto der Überwachungskamera fahndet die Polizei Neunkirchen nach einer
    Frau, die mit einer gestohlenen EC-Karte Geld am Automaten abgehoben haben soll.
    Der Vorfall ereignete sich bereits am 26. September. Damals wurde einer Frau beim

    Neunkirchen (red) Am Montag haben sich die Beschäftigten der ZF AG, Werk 5 in
    Neunkirchen, mit großer Mehrheit dafür entschieden, ihren Forderungen mit einem
    ganztägigen Warnstreik Ausdruck zu verleihen. Das teilt die IG Metall Neunkirchen
    mit.

    (red) Der Allgemeine Deutsche Fahrrad Club (ADFC) Neunkirchen lädt für Donnerstag
    zum Radlerstammtisch ins Turnerheim nach Wellesweiler in die Pestalozzi-Straße
    ein. Der Stammtisch beginnt um 18.30 Uhr. Besprochen werden sollen das Tourenprogramm
    für

    E-Mobilität : Mehr E-Autos auf den Straßen im Kreis Neunkirchen

    Aber wie umweltverträglich ist der Stromantrieb? Experte erwartet verschiedene
    Alternativen für die Zukunft. Von Michael Beer

    (red) Imitieren Kinder alles? Um das herauszufinden, suchen Entwicklungspsychologen
    von der Universität des Saarlandes für eine Studie Jungen und Mädchen, die mindestens
    drei und höchstens vier Jahre alt sind. Die Forscher wollen herausfinden, ob

    Fastnacht in Saarbrücken : So geht’s weiter in den Saarbrücker Narrenhochburgen

    Großeinsatz : Nächtlicher Stromausfall trifft Püttlinger Klinik

    Kurz vor Mitternacht hat am Montag eine Leitung versagt. Feuerwehr und Technisches
    Hilfswerk eilten zum Krankenhaus, in dem 370 Patienten versorgt werden. Von Matthias
    Zimmermann

    Am Dienstag, 6. Februar, 18 Uhr, beginnt in der Saarbrücker Stadtbibliothek eine
    Vortragsreihe über Sicherheit im Internet. Hintergrund ist der internationale
    Aktionstag Safer Internet Day (SID), der unter dem Motto „Ein besseres Internet
    beginnt

    Im Bauausschuss wurde die Möglichkeit einer finanziellen Förderung diskutiert.

    Am Montagvormittag, zwischen 9.50 und 11.40 Uhr wurde ein auf dem Marktplatz in
    St. Ingbert geparkter, roter Renault Scenic mit Kölner Kennzeichen an der vorderen
    Stoßstange, rechte Seite, beschädigt. Wie die Polizei mitteilt, streifte ein den
    Von red

    Sie wissen, was in Ihrem Ort passiert? Können Ärgerliches, Schönes, Kurioses berichten?
    Sie haben einen Brand oder Unfall beobachtet oder sogar Fotos gemacht? Dann schicken
    Sie uns alles als Leser-Reporter. Wir recherchieren Ihre Tipps. Als Von red

    Das Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium bot seinen Schülern eine Berufs- und Studienvorbereitung
    an.

    Am Montag, 5. Februar, ab 9.30 Uhr, ist die Heilpraktikerin Helga Wiesmann mit
    dem Vortrag „Bauch über Kopf“ beim Kultur- und Lesefrühstück in Brebach zu Gast.

    Die Evangelische Familienbildungsstätte der Diakonie Saar lädt mittwochs, 21.
    und 28. Februar, zu einem Aufbaukurs zum Thema „Mein Smartphone und ich – einfach
    und sicher“. Der Kurs läuft jeweils von 9.30 bis 11.45 Uhr, in der Mainzer Straße
    269.

    Unter dem Motto „Sonntagsschicht“ bietet die Völklinger Hütte im Februar wieder
    eine sonntägliche Familienführung zur Industriekultur der Völklinger Hütte. Ab
    4. Februar erzählt der Experte für Industriekultur und Projektleiter am Weltkulturerbe

    Regionalverbandsdirektor Peter Gillo und VHS-Direktor Wilfried Schmidt haben im
    Rahmen des Neujahrsempfangs der VHS Regionalverband Saarbrücken erstmals langjährige
    Dozenten geehrt. Den Anfang machten die Jubilare aus Saarbrücken. Im kommenden
    Jahr

    Wegweisende Anlage : Moderne Galerie in Saarbrücken ist jetzt hörbar besser

    Gemeinderat : Rat in Bous beschäftigt sich mit Wirtschaftsplänen

    Nicht wie gewohnt im Petri-Hof, sondern im Sitzungssaal des Bouser Rathauses trifft
    sich der Rat zur ersten Sitzung 2018 am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 18 Uhr. Auf der
    Tagesordnung stehen die Einführung und Verpflichtung eines Gemeinderatsmitgliedes
    Von az

    Montan Wind hat bei Landsweiler das erste von zwei Windrädern fertiggestellt.
    Von Fred Kiefer

    Lebach (kü) Die Aufstellung eines Bebauungsplanes Weiherberg 4 ist Thema im Stadtrat
    Lebach am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 18 Uhr, im Rathaus. Außerdem stehen auf der
    Tagesordnung: der Windpark Lebach-Nord sowie der aktuelle Stand der Umsetzung
    des

    Faasend : Viel Neues am Greesendaach

    Saarwellingen feiert am 8. Februar mit Narrenbaum, Schlagerparty und Feuerwerk.
    Von red

    Es war einmal: Shiva Music in Lebach : Eine Ära geht zu Ende

    Alles hat seine Zeit. Das weiß auch Günter Staub, der 40 Jahre in Lebach ansässig
    war. Er kann einige Anekdoten erzählen und hat die musikalische Entwicklung hautnah
    erlebt. Vieles in seinem Geschäft erinnert an die guten alten Zeiten, die der
    Rock- Von Astrid Dörr

    Nach 40 Jahren hat Günter Staub, Inhaber von Shiva Music, sein Geschäft am Bitscher
    Platz in Lebach aufgegeben. Von Astrid Dörr

    keukenhof : Obstbauer fahren zum Keukenhof

    Der Kreisverband der Obst- und Gartenbauvereine Saarlouis fährt zum Keukenhof
    (Holland) am 29. und 30. April. Abfahrt ist um 6 Uhr in Rehlingen, P&R-Platz (Zufahrt
    zur Hessmühle) und um 6.30 Uhr in Lebach am Bahnhof. Im Fahrpreis enthalten sind:

    Jörg Kneip bei der Feuerwehr Ensdorf wiedergewählt : Ehrenamtliche Arbeit zum
    Wohl der Bürger

    Ensdorfer Wehr wählt bei Hauptversammlung Jörg Kneip erneut zu ihrem stellvertretenden
    Wehrführer.

    energieberatung : Effiziente Tipps für eine saubere Umwelt

    Energieberater der Verbraucherzentrale des Saarlandes geben Ratschläge für durchdachte
    Energiesparmaßnahmen.

    Tafeln : Kirchen sammeln wieder Lebensmittel

    (hpf) Am Wochenende vom 3.und 4. Februar stehen in den katholischen Kirchen in
    Wadgassen, Differten und Friedrichweiler wieder Kisten zum Sammeln von haltbaren
    Lebensmitteln bereit. Die Lebensmittel sind für die Saarlouiser Tafel bestimmt.
    Der Von hpf

    Wanderverein : Wanderer rufen zur Hauptversammlung

    (rk) Jahreshauptversammlung hat der Heimat- und Wanderverein Edelweiß am Sonntag,
    4. Februar, um 17 Uhr im Vereinslokal Kater Carlo in Elm. Auf der Tagesordnung
    stehen unter anderem Neuwahlen und die Termine 2018.

    Bunter Abend : Bunter Abend beim Elisabethenverein

    (rk) Der Elisabethenverein St. Martin Schwalbach lädt für Freitag, 2. Februar,
    um 19.30 Uhr zum bunten Abend in den Gemeindesaalbau Schwalbach ein. Verzehrbons
    gibt es bei den Kassiererinnen und an der Abendkasse. Von rk

    Börse : Eine Börse für Spielzeug und Kindersachen

    Der Baseballverein Saarlouis Hornets veranstaltet am Sonntag, 4. März, von 13
    Uhr bis 16 Uhr in der Mehrzweckhalle in Picard eine Kinderkleider- und Spielzeugbörse.
    Kinderkleider ab der Größe 104 bis ins Teeniealter, Spielzeug, Kaffee, Kuchen
    und

    Regionalverband : Führung durch das Saarbrücker Schloss

    Der Regionalverband Saarbrücken bietet am Samstag, 3. Februar, um 15 Uhr die kostenlose
    Führung „Das böhmsche Schloss“ an. Die Kunsthistorikerin Nicole Baronsky-Ottmann
    führt die Teilnehmer auf den Spuren des Architekten Gottfried Böhm durch das

    Es soll schmecken und gesund sein : Kostenlose Kochkurse für Pädagogen

    Die „Initiative für praktische Ernährungsbildung für Kinder im Kita- und Grundschulalter“
    bietet für Erzieher, Lehrer und Sozialpädagogen am 21. Februar in Saarbrücken
    eine kostenlose Schulung an; Titel: „Ich kann kochen!“. Initiatoren sind die

    NKV Elversberg : Wenn Alexa zur Kratzbürste wird, dann fliegen die Raketen

    Bei der Kappensitzung der NKV Elversberger Narrenzunft ging’s hoch her. „Zurück
    in die 80er“ war das Motto dieser Session. Von Mathias Huckert

    Die Furpacher Eulenspiegel haben sich neu aufgestellt. An diesem Samstag ist die
    zweite Sitzung. Von Elke Jacobi

    Sperrung : Umleitung wegen Fastnachtsumzug

    Aus Anlass des Fastnachtsumzuges in Spiesen wird am Dienstag, 13. Februar, die
    Hauptstraße von der Spieser Höhe bis zur Einmündung der Straße Alte Gasse in der
    Zeit von 14.45 bis etwa 19 Uhr für den Fahrzeugverkehr voll gesperrt.

    Feuerwehr Stennweiler : Feuerwehr spendet an Verein Paulinchen

    Stennweiler (red) Bereits zum zweiten Mal nahm der Löschbezirk Stennweiler an
    der Aktion „Tag des brandverletzten Kindes“ teil und spendete an den Verein Paulinchen,
    der diesen Tag jährlich veranstaltet, 350 Euro. Das teilt die Gemeinde Schiffweiler

    Nach Asien entführten die Daaler bei ihrer Kappensitzung die Besucher mit tollen
    Tänzen und Büttenreden. Von Andreas Detemple

    Landgericht in Saargemünd bangt um Zuständigkeiten : Justizreform bedroht lothringische
    Standorte

    Das Landgericht in Saargemünd bangt um seine Zuständigkeiten. Die Kooperation
    mit dem Saarland könnte ein Rettungsanker sein. Von Hélène Maillasson

    Am Mittwoch, 7. Februar, besucht das „Netzwerk gute Nachbarschaft Unterer Rotenbühl“
    die Sonderausstellung „Prominente Menschen aus dem Saarland“ im Historischen Museum
    Saar. Das kündigt das Netzwerk an.

    Wenn der 1. FC Saarbrücken aufsteigt, braucht er schnell ein drittligareifes Stadion.
    Er hat einen Bauantrag für den Umbau des Hermann-Neuberger-Stadions in Völklingen
    gestellt. Von Bernhard Geber

    Die Gemeinde Marpingen nimmt am Kommunalen Energieeffizienz-Netzwerk im Landkreis
    St. Wendel teil. Das haben die Mitglieder des Gemeinderates in ihrer jüngsten
    Sitzung beschlossen. In drei Jahren kostet das die Gemeinde etwa 25 400 Euro.
    Von Sarah Konrad

    () In diesem Jahr (und bis auf Weiteres) wird es in St. Wendel weder eine Rathausstürmung,
    noch eine Anklage des Bürgermeisters geben. Darauf weist der Präsident des Ochsitoriums,
    Hans Gerecht, hin.

    St. Wendel (red) Am Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, sind die Agenturen für Arbeit
    in Neunkirchen, Homburg und St. Wendel in der Zeit von 8 bis 16 Uhr geöffnet.
    Das Berufsinformationszentrum in Neunkirchen hat von 10 bis 16 Uhr geöffnet. Am

    (se) Im vergangenen Sommer hat ein Blitzschlag die Hauptschaltuhr der Kirche St. Anna
    in Furschweiler beschädigt. Diese wurde repariert und eine neue Schaltuhr eingebaut
    (wir berichteten). Doch jetzt gibt es wieder Probleme. Die Hauptschaltuhr ist

    Freisen (him) Zum ersten Mal im neuen Jahr tagt der Freisener Gemeinderat am Donnerstag,
    1. Februar, ab 18 Uhr im Rathaus. Unter anderem geht es um den Beginn der vorbereitenden
    Untersuchungen zur Prüfung der Sanierungsbedürftigkeit in Asweiler,

    Neunkircher Tierschutzverein kämpft weiter um ausreichend Geld für seine Arbeit
    : Tierheim will sicher planen können

    Der Linxbachhof steht vor hohen Investitionen. Ein neuer Vertrag mit Kreisen und
    Kommunen ist in Arbeit. Von Michael Beer

    Wettbewerb in der Kyllberghalle : Kinder wollen so stark wie Pippi Langstrumpf
    sein

    152 Turnerinnen aus Deutschland und Luxemburg nehmen am kommenden Samstag in der
    Kyllberghalle in Köllerbach am Pippi-Langstrumpf-Pokal teil. Ausrichter ist der
    TV Püttlingen. Die Teilnehmerinnen müssen Übungen zu Kraft und Beweglichkeit

    Quartett in Topform : LAZ-Staffel erfüllt Norm für deutsche Meisterschaft

    Saarbrücken (hg) Die 4 x 200-Meter-Staffel des LAZ Saar 05 Saarbrücken hat bei
    den rheinland-pfälzischen Leichtathletik-Hallenmeisterschaften in Ludwigshafen
    die Norm für die deutschen U 20-Jugendmeisterschaften im kommenden Februar in
    Halle an der

    Tore satt und eine Entscheidung im Sieben-Meter-Schießen – das Finale beim Masters-Qualifikationsturnier
    des SV Hofeld bot alles, was die Herzen von Fußball-Fans höher schlagen lässt.
    Landesligist SF Güdesweiler und Verbandsligist FFC Dudweiler Von Semmler

    Die Partie beim Tabellenvierten TTC Weinheim entpuppte sich für den abstiegsgefährdeten
    Tischtennis-Zweitligisten ATSV Saarbrücken am vergangenen Sonntag als zu hohe
    Hürde. Der Tabellenvorletzte kassierte mit dem 2:6 die zehnte Niederlage im Von
    David Benedyczuk

    Um den Nachwuchs im saarländischen Volleyball ist es nicht gut bestellt. Deshalb
    möchte der Verband Talentstütz- punkte einrichten. Von Heiko Lehmann

    Zum Frühlingskonzert laden die Musiker der Harmonie Hüttersdorf am Samstag, 17.
    März, 19 Uhr, ins Hüttersdorfer Kulturhaus. „Die Veranstaltung ist mittlerweile
    ein fester Bestandteil unseres musikalischen Jahres und erfreut sich stets wachsender

    Puppentheater Gabi Kussani spielt in Elm das Stück „Kasper auf der Pirateninsel“.

    Die Theatergastspiele a.gon München gastieren anlässlich des Theater- und Vortragsringes
    der Stadt Dillingen mit dem Thriller „Ein brillanter Mord“ von James Cawood am
    Sonntag, 4. Februar, um 20 Uhr in der Stadthalle Dillingen. Mitwirkende sind

    Die Klamotten waren mit Matsch besudelt, alles tropfte. Die 280 Starter beim 12.
    Kaltenstein-Crosslauf der LTF Theeltal störte das am Samstag irgendwann nicht
    mehr. Die Erschöpfung stand den 11 bis 76 Jahre alten Haudegen aber in die Von
    Roland Schmidt

    Fußball-Mannschaft gewinnt Finale der saarländischen Betriebssportmeisterschaft
    gegen Ford Saarlouis.

    Von Roland Schmidt Von Roland Schmidt

    Borussia Dortmund, Schalke, Mönchengladbach: Viele Ex-Stars aus der Bundesliga
    zauberten am Samstag beim Legends- Cup in der Saarlandhalle. Und mittendrin: der
    VfB Tünsdorf. Der zog zwar nicht das Traumlos, ärgerte dafür aber den FCS. Von
    David Benedyczuk

    Kegeln : Wiebelskircher Kegler sichern sich den Zusatzpunkt

    Der TuS Wiebelskirchen sendet in der 2. Kegel-Bundesliga wieder ein Lebenszeichen.
    Am vorletzten Spieltag unterlagen die Kreisstädter im Derby beim KSC Hüttersdorf
    II zwar knapp mit 5076:5098 konnten sich aber mit dem Gewinn des Zusatzpunktes
    Von Benno Weiskircher

    Die Mannschaft von Stahl Vital Dillinger wurde am Samstag in Wiebelskirchen neuer
    saarländischer Betriebssportmeister im Hallenfußball. Im Endspiel der 33. Betriebsfußball-Saarlandmeisterschaften
    besiegte der amtierende deutsche Vizemeister in der Von Heinz Bier

    Tischtennis : Bietigheim einfach zu stark für den TTC Illingen

    Der Rückrundenauftakt in der Tischtennis-Regionalliga ist dem TTC Kerpen Illingen
    misslungen. Gegen den TTC Bietigheim-Bissingen konnte der saarländische Klub seinen
    9:7-Hinspielerfolg nicht wiederholen und unterlag am Samstag vor 50 Zuschauern
    mit Von Lucas Jost

    Badminton : Badminton: TuS verliert in Schondorf mit 2:5

    Badminton-Zweitligist TuS Wiebelskirchen ist vom Auswärtsspiel bei der SG Schorndorf
    mit einer 2:5-Niederlage zurückgekehrt. Ein Punktgewinn bei den Schwaben war am
    Sonntag durchaus möglich, obwohl die Saarländer erneut auf ihre beiden Von Heinz
    Bier

    Um den Nachwuchs im saarländischen Volleyball ist es nicht gut bestellt. Deshalb
    möchte der Verband nun Talentstütz- punkte einrichten. Die Talentschmiede Lebach
    bleibt aber außen vor. Von Heiko Lehmann

    Köllerbach (red) 152 Turnerinnen aus Deutschland und Luxemburg nehmen am kommenden
    Samstag in der Kyllberghalle in Köllerbach am Pippi-Langstrumpf-Pokal teil. Ausrichter
    ist der TV Püttlingen. Die Teilnehmerinnen müssen Übungen zu Kraft und

    Die Volleyballerinnen des TV Lebach gingen am Samstag im Drittliga-Duell gegen
    Bad Vilbel leer aus. Schuld an der 1:3-Heimschlappe war die hohe Fehlerquote.
    Von Roland Schmidt

    Koblenz (dpa) Weil eine Frau für ihren gestürzten hochbetagten Vater zu spät den
    Rettungsdienst gerufen hat, ist sie vom Landgericht Koblenz zu einer Bewährungsstrafe
    von eineinhalb Jahren verurteilt worden. Die Richter befanden die 62-Jährige des

    War beim Verkauf des Nürburgring alles rechtens? Ein US-Unternehmen bezweifelt
    das und hofft immer noch, die Rennstrecke kaufen zu können.

    Mallorca : Referent berichtet über unbekannte Seiten von Mallorca

    (se) „Mallorca einmal anders“ ist das Thema der nächsten Vortragsveranstaltung
    beim Landfrauenverein Wolfersweiler-Nohfelden am Donnerstag, 1. Februar.

    (red) Die St. Wendeler Saarlandfrauen haben ihr Programm für die kommenden Monate
    bekannt gegeben. Das sieht aus, wie folgt: Am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, bereitet
    Silvia Wack leckere Gerichte aus der asiatischen Küche zu. Über das natürliche

    In ein wahres Tollhaus verwandelten die kfd-Frauen aus Alsfassen das Kulturzentrum.
    Ihre Fastnachtsshows begeisterten die Narren.

    Infotag : Schule für Ergotherapie in Birkenfeld stellt ihre Arbeit vor

    Einen Informationstag veranstaltet die Schule für Ergotherapie an der Elisabeth-Stiftung
    des Deutschen Roten Kreuzes in Birkenfeld am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, ab 10 Uhr
    in ihren Werk- und Schulungsräumen. Schulleiterin Christine Tholey-Martens,

    Termine : Vereine in Eisen veröffentlichen ihre Jahrestermine

    Überroth-Niederhofen (hgn) Die Polizei hat am frühen Dienstagmorgen einen Mann
    festgenommen, der in Überroth-Niederhofen Autoreifen zerstochen haben soll. Ein
    Sprecher der St. Wendeler Polizei bestätigte damit SZ-Informationen, wonach ein
    Opfer um Von Matthias Zimmermann

    (se) Kaffee und Kuchen beim evangelischen Frauenkreis Hirstein gibt es wieder
    am Mittwoch, 31. Januar. Beginn der Veranstaltung im Gemeindesaal der evangelischen
    Kirche ist um 15.30 Uhr.

    (red) Dank einer neuen technischen Anlage sind zukünftig auch regelmäßig Führungen
    im Saarländischen Schulmuseum in Ottweiler mit einem besonderen Hörkomfort möglich.
    Am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, 14 Uhr, leitet die Museumspädagogin Bettina Heisel
    eine

    Polizei sucht nach Hinweisen auf Umweltsünder in Nonnweiler. Von Melanie Mai

    Wird die Gemeinde Mettlach ihre fristlose Kündigung des Flüchtlingsheimes „Auf
    Kappelt“ vor Gericht durchsetzen? Von Margit Stark

    Die Merziger Polizei registrierte weitere Delikte in den verganenen Tagen.

    hü : Lebensqualität entsteht dort, wo Menschen füreinander da sind

    Wort zum Alltag : Lebensqualiät entsteht dort, wo Menschen füreinander da sind

    Ehrlicherweise muss ich zugeben: Den Ruhestand habe ich mir etwas anders vorgestellt.
    Sogar romantische Bilder tauchten in mir auf; gemütlich lesend im Arbeitszimmer
    und die Füße auf dem Tisch, daneben eine Tasse Tee. Zeit und Muße, um gründlicher

    Gemeinde Losheim und Förderverein sehen „ermutigende Fakten“ für die Zukunft der
    Losheimer St. Josefs-Klinik.

    (red) Gemeinsam mit dem Amt für Jugend, Senioren und Soziales lädt der Seniorenbeauftragte
    der Stadt Homburg, Günter Schmidt, zu einer Bildungsreise nach Hamburg ein. Vom
    21. bis 26. Juni wird ein abwechslungsreiches Programm mit verschiedenen Von red

    Vielseitige Ausstellung im Homburger Kulturzentrum Saalbau öffnet am 5. März.
    Von Von

    Am Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, geht es im Homburger Saalbau musikalisch wieder
    rund. Von red

    Autorin Kerstin Rech kommt am 20. Februar wieder zur „Homburger Lesezeit“. Von
    red

    Konzert : The Scamps spielen am Fastnachtssonntag

    Beckingen (mtn) Die Band The Scamps spielt am Fastnachtssonntag, 11. Februar,
    um 17 Uhr im Clubhaus Auf den Kiefern (Reitanlage) in Beckingen. Das Konzert schließt
    damit an den Beckinger Fastnachtsumzugn De Scamps spielen Oldies but Goldies zum
    Von Martin Trappen

    Beim Kinderfasching in Losheim konnten sich die kleinen Narren richtig austoben.
    Von eil

    Bei der Rissenthaler Fösend im Gasthaus Zur Linde sorgten die Sportler für närrische
    Gaudi. Von eil

    Kappensitzung : Die schönsten Rosen blühen zur Fastnacht

    Schunkeln, Feiern und Mitsingen war angesagt bei der Kappensitzung des Büschfelder
    Karnevalvereins „De Nawwel der Welt“. Von eb

    „Computerschreiben in vier Stunden“ lautet ein Kurs der Volkshochschule unter
    Leitung von Martina-Maria Seidel. Durch Lernen mit Assoziationen wird das Schreiben
    am Computer mit zehn Fingern erlernt. Durch Geschichten und visuelle Hilfestellungen
    Von red

    Ormesheim (red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt für den
    morgigen Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 19.30 Uhr zu dem Informations- und Gesprächsabend
    „Pflegestützpunkt im Saarpfalz-Kreis“ in den Sitzungssaal im Rathaus, Von red

    Die Versichertenälteste der Deutschen Rentenversicherung, Rosi Müller-Hau, bietet
    am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, in der Zeit von 15 bis 18 Uhr im Gersheimer Rathaus
    Sprechstunden an. Terminvereinbarungen sind unter Telefon (0 68 43) 80 11 06 Von
    red

    In der Nacht zum Sonntag wurde von einem bisher Unbekannten ein in der Blieskasteler
    Florianstraße in Höhe des Lidl Marktes geparkter Autotransportanhänger schräg
    auf die Fahrbahn geschoben und dort stehen gelassen. Fahrzeuge, die den Bereich
    Von red

    Zu einem Klangschalenworkshop mit Meditation lädt die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung
    Saarpfalz (KEB) am Freitag, 2. Februar, von 16 bis 18 Uhr in die Praxis für Entspannungspädagogik
    nach Lautzkirchen, Schillerstraße 11 ein. Durch Von red

    An der Geschwister-Scholl-Schule in Blieskastel wird auch das G9-Abitur angeboten.
    Zusätzlich gibt es Spiel, Sport und verschiedene Projekte. Von red

    (red) Die Volkshochschule Homburg beginnt nach den närrischen Tagen mit neuen
    Sprachkursen auf dem Niveau A1 in den Sprachen Arabisch und Russisch. Der Arabischkurs
    für absolute Anfänger beginnt am Dienstag, 20. Februar, 18 Uhr, Saal 201, in der
    Von red

    (red) Die protestantische Kirchengemeinde Erbach lädt für kommenden Sonntag, 4.
    Februar, zu einem Gottesdienst ein, der vom Posaunenchor der Gemeinde musikalisch
    gestaltet wird. Beginn ist um 10 Uhr. Im Anschluss ist das Kirchencafé im Von
    red

    Entdeckungstour : Entdeckungstour führt durch die Mainzer Straße

    (red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt für Donnerstag,
    8. Februar, 17 bis 19 Uhr, zur Entdeckungstour: „Entdecken, erleben, genießen
    – Streifzug durch das Quartier Mainzer Straße“ ein. Im Herzen Saarbrückens ist
    das Quartier Von red

    Berliner Gitarrist Baby Kreuzberg rockt am kommenden Samstag in Mandy’s Lounge
    in Homburg. Von red

    (red) Die meisten Geheimnisse des Kirkeler Waldes bleiben Besuchern und Spaziergängern
    in der Regel verborgen. Kaum jemand dürfte beispielsweise die scheuen Wildkatzen
    zu Gesicht bekommen haben, die inzwischen durch das Unterholz streichen. Wie Von
    red

    Der Seniorennachmittag der Homburger Narrenzunft wurde zum Jungbrunnen für das
    ältere Narrenvolk. Von Markus Hagen

    (np) Wer an einem sonnigen Strand eine Handvoll Sand durch die Finger rinnen lässt,
    macht sich keine Vorstellungen von der Vielfalt des Lebens, das da zu Boden rieselt.
    Auf diesen Körnern siedeln zig Milliarden Bakterien, haben Forscher des

    (np) Vulkanausbrüche können gewaltigen Einfluss auf das Weltklima haben. Das zeigte
    der Ausbruch des Tambora in Indonesien im Jahr 1815. Seine Eruption führte zu
    einer der schlimmsten Hungersnöte des 19. Jahrhunderts, weil es durch die Vulkanasche,

    Pestizide lassen die Insekten trotz eines Überangebots an Nahrung verhungern.

    Physiker der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt denkt über mögliche Reisen zu den nächsten
    Sonnensystemen in unserer Milchstraße nach.

    Raumfahrt : Aus der Traum vom Weltraum-Taxi

    Die Nasa will die neue Mini-Raumfähre „Dream Chaser“ trotz eines erfolgreichen
    Tests nur als Lastentransporter nutzen. Von Uwe Seidenfaden

    Spende : Krippenbauer unterstützen Hospiz und Messdiener

    Krippen bauen aus Holz mit Figuren aus Gips – und alles für den guten Zweck: Ein
    Projekt, das im Sommer mit viel Leidenschaft gestartet ist, fand nun seinen erfreulichen
    Endpunkt: Gerhard Bohnenberger besuchte mit seiner Ehefrau das St. Barbara

    Integratibe Kurse : Kreatives Schaffen soll Gemeinschaft fördern

    Die Kreisstadt Saarlouis mit dem Netzwerk „Wir sind einS(aarlouis)“ lädt zu einem
    kreativen offenen Angebot in das Kinder-, Jugend und Familienhaus, Lisdorfer Straße
    16a, ein. Die Treffen finden unter ehrenamtlicher Leitung der Schneiderin Jeanne

    Im Seniorenkino wird am Dienstag, 6. Februar, 17 Uhr, der Film „Paris kann warten“
    gezeigt.

    Bei der HerzGesund-Kampagne findet am Donnerstag, 22. Februar, ab 16 Uhr im Kulturhaus
    in Hüttersdorf der Cardio-Day statt. Veranstalter ist der TL Hüttersdorf mit Unterstützung
    der Gemeinde Schmelz.

    Kurs : Fortbildung für Erzieher rund ums Thema Lernen

    Die KEB bietet einen IHK-zertifizierten Qualifizierungskurs an. Anmeldungen sind
    bis 1. Februar möglich.

    Das Dekanat Saarlouis lädt Paare, die kirchlich heiraten wollen, zu einem Seminar
    „Unterwegs zur Ehe“. Manchmal überschreiben Brautleute ihre Hochzeitsanzeige in
    der Zeitung mit dem Satz „Wir trauen uns“. Sie drücken damit aus: Wir wollen unseren

    Kappensitzung : Mit dem Surfbrett zu „Fazebuck“

    Riesenspaß hatten die Gäste der Hampitania-Kappensitzung in Bous bei Büttenreden,
    Schunklern und Tänzen. Von Alexandra Broeren

    Leserbrief : Blitzer bremsen Autofahrer aus

    SPD-Neujahrsempfang : Aufbruchsstimmung beim Neujahrsempfang der SPD

    () Aufbruchsstimmung herrschte beim Neujahrsempfang der SPD Merzig-Mitte. Arndt
    Oehm, erster Vorsitzender des SPD-Ortsvereins, konnte zahlreiche Gäste zum Neujahrsempfang
    begrüßen. In seiner Eröffnungsrede ließ Oehm das von Land- und Bundestagswahl

    Leserbrief : Auf den Straßen spielt sich viel ab

    Einen kranken oder hilfebedürftigen Menschen zu Hause zu pflegen, ist eine verantwortungsvolle
    Aufgabe, die auch nach Ansicht von Pflegeprofis schnell zu einer enormen täglichen
    Herausforderung werden kann. Deswegen bieten das Deutsche Rote Kreuz Von red

    Der Kneipp-Verein St. Ingbert fährt am Sonntag, 17. Juni, zur Show „Immer wieder
    sonntags“ im Europapark Rust. Abfahrt ist um 7 Uhr am Rendezvousplatz. Die Reiseleitund
    haben Josefa und Erich Körner.

    Dem Orchesterverein Lautzkirchen blieb es einmal mehr vorbehalten, den Veranstaltungsreigen
    2018 per Neujahrskonzert zu eröffnen.

    Am heutigen Mittwoch wird die Künstlerin Anne Kerber persönlich im Rathaus Mandelbachtal
    in Ormesheim anwesend sein und zwischen 15 und 17.30 Uhr Besucher durch ihre Ausstellung
    „HistoPopArt – Kunst mit Haut und Haaren“ führen. Sie beantwortet Von red

    Trotz der Verkehrsberuhigung ist laut Ortsvorsteher Schmidt das Sicherheitsgefühl
    der Fußgänger in der Ottweiler Altstadt noch nicht ausgeprägt. Von Heinz Bier

    Der Kurs „Trittsicher durchs Leben“ beginnt am Montag, 5. Februar. Er findet an
    sechs Terminen immer von 15 Uhr bis 16.30 Uhr im DRK-Sozialzentrum in Saarbrücken-Dudweiler
    statt. Ziel ist es, die Teilnehmer für Sturzgefahren zu sensibilisieren und

    Für alle, die Paris und die Schätze der Stadt noch besser kennenlernen möchten,
    bietet die Volkshochschule des Regionalverbandes Saarbrücken eine dreiteilige
    Vortragsreihe an. Der dritte und letzte Vortrag dieser Reihe ist am Mittwoch,
    31. Januar,

    Deutsch-amerikanisches Freundschaftskomitee wurde am Montag im Rathaus von Baumholder
    gegründet.

    Am Samstag konnte das Volleyball-Oberligateam des TV 66 Rohrbach mit einem 3:1
    (18:25 25:18 25:20 25:23) gegen den TV Holz II drei Punkte einfahren – und Platz
    vier in der Tabelle zurückerobern. Wegen Fasching musste der TV in Blieskastel
    im

    Fußball : Der SV St. Ingbert in alter Frische

    Die AH-Fußballer des SVI haben am Samstagabend die Stadtmeisterschaften gewonnen.
    Rohrbach wird Zweiter. Von Stefan Holzhauser

    In der Fußball-Kreisliga A Bliestal wird die Saison am Sonntag, 25. Februar, fortgesetzt.
    Dann empfängt unter anderem um 14.30 Uhr der aktuelle Tabellen-14. SV Bexbach
    den auf Rang zwei platzierten SV Kirkel. Hinter den Bexbachern liegt bislang eine
    Von Stefan Holzhauser

    Arbeiterwohlfahrt : Kaffeenachmittag im Alten Wasserwerk

    (red) Die Arbeiterwohlfahrt, Ortsverein Hassel, veranstaltet ihren nächsten Kaffeenachmittag
    am morgigen Donnerstag in ihrer Begegnungsstätte „Altes Wasserwerk“. Beginn ist
    um 14.30 Uhr. Von red

    Die St. Ingberter Pfarrgemeinde St. Konrad lädt für Donnerstag, 1. Februar, zum
    Kinderfasching ein. Er findet von 15 bis 18 Uhr im Pfarrsaal in der Karl-Custer-Straße
    statt.

    Der Kneipp-Verein Rohrbach bietet am Dienstag, 6. Februar, eine Thermalbadfahrt
    nach Bad Schönborn an. Abfahrt ist um 13 Uhr an der Rohrbachhalle. Vorher besteht
    um 12.45 Uhr Zusteigemöglichkeit am Rendezvous-Platz in St. Ingbert. Nichtmitglieder

    Die große Bierbacher Fastnachtsshow bot auch im 66. Jahr ihres Bestehens ein Feuerwerk
    der guten Laune.

    Die große Prunksitzung der Blieskasteler Karnevalsgesellschaft (BKG) in der Bliesgau-Festhalle
    ließ erneut keine Wünsche offen.

    Workshops, Veranstaltungen und natürlich der Kunsthandwerkermarkt: Der Förderverein
    bietet wieder viel im ersten Halbjahr 2018. Von Martin Baus

    Falscher Verein : „Smilies and Kids“ im Bild zu sehen

    (red) Bei unserem Bericht über die Kappensitzung der Riegelsberger „mir bleiwe
    so“ ist ein Fehler passiert. Auf dem Foto zu sehen ist nicht die Aktivengarde
    aus Kutzhof, sondern „Smilies and Kids“ vom TV Hilschbach. Darauf hingewiesen
    hat uns Yvonne

    Kein Konzert : Soirée der Musikschule am Sonntag fällt aus

    (red) Die für Sonntag, 4. Februar, angekündigte Soirée der Musikschule Püttlingen
    fällt aus organisatorischen Gründen aus. Das teilt Musikschulleiter Stefan Weber
    mit.

    Chor hat Neuwahlen : Kirchenchor tagt am Freitag

    (red) Die Jahreshauptversammlung des katholischen Kirchenchores St. Josef Holz
    beginnt am Freitag, 2. Februar, um 19 Uhr. Auf der Tagesordnung stehen auch Neuwahlen
    des Vorstandes.

    Bilanz stimmt : Katholische Frauen blicken zurück

    Eiweiler (dg) Auf ein erfolgreiches und arbeitsreiches Jahr blickt die katholische
    Frauengemeinschaft (KFG) Eiweiler zurück. Die Vorsitzende Anneliese Maier erinnert
    vor allem an den Jahresausflug nach Kruft und Andernach: „In Kruft haben wir eine
    Von dg

    Töpfern lernen : Keramikkurse bei Volkshochschule Püttlingen

    Die Volkshochschule (VHS) Püttlingen bietet Keramikkurse für Anfänger und Fortgeschrittene
    an. Es geht um individuelles Arbeiten mit Ton, zum Beispiel Skulpturen, Stelen,
    Reliefs, Gefäße in verschiedenen Techniken. Ums Glasieren der Werkstücke, um

    Polonäse im Pfarrheim : So selbstbewusst wie der junge Thomas Gottschalk

    Bei der Edelweiß-Kappensitzung in Püttlingen heizen 50 Akteure den 120 Besuchern
    im Pfarrheim St. Sebastian ein. Von Von

    Egal ob zur GPS-Rallye oder zum Kindergeburtstag – die Saarbrücker und ihre Gäste
    kommen gern in ihren Wildpark. Von Heiko Lehmann

    Fastnacht hat Vorfahrt : Rathäuser an Rosenmontag zu

    (red) Das Seniorenbüro der Stadt Püttlingen ist am Donnerstag, 8. Februar, und
    am Mittwoch, 14. Februar, ab 12 Uhr geschlossen. Am Montag und Dienstag, 12. und
    13. Februar, ist das Seniorenbüro im Schlösschen ganztägig zu. Die Rathäuser in
    Püttlingen

    Spielplätze : SPD: Kinder sollen mitreden bei Spielplatzkonzept

    Mit einer Fragebogenaktion will die SPD Riegelsberg Familien in ein geplantes
    Spielplatzkonzept einbeziehen. Dazu der SPD-Vorsitzende Frank Schmidt: „Riegelsberg
    ist eine attraktive Gemeinde. Viele Familien mit Kindern leben in unserer Kommune.
    Von dg

    Das Wandern ist der Hartmanns Lust. Naja, jedenfalls pirsche ich mich ganz allmählich
    an das Thema heran. Es wird Frühling, und ich buche todesmutig die geführte 14,5
    Kilometer-Tour im Ostertal. Natürlich regnet es bisweilen recht nieselig, doch
    Von Michèle Hartmann

    Fürstenhausen (red) Zu einem vermeintlichen Handydiebstahl ist die Polizei am
    Montagnachmittag nach Fürstenhausen in die Straße Im Wäldchen gerufen worden.
    Drei Zwölfjährige teilten den Beamten auf dem Bolzplatz mit, dass das Smartphone
    eines der Von red

    Angebot von Ehrenamtlichen : „Man sieht, dass sie mit Herzblut dabei sind“

    Zwölf Ehrenamtliche und jede Menge zu tun: Einblicke in die erfolgreiche Arbeit
    des Völklinger Repair Café. Von Ulrike Paulmann

    Steuern und Investitionen : Gemeinderat tagt mit vollem Programm

    (red) Der Großrosselner Gemeinderat tagt am Donnerstag, 1. Februar, ab 18 Uhr
    in der Rosseltalhalle. Auf der Tagesordnung im öffentlichen Teil stehen unter
    anderem die Themen Hundesteuer, interkommunale Zusammenarbeit, der Jahresabschluss
    2016 und

    (red) Am Freitag, 8. Februar, gibt’s beim TV Ski eine bunte Fastnachts-Trainingsstunde.
    Ab 20 Uhr geht‘s los im Gymnastiksaal der Hans-Netzer-Halle an der Gatterstraße
    in Völklingen. Leichtes Fastnachts(trainings)-Kostüm und gute Laune sind

    Vorbereitung fürs Brunnenfest : Förderkreis hat Mitgliederversammlung

    (red) Albrecht Wagner, Präsident des Förderkreises des SV Karlsbrunn, lädt alle
    Mitglieder zur Mitgliederversammlung am Mittwoch, 7. Februar, um 18.30 Uhr ins
    Sportheim Wiesental in Karlsbrunn ein. Auf der Tagesordnung steht neben Berichten
    und

    (red) Es ist zu einer Tradition geworden: Die Zwölftklässler des Albert-Einstein-Gymnasiums,
    die sich auf der Zielgeraden zum Abitur befinden, präsentieren die Ergebnisse
    ihrer Arbeit aus drei Halbjahren im sogenannten Seminarfach. Dieses soll die

    Bei einer Hausräumung gefunden : Historische Fahne nun im Stadtarchiv

    Das lange verschwundene Wahrzeichen des einstigen „Sankt Barbara Vereins Wehrden“
    ist mindestens 100 Jahre alt.

    Vor dem Fatsnachtsumzug : Den Startschuss gibt der Zug-Marschall

    Fünf Musikkapellen, 70 Gruppen und über 1500 Teilnehmer werden beim Umzug in Ludweiler
    erwartet. Zug-Marschall Thomas Laval erläutert die Regeln. Von Andreas Lang

    (red) Die Wanderfreunde Ludweiler und der Singkreis 60 Plus, zwei befreundete
    Organisationen, haben in nächster Zeit viel vor, zunächst eine Faasendwanderung.
    Die Wanderfreunde Ludweiler laden zu dieser Wanderung am Dienstag, 13. Februar,
    ein. Sie

    (red) Das Trainingsangebot „Reha-Sport – Orthopädie“ des Turnvereins Völklingen
    findet ab sofort auch dienstags statt, und zwar von 17 bis 17.45 Uhr im Gymnastiksaal
    im ersten Obergeschoss der Hans-Netzer-Halle, Gatterstraße in Völklingen. Das

    Wirtschaft brummt : Gewerbegebiet Etzenhofen wieder komplett verplant

    Das Jahr 2004 hatte für Püttlingen und 320 Mitarbeiter der Schwedischen Kugellagerfabrik
    (SKF) kein schönes Ende. Denn die Leitung des deutschen Konzern-Bereichs in Schweinfurt
    hatte die Fertigung im Gewerbegebiet Etzenhofen – trotz schwarzer Zahlen Von mr

    Er leitete 17 Jahre lang das Berufsbildungszentrum in Völklingen.

    Kurz vor Mitternacht hat am Montag eine Leitung versagt. Feuerwehr und Technisches
    Hilfswerk eilten zum Püttlinger Krankenhaus, in dem aktuell 370 Patienten versorgt
    werden. Von Matthias Zimmermann

    Homburg/Ormesheim (red) Die Katholische Erwachsenenbildung Saarpfalz (KEB) lädt
    für den morgigen Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 19.30 Uhr zu dem Informations- und
    Gesprächsabend „Pflegestützpunkt im Saarpfalz-Kreis“ in den Sitzungssaal im Rathaus,
    Von red

    Fastnacht in Höchen : Frauengemeinschaft feiert Fastnacht

    (red) Am kommenden Freitag, 2. Februar, findet in der Unterkirche in Höchen die
    Fastnachtsveranstaltung der katholischen Frauengemeinschaft statt. Neben flotter
    Live-Musik mit Stefan Walzer gibt es ein buntes Unterhaltungsprogramm mit Büttenreden.
    Von red

    Pfälzerwaldverein lädt ein : Neuer Termin für Jahreshauptversammlung

    (red) Die im Wanderplan für kommenden Sonntag angekündigte Jahreshauptversammlung
    des Pfälzerwald-Vereins Höchen muss auf Sonntag, 25. Februar, verschoben werden.
    Sie beginnt um 15 Uhr im Vereinsheim des Sportvereins Höchen. Zuvor findet ab
    14 Uhr Von red

    (red) Der VdK-Ortsverband Kirrberg begrüßt das Frühjahr. Der Empfang für alle
    Mitglieder und deren Familien findet am Dienstag, 20. Februar, 18 Uhr, im Schützenhaus
    Kirrberg statt. Serviert werden Sekt, Suppe, Wiener und Baguette. Von red

    Wenn Eltern sich trennen, dann ist das für Kinder meistens eine schwierige Situation.
    Von red

    Im Wald bei Lautzkirchen soll Blieskastels erster Waldkindergarten entstehen.
    Die finanziellen Voraussetzungen sind bereits geschaffen. Von Joachim Schickert

    In einigen Jahren verschwinden Nadelbäume gänzlich aus dem Bestand, sagt Revierförster
    Urban Backes. Von Matthias Zimmermann

    „Applaus, Applaus“ für den scheidenden SPD-Fraktionschef im Saarbrücker Rathaus,
    Peter Bauer. Den gab es mehrfach am vergangenen Freitag im Festsaal des Rathauses,
    wohin die SPD-Stadtratsfraktion zum Neujahrsempfang eingeladen hatte. Von Jörg
    Wingertszahn

    (thf) Um die Haushaltssatzungen der Zweckverbände Musikschule, Naherholungsgebiet
    Ruhbachtal und Naherholungsgebiet Brennenden Berg geht es heute (31. Januar) im
    Stadtrat. Dessen Sitzung im Rathaus beginnt um 17 Uhr.

    Bildstock (red) Für Sonntag, 4 Februar, lädt der CDU Ortsverband Bildstock und
    Maybach, im Namen der gesamten CDU Friedrichsthal, alle Mitglieder, Freunde und
    Interessierte um 11 Uhr zum traditionellen Neujahrsempfang ins DJK-Sportheim in
    Bildstock

    Die drei Kommunen in unserer Region ziehen eine durchweg positive Bilanz der Einwanderung.
    Neubürger sollten die deutsche Sprache lernen. Von Patric Cordier

    Das Wandern ist der Hartmanns Lust. Naja, jedenfalls pirsche ich mich ganz allmählich
    an das Thema heran. Es wird Frühling, und ich buche todesmutig die geführte 14,5
    Kilometer-Tour im Ostertal. Natürlich regnet es bisweilen recht nieselig, doch

    Kurzmeldungen : NKV lädt ein zur Rosenmontagsparty

    Auch am diesjährigen Rosenmontag, 12. Februar, veranstaltet die Narrenzunft kath.
    Vereine Friedrichsthal (NKV) ihre beliebte Rosenmontagsparty im Festsaal des Rathauses.
    Los geht´s um 15:30 Uhr. Alle Faasebooze – ob alt oder jung – sind willkommen,

    Saargold : Die Stimmung wollte gar nicht abebben

    Büttenreden und Tänze überzeugen die Gäste bei der ausverkauften Gala-Kappensitzung
    des Theatervereins Saargold. Von Stefan Bohlander

    Wieder fitness-Tag : „Groß und Klein in Bewegung“

    Am kommenden Donnerstag, 1. Februar, um 10.30 Uhr (Treffpunkt Bürgerhaus) sind
    wieder Senioren-Fitness-Tage. Nach einem gemeinsamen Aufwärmen stehen folgende
    Fitnessangebote zur Auswahl: Boule mit Lederkugeln, Muskelaufbau, Bewegung nach
    Musik und

    An den Tollen Tagen : Faasendgaudi beim Fanfarenzug

    Buwe unn Määde stecken ihre Gäste mit unbefangener Fröhlichkeit an. Claudia Griebsch
    mit dem Hausorden gewürdigt. Von Petra Pabst

    Weichenstellung und Zukunftspläne: Der Sport- und Turnverein (STV) Urweiler lädt
    zu seiner Jahreshauptversammlung für kommenden Sonntag, 4. Februar, ins Gasthaus
    Rammacher. Ab 17 Uhr präsentiert der STV die Zukunft des Vereins: Bauvorhaben,

    Urweiler (hjl) Ein Höhepunkt in der Arbeit der Heimatfreunde Urweiler war die
    Einsegnung der neu gestalteten Gedenkstätte für Zwangsarbeiter am Judenfriedhof
    in Urweiler. Bisher erinnerte nur ein Gedenkstein an die Zwangsarbeiter. Die Heimatfreunde

    (se) Das närrische Frühstück des Landfrauenvereins Furschweiler und Umgebung am
    Fetten Donnerstag, 8. Februar, im Hiemeshaus ist ausverkauft. Das teilt der Verein
    in einer Pressemitteilung mit.

    (se) Der Jahrgang 1944 Oberkirchen kommt am Mittwoch, 31. Januar, zusammen. Treffpunkt
    ist um 17 Uhr an der Alten Schule, heißt es in einer Mitteilung.

    In den zwanzig Jahren, in denen die Gemeinschaftsschule Marpingen das Abitur anbietet,
    ist die Zahl der Absolventen, die diesen Abschluss wählten, kontinuierlich angestiegen.
    Momentan unterrichten die Marpinger Oberstufenlehrer 200 Schüler in den Von red

    Der Landesbetrieb für Straßenbau (LfS) wird auf der Autobahn 1 zwischen den Anschlussstellen
    Tholey-Hasborn und Tholey Bestandsvermessungen durchführen. Zum Auftakt sind vorbereitende
    Arbeiten im Bereich der Standspuren geplant, das teilt der LfS

    Ursula Aatz, Kaiserstraße 3, feiert am Mittwoch, 31. Januar ihren 75. Geburtstag.

    Insgesamt 77 Kurse stehen im neuen VHS-Programm. Das Angebot reicht vom Sprachkurs
    über Typberatung bis zum Segelschein.

    Fastnacht : Clowns und Sträflinge Hand in Hand

    Mehrere Stunden dauerte die Gala-Prunksitzung des Oberthaler Carneval-Vereins.
    Vor allem die Tanzbeiträge sorgten für stehende Ovationen.

    (red) Der Ortsrat Limbach trifft sich am kommenden Montag, 5. Februar zu seiner
    nächsten Sitzung. Im Landhaus am kleinen Sägeweiher geht es ab 18 Uhr unter anderem
    um die Ausbaupläne der Autobahn A 8 vom Neunkircher Kreuz bis zum Kohlhof. Dazu
    wird Von red

    Ab dem 25. Mai 2018 gilt die Datenschutzgrundverordnung der EU. Rund 300 Interessenten
    kamen zur Infoveranstaltung. Von red

    Der Januar ist fast vorbei. Bei einer (nicht repräsentativen) Online-Umfrage erklärten
    SZ-Leser, ob sie bisher auch umsetzen, was sie sich vorgenommen haben.

    () Wieder viel gelernt haben Oberstufenschüler der Peter-Dewes-Gemeinschaftsschule
    (PDG) Losheim vor kurzem in einem Azubi-Projekt der Volksbank Untere Saar. Das
    teilt PDG-Schulleiter Gerd Bermann mit. „Es hat wieder Spaß gemacht und wir haben
    viel Von Martin Trappen

    Bilanz : Kompetenz in Sachen Atemschutz

    Thomas Forster löst Alfred Schug als Gerätewart der Atemschutzwerkstatt ab, die
    beim Löschbezirk Noswendel angesiedelt ist. Von Erich Brücker

    Fußball : SG Erbach für ihr Engagement ausgezeichnet

    Jugendabteilung des Homburger Vereins kümmert sich rührend um die Hinterbliebenen
    eines verstorbenen Spielers. Von Stefan Holzhauser

    LIMBACH (sho) Die Tischtennis-Spieler des TV Limbach haben am Samstag in der Oberliga
    durch den 9:7-Heimsieg gegen den Tabellenachten TuS Weitefeld-Langenbach einen
    großen Schritt in Richtung Klassenverbleib gemacht. Nach den Eröffnungsdoppeln
    hatten Von Stefan Holzhauser

    Die Fußball-Frauen der SF Güdesweiler sind durch Rang zwei beim Qualifikations-Turnier
    des SV Hofeld auf einen Masters-Platz geklettert. Dabei hatte Güdesweiler noch
    Pech: Im Finale unterlagen die SF im Siebenmeterschießen. Von Philipp Semmler

    Das Ergebnis liest sich klarer, als es tatsächlich war: Die Saarlandliga-Handballerinnen
    der FSG Oberthal/Hirstein haben am Samstag das Spitzenspiel bei Tabellenführer
    HG Saarlouis mit 22:26 verloren. Bis zur 50. Minute (20:21) hielt die FSG die

    Saarlandmeisterschaft in der Halle : Titelkämpfe ohne die Aushängeschilder

    Der Tennis-Nachwuchs hat seine Saarlandmeister gekürt. Die Top-Spieler Milan Welte
    und Sarah Müller fehlten allerdings. Von Jonas Grethel

    Die Autorin und Schauspielerin Isabella Archan liest am Donnerstag, 22. Februar,
    in der Stadt- und Kreisbibliothek St. Wendel aus ihrem Kriminalroman „Anton zaubert
    wieder“.

    Die Bruche-Jam-Night geht mit dem Duo Vegas/Azzurro am Samstag, 3. Februar, 20.30
    Uhr, im Gasthaus Bruche in Berschweiler in die 19. Runde. Vegas/Azzurro, das sind
    Frank Altpeter und Matthias Koble, bietet alternative Akustik-Gitarrenmusik. Rock-

    In Zusammenarbeit mit der Gemeinde Tholey entführt der Fotoclub Tele Freisen seine
    Besucher wieder in faszinierende fremde Welten. Von red

    Eine ungewöhnliche Liebesgeschichte hält der bezaubernde Film „Hampstead Park“
    bereit. Die Schauspieler überzeugen auf ganzer Linie. Der Film ist gerade auf
    DVD erschienen.

    Grandiose Gala-Kappensitzung : Hilaritas Holz verspricht eine grandiose Gala-Kappensitzung

    Am Samstag, 3. Februar, ist es endlich soweit. Der Karnevalsverein Hilaritas Holz
    lädt zur großen Gala-Kappensitzung ein. Diese beginnt um 19 Uhr in der Glück-Auf-Halle.
    Von bo

    Die Länder wollen der NPD den Geldhahn aus der staatlichen Parteienfinanzierung
    zudrehen. Am Freitag wird das Saarland diesen Antrag im Bundesrat einbringen.
    Von Ute Kirch und dpa

    Berlin (dpa) In Unterwäsche, beim Posen am Meer, oder nur das Gesicht mit großen
    Augen und Schmollmund: Solche Bilder veröffentlichen „Influencer“ regelmäßig von
    sich selbst. Der Begriff ist gestern von einer Jury um den Sprachwissenschaftler
    Anatol

    Union und SPD haben eine Einigung beim Familiennachzug von Flüchtlingen erzielt.
    Bis zum 31. Juli soll der Nachzug ausgesetzt bleiben, anschließend soll er auf
    Drängen der CSU auf 1000 Menschen pro Monat begrenzt werden, ergänzt um eine bereits

    Rettungsdienste : Retter verfehlen in Teilen des Saarlands Zwölf-Minuten-Ziel

    Die gesetzlich vorgeschriebene Frist, innerhalb derer der Rettungsdienst bei einem
    Notfall vor Ort sein muss, wird im Saarland nicht überall eingehalten. Obwohl
    seit 2011 acht neue Rettungswachen gebaut worden waren, könne die Hilfsfrist von
    zwölf

    Hochwasser : Überflutete Straßen rund um Paris

    Nur über einen Steg kann diese Frau in Villeneuve-Saint-Georges südlich von Paris
    ihr Haus erreichen. Die Straßen waren dort auch gestern noch überflutet. Der Pegel
    der Seine war zuvor dramatisch angestiegen. Im Großraum der französischen Hauptstadt

    Der saarländische Profiboxer Jürgen Doberstein wagt den Schritt über den großen
    Teich und hat einen Vertrag bei einem Promoter aus den USA unterschrieben. Ende
    Februar wird er einen Kampf in Mexiko bestreiten. > Seite D 2

    Am vorletzten Tag der Transferperiode II im Profifußball gab es gestern sowohl
    national als auch international einige prominente Wechsel. Bei Borussia Dortmund
    verabschiedeten sich Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang und Marc Bartra. > Seite D 1

    Was passiert in den Betten Amerikas? Dieser Frage ist der Biologe und Sexualforscher
    Alfred Kinsey schon vor 70 Jahren nachgegangen. Sein ausführlicher Bericht darüber
    sorgt noch heute für kontroverse Diskussionen. > Seite D 6

    Saarland : SPD und Linke streiten um Befristungen

    Die SPD fordert, sachgrundlose Befristungen abzuschaffen. Da in den SPD-geführten
    Ministerien im Saarland jedoch zahlreiche Arbeitnehmer auf dieser Basis beschäftigt
    werden, wirft die Saar-Linke ihr Unredlichkeit vor. > Seite B 2

    Saarland/Region : Stromausfall an Püttlinger Klinik

    Am Knappschaftsklinikum in Püttlingen ist in der Nacht zu Dienstag der Strom ausgefallen.
    Weil das Notstrom-Aggregat nicht funktionierte, war das Krankenhaus knapp eine
    Stunde lang ohne Elektrizität. Patienten kamen dadurch nicht zu Schaden. > Seite

    Bis 2020 soll die Luftqualität auch in den am stärksten belasteten Städten deutlich
    sinken. Dies versprach die Bundesumweltministerin Barbara Hendricks in Brüssel.
    Die EU-Kommission droht aber weiter mit einer Klage. > Seite A 9

    Immer wieder werden Patienten in Psychiatrien fixiert. Vor dem Bundesverfassungsgericht
    wird nun verhandelt, ob es in solchen Fällen einen generellen Richtervorbehalt
    geben soll. > Seite A 5

    Wirtschaft > Seite A 7

    Berlin (dpa) Die Deutschen werden nach Einschätzung der Sparkassen in diesem Jahr
    wieder mehr Geld zurücklegen. Vom verfügbaren Einkommen werden demnach 9,8 Prozent
    gespart – also knapp jeder zehnte Euro. Trotz niedriger Zinsen bleibe der „Sparfleiß“

    Paris (dpa) Frankreichs Wirtschaft ist im vergangenen Jahr so stark gewachsen
    wie seit sechs Jahren nicht mehr. Das Bruttoinlandsprodukt legte 2017 um 1,9 Prozent
    zu, wie das Statistikamt Insee nach einer ersten Schätzung mitteilte. Damit kann
    die

    Das Netzwerk Steuergerechtigkeit nennt die Bundesrepublik eine „Geheimnis-Oase
    für ausländisches Vermögen“.

    Leserbrief Kommunalreform/Ämterhäufung : Finger in die Wunden gelegt

    Leserbrief Kommunalreform : Bin auf Reaktionen sehr gespannt

    Leserbrief „Bomben auf Kurden in Syrien“ : Wenn alle so agieren, gibt’s Krieg

    Bomben auf Kurden in Syrien

    Leserbrief „Deutsche Behörden schieben Gefährder ab“ : Die deutschen Grenzen sind
    offen

    Abgas-Tests und SPD : Presseschau

    Zu den Abgas-Experimenten deutscher Autobauer mit Menschen und Tieren schreibt
    die italienische Zeitung „La Repubblica“:

    Kaiserslautern streitet über „FCK-Steuer“ : Rund um den Betzenberg regiert die
    Wut

    KAISERSLAUTERN (dpa) Wenn Kaiserslauterns Oberbürgermeister Klaus Weichel (SPD)
    derzeit seine Face­book-Seite aufruft, hat er keinen Grund zur Freude. Man möge
    ihn mit der Mistgabel aus der Stadt treiben, kann er dort lesen, oder: „Ab ins
    Endlager“.

    Silvio Berlusconi steht erneut im Zentrum von Italiens Politik. Auch wenn er derzeit
    keine Ämter übernehmen darf, kann er nach der Wahl am 4. März zum entscheidenden
    Machtfaktor werden.

    Israel befürchtet, Warschau wolle mit seiner geplanten Verordnung belegte Verbrechen
    seiner Bürger an jüdischen Nachbarn vertuschen.

    Flüchtling Zahredin lebt seit 2015 im Saarland. Frau und Kinder darf er nicht
    zu sich holen. Der gestern erzielte Groko-Konsens ändert daran wenig. Von Pascal
    Becher

    Beinahe wären am morgigen Donnerstag zwei Züge aufeinander zugefahren, die nach
    dem Willen ihrer Lokomotivführer demnächst gekoppelt werden sollen: Union und
    SPD. Doch dann erreichten die Verhandlungspartner in letzter Minute einen Kompromiss,
    den

    Designierter Vorsitzender des Haushaltsausschusses : Peter Boehringer kämpft für
    deutsches Gold und gegen den Euro

    Heute konstituiert sich der Haushaltsausschuss des Bundestages. Der designierte
    Vorsitzende kommt aus den Reihen der AfD.

    Berlin (dpa) Bus- und Bahnfahren dürfte nach Angaben der Betreiber auch in diesem
    Jahr in vielen Gemeinden teurer werden. Die Ticketpreise für den öffentlichen
    Nahverkehr könnten im Durchschnitt um 1,5 bis 2,0 Prozent steigen, sagte der Präsident
    des

    „Wir brauchen einen Pakt für den Mittelstand.“ Das forderte der Landesvorsitzende
    der CDU-Sozialausschüsse (CDA), Marc Speicher, anlässlich des Betriebs- und Personalräte-Empfangs
    der CDA und der CDU-Landtagsfraktion gestern in Saarbrücken. Dazu Von Lothar Warscheid

    Der Präsident der Saar-Universität kündigt neue Leuchtturm-Projekte an, darunter
    den Bau eines Innovationszentrums.

    Verbraucher haben im Saarland für Produkte und Dienstleistungen im Januar im Durchschnitt
    1,3 Prozent mehr bezahlen müssen als noch ein Jahr zuvor, wie das Statistische
    Amt in Saarbrücken mitteilte. Im Dezember hatte die Inflationsrate noch 1,4

    Die französischen Gewerkschaften bei Alstom haben sich gegen den geplanten Zusammenschluss
    des Zugherstellers mit Siemens ausgesprochen. „Siemens realisiert eine sehr schöne
    Operation: die Kontrolle über den Alstom-Konzern übernehmen, ohne Geld

    Berlin (dpa) Der langjährige Ford-Deutschlandchef Bernhard Mattes wird am 1. März
    Präsident des Verbands der Automobilindustrie (VDA). Das habe der Vorstand gestern
    einstimmig beschlossen, teilte der Verband mit. Der 61-Jährige löst damit Matthias

    Im Tarifkonflikt der Metall- und Elektroindustrie erhöht die IG Metall mit ihren
    neuartigen Tages-Warnstreiks den Druck. Bereits mit Beginn der Nachtschicht am
    späten Dienstagabend sollten unter anderem in Baden-Württemberg, Nordrhein-Westfalen
    und

    Wolfsburg (dpa) Die Debatte um umstrittene Abgastests an Affen hat erste personelle
    Folgen bei Volkswagen: Cheflobbyist Thomas Steg wurde beurlaubt. Der Vorstand
    habe ein entsprechendes Angebot des Generalbevollmächtigten für Konzern-Außenbeziehungen

    Für Barbara Hendricks war es die Stunde der Wahrheit. Denn die Bundesumweltministerin
    musste in Brüssel erfahren, dass der Preis für ständiges Wegducken und Verschlafen
    hoch sein kann. Die EU-Kommission ist fest entschlossen, die Ignoranz der Von
    Detlef Drewes

    Diesel-Abgase : Hendricks verspricht bis 2020 bessere Luft

    Die EU-Kommission bleibt skeptisch und droht Deutschland weiterhin mit einer Klage
    wegen zu hoher Stickoxid-Belastung. Von Detlef Drewes

    Bungee-Springen im Namen der Wissenschaft : Hirnforscher lassen Menschen 30 Mal
    von Brücke springen

    Zwei Bungee-Jumper haben sich im Namen der Hirnforschung insgesamt 30 Mal von
    der 192 Meter hohen Europabrücke bei Innsbruck gestürzt. Bei dem Experiment gelang
    es Wissenschaftlern um Surjo Soekadar vom Universitätsklinikum Tübingen erstmals,
    das

    Prozess : Staatsanwalt hält Entführer von Bus für psychisch krank

    Wegen der Entführung eines Linienbusses hat sich ein 34-Jähriger vor dem Landgericht
    Halle verantworten müssen. Der Angeklagte hatte angegeben, Stimmen zu hören. Diese
    hätten ihm im Juli des vergangenen Jahres dazu aufgefordert, den Bus samt Fahrer

    Wetter-Bilanz : Januar in Deutschland war zu warm und düster

    Offenbach (dpa) 35 Stunden Sonnenschein hat es im Schnitt im Januar gegeben –
    neun Stunden zu wenig, um das Mittel von 44 Stunden zu erreichen, wie der Deutsche
    Wetterdienst gestern mitteilte. Am seltensten ließ sich die Sonne demnach vom
    Frankenwald

    Nicht genehmigter Tanz : Strafe nach Bikini-Show an Bord eines Flugzeugs

    Hanoi (dpa) Die vietnamesische Billigfluggesellschaft Viet-Jet muss wegen eines
    nicht genehmigten Tanzes von Bikini-Models auf einem Flug eine Strafe von umgerechnet
    1400 Euro zahlen. Das teilte Vietnams zivile Luftfahrtbehörde mit. Auf dem Rückflug

    Seltener Fall : Starkoch Bras darf auf Sterne verzichten

    Paris (dpa) Der südfranzösische Starkoch Sébastien Bras darf auf seine drei Sterne
    im neuen Michelin-Gastronomieführer verzichten. Knapp eine Woche vor Erscheinen
    der Frankreich-Ausgabe 2018 bestätigte Michelin entsprechende Medienberichte.
    Ein

    Besondere Schwere der Schuld : Lebenslange Haft für Dreifach-Mörderin

    Gießen (dpa) Für die Morde an drei Menschen in Hessen und Nordrhein-Westfalen
    ist eine 36-jährige Frau in Gießen zu einer lebenslangen Freiheitsstrafe verurteilt
    worden. Das Landgericht sprach sie gestern schuldig, im April 2016 in Gießen einen

    70 Jahre Kinsey-Report : Wie „Dr. Sex“ einst Amerika erregte

    Vor 70 Jahren sorgte ein Bericht in Amerika für Aufsehen: Der Sexualforscher Alfred
    Kinsey legte erstmals dar, was im Bett passiert.

    Sport- und Landtagspräsident Klaus Meiser (CDU) war bis gestern der mächtigste
    Strippenzieher im Saarland. Mit Ämterhäufung und der Beschäftigung seiner Lebensgefährtin
    für beide Aufgaben verfing er sich immer mehr im eigenen Netzwerk. Von Peter Stefan
    Herbst

    Puigdemont bleibt einziger Kandidat : Wahl in Katalonien verschoben

    Barcelona (afp) Konfrontation vertagt: Das katalanische Parlament hat seine für
    gestern geplante Sitzung zur Wahl des künftigen Regionalpräsidenten auf unbestimmte
    Zeit verschoben, hält aber an der Kandidatur des im Brüsseler Exil lebenden

    Wien (dpa) Österreich und Ungarn wollen sich angesichts der illegalen Zuwanderung
    vieler Migranten gemeinsam für einen starken Schutz der EU-Außengrenzen einsetzen.
    Das bekräftigten der ungarische Ministerpräsident Viktor Orban und Österreichs

    Bundesverfassungsgericht : Dürfen Patienten gefesselt werden?

    Das Bundesverfassungsgericht entscheidet darüber, ob und wann ein richterlicher
    Beschluss notwendig ist.

    Selbstoptimierung : Profit im Wartezimmer

    Wer für das Wartezimmer zu schwach ist, sollte den Arzt gar nicht erst behelligen.
    Von Pia Rolfs

    Paris (afp) Forscher haben in Ägypten einen bislang unbekannten pflanzenfressenden
    Dinosaurier entdeckt, der zu der größten bekannten Art, den Sauropoden, gehört.
    Das Fossil des Mansourasaurus shahinae wurde in der Sahara gefunden, so das

    Auf der Fotoplattform Instagram findet man viele arrivierte Künstler. Manche von
    ihnen fügen ihrem Werk dort einen neuen Aspekt hinzu, andere stellen sich einfach
    einem jüngeren Publikum vor. Ein virtueller Rundgang.

    Saarlouis (SZ) Im Saarlouiser Theater am Ring diskutieren heute um 19.30 Uhr in
    der Reihe „Kulturstreit“ auf Einladung von SR2-Kulturradio und der Saarländischen
    Gesellschaft für Kulturpolitik der Saarbrücker Verleger Charly Lehnert und

    Saarbrücken (red) Der Filmemacher Philipp Hartmann zeigt heute ab 20 Uhr im Kino
    Achteinhalb seinen Film „66 Kinos“ – eine Dokumentation über einige der 66 Filmtheater,
    die er bei einer Kinotour zu einem früheren Film gedreht hat. Nach der Vorführung

    (dpa) Die Auswahl des Berliner Theatertreffens steht. Mit gleich zwei Produktionen
    reisen die Münchner Kammerspiele zu dem renommierten Festival (5. bis 21. Mai)
    an: Anta Helena Recke zeigt ihre Neuinszenierung von Anna-Sophie Mahlers Roman-Adaption

    Frankfurt (epd) Die geschäftsführende Familienministerin Katarina Barley (SPD)
    fordert Konsequenzen aus den Missbrauchsvorwürfen gegen Regisseur Dieter Wedel.
    „Bestätigen sich die Anschuldigungen, dann ist das ein Skandal, von dem sehr viele
    gewusst

    Wien (SZ) Der zweifache Cannes-Gewinner Michael Haneke dreht seine erste Fernsehserie.
    Für die Produktionsfirma UFA Fiction wird der österreichische Filmemacher die
    zehnteilige englischsprachige Serie „Kelwins Buch" entwickeln. Sie spielt in einer

    Berlin (dpa) Marie Sophie Hingst, Autorin des Blogs „Read on my Dear, read on“,
    ist bei der Verleihung der „Goldenen Blogger“ zur Bloggerin des Jahres gekürt
    worden. Der Journalist Richard Gutjahr wurde für seinen Kampf gegen Hass im Netz
    mit einem

    Paris (afp) In der französischen Filmbranche wird über einen Hilfsfonds für Opfer
    sexueller Gewalt nach dem Vorbild der Initiative „Time’s Up“ (Die Zeit ist reif)
    in den USA nachgedacht. „Alle Frauen sind Belästigung ausgesetzt“, sagte die

    Berlin (dpa) Die Filmfrauen in Deutschland schließen sich zusammen, um mehr Gleichberechtigung
    in der Branche durchzusetzen. Aus dem seit 2014 bestehenden Bündnis „Pro Quote
    Regie“ werde „Pro Quote Film“, teilten die Organisatorinnen mit. Die

    Die aus Luxemburg stammende Schauspielerin über ihre Hollywood-Karriere und ihre
    Rolle in „Der seidende Faden“. Von Martin Schwickert

    Der US-Präsident wird die Russland-Ermittlungen nicht los. Die Republikaner verschärfen
    jetzt ihre Kampagne gegen die Untersuchungen des FBI – mit einem heiklen Memorandum.

    Die saarländische CDU-Bundestagsabgeordnete Nadine Schön wurde im Rahmen der gestrigen
    Sitzung der CDU/CSU-Bundestagsfraktion mit überwältigender Mehrheit als stellvertretende
    Vorsitzende bestätigt. Damit bleibt die 34-jährige Saarländerin für die

    Ministerpräsidenten-Konferenz : Regierungschefs beraten mit Bund über Flüchtlingskosten

    Parallel zu den Koalitionsverhandlungen findet am Donnerstag in Berlin die Ministerpräsidentenkonferenz
    statt. Themen sollen dabei unter anderem eine mögliche Reform des öffentlich-rechtlichen
    Rundfunks, der Glücksspielstaatsvertrag, die Flüchtlingskosten sowie die deutsche
    Dieselfahrzeugflotte sein. Von Ute Kirch

    Sachgrundlose Befristungen : SPD und Linke streiten über Glaubwürdigkeit

    Die SPD will sachgrundlose Befristungen abschaffen. Doch in Saar-Behörden gibt
    es über 200 solcher Jobs. Wie passt das zusammen? Von Daniel Kirch

    Todbringender Brand in Saarbrücken : Feuerkatastrophe am Saarufer: Hat Vermieter
    Brandschutz eingehalten?

    Auch knapp zwei Monate nach der Brandkatastrophe in einem Mietshaus in der Saarbrücker
    Innenstadt sind die Ermittlungen seitens der Staatsanwaltschaft noch nicht abgeschlossen.
    Wie deren Sprecher Christoph Rebmann jetzt auf SZ-Anfrage sagte, stehen Von Matthias
    Zimmermann

    Geschwindigkeitskontrollen : Achtung, hier blitzt heute im Saarland die Polizei

    Saarbrücken (red) Auf diesen Strecken ist heute mit Radarkontrollen zu rechnen:
    Homburg, L 126 zwischen Quierschied und St. Ingbert, B 10 zwischen Eppelborn und
    Neububach, A 8 zwischen dem Dreieck Saarlouis und der Ausfahrt Heusweiler, A 62
    zwischen

    Ausnahmezustand im Knappschaftsklinikum Saar : Notstrom-Aggregat in Klinik versagt
    nach Stromausfall

    Ein Stromausfall in Püttlingen hat für einen Großeinsatz von Feuerwehr und Technischem
    Hilfswerk (THW) am Knappschafts-Klinikum Saar gesorgt. Denn das Notstrom-Aggregrat,
    das bei einem Blackout einspringen und die Versorgung lebenswichtiger Geräte Von
    Matthias Zimmermann

    Rettungsdienst : Hilfsfrist wird noch nicht überall eingehalten

    Zwölf Minuten bis zum Einsatzort – dieses Ziel schafft der Rettungsdienst nicht
    überall, trotz acht neuer Rettungswachen. Wie geht es jetzt weiter? Von Daniel
    Kirch

    Rettungsdienst : Das Problem nicht aussitzen

    Der Rettungsdienst im Saarland ist im Vergleich zu anderen Flächenländern gut
    aufgestellt, die im Gesetz vorgeschriebene Hilfsfrist von zwölf Minuten ist ambitioniert.
    Wenn sie nicht eingehalten wird, gibt es nur zwei Möglichkeiten: Entweder man
    Von Daniel Kirch

    Einbrüche : Täter brechen in Schulen im Kreis Merzig ein

    Im Raum Merzig ist in den vergangenen Tagen in zwei Schulen und einen Kindergarten
    eingebrochen worden. Wie die Polizei mitteilt, traf es in der Nacht zu Montag
    zunächst die Förderschule in Merzig-Bietzen. Dort hebelten die Täter ein Fenster
    auf und

    Polizei : Zwölf berauschte Fahrer erwischt

    Saarbrücken (red) Zwölf Autofahrer hat die saarländische Polizei bei Kontrollen
    in der vergangenen Woche aus dem Verkehr gezogen. Jetzt, da landesweit Karnevalsveranstaltungen
    stattfinden, kontrolliert die Polizei nach eigenen Angaben besonders

    Wer an Fastnacht auf witzige Kostüme setzt, liegt nicht mehr im Trend – so lautet
    jedenfalls die Grundtendenz im Verkauf und Kostümverleih im Saarland.

    Diskussion über Hallengebühren : Mehr Geld für Vereins-Jugendarbeit?

    Der Stadtrat hatte beschlossen, die Gebühren um rund zwölf Prozent zum 1. März
    zu erhöhen und begründete das mit gestiegenen Personal- und Energiekosten. Die
    Gebührenerhöhung könnte nun um einen weiteren Monat verschoben werden. Von Markus
    Saeftel

    Die Polizei sucht Zeugen einer Unfallflucht in Habkirchen. Von red

    Polizei sucht Fahrer : Polizei sucht einen Unfall-Beteiligten

    Die Polizei sucht einen Autofahrer. Am Sonntag gegen 18.50 Uhr kam es in der Kuchenbergstraße
    zu einem Verkehrsunfall. Ein grauer Audi A 3 kam leicht nach links von seiner
    Fahrspur ab und kollidierte mit einem entgegenkommenden Auto am Außenspiegel,

    Einbruch in Neunkirchen : Einbrecher knacken Spielautomaten

    Unbekannte sind in der Zeit zwischen Freitagabend vergangener Woche und Montagmorgen
    in eine Gaststätte in der Neunkircher Max-Braun-Straße eingebrochen. Die Täter
    verschafften sich zunächst über die Eingangstür des Ladenlokals gewaltsam Zutritt,
    so

    Die LSVS-Affäre hat nun personelle Konsequenzen: Verbands-Chef und Landtagspräsident
    Klaus Meiser muss mehrere Aufsichts-Gremien verlassen. Von Daniel Kirch

    Beim Streitthema Familiennachzug von Flüchtlingen haben Union und SPD eine Einigung
    gefunden. Von Stefan Vetter

    Unbekannte haben die Wochenend-Einnahmen des Schaumbergbades Tholey gestohlen.
    Laut Polizei ist der Sachschaden „bedeutend“. Von Christine Kloth

    Saar-Ministerpräsidentin Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer (CDU) glaubt an einen Abschluss
    der Verhandlungen über die Neuauflage einer großen Koalition im Bund in wenigen
    Tagen.

    Das Saarland war im Januar das wärmste und nasseste Bundesland mit den wenigsten
    Sonnenschein. Die Sonne ließ sich hier weniger als 25 Stunden blicken, wie der
    Deutsche Wetterdienst (DWD) in Offenbach am Dienstag mitteilte. In Rheinland-Pfalz
    schien

    Zwölf Autofahrer, die durch Alkohol oder sonstige berauschende Mittel in ihrer
    Fahrtüchtigkeit beeinträchtigt waren, zog die saarländische Polizei bei ihren
    Kontrollen in der letzten Woche aus dem Verkehr. Das hat die Polizei mitgeteilt.

    Bei einem Wohnhausbrand in Püttlingen sind am Montagnachmittag ein Hausbewohner
    und ein Feuerwehrmann leicht verletzt worden. Von Christine Kloth

    Der 49-jährige Lkw-Fahrer, der in der Nacht zum Montag auf der A 8 verunglückt
    ist, war offenbar alles andere als gesund. Von Jan Althoff

    Alkohol und Autofahren passt nicht gut zusammen. Doch das weiß längst noch nicht
    jeder. In den vergangenen Tagen hatte die Illinger Polizeiinspektion gleich mehrere
    Fälle, die das belegen. Einen 20-Jährigen aus Merchweiler erwarten gleich mehrere
    Von Michael Beer

    St. Johann (red). Die Freien Demokraten im Saarbrücker Stadtrat fordern ein neues
    Konzept für den Neujahrsempfangs der Oberbürgermeisterin Charlotte Britz.

    Für den Geschäftsführer der Stadtwerke Bliestal, Bernhard Wendel, gehört das Blieskasteler
    Kombibad zu den wichtigsten „Baustellen“. Von Erich Schwarz

    Ob wichtige Personendaten oder Schriftstücke mit hohem emotionalen Wert: Jeder
    Mensch hat bestimmte Dokumente, die er sicher verwahrt wissen möchte. Doch wie
    geht man am besten vor, wenn man diese wichtigen Dokumente effizient vor öffentlichem

    Ein tödlicher Lastwagen-Unfall auf der A 8 hatte am Montag weitreichende Folgen.
    Noch unklar war bislang, was die Ursache des Unglücks war. Nun gibt es erste Hinweise
    darauf, dass der 49-jährige Fahrer des Lkw, der in der Nacht zum Montag auf der
    A Von red

    Das Fahrzeug eines Beschäftigten ist am Montagmorgen wurde auf dem Mitarbeiterparkplatz
    einer großen Bäckerei in Bliesen beschädigt worden. Die Polizei grenzt die Zeit
    auf zwischen 4.30 und 8.45 Uhr ein. Der Mann stellte seinen blauen Toyota Avensis

    Einbrecher haben in der Nacht auf Montag das Schaumbergbad in Tholey heimgesucht.
    Nach den bislang vorliegenden Erkenntnissen der Polizei geschah die Tat zwischen
    21.45 Uhr am Sonntagabend und 6.25 Uhr am Montagmorgen, als die erste Reinigungskraft

    Die Yoga-Einheit nach der Arbeit oder morgens nach dem Aufstehen gehört mittlerweile
    für viele Menschen zum Alltag. Dass Yoga positive Auswirkungen auf die körperliche
    und geistige Gesundheit hat, ist längst kein Geheimnis mehr. Wie die uralte

    In der Erbacher Rubensstraße ist aus dem Vorgarten des Hauses mit der Nummer 6
    ein Deko-Fahrrad gestohlen worden. Von Ulrike Stumm

    Nahe des Kindergartens in Überroth-Niederhofen soll es ein 57-Jähriger auf geparkte
    Autos abgesehen haben. Von Matthias Zimmermann

    Erbach (ust) Ein 23-Jähriger aus der Nachbarschaft hat im Erbacher Hügelweg einen
    Ford beschädigt. Von Ulrike Stumm

    St. Wendel (him) Die CDU-Bundestagsabgeordnete Nadine Schön aus Tholey wurde während
    der Sitzung der CDU/CSU-Bundestagsfraktion am Montag mit überwältigender Mehrheit
    als stellvertretende Vorsitzende bestätigt. Damit bleibt die 34-jährige Von Melanie
    Mai

    Seit einem halben Jahr müssen Mobilfunk- und Festnetzanbieter ihre Kunden besser
    über ihre Angebote informieren. Wie ein Test der Stiftung Warentest zeigt, setzen
    viele die neuen Regeln jedoch nicht angemessen um. Von Nina Scheid

    Altreifen hat ein Unbekannter illegal auf einem Wiesengelände im Buchenweg in
    Nonnweiler entsorgt. Am Montagvormittag erstattete die 59-Jährige Anwohnerin Strafanzeige.
    Sie teilte mit, dass während der vergangenen Wochen etwa 40 Altreifen auf dem
    Von Melanie Mai

    In einen Rohbau in der Primstaler Straße in Selbach sind Unbekannte in der Zeit
    zwischen Dienstag, 23. Januar, 19 Uhr, und Mittwoch, 24. Januar, 8 Uhr, eingebrochen.
    Wie die Polizei erst jetzt mitteilte, entwendeten sie folgende Arbeitsgeräte:
    eine Von Melanie Mai

    Auf dem Spielplatz in der Kraftwerkstraße im Homburger Stadtteil Beeden, im Bereich
    zu den Gartengrundstücken Kraftwerkstraße 21 bis 25, müssen sieben Großsträucher
    gefällt werden. Die zu fällenden Steinweichseln sind in ihrer Bruchsicherheit
    stark Von red

    Feuerwehr-Großeinsatz : Stromausfall in Püttlinger Klinik trifft auch Intensivstation

    Rund eine Dreiviertelstunde haben Pfleger, Ärzte und Patienten im Knappschaftskrankenhaus
    im Dunkeln getappt. Die Feuerwehr war vor Ort, um Notleitungen zu legen. Von Matthias
    Zimmermann'
  - "IBM designed, manufactured and sold optical mark and character readers from 1960\
    \ until 1984.  The IBM 1287 is notable as being the first commercially sold scanner\
    \ capable of reading handwritten numbers.\n\nInitial development work \nIBM Poughkeepsie\
    \ studied machine character recognition from 1950 till 1954, developing an experimental\
    \ machine that used a cathode-ray-tube attached an IBM 701 which performed the\
    \ character analysis.  They pursued a technique known as lakes and bays which\
    \ examined different areas of dark and light where the lakes were white areas\
    \ enclosed by black and the bays were partially enclosed areas. Their machine\
    \ and mission was moved to IBM Endicott in 1954, where research continued.   From\
    \ 1955 to 1956 they then worked on the VIDOR (Visual Document Reader) program,\
    \ but they could not get agreement on acceptable reject rate.  The developers\
    \ felt 80% recognition was acceptable (meaning 20% of documents would need to\
    \ be manually processed), while product planners and IBM Marketing felt that compared\
    \ to punched card reject rates, the reject rate was unacceptably high.  This led\
    \ to no new products being released.\n\nIn 1956 the American Bankers Association\
    \ chose to use Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) to automate check handling,\
    \ rejecting a proposed solution generated by an IBM Poughkeepsie banking project\
    \ that used optical characters formed by vertical bars and digits.   IBM developed\
    \ a magnetic read head to handle the new standard, releasing the IBM 1210 MICR\
    \ reader/sorter in 1959.   The development work for this product both with read\
    \ heads and document handling, helped move optical character recognition forward,\
    \ with development focusing on reading one or two lines of print from a paper\
    \ document larger than an IBM punched card.  The first product to be released\
    \ was the IBM 1418.\n\nIBM 123x Optical Mark Readers \nThe IBM 1230, IBM 1231,\
    \ and IBM 1232 were optical mark readers used to input the contents of data sources\
    \ such as questionnaires, test results, surveys as well as historical data that\
    \ could be easily entered as marks on sheets.  Educational institutes used them\
    \ to score test results and they were effectively a replacement for the IBM 805\
    \ Test Scoring Machine that used electrical resistance and a mark sense pencil\
    \ to score a test, rather than optical mark detection. They were developed and\
    \ manufactured by IBM Rochester.\n\nThey have the following features:\n\n A pneumatic\
    \ input hopper that can hold approximately 600 sheets\n Two output stackers: the\
    \ normal stacker that holds 600 sheets and the select (or reject) stacker which\
    \ holds 50 sheets.\n Pluggable SMS printed circuit cards\n They can read positional\
    \ marks made by a lead pencil using an optical read head that consists of photovoltaic(solar)\
    \ cells and lamps\n The 1230 has 21 photovoltaic cells, 20 for reading the pencil\
    \ marks and one to read timing marks on the right hand border of the sheet.\n\
    \ The 1231 and 1232 have 22 photovoltaic cells, 20 to read data, one to read timing\
    \ marks and one to read a special feature called a master mark.\n Input size is\
    \ a  sheet called a data sheet that can have up to 1000 marked or printed positions\
    \ per side.\n Uses electromechanical devices known as sonic delay lines to store\
    \ results.\n\nIBM 1230 Optical Mark Scoring Reader \nThe IBM 1230 is an offline\
    \ optical mark reader that can read and score 1,200 test answer sheets per hour.\n\
    \n It uses a wire matrix to printer to print the test results on the right margin\
    \ of the answer sheet as the sheet is being processed.\n It can optionally send\
    \ output to an IBM 534 Model 3 Card Punch.  Throughput of 750 sheets an hour is\
    \ achieved when punching 80 columns of data.\n The operator needs to enter two\
    \ master sheets, one with the correct answers to the test being scored and the\
    \ other for the 1230 to record run information.\n\nIBM 1231 Optical Mark Page\
    \ Reader \nThe IBM 1231 is an online optical mark reader that can read and score\
    \ 2000 test answer sheets per hour, depending on downstream operations.\nThe correct\
    \ answers for the test can either be entered using a master sheet (like the 1230)\
    \ or sent to the 1231 using the optional master-mark special feature.\n\nIBM 1232\
    \ Optical Mark Page Reader \nThe IBM 1232 is an offline optical mark reader that\
    \ can read up to 2000 marked sheets per hour.\n\n Documents can be read at up\
    \ to 2000 sheets per hour, but this depends on the number of characters that need\
    \ to be punched from each sheet.\n The IBM 1232 reads the marks and then punches\
    \ them into cards using a IBM 534 Model 3 Card Punch.  Together they can read\
    \ up to 64,000 characters per hour or 800 fully punched cards.\n\nExample customers\
    \ \n\n The California Test Bureau (CTB) that provided standardised achievement\
    \ tests for educational institutes across the USA, began replacing their IBM 805s\
    \ with IBM 1230s in 1963. They then installed two IBM 1232s in 1964.  Being able\
    \ to use a full  answer sheet rather than a  mark sense card, eliminated the need\
    \ to use multiple answer cards per test per student, as well as dramatically increased\
    \ the marking speed for test answers.\n Credit Bureau Services of Dallas used\
    \ an IBM 1232 in 1966 as part of their first computerisation project. They marked\
    \ credit history data onto optical scanning sheets that were fed into their IBM\
    \ 1232. The attached IBM 534 then punched this data onto punched cards, which\
    \ were then fed into their IBM System/360 Model 30.\n In 1968 the US Army Corps\
    \ of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) began using special\
    \ log books for their coastal surveyors to record coastal survey data, which was\
    \ then converted to punched cards by an IBM 1232.\n\nIBM 2956 Optical Mark/Hole\
    \ Reader \n\nThe IBM 2956 Models 2 and 3 are custom build optical mark/hole readers\
    \ designed to be attached to an IBM 2740 Communications Terminal.\n\n The IBM\
    \ 2956-2 can read cards that have either been hand or machine marked or that have\
    \ been punched.   The cards can be fed by hand or from the 400 card hopper.  It\
    \ has a 400 card stacker. The 2956-2 could be ordered by request for price quotation\
    \ (RPQ) 843086.\n The IBM 2956-3 can read cards that have either been hand or\
    \ machine marked or that have been punched.  It can also read marked sheets up\
    \ to  in size, although only a   band along the side of the sheet can be read\
    \ (the width of a punched card).  It does not have a hopper or a stacker, so each\
    \ card or sheet must be manually fed into the machine. The 2956-3 could be ordered\
    \ by request for price quotation (RPQ) 843106. The 2956-3 could be attached to\
    \ an IBM 3276 or IBM 3278 display station with RPQ UB9001.\n\nOne use case for\
    \ the IBM 2956 is to grade school tests. On completion of a learning module a\
    \ student can use an optical scan-type card to record answers to up to 27 questions,\
    \ with up to 5 choices per question. They are scanned by the reader and the results\
    \ are then transmitted to an IBM System/360 in remote job entry mode and can also\
    \ be printed on the IBM 2740. The reader can also be attached to an IBM 3735 which\
    \ transmits results to an IBM System/370 and which prints results on an IBM 3286\
    \ printer.  They can also be attached to an IBM System/3.\n\nNote that the IBM\
    \ 2956 Model 5 (2956-5) was a banking reader/sorter.\n\nIBM 1282 Optical Reader\
    \ Card Punch \nThe IBM 1282 is an offline optical reader that is used to read\
    \ embossed credit card receipts, a mark read field or machine printed characters\
    \ in three different fonts.  It then outputs this data onto a punched card. It\
    \ was developed and manufactured by IBM Endicott. It proved popular and within\
    \ two years of announcement 100 machines were installed or on order.\n\nExample\
    \ customer \n\n The New York Department of Motor Vehicles reported that from 1964\
    \ until 1968 they were using an IBM 1282 to read machine printed license renewal\
    \ slips that had been mailed back as part of the renewal process.  They would\
    \ scan the slip and then process the resulting punched card.  This worked well\
    \ until the DMV decided to request renewals include the drivers Social Security\
    \ Number (SSN), which meant a handwritten number needed to be either manually\
    \ keyed or a new scanning device procured.   They switched to the IBM 1287 in\
    \ 1968.\n\nIBM 1285 Optical Reader \nThe IBM 1285 is an online optical reader\
    \ that is used to read printed paper tapes from cash registers or adding machines.\
    \  It was developed by IBM Endicott and manufactured by IBM Rochester. The IBM\
    \ 1285 attaches to an IBM 1401, 1440, 1460 or System/360.  It has a small round\
    \ screen to display characters being read and it has a keyboard to enter header\
    \ information and to optionally enter character corrections for rejected characters.\
    \ It can read a  roll or paper tape in three-and-a half minutes, reading data\
    \ at speeds of up to 3000 lines per minute.  It can mark the tape with a dot to\
    \ indicate unreadable characters, so they can be rekeyed later.  It users System/360\
    \ SLT circuitry and scans with an electronic beam of light called a \"flying spot\"\
    .\n\nIBM 1287 Optical Reader \nThe IBM 1287 is an online reader that can optically\
    \ scan cut form documents to generate input data for an IBM System/360 or System/370\
    \ host, reading machine printed data as well as handprinted numbers and optical\
    \ marks (based on installed model and features).  IBM claim it is the first commercial\
    \ scanner that can read hand written numbers written in pencil.  It was developed\
    \ and manufactured by IBM Rochester and first shipped in January 1968.\n\nAn engineering\
    \ model was famously demonstrated at the IBM Pavilion of the 1964-1965 World Fair\
    \ in New York.  IBM representatives at the stand invited visitors to write a date\
    \ on a card (as far back as September 18, 1851) which was then scanned by the\
    \ machine and a headline from The New York Times newspaper for the matching date\
    \ was then printed on a souvenir card.  The attached IBM 1460 had nearly 40,000\
    \ headlines in storage.  This promotional exercise also gave IBM handwriting samples\
    \ to test with.\n\nIt has the following features:\n\n An input hopper that holds\
    \ an  stack of documents.  \nThree output stackers that can each hold a  stack\
    \ of documents.  \n Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size.  \n Based\
    \ on document size, throughput ranges from 665 documents per minute for a  document\
    \ with one field of 20 machine printed characters to less than 100 documents per\
    \ minute for a  document with 50 fields of handprinted characters.\n Has a CRT\
    \ to display unrecognised characters (after 10 attempted scans) and a keyboard\
    \ for the operator to enter a correction.\nA serial number feature to print a\
    \ number from 00000 to 99999 on each document.\nEach model has different default\
    \ recognition capabilities, but additional capabilities can be added as part of\
    \ the machine order.  For instance numeric handwriting recognition can be plant\
    \ installed on Models 1-4 by ordering a feature code.\n Model 1: Reads numeric\
    \ printed data from cut sheet paper or cards.  \n Model 2: Reads numeric printed\
    \ data from cut sheet paper or cards or a  continuous roll of paper (such as a\
    \ journal tape). \n Model 3: Same as Model 1 but also can read OCR A front.  \
    \ \n Model 4: Same as Model 2 but also can read OCR A front.\n Model 5: Reads\
    \ numeric handprinted digits and certain alphabetic characters.   Feature code\
    \ 2987 added a \"Multifont Preprocessor\".\n\nExample customers \n\n The New York\
    \ Department of Motor Vehicles reported in 1968 they started using an IBM 1287\
    \ after the DMV decided to request driver license renewals include the drivers\
    \ Social Security Number (SSN).  The IBM 1287 could read both the machine printed\
    \ data on the renewal slip as well as the drivers hand written SSN.  Around two\
    \ thirds of returned renewals could be scanned with this system.\n\nIBM 1288 Optical\
    \ Page Reader \nThe IBM 1288 is an online reader that can optically scan cut sheet\
    \ pages to generate input data for an IBM System/360 or System/370 host, reading\
    \ the OCR-A font, handprinted numbers (with an optional feature) and/or optical\
    \ marks (with an optional feature). It was developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester\
    \ and first shipped in July 1969. The use of the word \"Page\" in the product\
    \ name reflects the ability of the IBM 1288 to scan full size pages, nearly twice\
    \ as large as the IBM 1287.\n\nIt has the following features:\n\n An input hopper\
    \ that can hold a  stack of documents.\n Two output stackers that can each hold\
    \ either a  stack of short documents or a  stack of long documents.  One output\
    \ stacker is reserved for documents with unrecognisable characters.\nDocuments\
    \ to be scanned can range from  to  in size.  \n A serial number feature to print\
    \ a number from 00000 to 99999 on each document.\nIBM did not publish a maximum\
    \ throughput value, stating it would vary based on a variety of factors such as\
    \ document size and the number and type of fields to be read.\n\nIt is composed\
    \ of three frames:\n\nExample customers \n The City of Baltimore used an IBM 1288\
    \ to prepare such things as property tax bills, water meter bills, income tax\
    \ forms, and to control food stamps. \n The State of Maryland used an IBM 1288\
    \ for scanning hand-marked income tax documents sent in by employers.   They reported\
    \ an 85% acceptance rate.\n\nIBM 14x8 Optical Readers \nThe first optical reader\
    \ released by IBM was the IBM 1418 which could read numbers and vertical bars\
    \ and which used the same transport as the IBM 1419 cheque sorter.  The IBM 1428\
    \ was physically very similar to the IBM 1418 (except it did not have a CRT mounted\
    \ on top), but it was able to read both letters as well as numbers.\n\nIBM 1418\
    \ Optical Character Reader \n\nThe IBM 1418 is able to read a standard numerical\
    \ font used by the IBM 407 in one of two sizes. It can also read vertical markings\
    \ made with a pencil. IBM claimed it is suitable for cash-accounting applications\
    \ where small payment stubs need to be processed. It was developed and manufactured\
    \ by IBM Endicott.\n\nIt has the following features:\n\n It uses a device IBM\
    \ call a \"mechanical image dissector\" that reads the characters in multiple\
    \ vertical bands, that are then combined and tested. \n Is cable connected to\
    \ either an IBM 1401 or IBM 1410. \n Reading speed is 480 characters per second,\
    \ up to 400 documents per minute.\n The IBM 1418 features a CRT on the top of\
    \ the unit that adds  to the height of the machine.\n The Model 3 is similar to\
    \ a Model 1 but can handle broader paper size ranges.\n\nExample customers \n\n\
    \ The Pennsylvania Power & Light Company claims to have installed the first commercially\
    \ available IBM 1418.  It was used to scan bill stubs returned by their customers\
    \ including power meter information.\n\nIBM 1428 Alphanumeric Reader \nThe IBM\
    \ 1428 can read alphabetic and numeric scan data from printed documents like payment\
    \ stubs, but is limited to reading a special font. IBM claimed it is suitable\
    \ to  scan documents such as: \"insurance premium notices, charge sales invoices,\
    \ operations and route slips, payroll and dividend checks and mail orders\". It\
    \ was developed and manufactured by IBM Endicott.\n\nIt has the following features:\n\
    \n It uses a device IBM call a \"mechanical image dissector\" that reads the characters\
    \ in multiple vertical bands, that are then combined and tested. \n Is cable connected\
    \ to either an IBM 1401 or IBM 1410. \n Reading speed is 480 characters per second,\
    \ up to 400 documents per minute.\n The Model 3 is similar to a Model 1 but can\
    \ handle broader paper size ranges.\n\nIBM 1975 Optical Page Reader \nIn October\
    \ 1961 the US Social Security Administration (SSA) requested proposals for OCR\
    \ equipment to help them reduce the 57 million lines of information they had to\
    \ manually enter by keyboard each quarter.  IBM responded to the SSA in February\
    \ 1962 using the work of an IBM engineer called Evon Greanias who had developed\
    \ a curve-follower method that used a CRT flying-spot scanner which not dependent\
    \ on fixed fonts and in fact had the potential to be used to read handwriting.\
    \  IBM was requested to provide a more detailed response in May 1963, by which\
    \ time IBM Research and IBM Rochester (who were now responsible for the project)\
    \ had developed detailed statistical decision techniques.  The one-of-a-kind IBM\
    \ 1975 was delivered to the SSA in late 1965.\n\nIt was used to read a form known\
    \ as a #941 that contains on average 22 lines per page (to a maximum of 44 lines).\
    \  It was able to read at a 52 to 55% acceptance rate.  It was taken out of service\
    \ in 1977.\n\nIBM 388x Optical Readers \nReleased in 1972 and withdrawn in 1984,\
    \ the IBM 3881 and IBM 3886 are the last family of optical readers released by\
    \ IBM.\n\nIBM 3881 Optical Mark Reader \nThe IBM 3881 is an optical mark reader,\
    \ meaning it reads machine or hand printed marks, but not OCR fonts or handprinted\
    \ numbers. It was developed and manufactured by IBM Rochester. There are three\
    \ models.\n\nIt has the following features:\n\n Documents to be scanned can range\
    \ from  to  in size. \n Throughput is affected by document length.  When reading\
    \  documents it can read 4,000 per hour.\n A vacuum cleaner is built into the\
    \ machine.\n The IBM 3881-2 sends scanned data to a directly attached IBM 3410-1\
    \ Magnetic Tape Drive. The  tape-drive that weighed  is not included in the physical\
    \ statistics shown below.\n\nThe last IBM 3881 manufactured by IBM Rochester was\
    \ shipped to a customer in Puerto Rico in January 1980.\n\nIBM 3886 Optical Character\
    \ Reader \nThe IBM 3886 is an optical page reader, meaning it reads OCR fonts\
    \ or handprinted numbers. It was developed by IBM Rochester and manufactured by\
    \ both IBM Rochester and IBM Greenock Scotland. There are two models.\n\nIt has\
    \ the following features:\n\n Documents to be scanned can range from  to  in size.\n\
    \ The input hopper holds a  stack of documents\n By default it can read the OCR-A\
    \ font, but OCR-B and numeric hand printing support can be added.\nThe IBM 3886-2\
    \ sends scanned data to a directly attached IBM 3410-1 Magnetic Tape Drive. The\
    \  tape-drive that weighed  is not included in the physical statistics shown below.\n\
    On July 17, 1974, IBM announced a feature which became known as \"Video collect\"\
    \ which allowed an operator to display and re-key characters that could not be\
    \ recognised.  It requires an IBM 3277 console to display the characters in question.\n\
    \nProcessing speed ranges from:\n\n 4.4 documents per minute for a  sheet with\
    \ 29 lines per sheet and 78 characters per line (2260 characters)\n 94 documents\
    \ per minute for a  sheet with 1 lines per sheet and 8 characters per line\n\n\
    Example customers \n In 1974 the City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii reported\
    \ they were using an IBM 3886 to process motor vehicle and bicycle registration\
    \ renewals, of which they received 400,000 annually.  The 3886 scans the renewal\
    \ forms at up to 5,000 forms an hour, storing them on tape, which is later played-back\
    \ on their mainframe.  They thus avoided the need to manually enter these details\
    \ onto punched cards.\n In 1975 Union Mutual, a health care provider, reported\
    \ they were using an IBM 3886 to scan Medicare claims and benefit documents, allowing\
    \ them to handle a 50% growth in Medicare transactions over two years.   They\
    \ scanned documents to tape, running them later on their System/370.   Rejected\
    \ documents (which averaged  20% for Medicare claims) were re-run using the \"\
    video collect\" capability that allowed them to key in the correct value and avoid\
    \ the need to manually key in the whole document.  This allowed them to always\
    \ process documents the same day.\n In 1976 Milgrims Food Stores in Kansas City,\
    \ Mo, reported they were using an IBM 3886 to scan store delivery forms, resolving\
    \ a major issue they had tracking vendor deliveries to their stores.\n\nAdvanced\
    \ Optical Character Reader Postal Service \nOn October 26, 1970, the U.S. Postal\
    \ Service awarded IBM a US$6.7 million contract to develop the Advanced Optical\
    \ Character Reader Postal Service. Development was carried out by both IBM Rochester\
    \ and the IBM Federal Systems Division in IBM Gaithersburg.  The goal was to sort\
    \ 1 million letters in a 24-hour operating period.\n\nIn June 1972 the Postal\
    \ Program group shipped its Advanced Optical Character Reader (AOCR) to the New\
    \ York City General Post Office in Manhattan.  It can scan and sort 24 machine-addressed\
    \ envelopes per second.\n\nIBM was one of three vendors to deliver a machine in\
    \ the program.   The total cost of the program was US$28.9 million and none of\
    \ the machines were considered suitable for full-scale production. The IBM contract\
    \ had a cost over-run of over US$6million dollars.\n\nIBM OCR reader/sorters \n\
    IBM released several OCR reader/sorter products mainly for the European finance\
    \ industry.   These are detailed in the IBM document processors article, including\
    \ the following:\n\n IBM 1270 \n IBM 1275\n IBM 3890 Models C and D\n IBM 3890\
    \ XP1 with OCR feature\nIBM also released an inscriber that could optically read\
    \ handwritten amounts to avoid the need to proof a check:\nIBM 3895\n\nReferences\n\
    \nExternal links \n IBM 1287 Brochure\n IBM at the Worlds Fair\n\nOptical mark\
    \ and character readers\nOptical character recognition"
  - "The determination of the day of the week for any date may be performed with a\
    \ variety of algorithms. In addition, perpetual calendars require no calculation\
    \ by the user, and are essentially lookup tables.\nA typical application is to\
    \ calculate the day of the week on which someone was born or a specific event\
    \ occurred.\n\nConcepts\nIn numerical calculation, the days of the week are represented\
    \ as weekday numbers. If Monday is the first day of the week, the days may be\
    \ coded 1 to 7, for Monday through Sunday, as is practiced in ISO 8601. The day\
    \ designated with 7 may also be counted as 0, by applying the arithmetic modulo\
    \ 7, which calculates the remainder of a number after division by 7. Thus, the\
    \ number 7 is treated as 0, 8 as 1, 9 as 2, 18 as 4 and so on. If Sunday is counted\
    \ as day 1, then 7 days later (i.e. day 8) is also a Sunday, and day 18 is the\
    \ same as day 4, which is a Wednesday since this falls three days after Sunday.\n\
    \nThe basic approach of nearly all of the methods to calculate the day of the\
    \ week begins by starting from an 'anchor date': a known pair (such as 1 January\
    \ 1800 as a Wednesday), determining the number of days between the known day and\
    \ the day that you are trying to determine, and using arithmetic modulo 7 to find\
    \ a new numerical day of the week.\n\nOne standard approach is to look up (or\
    \ calculate, using a known rule) the value of the first day of the week of a given\
    \ century, look up (or calculate, using a method of congruence) an adjustment\
    \ for the month, calculate the number of leap years since the start of the century,\
    \ and then add these together along with the number of years since the start of\
    \ the century, and the day number of the month. Eventually, one ends up with a\
    \ day-count to which one applies modulo 7 to determine the day of the week of\
    \ the date.\n\nSome methods do all the additions first and then cast out sevens,\
    \ whereas others cast them out at each step, as in Lewis Carroll's method. Either\
    \ way is quite viable: the former is easier for calculators and computer programs,\
    \ the latter for mental calculation (it is quite possible to do all the calculations\
    \ in one's head with a little practice). None of the methods given here perform\
    \ range checks, so unreasonable dates will produce erroneous results.\n\nCorresponding\
    \ days\nEvery seventh day in a month has the same name as the previous:\n\nCorresponding\
    \ months\n\"Corresponding months\" are those months within the calendar year that\
    \ start on the same day of the week. For example, September and December correspond,\
    \ because 1 September falls on the same day as 1 December (as there are precisely\
    \ thirteen 7-day weeks between the two dates). Months can only correspond if the\
    \ number of days between their first days is divisible by 7, or in other words,\
    \ if their first days are a whole number of weeks apart. For example, February\
    \ of a common year corresponds to March because February has 28 days, a number\
    \ divisible by 7, 28 days being exactly four weeks.\nIn a leap year, January and\
    \ February correspond to different months than in a common year, since adding\
    \ 29 February means each subsequent month starts a day later.\n\nJanuary corresponds\
    \ to October in common years and April and July in leap years. February corresponds\
    \ to March and November in common years and August in leap years. March always\
    \ corresponds to November, April always corresponds to July, and September always\
    \ corresponds to December. August does not correspond to any other month in a\
    \ common year. October doesn't correspond to any other month in a leap year. May\
    \ and June never correspond to any other month.\n\nIn the months table below,\
    \ corresponding months have the same number, a fact which follows directly from\
    \ the definition.\n\nCorresponding years \n\nThere are seven possible days that\
    \ a year can start on, and leap years will alter the day of the week after 29\
    \ February. This means that there are 14 configurations that a year can have.\
    \ All the configurations can be referenced by a dominical letter, but as 29 February\
    \ has no letter allocated to it, a leap year has two dominical letters, one for\
    \ January and February and the other (one step back in the alphabetical sequence)\
    \ for March to December.\n\n2021 is a common year starting on Friday, which means\
    \ that it corresponds to the 2010 calendar year. The first two months of 2021\
    \ correspond to the first two months of 2016. 2022 is a common year starting on\
    \ Saturday, which means that it corresponds to the 2011 calendar year. The last\
    \ ten months of 2022 correspond to the last ten months of 2016. 2023 is a common\
    \ year starting on Sunday, which means that it corresponds to the 2017 calendar\
    \ year. 2024 is a leap year starting on Monday, which means that it corresponds\
    \ to the 1996 calendar year. The first two months of 2024 correspond to the first\
    \ two months of 2018. The last ten months of 2024 correspond to the last ten months\
    \ of 2019. \n\nEach leap year repeats once every 28 years, and every common year\
    \ repeats once every 6 years and twice every 11 years. For instance, the last\
    \ occurrence of a leap year starting on Wednesday was 2020 and the next occurrence\
    \ will be 2048. Likewise, the next common years starting on Friday will be 2027,\
    \ 2038, and then 2049. Both of these statements are true unless a leap year is\
    \ skipped, but that will not happen until 2100. \n\nFor details see the table\
    \ below.\n\nNotes:\n\n Black means all the months of Common Year\n Red means the\
    \ first 2 months of Leap Year\n Blue means the last 10 months of Leap Year\n\n\
    Corresponding centuries\n\n\"Year 000\" is, in normal chronology, the year 1 BC\
    \ (which precedes AD 1). In astronomical year numbering the year 0 comes between\
    \ 1 BC and AD 1. In the proleptic Julian calendar, (that is, the Julian calendar\
    \ as it would have been if it had been operated correctly from the start), 1 BC\
    \ starts on Thursday. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, (so called because\
    \ it wasn't devised until 1582), 1 BC starts on Saturday.\n\nTabular methods to\
    \ calculate the day of the week\n\nComplete table: Julian and Gregorian calendars\n\
    For Julian dates before 1300 and after 1999 the year in the table which differs\
    \ by an exact multiple of 700 years should be used. For Gregorian dates after\
    \ 2299, the year in the table which differs by an exact multiple of 400 years\
    \ should be used. The values \"\" through \"\" indicate the remainder when the\
    \ Hundreds value is divided by 7 and 4 respectively, indicating how the series\
    \ extend in either direction. Both Julian and Gregorian values are shown 1500-1999\
    \ for convenience. Bold figures (e.g., 04) denote leap year. If a year ends in\
    \ 00 and its hundreds are in bold it is a leap year. Thus 19 indicates that 1900\
    \ is not a Gregorian leap year, (but 19 in the Julian column indicates that it\
    \ is a Julian leap year, as are all Julian x00 years). 20 indicates that 2000\
    \ is a leap year. Use Jan and Feb only in leap years.\n\nFor determination of\
    \ the day of the week (1 January 2000, Saturday)\nthe day of the month: 1 ~ 31\
    \ (1)\nthe month: (6)\nthe year: (0)\nthe century mod 4 for the Gregorian calendar\
    \ and mod 7 for the Julian calendar (0).\nadding 1+6+0+0=7. Dividing by 7 leaves\
    \ a remainder of 0, so the day of the week is Saturday.\n\nThe formula is w =\
    \ (d + m + y + c) mod 7.\n\nRevised Julian calendar\nNote that the date (and hence\
    \ the day of the week) in the Revised Julian and Gregorian calendars is the same\
    \ from 14 October 1923 to 28 February AD 2800 inclusive and that for large years\
    \ it may be possible to subtract 6300 or a multiple thereof before starting so\
    \ as to reach a year which is within or closer to the table.\n\nTo look up the\
    \ weekday of any date for any year using the table, subtract 100 from the year,\
    \ divide the difference by 100, multiply the resulting quotient (omitting fractions)\
    \ by seven and divide the product by nine. Note the quotient (omitting fractions).\
    \ Enter the table with the Julian year, and just before the final division add\
    \ 50 and subtract the quotient noted above.\n\nExample: What is the day of the\
    \ week of 27 January 8315?\n\n8315−6300=2015, 2015−100=1915, 1915/100=19 remainder\
    \ 15, 19×7=133, 133/9=14 remainder 7. 2015 is 700 years ahead of 1315, so 1315\
    \ is used. From table: for hundreds (13): 6. For remaining digits (15): 4. For\
    \ month (January): 0. For date (27): 27. . 73/7=10 remainder 3. Day of week =\
    \ Tuesday.\n\nDominical Letter\nTo find the Dominical Letter, calculate the day\
    \ of the week for either 1 January or 1 October. If it is Sunday, the Dominical\
    \ Letter is A, if Saturday B, and similarly backwards through the week and forwards\
    \ through the alphabet to Monday, which is G.\n\nLeap years have two Sunday Letters,\
    \ so for January and February calculate the day of the week for 1 January and\
    \ for March to December calculate the day of the week for 1 October.\n\nLeap years\
    \ are all years which divide exactly by four with the following exceptions:\n\n\
    In the Gregorian calendar - all years which divide exactly by 100 (other than\
    \ those which divide exactly by 400).\n\nIn the Revised Julian calendar - all\
    \ years which divide exactly by 100 (other than those which give remainder 200\
    \ or 600 when divided by 900).\n\nThe \"doomsday\" \n\nThis is an artefact of\
    \ recreational mathematics. See doomsday rule for an explanation.\n\nCheck the\
    \ result \nUse this table for finding the day of the week without any calculations.\n\
    \nExamples:\nFor common method\n26 December 1893 (GD)\nDecember is in row F and\
    \ 26 is in column E, so the letter for the date is C located in row F and column\
    \ E. 93 (year mod 100) is in row D (year row) and the letter C in the year row\
    \ is located in column G. 18 ([year/100] in the Gregorian century column) is in\
    \ row C (century row) and the letter in the century row and column G is B, so\
    \ the day of the week is Tuesday.\n13 October 1307 (JD)\nOctober 13 is a F day.\
    \ The letter F in the year row (07) is located in column G. The letter in the\
    \ century row (13) and column G is E, so the day of the week is Friday.\n1 January\
    \ 2000 (GD)\nJanuary 1 corresponds to G, G in the year row (00) corresponds to\
    \ F in the century row (20), and F corresponds to Saturday.\n\nA pithy formula\
    \ for the method: \"Date letter (G), letter (G) is in year row (00) for the letter\
    \ (F) in century row (20), and for the day, the letter (F) become weekday (Saturday)\"\
    .\n\nThe Sunday Letter method\n\nEach day of the year (other than 29 February)\
    \ has a letter allocated to it in the recurring sequence ABCDEFG. The series begins\
    \ with A on 1 January and continues to A again on 31 December. The Sunday letter\
    \ is the one which stands against all the Sundays in the year. Since 29 February\
    \ has no letter, this means that the Sunday Letter for March to December is one\
    \ step back in the sequence compared to that for January and February. The letter\
    \ for any date will be found where the row containing the month (in black) at\
    \ the left of the \"Latin square\" meets the column containing the date above\
    \ the \"Latin square\". The Sunday letter will be found where the column containing\
    \ the century (below the \"Latin square\") meets the row containing the year's\
    \ last two digits to the right of the \"Latin square\". For a leap year, the Sunday\
    \ letter thus found is the one which applies to March to December.\n\nSo, for\
    \ example, to find the weekday of 16 June 2020:\n\nColumn \"20\" meets row \"\
    20\" at \"D\". Row \"June\" meets column \"16\" at \"F\". As F is two letters\
    \ on from D, so the weekday is two days on from Sunday, i.e. Tuesday.\n\nMathematical\
    \ algorithms\n\nRata Die\nThe trivial Rata Die method works by adding up the number\
    \ of days  that has passed since a date of known day of the week . The day of-the-week\
    \ is then given by , conforming to whatever convention was used to encode .\n\n\
    This method is more expensive than needed, and is not practical for human calculation.\
    \ IBM has used a Rata Die method in its REXX programming language, using the known\
    \ base date of 1 January, AD 1, a Monday.\n\nFor example, the date of 13 August\
    \ 2009 is 733632 days from January AD 1. Dividing the number by 7 yields 4, hence\
    \ a Thursday.\n\nGauss's algorithm\nCarl Friedrich Gauss described a method for\
    \ calculating the day of the week for 1 January in any given year in a handwritten\
    \ note in a collection of astronomical tables. He never published it. It was finally\
    \ included in his collected works in 1927. Compared to Rata Die, the result helps\
    \ simplify the counting of years.\n\nGauss' method was applicable to the Gregorian\
    \ calendar. He numbered the weekdays from 0 to 6 starting with Sunday. He defined\
    \ the following operation.\n\n Inputs\n Year number , month number , day number\
    \ .\n Output\n Day of year.\n Procedure\n First determine the day-of-week  of\
    \ 1 January.\n For a Gregorian calendar, the weekday is . Alternatively, set ,\
    \ , and the value is .\n For a Julian calendar, the weekday is  or .\n Now determine\
    \ the month-related offset  by using the lookup table with .\n Return .\n\nThe\
    \ above procedure can be condensed into a single expression for the Gregorian\
    \ case:\n\nWorked example \nFor year number 2000, ,  and , the weekday of 1 January\
    \ is\n\nThe weekdays for 30 April 1777 and 23 February 1855 are\n\nand\n\nExplanation\
    \ and notes \nThe algorithm for the day-of-week of 1 Jan can be proven using modulo\
    \ arithmetic. The main point is that because , each year adds 1 day to the progression.\
    \ The rest is adjustment for leap year. The century-based versions have .\n\n\
    The table of month offsets show a divergence in February due to the leap year.\
    \ A common technique (later used by Zeller) is to shift the month to start with\
    \ March, so that the leap day is at the tail of the counting. In addition, as\
    \ later shown by Zeller, the table can be replaced with an arithmetic expression.\n\
    \nThis formula was also converted into graphical and tabular methods for calculating\
    \ any day of the week by Kraitchik and Schwerdtfeger.\n\nDisparate variation \n\
    \nThe following formula is an example of a version without a lookup table and\
    \ with a transposed month. The formula is\n\n \nwhere\n  is the year minus 1 for\
    \ January or February, and the year for any other month\n  is the last 2 digits\
    \ of Y\n  is the first 2 digits of Y\n  is the day of the month (1 to 31)\n  is\
    \ the shifted month (March=1,…,February=12)\n  is the day of week (0=Sunday,…,6=Saturday).\
    \ If w is negative you have to add 7 to it.\n\nZeller's algorithm \n\nIn Zeller's\
    \ algorithm, the months are numbered from 3 for March to 14 for February. The\
    \ year is assumed to begin in March; this means, for example, that January 1995\
    \ is to be treated as month 13 of 1994. \nThe formula for the Gregorian calendar\
    \ is \n\nwhere\n  is the year minus 1 for January or February, and the year for\
    \ any other month\n  is the last 2 digits of \n  is the first 2 digits of \n \
    \ is the day of the month (1 to 31)\n  is the shifted month (March=3,...January\
    \ = 13, February=14)\n  is the day of week (1=Sunday,..0=Saturday)\nThe only difference\
    \ is one between Zeller's algorithm () and the Disparate Gaussian algorithm (),\
    \ that is .\n\n \n  (March = 3 in  but March = 1 in )\n\nWang's algorithm \nWang's\
    \ algorithm for human calculation of the Gregorian calendar is (the formula should\
    \ be subtracted by 1 if m is 1 or 2 if the year is a leap year)\n\nwhere\n  is\
    \ the last digit of the year\n  is the last second digit of the year\n  is the\
    \ first 2 digits of the year\n  is the day of the month (1 to 31)\n  is the month\
    \ (January=1,…,December=12)\n  is the day of the week (0=Sunday,…,6=Saturday)\n\
    \  is the null-days function (month offset) with values listed in the following\
    \ table\n\nAn algorithm for the Julian calendar can be derived from the algorithm\
    \ above\n\nwhere  is a doomsday.\n\nOther algorithms\n\nSchwerdtfeger's method\
    \ \nIn a partly tabular method by Schwerdtfeger, the year is split into the century\
    \ and the two digit year within the century. The approach depends on the month.\
    \ For ,\n\nso  is between 0 and 99. For ,\n\nThe formula for the day of the week\
    \ is\n\nwhere the positive modulus is chosen.\n\nThe value of  is obtained from\
    \ the following table:\n\nThe value of  is obtained from the following table,\
    \ which depends on the calendar. For the Gregorian calendar,\n\nFor the Julian\
    \ calendar,\n\nLewis Carroll's method\n\nCharles Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll)\
    \ devised a method resembling a puzzle, yet partly tabular in using the same index\
    \ numbers for the months as in the \"Complete table: Julian and Gregorian calendars\"\
    \ above. He lists the same three adjustments for the first three months of non-leap\
    \ years, one 7 higher for the last, and gives cryptic instructions for finding\
    \ the rest; his adjustments for centuries are to be determined using formulas\
    \ similar to those for the centuries table. Although explicit in asserting that\
    \ his method also works for Old Style dates, his example reproduced below to determine\
    \ that \"1676, February 23\" is a Wednesday only works on a Julian calendar which\
    \ starts the year on January 1, instead of March 25 as on the \"Old Style\" Julian\
    \ calendar.\n\nAlgorithm:\nTake the given date in 4 portions, viz. the number\
    \ of centuries, the number of years over, the month, the day of the month.\n\n\
    Compute the following 4 items, adding each, when found, to the total of the previous\
    \ items. When an item or total exceeds 7, divide by 7, and keep the remainder\
    \ only.\n\nCentury-item: For 'Old Style' (which ended 2 September 1752) subtract\
    \ from 18. For 'New Style' (which began 14 September 1752) divide by 4, take overplus\
    \ from 3, multiply remainder by 2.\n\nYear-item: Add together the number of dozens,\
    \ the overplus, and the number of 4s in the overplus.\n\nMonth-item: If it begins\
    \ or ends with a vowel, subtract the number, denoting its place in the year, from\
    \ 10. This, plus its number of days, gives the item for the following month. The\
    \ item for January is \"0\"; for February or March, \"3\"; for December, \"12\"\
    .\n\nDay-item: The total, thus reached, must be corrected, by deducting \"1\"\
    \ (first adding 7, if the total be \"0\"), if the date be January or February\
    \ in a leap year, remembering that every year, divisible by 4, is a Leap Year,\
    \ excepting only the century-years, in `New Style', when the number of centuries\
    \ is not so divisible (e.g. 1800).\n\nThe final result gives the day of the week,\
    \ \"0\" meaning Sunday, \"1\" Monday, and so on.\n\nExamples:\n\n1783, September 18\n\
    17, divided by 4, leaves \"1\" over; 1 from 3 gives \"2\"; twice 2 is \"4\".\n\
    83 is 6 dozen and 11, giving 17; plus 2 gives 19, i.e. (dividing by 7) \"5\".\
    \ Total 9, i.e. \"2\"\nThe item for August is \"8 from 10\", i.e. \"2\"; so, for\
    \ September, it is \"2 plus 31\", i.e. \"5\" Total 7, i.e. \"0\", which goes out.\n\
    18 gives \"4\". Answer, \"Thursday\".\n\n1676, February 23\n16 from 18 gives \"\
    2\"\n76 is 6 dozen and 4, giving 10; plus 1 gives 11, i.e. \"4\".\nTotal \"6\"\
    \nThe item for February is \"3\". Total 9, i.e. \"2\"\n23 gives \"2\". Total \"\
    4\"\nCorrection for Leap Year gives \"3\". Answer, \"Wednesday\".\n\nSince 23 February\
    \ 1676 (counting February as the second month) is, for Carroll, the same day as\
    \ Gregorian 4 March 1676, he fails to arrive at the correct answer, namely \"\
    Friday,\" for an Old Style date that on the Gregorian calendar is the same day\
    \ as 5 March 1677. Had he correctly assumed the year to begin on the 25th of March,\
    \ his method would have accounted for differing year numbers - just like George\
    \ Washington's birthday differs - between the two calendars.\n\nIt is noteworthy\
    \ that those who have republished Carroll's method have failed to point out his\
    \ error, most notably Martin Gardner.\n\nIn 1752, the British Empire abandoned\
    \ its use of the Old Style Julian calendar upon adopting the Gregorian calendar,\
    \ which has become today's standard in most countries of the world. For more background,\
    \ see Old Style and New Style dates.\n\nMethods in computer code\n\nKeith \nIn\
    \ the C language expressions below, y, m and d are, respectively, integer variables\
    \ representing the year (e.g., 1988), month (1-12) and day of the month (1-31).\
    \  \n(d+=m<3?y--:y-2,23*m/9+d+4+y/4-y/100+y/400)%7  \nIn 1990, Michael Keith and\
    \ Tom Craver published the foregoing expression that seeks to minimize the number\
    \ of keystrokes needed to enter a self-contained function for converting a Gregorian\
    \ date into a numerical day of the week. It returns 0 = Sunday, 1 = Monday, etc.\
    \ This expression uses a less cumbersome month component than does Zeller's algorithm.\n\
    \nShortly afterwards, Hans Lachman streamlined their algorithm for ease of use\
    \ on low-end devices. As designed originally for four-function calculators, his\
    \ method needs fewer keypad entries by limiting its range either to A.D. 1905–2099,\
    \ or to historical Julian dates. It was later modified to convert any Gregorian\
    \ date, even on an abacus. On Motorola 68000-based devices, there is similarly\
    \ less need of either processor registers or opcodes, depending on the intended\
    \ design objective.\n\nSakamoto's methods\nThe tabular forerunner to Tøndering's\
    \ algorithm is embodied in the following K&R C function. With minor changes, it\
    \ was adapted for other high level programming languages such as APL2. Posted\
    \ by Tomohiko Sakamoto on the comp.lang.c Usenet newsgroup in 1992, it is accurate\
    \ for any Gregorian date.\ndayofweek(y, m, d)\t/* 1 <= m <= 12,  y > 1752 (in\
    \ the U.K.) */\n{\n    static int t[] = {0, 3, 2, 5, 0, 3, 5, 1, 4, 6, 2, 4};\n\
    \    if ( m < 3 )\n    {\n        y -= 1;\n    }\n    return (y + y/4 - y/100\
    \ + y/400 + t[m-1] + d) % 7;\n}\nIt returns 0 = Sunday, 1 = Monday, etc.\n\nSakamoto\
    \ also simultaneously posted a more obfuscated version:\ndow(m,d,y) { y-=m<3;\
    \ return(y+y/4-y/100+y/400+\"-bed=pen+mad.\"[m]+d)%7; }\n\nThis version encodes\
    \ the month offsets in the string and as a result requires a computer that uses\
    \ standard ASCII to run the algorithm correctly, reducing its portability. In\
    \ addition, both algorithms omit  type declarations, which is allowed in the original\
    \ K&R C but not allowed in ANSI C.\n\n(Tøndering's algorithm is, again, similar\
    \ in structure to Zeller's congruence and Keith's short code, except that the\
    \ month-related component is . Sakamoto's is somewhere between the Disparate Gaussian\
    \ and the Schwerdtfeger's algorithm, apparently unaware of the expression form.)\n\
    \nSee also\n\n Doomsday rule\n Julian day\n Mental Calculation World Cup (Has\
    \ a calendar calculation contest)\n Perpetual calendar\n Buddhist calendar\n\n\
    References\n\nExternal links\n Tøndering's algorithm for both Gregorian and Julian\
    \ calendars\n \"Key Day\" method used so as to reduce computation & memorization\n\
    \ Compact tabular method for memorisation, also for the Julian calendar\n When\
    \ countries changed from the Julian calendar\n World records for mentally calculating\
    \ the day of the week in the Gregorian Calendar \n National records for finding\
    \ Calendar Dates\n World Ranking of Memoriad Mental Calendar Dates (all competitions\
    \ combined)\n Identify the year by given month, day, day of week.\n\ndetermination\n\
    Gregorian calendar\nJulian calendar\nCalendar algorithms\nArticles with example\
    \ C code"
- source_sentence: 'When was the album "Have a Nice Day" released? '
  sentences:
  - "Stranger Comes to Town is the fifth studio album from English songwriter and\
    \ musician Steve Harley, which was released by Absolute in 2010. The album was\
    \ produced by Harley.\n\nBackground\nHarley has described Stranger Comes to Town\
    \ as \"a sort-of protest album\" and \"a state-of-the-nation report\". He told\
    \ The York Press in 2010, \"I'm not a grumpy old man but what's happening to this\
    \ country? I don't like the dumbing-down from the moment our Prime Minister said\
    \ 'Call me Tony'. I've been angry ever since. Kids are growing up in a world where\
    \ there's no deference. What was wrong with 'sir' or 'madam'? The album is a new-fashioned\
    \ protest album. It's not Blowin' in the Wind or 'Masters of War', but deep down,\
    \ what are we coming to?\" He added to The Bolton News, \"I'm sick of the greedy\
    \ people running the country and the fact that everything is being dumbed down.\"\
    \n\nSpeaking to Classic Rock in 2010, Harley also commented on the album's theme,\
    \ \"The essence of the stories on this album is the 'Stranger' bit. That's the\
    \ mystery. It's a metaphor, an allegory for modern life and invasions of privacy\
    \ and all the things that have entered into the Western world and ruined it.\"\
    \n\nDescribing the album as a \"true labour of love\", as well as being \"hard\
    \ work\", Harley described the album's development and style to Acoustic, \"I've\
    \ reverted to the type where you've got rather simple acoustic tunes, but with\
    \ poetical lyrics and mysterious stories mixed in with the more bizarre production\
    \ kind of things. I've come back to the young man that set out in the early '70s\
    \ with a lot of ambition and no inhibitions. In the studio I got into my own mindset.\
    \ I was just having fun in the studio.\" He added to The York Press, \"I've had\
    \ five years of ripping my own ears off. It really doesn't get any easier. It's\
    \ not the tune that's difficult, it's the words that are a struggle – and like\
    \ John Lennon said, 'it's not about filler words'. You never rest as a songwriter.\
    \ You're always looking for the muse to come and sit on your shoulder, and I can't\
    \ take the stress. Well, every five years, I can... though this might be the last\
    \ one. I've so much to say on this album.\"\n\nSpeaking of the album's title,\
    \ Harley stated it referred to \"a man who feels estranged from what is going\
    \ on around him\". He added to The York Press: \"I borrowed it. When I was up\
    \ in Norfolk we went to a village pub to get the stress off with a pint of Guinness,\
    \ and we heard these two people say 'Stranger Comes to Town'. They asked, 'What\
    \ are you doing here, Steve?', so I gave them a line from Eccles in The Goons:\
    \ 'Everyone has to be somewhere'.\"\n\nRecording\nHarley and his band Cockney\
    \ Rebel spent a month recording Stranger Comes to Town at Leeders Farm Residential\
    \ Studios, Norfolk, in September and October 2009. Harley booked the studio months\
    \ beforehand, back in March 2009, and revealed in a diary entry at the time, \"\
    The notes are there, in notebooks and on scraps of mini-disc. Tunes and couplets,\
    \ simple rhymes and deeper thoughts all jumbled, randomly acquired and noted over\
    \ the past few years. There is only one way I will collate it all into coherent\
    \ songs, and that is by booking a recording studio.\"\n\nHarley would typically\
    \ spend 12 or more hours a day working on the album at Leeders Farm. The band\
    \ spent most mornings rehearsing around the studio's kitchen table. Due to other\
    \ professional commitments, guitarist Robbie Gladwell was absent for much of the\
    \ recording, leaving Barry Wickens to cover the electric guitar parts on half\
    \ of the album.\n\nSpeaking of the sessions in a 5 October diary entry, Harley\
    \ revealed, \n\nBy the end of October, nine songs were nearing completion and\
    \ the remainder of the year saw Harley spend more time in the studio to finish\
    \ the album, including recording vocals and mixing the tracks. In a November diary\
    \ entry, he revealed, \"Got 10 new songs. Three of them are co-written with various\
    \ guys. Tunes only. Not words. Only wish any one of them had a literary bent,\
    \ too. The lyrics have been the toughest part, as usual.\"\n\nBy the end of the\
    \ 2009, Stranger Comes to Town was almost complete, except for the remixing of\
    \ a couple of songs, as well as the choosing of the album's running order. Harley\
    \ described some tracks on the album as \"acoustic, almost entirely live\" and\
    \ others as \"bigger productions\". With the finishing touches completed in January\
    \ 2010, the album was mastered in February by Denis Blackham at Skye Mastering.\n\
    \nSong information\n\"Take the Men & the Horses Away\" is an anti-war song which\
    \ speaks of the UK's involvement in the Afghanistan and Iraq Wars. Harley wrote\
    \ the chorus several years before the rest of the song was completed. During sessions\
    \ for Stranger Comes to Town, Harley played the chorus to the band and the song\
    \ was then developed into a full track, with four members of Cockney Rebel receiving\
    \ co-writing credits. Before the album's release, \"This Old Man\" was previewed\
    \ to fans in November 2009 when Harley uploaded a short piece of footage to his\
    \ website which showed the band rehearsing the song in the studio.\n\n\"True Love\
    \ Will Find You in the End\" is a cover of a 1984 song by American singer-songwriter\
    \ Daniel Johnston which appeared on his Retired Boxer album. Harley recorded the\
    \ song after using his website forum in 2009 to invite fans to forward their ideas\
    \ of a song which could be covered for the new album. Graeme Blake suggested Johnston's\
    \ \"Story of an Artist\" and Harley commented in a diary entry in November 2009,\
    \ \"The pointer towards Daniel Johnston by Graeme is indeed welcome. Had all but\
    \ forgotten the self-proclaimed 'rejected unknown'. Maybe too many have covered\
    \ the beautiful, poignant 'Story of an Artist' – irresistible, as it is – for\
    \ me to attack it so late in its life. Maybe. But 'True Love Will Find You In\
    \ The End' is less exposed. Maybe that one.\" The song was the last to be recorded\
    \ for the album in December 2009. On 9 March 2010, Harley performed the song with\
    \ Jools Holland and his band for Holland's show on BBC Radio 2, which was broadcast\
    \ the following month.\n\n\"No Bleeding Hearts\" features Harley's son, Kerr Nice,\
    \ on the piano. The idea of Nice performing on the track was suggested by the\
    \ band's keyboardist James Lascelles after Nice arrived for an overnight stay\
    \ at the studio. In 2009, Harley said about the song, \"The song may seem mysterious\
    \ on first listen, but I'm quietly hoping that those who have now heard it twice,\
    \ some even three times on this tour, will have started to form some interpretation.\"\
    \ In 2010, Harley told Acoustic that he felt that the song sounded like the early\
    \ Cockney Rebel and \"could be very much my modern day 'Sebastian'\".\n\n\"Blinded\
    \ with Tears\" was written around 2000 with ex-Cockney Rebel guitarist Jim Cregan.\
    \ It was originally described by Harley as a \"slow, backbeat drama\" in a September\
    \ 2000 diary entry. In October 2004, Harley published part of the song's lyrics\
    \ in a diary entry, with the working title \"Alone in the End\". \"2,000 Years\
    \ from Now\" features six 10–11 year old children from Spooner Row Primary School\
    \ in Wymondham providing backing vocals. The addition to the track was a last-minute\
    \ decision, with Harley revealing to BBC News in 2010, \"It's fantastic. We had\
    \ a really good time – they worked very hard and picked it up so quickly. I'd\
    \ almost finished this track and I said to my engineer, 'There's a primary school\
    \ down the road isn't there, I'd like some school kids on this track because the\
    \ lyric is about the future of the planet'. Three hours later they were all here\
    \ and two hours later we'd done it.\"\n\nRelease\n\"Stranger Comes to Town\" was\
    \ released on CD on 3 May 2010 by Absolute (via Universal) in the UK and by Repertoire\
    \ Records in Europe under license by Harley's own Comeuppance Ltd. The album reached\
    \ number 187 in the UK Albums Chart and number 20 in the UK Independent Albums\
    \ Chart. The album's lead single, \"Faith & Virtue\", was released on 2 May 2010,\
    \ and a second single, \"For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn\", was released on 27\
    \ June 2010.\n\nHarley originally intended to follow-up the 2005 release of the\
    \ Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel album The Quality of Mercy with a new studio album\
    \ in 2008. After The Quality of Mercy, Harley continued writing new material and\
    \ recording demos, and in January 2007 he and his band entered the recording studio,\
    \ at which time plans were announced for a possible new album release in spring\
    \ 2008. The album's was given the working title Wide Screen, with an alternative\
    \ being The Road Home. Although Harley continued writing, the proposed album did\
    \ not come to fruition due to contractual issues that were left unresolved until\
    \ early 2009. In a diary entry from March 2009, Harley revealed, \"Finally wrapped\
    \ up a contract wrangle which has kept me sometimes awake and regularly disturbed\
    \ for almost three years. Cost me a great deal in all sorts of energies and resources\
    \ to end this loathsome arrangement, but I knew in my heart I had to sort it.\"\
    \n\nTour\nTo promote the album, Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel embarked on a UK-based\
    \ tour in late May, which included performances at the Isle of Wight and Glastonbury\
    \ Festivals. The tour continued into June and also included a few concerts in\
    \ Norway and one in Denmark. Later in October, the band toured Europe.\n\nCritical\
    \ reception\n\nOn its release, Terry Staunton of Record Collector felt Stranger\
    \ Comes to Town had \"little of the arch art rock of Cockney Rebel\" but added\
    \ \"the lyrical adventure of old survives\". He added, \"It's sturdy, timeless\
    \ singer-songwriter fare, Harley's acoustic guitar front and centre, caressing\
    \ his still mannered vocal, embellished by piano and violin.\" Simon Gage of the\
    \ Daily Express concluded, \"The music is simple, raw and thoughtful but the likeability\
    \ is still there and the songs interesting. It won't do what 'Make Me Smile' did\
    \ for him but it's an album he must be proud of.\" Andrew Thomas of the Lancashire\
    \ Telegraph described the album as \"a striking set with three or four standout\
    \ tracks\" and \"a welcome album from an innovative writer and performer\". Martin\
    \ Hutchinson of The Bolton News felt the album was \"Harley at his very best\"\
    \ and praised it for being \"lyrically insightful\" and \"musically magnificent\"\
    . He added, \"Harley's anger and emotion comes across in the lyrics of the new\
    \ songs.\"\n\nTrack listing\n\nPersonnel\nMusicians\n Steve Harley – vocals (all\
    \ tracks), acoustic guitar (tracks 1, 3, 6-9)\n Barry Wickens – violin (tracks\
    \ 1, 3–7, 10), viola (tracks 1, 3–4, 10), electric guitar (tracks 1–2, 7-9), acoustic\
    \ guitar (tracks 6, 10), backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 6, 8, 10)\n Robbie Gladwell\
    \ – arpeggio guitar parts (track 7), electric guitar (tracks 8, 10), 12 string\
    \ acoustic guitar (track 10), backing vocals (tracks 1–2, 8, 10)\n James Lascelles\
    \ – keyboards (track 1), percussion (tracks 1, 3, 6), Hammond organ (tracks 2,\
    \ 8-10), Mini-Moog synthesizer (tracks 2, 7, 9), Hammered dulcimer (track 3),\
    \ piano (tracks 3–6, 9), melodica (tracks 4, 6), synthesizer (track 4), strings\
    \ synthesizer (track 10)\n Lincoln Anderson – bass (tracks 1–3, 6-10), double\
    \ bass (tracks 4-5)\n Stuart Elliott – drums (tracks 1–3, 7-10), hand drums (tracks\
    \ 4-5), percussion (tracks 4, 7, 10)\n Katie Brine – backing vocals (tracks 1–3,\
    \ 8, 10)\n Kerr Nice – piano (track 7)\n Grace Nickalls, Joe Dobson, Marcus Greenwood,\
    \ Masie Colquhoun, Maya Hodgson, Sam Hewitson – choir on chorus (track 10)\n\n\
    Production\n Steve Harley – producer\n Nick Brine – engineer\n Dougal Watt, Owen\
    \ Morgan, Alex Edmunds, Nelson Milburn – studio assistants\n Tom Povall - post\
    \ production\n Denis Blackham – mastering\n\nDesign\n Mike Callow – photography\n\
    \ With thanks to – \"The Stranger on the Beach\"\n Mark Scarfe at Aarlsen – sleeve\
    \ design\n\nCharts\n\nSingles\nTwo digital singles, \"Faith & Virtue\" and \"\
    For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn\", were released from Stranger Comes to Town.\
    \ Both releases used the same artwork as the album.\n\nFaith & Virtue\n\nThe album's\
    \ lead single, \"Faith & Virtue\", was written by Harley and Barry Wickens. It\
    \ was released on 2 May 2010 as a digital-only single, with some promotional CD\
    \ copies issued to radio stations.\n\nHarley first announced the release of \"\
    Faith & Virtue\" as a single in a diary entry of 3 March 2010, \"All the team\
    \ is now set up for the big push. We have radio/TV plugger Jackie Gill, who will\
    \ do everything she can to get the single play-listed on Radio 2, and all the\
    \ good TV she can muster.\" The song received its first play on BBC Radio 2 on\
    \ 19 April on the Jools Holland show, when Harley appeared as the show's guest.\
    \ The song was also given away as a free MP3 for anyone signing up for email updates\
    \ on Harley's official website.\n\n\"Faith & Virtue\" dated back ten years before\
    \ it was recorded for Stranger Comes to Town. Speaking to The Bolton News in 2010,\
    \ Harley commented, \"The single was being played on the radio and my wife said\
    \ 'I've always loved that song'. I explained that I'd only just finished the song\
    \ when I realised that I'd actually been playing it on my piano for the last ten\
    \ years and hadn't got round to recording it.\"\n\nTrack listing\n\"Faith & Virtue\"\
    \ - 4:48\n\nFor Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn\n\nThe album's second single, \"\
    For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn\", was written by Harley. A 'radio edit' of the\
    \ track, which cut the song's duration by a minute, was released as a digital-only\
    \ single on 27 June 2010.\n\nThe release of the single was first announced in\
    \ Harley's diary entry of 31 May, \"Over lunch, will make notes re edit of 'For\
    \ Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn.' which we have agreed to release as a download\
    \ single. Radio 2 airplay? Not much chance, to be honest. It's tough to get on\
    \ their playlist if you're not represented by Universal or Sony. But Stranger\
    \ Comes to Town is a major project, so we'll suck it and see.\" The song received\
    \ its first play on BBC Radio 2 on 23 May 2010 on Johnnie Walker's Sounds of the\
    \ 70s show, when Harley appeared as the show's guest.\n\n\"For Sale. Baby Shoes.\
    \ Never Worn\" had its origins dating back a decade, with Harley first mentioning\
    \ the song in an online diary entry in September 2000. Speaking of new additions\
    \ to the live set, Harley revealed, \"And a new lullaby, a longing, yearning lullaby\
    \ where a terrified young man is saying, 'No. It cannot be what it appears to\
    \ be; nothing living lies that still.....' beside his helpless wife's bed.\" Harley\
    \ began working on a new studio album in 2000 and revealed in a 1 December 2001\
    \ diary entry that he was going into the studio that week to record \"For Sale.\
    \ Baby Shoes. Never Worn\" and \"The Last Feast\". While no album materialised,\
    \ Harley later recorded the song again with Cockney Rebel in February 2005 during\
    \ sessions for The Quality of Mercy. The song did not make the album's final track\
    \ listing.\n\nTrack listing\n\"For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn (Radio Edit)\"\
    \ - 3:59\n\nReferences\n\n2010 albums\nSteve Harley albums"
  - "Have a Nice Day is the ninth studio album by American rock band Bon Jovi, released\
    \ on September 20, 2005. Produced by John Shanks, the album was recorded at Sanctuary\
    \ Sound II in New Jersey, and Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood, California.\n\n\
    Have a Nice Day was originally recorded in the summer of 2004 and planned for\
    \ release in early 2005. However, due to misunderstandings between the band and\
    \ its record company, the album was delayed. The band wanted to write and record\
    \ more songs, remove others from the original track list, and in the process,\
    \ altered existing album tracks.\n\nHave a Nice Day peaked at number two in both\
    \ the US and UK. In the US, it sold over 202,000 copies in the first week, making\
    \ it Bon Jovi's best first-week sales in the band's history at that time. The\
    \ album was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA.\n\nThe album produced the\
    \ hit singles \"Have a Nice Day\" and \"Who Says You Can't Go Home\". Have a Nice\
    \ Day has received mixed reviews by music critics. It was commonly commented that\
    \ Jon Bon Jovi was \"stretching\" his lyrical abilities.\n\nBackground\n\nJon\
    \ Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora headed into the studio with producer and songwriter\
    \ John Shanks in summer of 2004 to begin working on a band's ninth studio album.\
    \ They started to write songs and songs came very quick. After Jon and Richie\
    \ co-wrote all the songs with Shanks, they recorded them immediately using a drum\
    \ machine. Sambora and Shanks played all the guitar parts, Jon recorded all the\
    \ vocals and there were no bass player or drummer in the studio. Later in the\
    \ recording sessions, David Bryan, Tico Torres and Hugh McDonald recorded their\
    \ parts. In the meantime, the band was doing finishing touches on their boxset\
    \ 100,000,000 Bon Jovi Fans Can't Be Wrong (2004). Jon planned to turn the album\
    \ over to record company right before Christmas of 2004., but he changed his mind.\
    \ In December 2004, he went to Sanctuary Sound Studio to write more songs. When\
    \ the band regrouped in 2005, they recorded four more songs and also worked on\
    \ the revised versions of the original songs.\n\nLyrical themes\nThe lyrical themes\
    \ center around political changes that happened in United States in that period\
    \ and the state of music business, but also reflect personal and introspective\
    \ views on issues that Jon Bon Jovi had while growing up, which he had never discussed\
    \ before. He said: \"I've always kept this 'chin up, glass is half-full' kind\
    \ of optimism, and [now] I showed some chinks in the armor.\" \"The song \"Last\
    \ Man Standing\" depicts the band leader's unhappiness with the music industry.\
    \ He says it reflects his \"disgust of the music business in general, and its\
    \ lack of true vision when it comes to supporting the artistry of developing a\
    \ song, the songwriter and the bands on the road.\"\" He explained: \"Instead\
    \ of creating what Andy Warhol once called '15 minutes of fame,' I think it's\
    \ down to just three minutes and 30 seconds.\" \"I don't know how this industry\
    \ is ever going to have another Bob Dylan when it's all about the single, [not]\
    \ the album and the vision and that inspiration. [It's] all for the sake of a\
    \ 99-cent download so they can sell bulk and make their bonuses. It's heartbreaking.\"\
    \n\nRelease and promotion\nThe album's track list, release dates for United States\
    \ and Canada, and radio release date for the first single were announced on July\
    \ 14, 2005. The first single, the title track \"Have a Nice Day\", premiered on\
    \ radio stations worldwide on July 18, 2005. On September 2, 2005, it was announced\
    \ that a full-length version of the song \"Last Man Standing\" was available for\
    \ listening in the discography section on the band's official website.\n\nCritical\
    \ and commercial reception\n\nStephen Thomas Erlewine gave Have a Nice Day 2.5\
    \ stars out of 5, saying that the album \"picks up where 2002's Bounce left off,\
    \ showcasing a harder, heavier band than either 2000's Crush or Jon Bon Jovi's\
    \ 1997 solo effort, Destination Anywhere. Not only that, but this 2005 album finds\
    \ Jon Bon Jovi picking up on the serious undercurrent of Bounce, writing a series\
    \ of angry, somber neo-protest songs that form the heart of this record.\" Blogcritics\
    \ gave the album 8 stars out of 10 stating that \"while their glory days are behind\
    \ them, there's still a lot left in the tank for Bon Jovi when they want to be\
    \ a band. The chemistry between Jon and Richie is as strong as ever, and the songwriting\
    \ prowess they have is a well that never seems to run dry for these guys. While\
    \ not their best work, this is their best in a long time.\" Robert Christgau gave\
    \ the album a grade of C+, stating that it is \"A depressing argument for the\
    \ existence of that intellectual fairy tale, the passive mass audience.\" Christian\
    \ Hoard from Rolling Stone gave the album 3 stars out of 5 saying that it is \"\
    reliable as it is contained: Acoustic ballads such as 'Bells of Freedom' are vaguely\
    \ icky, but powerhouse anthems like 'I Want to Be Loved' pack almost as much singalong\
    \ potential as 'Livin' on a Prayer' did back in the day.\"\n\nTrack listing\n\n\
    Personnel \n\nBon Jovi\nJon Bon Jovi – lead vocals, background vocals\nRichie\
    \ Sambora – guitars, background vocals\nTico Torres – drums, percussion\nDavid\
    \ Bryan – keyboards\n\nAdditional musicians\nHugh McDonald – bass guitar\nPaul\
    \ Buckmaster – string arranger \nDavid Campbell – string arranger \nDan Dugmore\
    \ – steel guitar \nDann Huff – mandolin and bouzouki \nJennifer Nettles – duet\
    \ vocals \nB.C. Smith – programming \nJonathan Yudkin – fiddle and mandolin \n\
    \nRecording personnel\n Jeremy Wheatley – mixing \n Chris Lord Alge – mixing \n\
    \ Tom Lord Alge – mixing \n Justin Niebank – mixing\n\nCharts\n\nWeekly charts\n\
    \nYear-end charts\n\nCertifications\n\nReferences \n\nBon Jovi albums\n2005 albums\n\
    Albums produced by Dann Huff\nAlbums produced by John Shanks\nAlbums produced\
    \ by Richie Sambora\nAlbums produced by Rick Parashar"
  - "Free speech fights are struggles over free speech, and especially those struggles\
    \ which involved the Industrial Workers of the World and their attempts to gain\
    \ awareness for labor issues by organizing workers and urging them to use their\
    \ collective voice. During the World War I period in the United States, the IWW\
    \ members (referred to as Wobblies), engaged in free speech fights over labor\
    \ issues which were closely connected to the developing industrial world as well\
    \ as the Socialist Party. The Wobblies, along with other radical groups, were\
    \ often met with opposition (violent and otherwise) from local governments and\
    \ especially business leaders, in their free speech fights.\n\nThe IWW organized\
    \ transient workers (especially in cities in the American West) who worked in\
    \ highly seasonal jobs—they met on the streets, discussed contemporary issues,\
    \ and listened to speakers; at the time, it was a very popular method of organization.\
    \ The events often ended with the police arresting them for participating in street\
    \ meetings. The most notorious of all of the free speech fights was the San Diego\
    \ free speech fight, which won a significant amount of public awareness for the\
    \ IWW as it involved tremendous violence against the labor groups organized by\
    \ the IWW. which brought the IWW to the greater notice of the American public\
    \ and was notable for the intensity of violence by anti-labor vigilantes directed\
    \ at the IWW; this violence included the kidnapping and tarring and feathering\
    \ of Ben Reitman, who was a physician, and was Emma Goldman's lover.\n\nMore generally,\
    \ a free speech fight is any incident in which a group is involved in a conflict\
    \ over its speech. For instance, the Free Speech Movement, which began with a\
    \ conflict on the Berkeley Campus in California in the 1960s, was a \"free speech\
    \ fight\".\n\n\"Free speech fights\" and the IWW\n\nThe IWW engaged in free speech\
    \ fights during the period from approximately 1907 to 1916. The Wobblies, as the\
    \ IWW members were called, relied upon free speech, which in the United States\
    \ is guaranteed by the First Amendment, to enable them to communicate the concept\
    \ of One Big Union to other workers. In communities where the authorities saw\
    \ their interests in avoiding the development of unions, the practice of soapboxing\
    \ was frequently restricted by ordinance or by police harassment. The IWW employed\
    \ a variety of creative tactics, including the tactic of flooding the area of\
    \ a free speech fight with footloose rebels who would challenge the authorities\
    \ by flouting the ordinance, intentionally getting arrested in great numbers.\
    \ With the jails full and a seemingly endless stream of union activists arriving\
    \ by boxcar and highway, the local communities frequently rescinded their prohibitions\
    \ on free speech, or came to some other accommodation.\n\nThe Free Speech League,\
    \ a progressive group which functioned at the same time as (and occasionally together\
    \ with) the IWW, worked in conjunction with the IWW prior to World War I in many\
    \ of their free speech fights, which generated a good deal of controversy. The\
    \ free speech fights of the IWW were highly publicized, as they were designed\
    \ to garner attention: they frequently started when local communities interjected\
    \ to attempt to prevent the IWW from occupying street corners from which they\
    \ would use provocative language to detail their radical beliefs.  The free speech\
    \ fights began occurring in 1906 and drew to a close by 1917—over that period\
    \ of time, at least 26 communities played host to the IWW's free speech fights,\
    \ and the years of 1909 to 1913 were particularly active, with at least 21 free\
    \ speech fights happening.\n\nThe IWW members who engaged in the free speech fights\
    \ typically cited the First Amendment and the rights guaranteed therein as proof\
    \ positive of the validity of their cause, thereby highlighting the legal importance\
    \ of the issues they fought for. That being the case, their struggles did not\
    \ go unanswered or ignored: local, state, and even the federal government were\
    \ prompted to respond, while, perhaps more importantly, the American public, due\
    \ to the national publicity garnered by the free speech fights, were invariably\
    \ tasked with confronting free speech issues. Practically all realms of American\
    \ life were impacted by the free speech fights, as members of the press, church\
    \ officials, school teachers, politicians, anyone involved in the business and\
    \ labor world, and members of any organization (especially those of the Socialist\
    \ Party) had a stake in the fights and thus attempted to comment on the issues\
    \ in contention.\n\nAn overview of the free speech fights\nFrom its inception,\
    \ the IWW was deeply committed to free speech issues, and especially those affiliated\
    \ with labor groups. The IWW formed in 1905 in response to dissatisfaction with\
    \ the trade unions promoted by the American Federation of Labor (the AFL).  Whereas\
    \ the AFL promoted the ideals of capitalism by fighting for the rights of workers\
    \ within the ideological framework of the free market system, the IWW functioned\
    \ on anarchistic principles. Rather than urging workers to join unions based on\
    \ craft and skill that were determined to form binding trade agreements with employers,\
    \ the IWW advocated for the development of broad unions for low-skill workers\
    \ that would be driven by the workers themselves (and their collective actions)\
    \ rather than by top-down politics and binding capitalist decisions.\n\nThe primary\
    \ vehicles of change for the free speech fights of the IWW were spontaneous workplace\
    \ strikes as well as on-site labor slowdowns in addition to picketing, parades,\
    \ and demonstrations. Importantly, the IWW engaged in street corner public displays\
    \ and speaking to raise the public awareness regarding free speech fights. The\
    \ desire for direct action by laborers was attributed to having grown disaffected\
    \ with the beliefs of the AFL. They stressed their truly American origins and\
    \ likened their actions to those of earlier American revolutionaries and activists.\n\
    \nThe free speech fights of the IWW were often quite similar in nature: Wobblies\
    \ (many of whom travelled across the country to spread their message) would visit\
    \ a city's downtown and attempt to speak on soapboxes on street corners. Their\
    \ message and their tactics were particularly provocative, and they were frequently\
    \ arrested—though, if they were not arrested on one street corner, they would\
    \ simply pack up and head to another one.  \nAmong the offences which they were\
    \ arrested for were blocking traffic, vagrancy, unlawful assembly, or violating\
    \ local ordinances such as ones against speaking on the streets.\n\nThough the\
    \ IWW was successful in many of their free speech fights, they did not always\
    \ achieve their desired goals. In San Diego, for instance, they were unable to\
    \ cause the repeal of a restrictive street ordinance while, in Paterson, they\
    \ failed to gain protection for street picketing and meetings.\n\nThe IWW ideology\
    \ of free speech\nThe ideology of the Wobblies who fought for free speech rights\
    \ across America was deeply indebted to their core beliefs regarding the provenance\
    \ of the First Amendment rights of the Constitution. In their estimation, they\
    \ were fighting with the Constitution on their side while those who opposed them,\
    \ such as city officials, were disregarding the fundamental laws of the country.\
    \ The Wobblies frequently used phrases such as \"Have you ever read the Constitution?\"\
    \ and \"What is this, Czarist Russia, or Free America?\"\n\nThe Wobblies held\
    \ that the free speech rights granted by the First Amendment had been abridged\
    \ over time, and they felt that it nowhere more evident than it was in the case\
    \ of the laborers for whom they worked tirelessly—capitalism had conspired with\
    \ the judicial system in the United States to deny agency and the Constitutionally-granted\
    \ freedom of speech to American laborers. Not all Wobblies subscribed to such\
    \ idealistic ideology, though, since some argued the more pessimistic belief that\
    \ the Constitution had been written by the elites and that free speech was merely\
    \ an illusion that worked to uphold the power of those same elites.\nBy adopting\
    \ aggressive tactics which flaunted local ordinances against free speech, the\
    \ Wobblies courted arrest, which they used as a demonstration of how far the abridgement\
    \ of free speech had come. The official attempts to silence the IWW in the free\
    \ speech fights, they argued, were totally opposed to the spirit of the First\
    \ Amendment.\n\nAccording to the Wobblies, the fact that they even had to fight\
    \ for free speech rights was evidence of the corrupting effect of capitalism in\
    \ America and of its legal system. They argued that the Constitution was not being\
    \ applied to American laborers, just as it had not been applied to slaves in the\
    \ century prior. Rather than take their fights to the courts, which they felt\
    \ were substantially corrupted by capitalist influence, they took their fight\
    \ to the streets and urged other Americans to do the same.\n\nThe publications\
    \ of the IWW urged people to \"Educate, Agitate, Organize!!!\" which led their\
    \ opponents to see the fights for free speech as precursors to more insidious\
    \ desires such as those for unionization and, especially, for the abolition of\
    \ capitalism.\n\nPopular reactions\nThe free speech fights of the IWW were an\
    \ inherently populist in nature. They were met with a variety of different public\
    \ response and reactions: some supported their efforts and sought to collaborate\
    \ with them while others engaged in vigilante violence against them (as was especially\
    \ the case in San Diego). The free speech fights gained mass support from political\
    \ groups such as labor unions, Socialists, and also the Free Speech League. Notably,\
    \ few of the groups stood fast with the IWW when it came to their calls for revolution\
    \ or for the overthrowing of capitalism more generally, and instead focused on\
    \ the importance of the free speech rights for their own inherent worth to Americans.\
    \ The AFL, though, opposed the IWW's efforts in the free speech realm from the\
    \ get go. Other groups and members of the public, too, began to oppose the free\
    \ speech fights over time because of the aggressive tactics and language among\
    \ other things.\n\nThe Socialists were the most closely connected allies of the\
    \ IWW in the free speech fights, as they had suffered through many years of free\
    \ speech repression already and thus helped to fundraise for the cause and occasional\
    \ even took part in the fights.\n\nLabor unions also offered significant support\
    \ to the free speech fight cause since they had a stake in the fights. Important\
    \ support, still, came from the American public at large.\n\nOfficial reactions\
    \ and regulation of street speaking\nThe most notable proponent of the free speech\
    \ fights in the official arena was New York City Police Commissioner Arthur Woods,\
    \ who argued that all American groups should be granted the right of free speech\
    \ and assembly. Rather than repress their constitutional rights, Woods felt that\
    \ it was the duty of the police to protect the demonstrators. His personal philosophy\
    \ dictated that free speech could be regulated only in ways that protected it\
    \ through the creation of channels of expression which would not impede the rights\
    \ of others.\n\nThe reasonable regulation of street speaking was an important\
    \ issue that arose because of the free speech fights of the IWW. Their soapboxing\
    \ on downtown street corners proved especially divisive. Whereas IWW supporters\
    \ held that freedom of expression was especially important in the areas where\
    \ that expression could actually reach the people (such as laborers) who would\
    \ benefit the most from their message, opponents argued that their right to free\
    \ speech did not belong in such public places where their incendiary tactics could\
    \ be harmful to the public. Public streets were the best means of reaching the\
    \ workers to whom their free speech fights were addressed, and the Wobblies did\
    \ not always possess the necessary funds to rent out public assembly halls, for\
    \ instance, from which they could exercise their right to free speech. \nThe IWW\
    \ conceded, nonetheless, that reasonable restrictions should be placed on public\
    \ speaking.\n\nThe struggle over free speech on downtown street corners was regarded\
    \ as absurd by many people, since there were myriad other areas in the public\
    \ sphere that allowed outdoor speaking to take place—downtown street corners,\
    \ though, were outlawed. The fight over the street corners, therefore, became\
    \ a symbol of the divisive ideology of the IWW—their opponents scornfully argued\
    \ that the street corners were important to the Wobblies only because they could\
    \ not reach an audience elsewhere since nobody would willingly attend any of their\
    \ speeches.\n\nMany of the opponents of free speech fights, thus, were in favor\
    \ of the establishment of centrally located areas that permitted oration but did\
    \ not interfere with the city. Others, though, were totally opposed to the right\
    \ to speak in public.\n\nThe IWW occasionally saw its fight over the regulation\
    \ of street speaking extend to the judicial realm. More often than not, judges\
    \ upheld the street ordinances that prevented public speaking. Notably, a judge\
    \ in San Diego upheld the city's ordinance, and used the language of a similar\
    \ decision in Los Angeles to explain that \"This ordinance does not attempt to\
    \ suppress freedom of speech, or seek to interfere with the citizen in the right\
    \ to express his views upon any subject, political, religious, or otherwise, as\
    \ is suggested by the petitioner. It simply specifies a certain district within\
    \ the city wherein no one may do the things prohibited.\"\n\nAnalysis of free\
    \ speech themes\nOne of the key themes of the free speech fights came from the\
    \ regulation of speaking on the streets and involved discussions over the importance\
    \ of access to public property and how reasonable limitations could be applied\
    \ to it. People who debated the free speech fights frequently focused on the distinction\
    \ between legal speech and illegal action while also detailing the various types\
    \ of unprotected speech. They also debated what types of criticisms of the government\
    \ should be protected by free speech.\n\nOne of the primary issues with the debates\
    \ surrounding the free speech fights was that commentators understood that certain\
    \ types of speech should be regarded as illegal and were not covered as free speech—sedition,\
    \ libel, inciting speech, and obscenity fell into this category of speech, yet\
    \ what some regarded as obscenity or libel, others regarded simply as government\
    \ criticism that should be protected by the Constitution.\n\nMajor IWW's free\
    \ speech fights\n\nSpokane free speech fight\n\nIn A History of American Labor,\
    \ Joseph G. Rayback has written,\n\n[The Industrial Workers of the World] made\
    \ its first impression upon the nation through its involvement in the \"free speech\"\
    \ fight begun in Spokane, Washington, employment center for the casual labor elements\
    \ of the Pacific Northwest. The fight developed late in 1908 when the I.W.W. launched\
    \ an extensive speaking campaign with the slogan \"Don't Buy Jobs\" in the streets\
    \ around the Spokane employment agencies which had become skilled in the art of\
    \ swindling men who applied for jobs.\n\nThe \"job sharks\" were so closely tied\
    \ to the crew boss on many job sites that there would be \"one gang coming, one\
    \ gang working and one gang going.\" The faster the turnover, the greater the\
    \ fees that could be generated. From time to time the men would ignore the IWW\
    \ and seek revenge after an employment shark took someone's last dollar for a\
    \ job that didn't exist. The Spokesman-Review of February 17, 1909 reported,\n\
    \nHurling rocks and chunks of ice through the windows of the Red Cross Employment\
    \ Agency, 224 Stevens St., several members of a noisy mob of between 2,000 and\
    \ 3,000 idle men were about to attempt to wreck the place about 6 o'clock last\
    \ evening, when James H. Walsh, organizer of the IWW, mounted a chair and pacified\
    \ the multitude. In the opinion of the police had it not been for the intervention\
    \ of Walsh, a riot would surely have followed, as the rabble was worked up to\
    \ such a pitch that its members would have readily attempted violence. Walsh discouraged\
    \ violence and summoned all members of the IWW to their hall at the rear of 312\
    \ Front Ave. The police dispersed the rest... At the hall Walsh warned the crowd\
    \ against an outbreak. \"There were a lot of hired Pinkertons in that crowd,\"\
    \ he said. \"All they wanted you fellows to do was to start something and then\
    \ they would have an excuse for shooting you down or smashing your heads in...\
    \ You can gain nothing by resorting to mob rule.\"\n\nFor the rest of the summer,\
    \ IWW street meetings brought more and more working stiffs into the IWW.\n\nThe\
    \ agencies promptly countered by pressuring the city council to pass an ordinance\
    \ forbidding street speaking. The I.W.W. obeyed the regulation for nearly a year,\
    \ until Spokane religious groups, which habitually used the streets, secured a\
    \ new regulation exempting them from the street-speaking ordinance. Angered by\
    \ the discrimination on behalf of \"the Christers,\" the Spokane I.W.W. renewed\
    \ its campaign.\n\nThe newspaper of the IWW, the Industrial Worker, published\
    \ the following on October 28: \"Wanted—Men to Fill the Jails of Spokane.\" Then\
    \ the IWW sent out a notice to all locations, \"Nov. 2, FREE SPEECH DAY—IWW locals\
    \ will be notified by wire how many men to send if any... Meetings will be orderly\
    \ and no irregularities of any kind will be tolerated.\"\n\nIn one day 150 men\
    \ were arrested and crowded into jails that could hardly accommodate them. Reinforcements\
    \ promptly arrived from the surrounding territory.\n\nThe Spokane City Council\
    \ arranged for rock-pile work for the prisoners.\n\nAt the end of twenty days\
    \ four hundred men had been jailed.\n\nOverflowing prisoners were lodged in the\
    \ Franklin School [then located along Front Street (now Trent)], and the War Department\
    \ made Fort Wright available for more. Eight editors in succession got out a copy\
    \ of the Industrial Worker, and then took their turn soapboxing, and went to jail.\
    \ The IWW's \"rebel girl,\" Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, who was fresh out of high\
    \ school, delayed her arrest by chaining herself to a lamppost. She later charged\
    \ that the police were using the women's section of the jail as a brothel, with\
    \ police soliciting customers. When that story was printed in the Industrial Worker\
    \ on December 10, the police attempted to destroy all copies. Public sympathy\
    \ began to favor the strikers. When the prison guards would march the overflowing\
    \ prisoners through the streets to bathing facilities, crowds would shower the\
    \ men with apples, oranges, and Cigarettes. Around 10:30 AM on December 20th,\
    \ 1909, the I.W.W. Hall of Spokane was raided by police, driving 200 men out onto\
    \ the street.\n\nThe effort brought results: the W.F.M. declared a boycott of\
    \ all goods coming from Spokane, and taxpayers began to protest against the cost\
    \ of feeding, housing, and policing the prisoners. When Vincent St. John publicly\
    \ appealed to all Wobblies to come to Spokane to renew the struggle, city officials\
    \ capitulated.\n\nThe victory for the free speech fight came on March 4, when\
    \ the city of Spokane agreed to allow the I.W.W. to speak on the street. Subsequently\
    \ that day, all arrested I.W.W. members were released. The licenses of 19 of the\
    \ employment agencies were revoked.\n\nThe I.W.W. was granted freedom of assembly,\
    \ freedom of the press, and the right to distribute its literature.\n\nIn Labor's\
    \ Untold Story, Boyer and Morais observed,\n\nThe courts became so clogged they\
    \ could handle little else but free speech cases. The fight for free speech became\
    \ largely a question of endurance between the lungs and heads of the Wobblies\
    \ and the stamina of the police. In Missoula and Spokane as in most of the other\
    \ towns where free speech fights were waged, any citizen could address any assemblage\
    \ on any street on any subject at any time by the end of 1912.\n\nMissoula free\
    \ speech fight\n\nThe IWW members won a free speech fight in Missoula when, on\
    \ October 8, 1909, the city council decided to let the union members speak anywhere\
    \ in the community, so long as they did not impede traffic.\n\nElizabeth Gurley\
    \ Flynn was \"a striking auburn-haired 19-year-old\" when she arrived in Missoula\
    \ with her husband, Jack Jones in September 1909. At Higgins Avenue and West Front\
    \ Street, the Wobblies set up a soapbox. On September 22, Frank Little arrived\
    \ to assist. Little and Jones were arrested on September 29. A young logger and\
    \ a civil engineer then spoke, and were likewise arrested. Flynn put out the word,\
    \ declaring, \"we need volunteers to go to jail.\" Wobblies poured in from the\
    \ surrounding territory, flooding the jail. They sang IWW songs, and shouted Wobbly\
    \ slogans.\n\nAccording to Flynn, who also was arrested October 3rd, 1909, the\
    \ jail was \"a filthy, dirty hole under the firehouse stable, where all the filthy\
    \ excrement of the place pours down upon the prisoners.\" Yet enough Wobblies\
    \ submitted themselves to arrest—frequently just before dinner time—that the city\
    \ was feeling the impact of the Wobbly tactic. After a night in jail, Wobblies\
    \ were often offered their freedom before breakfast, but many refused to be released,\
    \ instead demanding a jury trial.\n\nThe Western Montana Apple Show was set to\
    \ open, and Missoula officials decided to \"wave a white flag.\" The IWW had won\
    \ the Missoula free speech fight, and all charges were dropped.\n\nOn February\
    \ 7, 2011, the National Park Service officially recognized Free Speech Corner\
    \ at Higgens Avenue and West Front Street, adding it to the National Register\
    \ of Historic Places to commemorate the Missoula free speech fight.\n\nSan Diego\
    \ free speech fight\n\nThe free speech fight in San Diego from 1912 to 1913 was\
    \ among the most prominent free speech fights of the IWW. An ordinance had been\
    \ passed by the San Diego Common Council which made it much more difficult for\
    \ the Wobblies to engage in their soapbox orations without being swiftly arrested.\
    \ The San Diego jails were soon teeming with Wobblies and others who used civil\
    \ disobedience in the fight for free speech, and, even more alarmingly, contingents\
    \ of vigilantes arose to fight against those in favor of free speech. The Free\
    \ Speech League worked in concert with the IWW in San Diego, but, when the fight\
    \ became judicial, the ordinance was upheld.\n\nSioux City, Iowa\n\nSioux City\
    \ was considered a very strategic town for workers to stage free speech fights\
    \ in because it was \"a gateway for laborers entering and leaving summer employment\
    \ in agriculture and construction in the Dakotas.\"  Since those employment opportunities\
    \ for the workers were seasonal, many of them returned to spend the winter in\
    \ Sioux City, where the Wobblies attempted to provide them incentives to join\
    \ their Free Speech Fight such as by educating them and helping feed them over\
    \ the tough winter. \n\nOver a thousand men were unemployed in Sioux City at the\
    \ time during the winter of 1915. There had been a real push to get workers to\
    \ come to Sioux City by business leaders there, but workers who arrived found\
    \ that there were barely enough jobs for the local laborers. \nOn the 15th of\
    \ January, after facing even harsher conditions and struggling with unemployment,\
    \ roughly 150 of the IWW-associated unemployed stormed the Commercial Club where\
    \ many business leaders listened to them demand work and watched them take food.\
    \ \n\nIn response to the direct action of the IWW, Sioux City increased enforcement\
    \ of vagrancy laws and began arresting more of the IWW members engaged in the\
    \ Free Speech Fights. Their goal in doing so was to attempt to drive the IWW out\
    \ of town, but, unsurprisingly, they achieved the opposite. The IWW demanded free\
    \ speech rights to be granted in the city. They Wobblies were filling the city's\
    \ jails and forced the hand of the city officials to attempt to strike a deal\
    \ with them. Ultimately, they won the fight and free speech rights were granted\
    \ to workers in Sioux City.\n\nOther free speech fights of the IWW\n\nThe IWW\
    \ followed with other free speech fights in Kansas City, Missouri; in Aberdeen\
    \ and Wenatchee, Washington; and in Fresno, California.  Tar and feathers, beatings,\
    \ clubbings, and forcible deportations were used in addition to incarceration.\
    \ The San Diego free speech fight was unique in that the IWW did not have a specific\
    \ organizing campaign at stake. The IWW won all of these free speech fights.\n\
    \nIn early 1913, IWW members in Denver, Colorado fought a lengthy free speech\
    \ fight. Denver authorities had refused to allow the Wobblies to speak on street\
    \ corners, so union members filled the jails for months. The union won the right\
    \ to speak to workers, and within a year had formed two Denver branches.\n\nOther\
    \ locations of free speech fights by the IWW included Duluth, Minnesota; Portland,\
    \ Oregon; New Castle, Pennsylvania, and New Bedford, Massachusetts.\n\nThe IWW's\
    \ provocative free speech message\n\nThe IWW message was particularly unpopular\
    \ with the business community. IWW members believed that the capitalist system\
    \ was corrupt, could not be reformed, and could only be resisted until a better\
    \ society could be built for all working people. James Walsh's streetcorner speeches\
    \ were therefore frequently disrupted, particularly by the local Volunteers of\
    \ America and Salvation Army Bands.\n\nWalsh recruited volunteers to put together\
    \ a small band, equipped with \"a big booming bass drum,\" in order to get the\
    \ IWW's message to listeners. The group practiced patriotic and religious tunes\
    \ of the period, but the Wobblies wrote new words to the songs.\n\n\"To grab the\
    \ crowd's attention,\" the IWW band often \"hid in a doorway while one member\
    \ dressed in a bowler hat and carrying a briefcase and umbrella, yelled to the\
    \ crowd, 'Help! I've been robbed!' The crowd rushed over only to hear, 'I've been\
    \ robbed by the capitalist system! Fellow workers ...' He then launched into a\
    \ short speech, and the makeshift band stepped out of the doorway and played their\
    \ songs.\"\n\nThe soapbox tradition\nPrior to television, radio, and film becoming\
    \ parts of American mass culture, public speaking was a primary medium for entertainment\
    \ and information. Politicians, religious zealots, and newsboys all pitched their\
    \ trade on the soapbox. Though not all street speakers were political, soapbox\
    \ oration was fundamentally a political act. \n\nWith the march of time of the\
    \ 20th century, police forces and city ordinances began to take away the rights\
    \ of soapbox orators. As television and radio became more prominent, the very\
    \ act of street speaking began to seem antiquated and, at the very least, irrelevant.\
    \ Street speaking represented a threat to upper- and middle-class white Americans\
    \ who feared that \"inter-ethnoracial, working-class political coalitions\" would\
    \ achieve influence through the soap box. \n\nThis was especially true in Los\
    \ Angeles, where class politics was reaching a fever pitch in the early 20th century.\
    \ A multitude of political groups, such as the IWW, the Socialists, the Communist\
    \ Party, and the Partido Liberal Mexicano all spoke out for Angelinos to fight\
    \ for the rights of the underprivileged.\n\nSocialist free speech fights: 1900–1911\n\
    In the early 20th century, it was the Socialist Party that led the charge in soapbox\
    \ oration. They were the first group to make effective use of the tactics of public\
    \ speaking. Over the first ten years of the city, they grew enough to gain significant\
    \ political clout. In Los Angeles, the party drew in skilled and semi-skilled\
    \ white workers who worried about their job security. Additionally, they attempted\
    \ to recruit central Angelinos from more diverse ethnic backgrounds. In this way,\
    \ Free Speech Fights in Los Angeles served as the battleground between central\
    \ Los Angeles workers and the rest of the city.\n\nThe World War I crackdown\n\
    In the 1910s and 1920s, street speaking in Los Angeles suffered from increasing\
    \ escalation of tactics by the LAPD and city ordinances. The Wobblies became the\
    \ more dominant social group after the Socialists lost power, but the IWW was\
    \ unable to draw nearly as many people to their soapbox speeches.\n\nThe IWW had\
    \ a major conflict with the police over public speaking in San Pedro, a harbor\
    \ community. They organized with striking dockworkers, but were met with extreme\
    \ repression by the police who even used violent tactics to prevent their protests\
    \ from being successful.  Because of the failures in San Pedro, the IWW lost power\
    \ in Southern California.\n\nSee also\n\n Anti-union violence\n\nFootnotes\n\n\
    References\n Peter Blecha, \"Fanning the Flames: Northwest Labor Song Traditions\"\
    , February 5, 2006, Retrieved May 14, 2007.\n Richard O. Boyer and Herbert M.\
    \ Morais, Labor's Untold Story (1974).\n Paul F. Brisseden, The I.W.W.: A Study\
    \ of American Syndicalism (New York, 1919)\n David Brundage, The Making of Western\
    \ Labor Radicalism: Denver's Organized Workers, 1878-1905 (1994).\n Melvyn Dubofsky,\
    \ We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World (1969)\n Joseph\
    \ G. Rayback, A History of American Labor (1966).\n Fred W. Thompson and Patrick\
    \ Murfin, The I.W.W.: Its First Seventy Years, 1905-1975 (1976).\n Woodrow C.\
    \ Whitten, Criminal Syndicalism and the Law in California, 1919-1927 (Philadelphia,\
    \ 1969).\n\nFurther reading\n John Duda (editor), \"Wanted! Men to Fill the Jails\
    \ of Spokane: Fighting for Free Speech with the Hobo Agitators of the I.W.W. \"\
    \  (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 2009) \n Philip S. Foner (editor), \"Fellow Workers\
    \ and Friends: I.W.W. Free-Speech Fights as Told by Participants\" (Westport,\
    \ Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981)\nMatthew S. May, \"Soapbox Rebellion: The\
    \ Hobo Orator Union and the Free Speech Fights of the Industrial Workers of the\
    \ World\" (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2013)\n\nFreedom of expression\n\
    History of the Industrial Workers of the World\nPolitical repression in the United\
    \ States\nFreedom of speech"
- source_sentence: ¿Cómo reacciona Jesús ante la ejecución pública de Gregory y cómo
    afecta esto su relación con Maggie y su postura sobre el comercio mutuo entre
    las comunidades?
  sentences:
  - "Paul \"Jesús\" Monroe\n\nPersonalidad\n\nPaul comparte similitudes físicas con\
    \ el personaje bíblico Jesús en su naturaleza perdonadora y abierta, así como\
    \ su largo cabello y barba. También se muestra que es extremadamente táctico,\
    \ aunque a veces deja que su furia y sus emociones lo superen. Además de estos,\
    \ se ha demostrado que es un combatiente muy hábil, que puede derrotar a su oponente\
    \ mientras está completamente desarmado (en cambio usa sus manos y pies como arma\
    \ principal). También tiene habilidades como un artista de escape y ha demostrado\
    \ ser un rastreador competente.\n\nHistoria\n\nPaul es introducido al espionaje\
    \ en la comunidad de la zona segura de Alexandría, poco después de la purga de\
    \ la invasión de las hordas zombis. Paul es atacado más tarde por Michonne y Abraham\
    \ Ford donde fácilmente los inmoviliza. Después de insistir en encontrarse con\
    \ Rick Grimes, él es sometido y atado. Después de los interrogatorios, Rick finalmente\
    \ decide irse con Paul a la colonia Hilltop. En el camino, Paul revela que pudo\
    \ haber escapado en cualquier momento, pero permaneció allí para ver si se podía\
    \ confiar en Rick. Durante el camino Paul ayuda a Rick a eliminar a algunos zombis\
    \ y lo salva de morir y siguen su camino. Después de llegar a Hilltop, Paul defiende\
    \ a Rick luego de que mata a un ciudadano enviado por Negan para entregar un mensaje.\
    \ Luego, Paul le revela a Rick y su grupo, que él y el resto de su gente, han\
    \ estado durante meses bajo el asedio de los Salvadores. Intenta rastrearlos de\
    \ vuelta a su base, pero es capturado y perseguido a la colonia.​​\nA raíz de\
    \ la muerte de Glenn Rhee a manos de Negan, decide unirse a Rick en su lucha contra\
    \ los Salvadores y se convierte en un miembro clave del comité de toma de decisiones\
    \ de Rick. Después de que Rick decide dejar a un Dwight cautivo, Rick le dice\
    \ a Paul que lo siga y vea a qué se enfrentan, pero que no le diga a ninguno de\
    \ sus planes. Después de prepararse, Paul comienza a seguir a Dwight, con la esperanza\
    \ de descubrir la base de operaciones de los Salvadores. Más tarde es emboscado\
    \ por tres Salvadores. Mientras trata de luchar contra el trío salvador, uno de\
    \ los miembros lo somete. Después de ser derribado al piso, Paul es casi asesinado\
    \ por los salvadores, sin embargo, es salvado por Dwight y otro salvador, quienes\
    \ le dicen a los atacantes de Paul que se retiren, ya que tienen algunas preguntas\
    \ \"importantes\" para Paul. Dwight y el otro salvador atan a Paul y lo cargan\
    \ en un jeep. Se dirigen al Santuario, lo que le permite a Paul observar bien\
    \ el área y él abandona el jeep en el último segundo, evitando por poco la captura\
    \ y se lo informa a Rick. Presenta a Rick al Rey Ezekiel, el líder del Reino,\
    \ con la esperanza de formar a las tres comunidades para oponerse a los Salvadores.\
    \ Mientras se escabulle a Hilltop para contarle a Maggie el plan de Rick, se entera\
    \ de que Kal lo traicionó y salió corriendo para informar a los Salvadores de\
    \ su plan en el que Jesús lo alcanza y lo convence para que cambie de opinión.\
    \ Sigue reclutando miembros de Hilltop, para gran consternación de Gregory.​​\n\
    Más tarde, cuando Negan toma como rehenes a Rick, Nicholas, Heath y Holly por\
    \ intentar matarlo, Jesús llega a la Zona de Seguridad, escondido lejos de Negan\
    \ y sus hombres. Jesús aparece en el momento oportuno (momento de la ejecución)\
    \ y toma por sorpresa a uno de los bandidos, ocasionando una distracción y dándole\
    \ tiempo a Rick y a los otros de escapar. Jesús acaba con algunos salvadores y\
    \ luego se enfrenta mano a mano con Negan, logrando tomarlo como rehén y amenazando\
    \ con matarlo si se atrevían a dispararle. Un asustado Negan le ordena a sus hombres\
    \ no hacer nada y entonces Jesús le propone dejarlo marcharse a cambio de que\
    \ deje ingresar en la zona a sus camaradas que estaban en camino. Negan tiene\
    \ sus dudas pero justo en ese momento Shiva aparece y ataca a uno de los salvadores,\
    \ y detrás de ella aparecen Ezekiel y su ejército. Negan aprovecha la ocasión\
    \ para liberarse de Jesús y escapa junto con sus hombres. Durante la guerra las\
    \ fuerzas combinadas logran abatir a los salvadores se finaliza la guerra cuando\
    \ Rick decide tomarlo prisionero a Negan en lugar de matarlo.​​\nDos años después\
    \ de finalizar la guerra, Jesús actúa como la segunda al mando de Maggie en Hilltop,\
    \ mientras realiza visitas recurrentes a Alexandría, también está en una relación\
    \ con Aaron. ​\n\nAdaptación de TV\n\nRobert Kirkman ha confirmado que Jesús estaría\
    \ en las futuras temporadas de la serie.​ En septiembre de 2015, el actor estadounidense\
    \ Tom Payne fue elegido para interpretar a Paul Rovia.​\n\nTemporada 6\n\nJesús\
    \ hace su debut en el episodio \"The Next World,\" visto por primera vez chocando\
    \ con Rick que está en una carrera de suministros con Daryl. Jesús les habla con\
    \ delicadeza, le quita las llaves a Rick y le da la idea de acercarse a los caminantes\
    \ en su mente para que reaccionen de manera predecible cuando arrancan los petardos,\
    \ lo que le permite conducir con su camioneta de suministros. Cuando fue atacado\
    \ por Rick y Daryl más tarde, Jesús es capaz de defenderse físicamente, mostrando\
    \ impresionantes habilidades de combate, aunque se rinde cuando lo amenazan a\
    \ punta de pistola. Jesús está atado a sus muñecas y tobillos y se deja a un lado\
    \ de la carretera, pero en segundos puede liberarse y subirse al camión sin ser\
    \ observado. Más tarde, cuando se dan cuenta de que está en el camión y pisan\
    \ los frenos, Jesús toma una considerable caída a la velocidad, pero es capaz\
    \ de levantarse y correr de inmediato, superando a Daryl, quien lo persigue. Jesús\
    \ se mete en el camión donde Daryl lo combate y agarra el arma de Daryl para matar\
    \ a un caminante que de otra manera habría atacado a Daryl por detrás. Daryl saca\
    \ a Jesús del camión, que accidentalmente se libera de sus frenos y Jesús queda\
    \ inconsciente en el proceso del camión rodando hacia atrás en un lago. Jesús\
    \ es llevado de regreso a Alexandría y a pesar de estar encerrado en una habitación\
    \ cerrada con llave en una casa vigilada, Jesús puede liberarse y escapar del\
    \ confinamiento sin dar la alarma e identificar e infiltrarse en la casa de Rick,\
    \ donde pide hablar con Rick.​ \nEn el siguiente episodio, \"Knots Untie\", Jesús\
    \ es práctico acerca de su impresionante escape, y dice que \"los nudos se desatan,\
    \ los candados se escogen, la anarquía viene del orden\", lo que sugiere una filosofía\
    \ que busca la armonía en lugar del control. Mientras estaba libre, Jesús localizó,\
    \ se infiltró y tomó un recuento de la armería y los suministros de alimentos\
    \ de Alexandría y una estimación de su población. Notando que tienen pocas provisiones,\
    \ él sugiere que negocien con su comunidad y los lleve a su comunidad Hilltop.\
    \ Cuando Gregory, el líder de la colonia Hilltop, trata de obtener la ventaja\
    \ sobre los alexandrinos que podrían enfrentar el hambre sin su alimento, Jesús\
    \ trabaja su influencia para convencer a su comunidad Hilltop de que sean caritativos\
    \ con los alexandrinos en su momento de necesidad y de construir una relación\
    \ de confianza y prosperidad. El respeto pagará mucho más en el futuro que este\
    \ intercambio único. Jesús también intercede cuando Rick y su grupo detienen un\
    \ intento de asesinato de Gregory instigado por Negan, evitando un mayor derramamiento\
    \ de sangre. Jesús les revela al grupo de Rick, que la colonia Hilltop ha sufrido\
    \ considerablemente las extorsiones de Los Salvadores y aunque no tenían suficientes\
    \ combatientes o municiones para atacar a Negan y su pandilla, Jesús se ofrece\
    \ voluntariamente para unirse cuando Daryl y el grupo cuando se ofrecen a negociar\
    \ para eliminar a Negan y rescatar a Craig, un rehén de su comunidad.​\nEn el\
    \ episodio \"Not Tomorrow Yet\", Se muestra que Jesús se unió al ataque de Rick\
    \ en el recinto del Salvador. Más tarde reconforta a Tara, que se siente culpable\
    \ por mentirle a Denise y sus experiencias cuando estuvo involucrada por última\
    \ vez en un ataque en una comunidad de sobrevivientes.​ Jesús le dice a Tara que\
    \ es su amor por Denise lo que le da una razón para pelear. Cuando se producen\
    \ los disparos, Jesús y Tara instan a Andy y Craig a que se vayan, para asegurarse\
    \ de que The Hilltop no esté conectado al ataque de los Salvadores, aunque Jesús\
    \ se pone su máscara y se apresura a confiar en que los Salvadores nunca lo verán.\
    \ Más tarde se lo ve salvando a Glenn y Heath de un Salvador moribundo disparándole\
    \ antes de decir \"Así que este es el próximo mundo\".​\n\nTemporada 7\n\nJesús\
    \ aparece por primera vez en el quinto episodio de la temporada, \"Go Getters\"\
    , donde intenta consolar a Maggie y Sasha (que se esconden en la colonia Hilltop\
    \ de los salvadores) sobre sus seres queridos perdidos. Gregory decide que los\
    \ dos deben irse y cuando Jesús no está de acuerdo, Gregory declara que es libre\
    \ de ir con ellos. Más tarde, Sasha le dice a Jesús que debería estar a cargo\
    \ de la comunidad, aunque insiste en que solo intenta ayudar, Sasha le dice que\
    \ podría tener que hacer más. Cuando Hilltop es atacado por caminantes dejados\
    \ entrar por los Salvadores, Jesús ayuda a Sasha a defenderse (una vez más demostrando\
    \ sus impresionantes habilidades en el combate cuerpo a cuerpo) mientras Maggie\
    \ destruye el sistema de autos al atraparlos. Al día siguiente, Jesús continúa.\
    \ para discutir con Gregory ya que se niega a rechazar a Maggie (que está embarazada),\
    \ así como a Sasha, ya que las dos ayudaron a salvarlos. Cuando Simon, uno de\
    \ los salvadores principales, llega a la colonia Hilltop, Gregory intenta delatar\
    \ a las dos, pero es frustrado porque Jesús las escondió en otro lugar. Cuando\
    \ se enfrenta a eso, Jesús le dice que todos se están quedando y aunque él no\
    \ quiere estar a cargo, Gregory tampoco lo estará. El episodio termina cuando\
    \ Jesús se mete a hurtadillas en uno de los camiones de los salvadores para encontrar\
    \ a Negan donde descubre que Carl Grimes ya está allí, empeñado en matar a Negan.​\
    \ Jesús aparece brevemente en el siguiente episodio \"Sing Me a Song\", mientras\
    \ él y Carl continúan hacia el Santuario. Jesús  deja un rastro de jarabe en el\
    \ camino como sendero y una vez cerca de su parada final, Jesús sugirió saltar\
    \ del camión y continuar a pie; pero fue engañado por el muchacho quien lo hizo\
    \ bajarse primero mientras que él prefirió quedarse y seguir por su cuenta, luego\
    \ sale de la camioneta solo para ver que Carl no lo siguió, Una vez infiltrado\
    \ dentro del Santuario, Jesús intento buscar la forma de llegar hacia un prisionero\
    \ Daryl y rescatarlo. Más tarde se le ve encima de un camión cuando Carl abandona\
    \ el Santuario.​ Luego se lo ve en el final de mitad de temporada \"Hearts Still\
    \ Beating\" donde encuentra a Daryl dentro del Santuario y lo ayuda a escapar,\
    \ más tarde se ve a Jesús viendo a Daryl y Maggie reunirse con sus amigos y caminar\
    \ a su lado mientras planean su guerra contra los salvadores.​\nEn el estreno\
    \ de mitad de temporada \"Rock in the Road\", se muestra a Rick y Jesús que no\
    \ lograron convencer a Gregory para que se una a la guerra contra los Salvadores.\
    \ Encuentran a varios miembros de la comunidad que se ofrecen para ofrecer su\
    \ ayuda voluntaria. Mientras el grupo discute las estrategias para vencer a los\
    \ salvadores, Rick dice que necesitan más ayuda, Jesús les dice que conoce a un\
    \ grupo que puede ayudar, con este fin, los trae al Reino, una comunidad floreciente\
    \ que también se ve obligada a servir a los salvadores, Se muestra que Jesús es\
    \ bien conocido allí y está en buenos términos con su líder, el Rey Ezekiel. Cuando\
    \ Ezekiel se niega a unirse a su lucha, Jesús se va con los demás y luego regresa\
    \ a Hilltop con Sasha.​ En el episodio \"The Other Side\" muestra a Jesús vinculándose\
    \ con Maggie y revelándole más de su pasado a ella (incluido que creció en un\
    \ hogar grupal y que es gay) y afirma que ella y Sasha lo ayudan a sentirse más\
    \ como en casa. Le proporciona a Sasha un diseño del Santuario para ayudarla con\
    \ sus planes de matar a Negan (aunque no está de acuerdo con su decisión). Jesús\
    \ es confrontado más tarde por Gregory, quien afirma que ha estado eludiendo sus\
    \ tareas de búsqueda / exploración y tiene demasiadas personas en su remolque.\
    \ Cuando Gregory menciona que debería mostrar más respeto o algo puede suceder\
    \ con los Salvadores que vienen constantemente, Jesús ve rápidamente que Gregory\
    \ lo está amenazando. Gregory lo niega, pero también afirma que cuida de sus amigos\
    \ y que las dos no son amigas.​ En \"Something They Need\", Jesus es parte del\
    \ grupo que Rick lleva a una comunidad llamada Oceanside con la intención de robar\
    \ sus armas. Su plan tiene éxito, pero Jesús parece estar en conflicto con sus\
    \ acciones.​ En el final de temporada \"The First Day of the Rest of Your Life\"\
    \ Jesús está con el grupo interrogando a Dwight en la celda de la prisión, Rosita\
    \ anuncia que los salvadores tienen a Sasha. Ella dice que no confía en Dwight,\
    \ pero Jesús cree que puede ser su única oportunidad para recuperar a Sasha. Jesús\
    \ revisa el plan de Rick con Maggie y Enid mientras vigilan a Judith. Jesús llega\
    \ con Maggie liderando un convoy de la gente de Hilltop justo a tiempo para unirse\
    \ a la lucha contra los Salvadores junto con el Reino, derribando a los Salvadores\
    \ que estaban a punto de matar a Rick. Maggie y Jesús rastrean a una zombificada\
    \ Sasha en el bosque y los ojos de Maggie se llenan de lágrimas cuando Jesús la\
    \ elimina de su miseria. Jesús está presente cuando Rick, Maggie y Ezekiel se\
    \ suben a una plataforma y se dirigen a la multitud como los líderes de sus respectivas\
    \ comunidades: Alexandría, Hilltop y El Reino, unidos y listos para una guerra\
    \ total.​​​​\n\nTemporada 8\n\nJesús aparece en el estreno de la temporada \"\
    Mercy\", donde se une al ejército de sobrevivientes reunidos, liderado por Rick,\
    \ Maggie y Ezekiel en un ataque al Santuario. Cuando Negan intenta dividirlos\
    \ haciendo que Gregory ordene a que los residentes de Hilltop regresen a casa,\
    \ Jesús no se sorprende por la traición y afirma con confianza que Hilltop está\
    \ con Maggie. Más tarde se separa con un grupo para comenzar a atacar los compuestos\
    \ más pequeños de los salvadores.​​ En \"The Damned\", Jesús lidera a un grupo\
    \ para tomar el control de un puesto de avanzada de los salvadores. A diferencia\
    \ de Morgan o Tara, que abogan por matar a todos los salvadores, Jesús insiste\
    \ en darle a los salvadores la oportunidad de rendirse, incluso cuando uno de\
    \ ellos se aprovecha de esto y trata de matarlo. Esto hace que tomen varios prisioneros\
    \ a pesar de las objeciones de Tara, lo que indica que Rick estará de acuerdo\
    \ con ella.​ En \"Monsters\", se muestra a Jesús y su grupo llevando a los prisioneros\
    \ de regreso a Hilltop. Esto causa conflicto con Morgan que cree que deberían\
    \ ser asesinados, cuando los prisioneros intentan escapar, el desacuerdo culmina\
    \ en una pelea acalorada, que finalmente termina en un empate y Morgan deja al\
    \ grupo frustrado. Una vez que llegan a Hilltop, Jesús convence a Maggie para\
    \ que ponga a los prisioneros en un par de remolques bajo guardia armada.​ En\
    \ el episodio \"The King, the Widow and Rick\", se ve a Jesús repartiendo comida\
    \ a los salvadores, Maggie irrumpe y le ordena que deje de regalar la comida de\
    \ Hilltop, el está sorprendido de que ella consideraría matar a estos hombres,\
    \ a continuación Jesús y Maggie discuten sobre el porqué de la guerra. En la noche,\
    \ Jesús observa en la colonia Hilltop desde afuera de las paredes con los salvadores,\
    \  Alden le pregunta a Jesús de lo que están construyendo en su interior. Él responde\
    \ por sí mismo y explica por qué fue parte de los salvadores. Todo comenzó con\
    \ poner una valla. Jesús lo calla, Al día siguiente, Jesús sigue vigilando a los\
    \ salvadores capturados. Enid emerge and le dice a Jesús que Maggie ha ordenado\
    \ que ingresó los Salvadores. Han construido en un área de espera para mantenerlos.\
    \ Jesús, Enid y Aarón miran, como Maggie encierra a Gregory. Jesús ingresa a la\
    \ oficina de Gregory y agradece a Maggie por hacer lo correcto, pero Maggie lo\
    \ calla diciendo que solo los mantiene con vida porque cree que están negociando\
    \ fichas y que busca intercambiarlos por las personas que tienen como Carson,\
    \ y ella dice que si No funciona, los matarán. Jesús está decepcionado por esto.​\
    \ En el final de mitad de temporada \"How It's Gotta Be\" Jesús y Maggie conducen,\
    \ llevando una caravana de gente de Hilltop, se detienen cuando ven un árbol en\
    \ el camino y Maggie sabe que los salvadores colocaron el árbol allí, cuando se\
    \ detienen, una línea de vehículos de los salvadores aparece detrás de su caravana.\
    \ En frente del auto de Maggie, y aparecen los salvadores abriendo la parte trasera\
    \ de un camión y sacan a Jerry, con un arma en la cabeza, apuntado por Gary (Mike\
    \ Seal) un teniente salvador. Simon sale de la camioneta y se dirige a Maggie.\
    \ Simon mata a uno de los miembros de Hilltop para someter a Maggie dejando a\
    \ Jesús horrorizado. Jesús y Maggie regresan a Hilltop y Maggie le dice a Eduardo\
    \ que deje salir a Dean de la jaula. Ella le dispara frente a todos los demás,\
    \ por devolverle los problemas a Jesús en el puesto de avanzada del satélite y\
    \ demostrar que ella tiene el control y también la recompensa por la muerte de\
    \ Neil. Jesús está conmocionado por esto e intenta hablar con ella, pero ella\
    \ le dice a Jesús que se encargue del muro y se prepare para la última posición.​\n\
    Durante el episodio \"Do Not Send Us Astray\" Jesús está entre los residentes\
    \ y refugiados de Hilltop que están preparados para defender el Hilltop ante un\
    \ inminente ataque de los salvadores, El y los otros logran sobrevivir al ataque\
    \ mientras los Salvadores restantes huyen, al día siguiente, Jesús vigila a los\
    \ prisioneros y encierra a los prisioneros en la celda. Durante la noche, los\
    \ gritos resuenan en la Casa Barrington, en el interior, Maggie ve que las personas\
    \ son devoradas por los caminantes. Daryl se apresura a ayudar a la gente. Jesús\
    \ ayuda a eliminar a los caminantes. A la mañana siguiente, Jesús ayuda a Jerry\
    \ a cavar tumbas para las personas que murieron, ya que descubrieron que esas\
    \ personas heridas fueron heridas por los salvadores con armas contaminadas con\
    \ sangre de caminante.​ En el final de temporada \"Wrath\" Jesús acompaña a Rick\
    \ y al resto de la milicia para luchar contra los salvadores en la batalla final,\
    \ durante el camino al campo de batalla, Jesús sugiere que Morgan se abstenga\
    \ de matar gente reservando el extremo afilado de su bastón para caminantes y\
    \ el lado contundente para los vivos, la manada masiva se alza en la distancia,\
    \ después de que la mayoría de los salvadores son eliminados a causa de las balas\
    \ defectuosas que Eugene provocó que las armas estallaran en ellos, Jesús y los\
    \ demás luchan contra los salvadores sobrevivientes hasta que se rinden. Sin embargo,\
    \ Negan es derrotado y capturado mientras Rick se dirige a la multitud, declarando\
    \ la paz entre todas las comunidades, después, Jesús regresa a su comunidad. En\
    \ la oficina de Maggie en Hilltop, ella habla en privado con Jesús. Ella le dice\
    \ que tenía razón al traer a los salvadores a la colonia Hilltop. Está enojada\
    \ con Rick y Michonne, creyendo que ambos estaban equivocados por mantener vivo\
    \ a Negan. Cuando Jesús sugiere qué hacer al respecto, Maggie alude a corregir\
    \ más adelante este error una vez que Hilltop tenga tiempo de reagruparse y fortalecerse\
    \ y mostrarle a Rick que está equivocado. Daryl también está de acuerdo con esto\
    \ cuando sale de la sombra.​​\n\nTemporada 9\n\nEn el estreno de la temporada\
    \ \"A New Beginning\", han trascurrido 18 meses después de finalizar la guerra\
    \ contra Negan y los salvadores, los supervivientes se pusieron en marcha para\
    \ reconstruir la civilización, se ve a Jesús derribando a varios caminantes utilizando\
    \ sus artes marciales para que así Aaron pueda eliminarlos sin problemas; proponiéndole\
    \ a su compañero aprender técnicas defensa personal en Hilltop. Tras ser informado\
    \ sobre una búsqueda de materiales que necesitaba el Santuario para producir,\
    \ en la ciudad de Washington, D.C. el hombre decidió acompañarlos pero permaneció\
    \ vigilando el perímetro a medida que el resto de su grupo se adentraba al museo\
    \ del lugar en donde se encontraban los materiales, con la muerte de Ken durante\
    \ la expedición, Jesús asistió a su funeral en la noche y después de escuchar\
    \ unas conmovedoras palabras de Gregory en honor hacia el muchacho, lo felicitó\
    \ por haber cambiado su forma de ser a alguien más amistoso y agradecido. Sin\
    \ embargo, la forma en la que veía a Gregory se derrumbo al descubrir sus perversos\
    \ planes para matar a Maggie y retomar el liderazgo de Hilltop que la mujer se\
    \ lo había ganado, Jesús asistió a la ejecución pública que se llevaría y completamente\
    \ decepcionado de Maggie al presenciar como Gregory era acogoteado frente a la\
    \ mirada de los residentes de Hilltop.​​ En el episodio \"The Bridge\" Michonne\
    \ habla con Maggie sobre el comercio mutuo que ambas comunidades tienen y Jesús\
    \ se mantiene en silencio, más tarde Maggie y Jesús debaten sobre la decisión\
    \ de otorgar los suministros a los salvadores pero afirma que deben de ganarselo\
    \ a través de la construcción del puente. Poco después, Tammy le ruega a Jesús\
    \ que vea a Earl, pero él dice que no es el momento, recordándole que trató de\
    \ matar a Maggie. Jesús le dice a Maggie, mientras juega con Hershel, que deberían\
    \ considerar implementar reglas oficiales para manejar situaciones como Earl,\
    \ Negan y Gregory. Ella finalmente está de acuerdo.​ En \"The Obliged\" Jesús\
    \ observa cómo Maggie agarra una mochila y mete una palanca en ella, planeando\
    \ ir a Alexandría para matar a Negan. Menciona que Georgie ha enviado otra carta\
    \ y trata de convencerla de que no vaya, pero lo ignora y se le indica que cuide\
    \ de Hilltop mientras Maggie se va.​ En \"What Comes After\" Jesús aparece en\
    \ las alucinaciones de Rick, en donde el camina por un piso lleno de los cadáveres\
    \ de sus amigos y seres queridos, entre ellos Jesús, En el puente, cuando Rick\
    \ se aleja antes de desplomarse, alucina mientras Jesús y los demás se apresuran\
    \ a pasar junto a él para matar a los caminantes. En la realidad, Maggie y Michonne\
    \ traman un plan para desviar a los caminantes, pero Rick no lo permite. Se da\
    \ cuenta de la dinamita en el puente, apunta y se dice a sí mismo  \"Los encontré\"\
    , antes de disparar y encender la dinamita. El puente se enciende y explota cuando\
    \ Jesús y el resto solo pueden mirar con horror, suponiendo que Rick esta muerto.​\
    \ En el episodio \"Stradivarius\", Seis años después, En algún momento, durante\
    \ los seis años posteriores a la supuesta muerte de Rick, Maggie, junto con Hershel,\
    \ abandonaron Hilltop para unirse al grupo de Georgie, Jesús fue elegido como\
    \ el nuevo líder. Tara, sabiendo que no le gustan las responsabilidades, se muda\
    \ a Hilltop para ayudarlo. En el camino, Aarón salta a Jesús a caballo y los dos\
    \ pelean juguetonamente en un campo hasta que están agotados y van a sentarse\
    \ para alcanzarlos. Jesús pregunta si Michonne ha reconsiderado unirse a la próxima\
    \ feria, pero Aaron dijo que ni siquiera lo evaluará. De repente, se dispara una\
    \ bengala en el aire cerca y se apresuran a investigar. Encuentran a Rosita herida\
    \ por un árbol, quien les dice que dejó a Eugene en un granero. Antes de que algunos\
    \ caminantes se acerquen, la agarran y prometen buscar a Eugene mañana, por la\
    \ noche, Tara actualiza a Jesús sobre la condición de Rosita y le pregunta qué\
    \ estaba haciendo allí. Jesús confiesa que estaba entrenando a Aarón mientras\
    \ intentaba que Alexandría se uniera a la Feria. Ella lo regaña y le dice que\
    \ las personas notan su constante ausencia de Hilltop. Ella revela que se va mañana\
    \ a buscar a Eugene y que él necesita quedarse, por la mañana, Daryl, Carol y\
    \ Henry llegan y abrazan a Tara. Carol le dice a Jesús que Henry quiere aprender\
    \ a ser herrero. Aaron saluda a Daryl y le dice que podrían usar su ayuda para\
    \ localizar a Eugene, el grupo de rescate se prepara cuando Jesús le dice a Tara\
    \ que irá en lugar de a ella y la próxima vez le promete quedarse, a lo que ella\
    \ acepta sonriendo. Con el perro a la cabeza, Daryl, Aarón y Jesús salen a buscar\
    \ a Eugene.​​ En el final de mitad de temporada \"Evolution\", Daryl, Jesús y\
    \ Aaron siguen las huellas de Eugene, pero descubren que cruzan un campo lleno\
    \ de caminantes persistentes, observan que este es un patrón extraño y deciden\
    \ caminar alrededor de él, cuando se van, un caminante se gira para verlos partir,\
    \ Aaron, Daryl y Jesús logran encontrar a Eugene, Daryl se ofrece voluntariamente\
    \ a llevar lejos a la horda caminante, Jesús, Aarón y Eugene se quedan atrapados\
    \ en un cementerio amurallado, comienzan a escuchar los susurros de los caminantes\
    \ y cuando salen de la línea del frente, Michonne llega con otros de Hilltop para\
    \ ayudarlos a rescatarlos. Jesús se queda atrás para cubrir a los demás y mientras\
    \ regresa a la puerta, elimina a los caminantes, el último agacha su espada, lo\
    \ agarra y lo apuñala, advirtiéndole que no le pertenecen. El resto se apresura\
    \ para atacar al caminante y eliminar al resto. Mientras Aarón se lamenta por\
    \ el cuerpo de Jesús, Daryl examina al caminante que lo mató, y descubrió que\
    \ era un humano vivo con una máscara hecha de la piel de un caminante. El grupo\
    \ se encuentra rodeado de más caminantes, varios que hablan y les advierten que\
    \ pronto morirán.​​\n\nTemporada 4\n\nEn un flashback, Morgan cuelga la ropa en\
    \ su escondite en la comunidad de la chatarra. Jesús lo visita y lo invita a unirse\
    \ a su comunidad.​\n\nConsolas de Video Juegos\n\nJesús aparece en el videojuego\
    \ por Telltale Games The Walking Dead: A New Frontier, que se desarrolla en el\
    \ universo de los cómics. Se lleva a cabo algún tiempo durante el salto de tiempo\
    \ después de All Out War.​\n\nRecepción\n\nThe Weekly Crisis incluyó a Jesús como\
    \ el número 10 en su lista de Los diez mejores personajes de The Walking Dead,\
    \ diciendo: \"Ser apodado por el hijo de Dios parece ser un infierno de una exageración,\
    \ pero Jesús tiene muestra una y otra vez que él es un hombre bueno y confiado\
    \ que solo quiere lo mejor para todos. El nombre encaja. Aunque recientemente\
    \ nos lo han presentado, Jesús se está mostrando rápidamente como uno de los personajes\
    \ más importantes del libro.\"​"
  - "\n\n삼견\n\n3견(三見)은 9결(九結) 중 견결(見結)을 이루는 3가지 번뇌인 유신견(有身見)변집견(邊執見)사견(邪見)을 말한다.\n\
    \n삼계\n\n3계(三界)는 불교의 우주론 또는 세계관을 구성하는 존재계인 욕계(欲界)색계(色界)무색계(無色界)의 3가지 계(界)를 통칭하는\
    \ 낱말이다. 3유(三有)라고도 하는데, 3유(三有)는 욕유(欲有)색유(色有)무색유(無色有)를 말한다.\n\n불교의 우주론 또는 세계관에서\
    \ 3계 또는 3유는 28천(二十八天)으로 나뉘지만, 수행론과 번뇌론에서는 흔히 9지(九地)로 나뉜다. 이를 통칭하여 3계9지(三界九地)라고\
    \ 한다.\n\n3계9지(三界九地)\n<li>욕계(欲界) 또는 욕유(欲有)\n<li>오취잡거지(五趣雜居地)\n<li>색계(色界) 또는 색유(色有)\n\
    <li>이생희락지(離生喜樂地)\n<li>정생희락지(定生喜樂地)\n<li>이희묘락지(離喜妙樂地)\n<li>사념청정지(捨念淸淨地)\n<li>무색계(無色界)\
    \ 또는 무색유(無色有)\n<li>공무변처지(空無邊處地)\n<li>식무변처지(識無邊處地)\n<li>무소유처지(無所有處地)\n<li>비상비비상처지(非想非非想處地)\n\
    \n삼계무지\n\n1. 3계무지(三界無知)는 3계의 무지(無知)를 말한다. 즉 욕계의 무지(無知)색계의 무지(無知)무색계의 무지(無知)를 통칭한다.\
    \ 이것들은 다른 말로는 욕계계(欲界繫)의 무지(無知)색계계(色界繫)의 무지(無知)무색계계(無色界繫)의 무지(無知)라고도 한다. 즉 3계의\
    \ 무지(無知)는 욕계에 속한 무지(無知)색계에 속한 무지(無知)무색계에 속한 무지(無知)를 통칭한다.\n\n주의할 점은, 3계의 무지(無知)는\
    \ 3계에 대한 무지(無知)가 아니다. 즉 욕계색계무색계에 대한 무지(無知)가 아니며, 각각의 계에서의 어떤 진리 또는 법에 대한 무지(無知)를\
    \ 말하며, 이 무지(無知) 가운데는 3계에 대한 무지(無知)도 포함된다.\n\n《대승아비달마집론》에 따르면, 3계무지(三界無知) 즉 3계의\
    \ 무지(無知)는 무명(無明) 즉 치(癡)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질이다.\n\n2. 3계무지(三界無智)는 3계의 무지(無智)를 말한다. 즉\
    \ 욕계의 무지(無智)색계의 무지(無智)무색계의 무지(無智)를 통칭한다. 이것들은 다른 말로는 욕계계(欲界繫)의 무지(無智)색계계(色界繫)의\
    \ 무지(無智)무색계계(無色界繫)의 무지(無智)라고도 한다. 즉 3계의 무지는 욕계에 속한 무지(無智)색계에 속한 무지(無智)무색계에 속한\
    \ 무지(無智)를 통칭한다.\n\n주의할 점은, 3계의 무지(無智)는 3계에 대한 무지(無智)가 아니다. 즉 욕계색계무색계에 대한 무지(無智)가\
    \ 아니며, 각각의 계에서의 어떤 진리 또는 법에 대한 무지(無智)를 말하며, 이 무지(無智) 가운데는 3계에 대한 무지(無智)도 포함된다.\n\
    \n《아비달마품류족론》《대승아비달마잡집론》《대승오온론》《대승광오온론》에 따르면, 3계무지(三界無智) 즉 3계의 무지(無智)는 무명(無明) 즉\
    \ 치(癡)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질이다.\n\n삼고\n\n3고(三苦)는 고고(苦苦)괴고(壞苦)행고(行苦)의 3가지 고통을 말한다.\n\n\
    삼과\n\n삼과(三科)는 초기불교 이래로 불교에서 널리 사용되어오고 있는 일체법의 3가지 분류체계인 5온(五蘊)12처(十二處)18계(十八界)를\
    \ 말한다.\n\n 5온은 색온(色蘊)수온(受蘊)상온(想蘊)행온(行蘊)식온(識蘊)을 말한다.\n 12처는 안처(眼處)이처(耳處)비처(鼻處)설처(舌處)신처(身處)의처(意處)색처(色處)성처(聲處)향처(香處)미처(味處)촉처(觸處)법처(法處)를\
    \ 말한다.\n 18계는 안계(眼界)이계(耳界)비계(鼻界)설계(舌界)신계(身界)의계(意界)색계(色界)성계(聲界)향계(香界)미계(味界)촉계(觸界)법계(法界)안식계(眼識界)이식계(耳識界)비식계(鼻識界)설식계(舌識界)신식계(身識界)의식계(意識界)를\
    \ 말한다.\n\n삼구\n\n1. 3구(三垢)는 불선근(不善根) 즉 욕계의 탐(貪)진(瞋)치(癡)의 3가지 번뇌 즉 번뇌성의 마음작용(심소법)을\
    \ 말한다.\n\n2. 3구(三求)는 욕구(欲求)유구(有求)범행구(梵行求)를 말한다.\n\n《집이문족론(集異門足論)》 제4권에 따르면, 욕구(欲求)는\
    \ 욕유(欲有)에 머무르는 이가 욕계의 법에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라 구함[隨求], 평등하게\
    \ 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을 말한다.\n\n유구(有求)는\
    \ 색유(色有)와 무색유(無色有)에 머무르는 이가 색계와 무색계의 법에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라\
    \ 구함[隨求], 평등하게 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을\
    \ 말한다.\n\n범행구(梵行求)를 설명하기 전에 먼저 범행(梵行)의 뜻을 설명하자면,\n2교회(二交會: 남녀의 교회 즉 성행위)를 떠나는\
    \ 것[離二交會]을 범행(梵行)이라고도 하며 또한 8지성도(八支聖道) 즉 8정도(八正道)를 범행(梵行)이라고도 하는데 범행구(梵行求)라고 할\
    \ 때의 범행은 8지성도를 말한다.\n\n범행구(梵行求)는 8지성도에 대해서 아직 얻지 못한 것을 얻기 위하여 행하는 모든 구함[求], 따라\
    \ 구함[隨求], 평등하게 따라 구함[平等隨求], 두려워하여 구함[怖求], 기꺼이 구함[欣求], 생각하여 구함[思求], 부지런히 구함[勤求]을\
    \ 말한다.\n\n한편, 《집론》 제4권과 《잡집론》 제6권에 따르면,\n사범행구(邪梵行求)는 범행구의 반대로 '8사행에 대한 구함'을 뜻하는데,\
    \ 사범행구를 아직 떠나지 못한 유정의 경우, 그 이유는 7수면(七隨眠) 가운데 만수면(慢隨眠)무명수면(無明隨眠)견수면(見隨眠)의수면(疑隨眠)이\
    \ 수증(隨增)하였기 때문이다. 즉, 범행구를 발동근거로 하여 선이 증장한 것이 아니라 이들 네 가지 수면들 중 어느 하나 혹은 다수가 증장하였기\
    \ 때문이다. 즉, 실천 또는 수행한 바가 실제로는 범행구가 아니라 사범행구였기 때문에, 즉, 그릇된 실천 또는 수행에 의해 오히려 만수면무명수면견수면의수면이\
    \ 증장하였기 때문에 '8사행에 대한 구함'을 떠나지 못한 것이다.\n\n삼루\n\n3루(三漏, , )는 욕루(欲漏)유루(有漏)무명루(無明漏)를\
    \ 말한다. 누(漏, )는 번뇌의 다른 말이며, 생사의 바다 중에 '머물게 한다[令住]'는 뜻이다. 3루는 이러한 누(漏)의 뜻에서 모든 번뇌를\
    \ 아래와 같이 3유형 또는 3그룹으로 구분한 것이다.\n\n욕루(欲漏, )는 무명(無明)을 제외한 욕계의 모든 번뇌를 하나의 그룹으로 설정한\
    \ 것이다.\n\n유루(有漏, )는 무명(無明)을 제외한 색계무색계의 상2계의 모든 번뇌를 하나의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다. 한편, 여기서의\
    \ 유루(有漏, )는 무루(無漏, )의 상대어로서의 유루(有漏, )와는 다른 것이다.\n\n무명루(無明漏, )는 3계의 무명(無明)을 따로\
    \ 떼어 하나의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다. 이렇게 한 이유는 무명은 능히 모든 유(有) 즉 존재의 근본이 되기 때문이다. 즉, 무명은 그 자체만으로\
    \ 능히 생사윤회의 근본이 되는데 이와 같이 무명의 과환(過患)이 특히 뛰어나다는 사실을 나타내기 위해서 별도의 그룹으로 설정한 것이다.\n\
    \n삼마지\n\n삼마지(三摩地,\n,\n,\n,\n,\n,\none-pointedness,\nunification,\nunification\
    \ of mind)는\n설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중\n대지법(大地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이며,\n유식유가행파와\
    \ 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지) 중\n별경심소(別境心所: 5가지) 가운데 하나이다.\n삼마지(三摩地)는 심일경성(心一境性)의\
    \ 마음작용이다. 즉 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 평등(平等)하게 유지하여 즉 혼침(惛沈)과 도거(掉舉)를 멀리 떠난 상태에서\
    \ 그것이 하나의 대상에 전념(專念, 專住)하게 하는 마음작용이다. 달리 말하면, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 한 곳에 모아\
    \ 산란하지 않게 하는 마음작용이다. 마치 뱀이 죽통(竹筒)에 들어가면 바로 펴지듯이 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)이 삼마지에\
    \ 들면 산란되지 않고 한결같게 된다. 문자 그대로 번역하여 삼매(三昧)삼마제(三摩提)삼마제(三摩帝)라 하기도 하며, 의역하여 선정(禪定)정(定)등지(等持)정정(正定)정의(定意)조직정(調直定)정심행처(正心行處)라\
    \ 하기도 한다. (참고: 삼매(三昧))\n\n삼명\n\n1. 3명(三明,\n,\n,\n,\nthree awarenesses)은 부처나 아라한이\
    \ 가지는 숙명명(宿明明)천안명(天眼明)누진명(漏盡明)을 말한다. 각각 전생을 보고, 내생을 보고, 현생에서 번뇌를 모두 끊을 수 있는 지혜\
    \ 또는 능력이다. 이들 각각은 숙명지증명(宿命智證明)생사지증명(生死智證明)누진지증명(漏盡智證明)이라고도 하며, 숙명통(宿命通)천안통(天眼通)누진통(漏盡通)이라고도\
    \ 한다. 3명(三明)은 3달(三達) 또는 3증법(三證法)이라고도 한다.\n\n2. 3명(三明)은 《리그베다》《사마베다》《야주르베다》의 3가지\
    \ 베다를 말한다.\n\n3. 3명(三明)은 보살명(菩薩明)제불명(諸佛明)무명명(無明明)을 말한다. 각각 반야바라밀(般若波羅蜜)불안(佛眼)필경공(畢竟空)에\
    \ 대한 다른 말이다.  《대승의장》 제20권에 따르면 무명명 즉 필경공은 11공(十一空)을 말한다.\n\n4. 3명(三明)은 여래10호 가운데\
    \ 하나인 명행족(明行足) 또는 명행구족(明行具足)의 명(明)을 뜻한다. 용수의 《대지도론》 제2권에 따르면 여기의 명(明)은 숙명명(宿明明)천안명(天眼明)누진명(漏盡明)의\
    \ 3명을 말한다. 《북본열반경》 제18권에 따르면 여기의 명(明)은 보살명(菩薩明)제불명(諸佛明)무명명(無明明)의 3명을 말한다.\n\n\
    삼무위\n\n3무위(三無爲)는 설일체유부의 교의에서 설하는 허공(虛空ākāśa)택멸(擇滅)비택멸(非擇滅)의 3가지 무위법(無爲法)이다.\n\n\
    삼법전전인과동시\n\n삼법전전인과동시(三法展轉因果同時)는 유식유가행파의 연기론인 아뢰야식연기론에서 종자와 현행과의 인과관계를 나타내는 진술이다.\
    \ 종자가 현재의 결과를 낳는다는 의미의 종자생현행(種子生現行)과 현재의 결과가 종자를 새로이 만들거나 있는 종자를 강화한다는 의미의 현행훈종자(現行蕙種子)가\
    \ 한 찰나에 동시에 일어난다는 것을 뜻한다. 삼법전전인과동시(三法展轉因果同時)에서 3법(三法)이란 행이 생겨나게 하는 종자, 생겨난 현행,\
    \ 그 현행으로부터 훈습하여 생겨나는 또는 강화되는 종자를 가리킨다. 전전(展轉)은 예를 들면 심지(因)가 불꽃(果)을 낼 때 또한 불꽃(因)이\
    \ 심지(果)를 태우는 것과 같으며, 갈대단이 서로서로 의지하여 갈대단 A가 다른 갈대단 B를 세우고 또한 동시에 갈대단 B가 갈대단 A를\
    \ 세우는 것과 같다.\n\n삼사\n\n1. 3사(三事)는 근(根)경(境)식(識)을 말한다. 주로 촉(觸)의 마음작용과 관련하여 언급되며,\
    \ 《현양성교론》 등에 따르면 촉의 본질적 성질은 근경식의 3사가 화합하고 분별하는 것으로 이들을 각각 3사화합(三事和合)3사분별(三事分別)이라\
    \ 한다. 3사를 3법(三法) 즉 세 가지 법이라고도 한다.\n\n2. 3사(三思)는 사(思)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 선사(善思)불선사(不善思)무기사(無記思)를\
    \ 말한다.\n\n선사(善思)는 선의 사(思) 즉 선의 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을,\n불선사(不善思)는 불선의 사(思) 즉 불선의\
    \ 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을,\n무기사(無記思)는 무기의 사(思) 즉 선도 불선도 아닌 의업(意業)을 짓고 만드는[造作] 것을\
    \ 말한다.\n달리 말하면, 선사(善思)는 공덕(功德)을 짓는 정신적 행위[意業]를, 불선사(不善思)는 과실(過失)을 짓는 정신적 행위를,\
    \ 무기사(無記思)는 공덕도 과실도 아닌 것을 짓는 정신적 행위를 말한다.\n\n삼사화합\n\n3사화합(三事和合)은 근(根)경(境)식(識)의\
    \ 3가지[三事]가 화합하는 것을 말한다. 3화(三和) 또는 3화합성(三和合性)이라고도 한다. 촉(觸)의 마음작용과 깊은 관련이 있는데, 3사화합이\
    \ 곧 촉이라는 3화성촉설(三和成觸說)과 3사화합에서 촉이 생긴다는 3화생촉설(三和生觸說)의 견해가 있다. 전자는 경량부의 견해이고 후자는\
    \ 설일체유부와 유식유가행파의 견해이다.\n\n삼상\n\n1. 3상(三想)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 상(想)의\
    \ 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 소상(小想)대상(大想)무량상(無量想)을 말한다.\n\n대승불교의 유식유가행파의 논서 《대승아비달마집론》에\
    \ 따르면 소상(小想)은 욕계를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이고, 대상(大想)은 색계를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이고, 무량상(無量想)은 무색계의\
    \ 공무변처와 식무변처를 요별할 수 있는 상(想)이다.\n\n2. 3상(三相)은 아뢰야식의 3종의 상(相)인 자상(自相)과상(果相)인상(因相)을\
    \ 말한다. 아뢰야식의 3상(阿賴耶識의 三相) 또는 뢰야3상(賴耶三相)이라고 하며, 아뢰야식의 체용(體用: 본질적 성질과 본질적 작용)을 3가지\
    \ 관점에서 구분한 것이다. 즉 아뢰야식의 체용에 대해 자세히 파악하거나 설명하기 위해 3가지 측면으로 구분한 것이기 때문에 3상은 서로 불가분의\
    \ 관계에 있다. 말하자면, 자상(自相) 밖에 인상(因相)과상(果相)이 따로 있는 것이 아니며, 또한 이 2상을 떠나서 따로 자상이 있는 것도\
    \ 아니다.\n\n자상(自相)은 아뢰야식의 성능(性能) 즉 아뢰야식이 가진 본질적인 성질과 기능을 뜻하며, 능장(能藏)소장(所藏)집장(執藏)으로\
    \ 구분된다.\n\n삼선근\n\n3선근(三善根)은 온갖 선(善) 또는 선법(善法)을 내고 행하게 하는 3가지 근본(기초 또는 기본)이라는 뜻으로\
    \ 무탐(無貪, purity)무진(無瞋, good will)무치(無癡, wisdom)를 말하며, 간단히 선근(善根)이라고도 한다.\n\n근(根)이라는\
    \ 것은 이들 3가지가 선(善)을 일으킴에 있어 뛰어나다는 것과 3가지 불선근(不善根)을 가까이 대치한다[近對治]는 것을 말한다.  즉, 이들\
    \ 3가지가 4성제 중 무위 무루의 멸제(滅諦, 열반)에 이르는 길인 유위 무루의 도제(道諦: 8정도, 6바라밀 등의 수행)를 닦을 수 있게\
    \ 하는 기초(기본 또는 근본)가 된다는 것을 말한다.\n\n삼성\n\n1. 삼성(三性)은 선(善)과 불선(不善)의 기준에 따라 일체법을 분류했을\
    \ 때의 세 갈래인 선(善, kuśala)불선(不善, akuśala)무기(無記, avyākrta)를 가리킨다. 불선(不善)은 악(惡)이라고도\
    \ 하며, 무기(無記)는 선도 악도 아닌 것이다.\n\n2. 삼성(三性)은 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종에서 일체 존재, 즉 우주 전체의\
    \ 세 가지 상태 또는 모습이라고 주장하는 변계소집성(遍計所執性)의타기성(依他起性)원성실성(圓成實性)의 3가지 성품이다. 흔히, \"밤에 뱀인줄\
    \ 알고 놀랐는데 자세히 살펴보니 노끈임을 알게 되었다\"는 예를 들어 이 3가지 성품을 설명한다. 즉, 뱀인줄 알고 놀라는 것은 변계소집성의\
    \ 상태이고, 노끈을 뱀으로 오인하게 된 것은 그 모습에 유사성이 있기 때문인데 이러한 중간 상태의 모습 또는 인연화합의 모습과 실제로 뱀인지\
    \ 확인하기 위해 자세히 살펴보는 것은 의타기성이고, 뱀이 아니라 노끈임을 알게 된 것은 원성실성이다. 불교에서 기세계(器世界) 또는 기세간(器世間)은\
    \ 공업(共業)에 의해 이루어진 3계를 뜻하고 세계(世界) 또는 세간(世間)은 각자가 가진 \"경험 세계\"를 뜻한다. 즉 각 개인의 세계는\
    \ 기세간이 아니라 자신의 \"경험된 세계\"인 것으로 본다. 이러한 개념을 바탕으로 할 때, 변계소집성은 유위 유루의 상태에 있는 미혹한\
    \ 범부가 가진 세계 또는 세계관이고, 의타기성은 유위 무루의 상태에 있는 수행자들이 가진 세계 또는 세계관이고, 원성실성은 무위 무루의 상태에\
    \ 있는 부처가 가진 세계 또는 세계관이다. 원성실성의 세계 또는 세계관은 완전한 깨달음을 증득(證得)했을 때만 비로소 가질 수 있다.\n\n\
    삼세\n\n3세(三世, , )는 과거(過去)현재(現在)미래(未來)를 말한다. 과거현재미래를 전통적인 불교 용어로는 전세(前世)현세(現世)내세(來世)\
    \ 또는 전제(前際)중제(中際)후제(後際)라고도 한다.\n\n설일체유부유식유가행파법상종을 비롯한 불교 전반에서 공통되이, 일체 유위법의 생멸변화의\
    \ 상속상(相續相)에 근거하여 과거현재미래의 3세(三世)의 시간을 가설(假設)한 것이라고 본다. 즉, 시간이란 실체가 없는 것으로 단순히 편의상\
    \ 설정된 개념에 지나지 않는다고 본다.\n\n과거(過去)는 어떤 법(法)이 이미 멸(滅, nirodha)했거나 또는 그 작용을 그친 것이다.\n\
    \n현재(現在)는 어떤 법(法)이 이미 생겨났지만 아직 낙사(落謝: 작용을 그치고 과거로 사라짐)하지 않은 것이다.\n\n미래(未來)는 어떤\
    \ 법(法)이 아직 생겨나지 않은 것이다.\n\n삼수\n\n1. 3수(三受, , )는 고수(苦受, 괴로운 느낌)낙수(樂受, 즐거운 느낌)사수(捨受,\
    \ 괴롭지도 즐겁지도 않은 느낌)를 말한다. 사수를 불고불락수(不苦不樂受)라고도 한다. 불교 경전을 비롯하여 부파불교의 설일체유부의 교학과\
    \ 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 교학에 따르면, 근(根)과 경(境)을 연(緣)하여 식(識)이 생길 때, 이 셋의 화합으로부터 촉(觸)이\
    \ 생겨나는데 식(識)은 그 촉(觸)과 동시에 해당 경(境)에 대해 고수낙수사수의 3가지 수(受, 느낌) 가운데 어느 하나를 느낀다.\n\n\
    2. 3수(三受)는 평등수(平等受: 평등한 느낌)불평등수(不平等受: 평등하지 않은 느낌)비평등비불평등수(非平等非不平等受: 평등하지도 평등하지\
    \ 않지도 않은 느낌)를 말한다. 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》 제3권에 따르면, 낙수(樂受)고수(苦受)희수(喜受)우수(憂受)사수(捨受)의\
    \ 5수(五受) 가운데 낙수와 희수는 평등수에 해당하고, 고수와 우수는 불평등수에 해당하고, 사수는 비평등비불평등수에 해당한다.\n\n삼승혜\n\
    \n3승혜(三勝慧)은 3가지 뛰어난 세간의 지혜, 즉 3가지 뛰어난 유루혜(有漏慧)라는 뜻으로, 3혜(三慧)의 다른 말이다.\n\n삼십칠도품\n\
    \n37도품(三十七道品)은 '깨달음(도, 보리)에 이르는 37가지의 법'을 말하는데, 초기불교의 《아함경》에서 고타마 붓다가 언급하거나 설명하고\
    \ 있는 37가지의 도품(道品) 즉 수행법(修行法)을 가리키는 낱말로, 사실상 초기불교의 수행법을 통칭하는 낱말이다.\n\n도품(道品, ,\
    \ )의 팔리어 또는 산스크리트어 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '깨달음(bodhi, 보리)에 속하는 법(dhammā, 法)', '깨달음의 일부를 이루는\
    \ 법' 또는 '깨달음에 관계된 법'이다. 이런 문자 그대로의 뜻을 따르면서 'bodhi'를 '보리'라고 음역하여, 37도품(三十七道品)이라는\
    \ 낱말 대신에 37보리분법(菩提分法)이라고도 하는데, 보리분법(菩提分法)의 한자어 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '보리의 일부를 이루는 법'이다. 한편,\
    \ 한자어 도품(道品)도 문자 그대로의 뜻이 '도(道: 진리, 깨달음)의 1품', 즉 '도의 한 부분'으로 팔리어 원어의 뜻을 충실히 반영하고\
    \ 있다.\n\n37도품 또는 37보리분법을 37각지(三十七道分), 37도분(三十七道分), 37조도법(三十七助道法), 또는 37품도법(三十七品道法)이라고도\
    \ 한다.\n\n《아함경》에서 고타마 붓다는 여러 가지 도품(道品)을 언급하고 있는데, 37도품이라 하면 그 중에서도 4념주(四念住)4정단(四正斷)4신족(四神足)5근(五根)5력(五力)7각지(七覺支)8정도(八正道)의\
    \ 37가지 도품(道品) 또는 선법(善法) 또는 수행법(修行法)을 말한다. 《잡아함경》 등에서 고타마 붓다는 이들 도품외에도 4도(四道)4법구(四法句)정관수습(正觀修習)\
    \ 등의 도품도 언급하거나 설명하고 있다.\n\n삼업\n\n3업(三業, )은 신업(身業)구업(口業)의업(意業)를 말한다.\n구업은 어업(語業)이라고도\
    \ 한다. 3업을 3행(三行)이라고도 한다.\n\n신업은 몸[身]으로 짓는 온갖 동작 또는 행동을, 구업은 말[口, 語]로 짓는 온갖 언어적\
    \ 행위, 의업은 뜻[意]으로 짓는 온갖 정신적 행위를 말한다.\n\n삼유\n\n3유(三有)는 욕유(欲有)색유(色有)무색유(無色有)를 말하며,\
    \ 3유는 욕계(欲界)색계(色界)무색계(無色界)의 3계(三界)와 동의어이다.\n\n불교의 우주론 또는 세계관에서 3유 또는 3계는 28천(二十八天)으로\
    \ 나뉘지만, 수행론과 번뇌론에서는 흔히 9지(九地)로 나뉜다. 이를 통칭하여 3계9지(三界九地)라고 한다.\n\n3계9지(三界九地)\n<li>욕계(欲界)\
    \ 또는 욕유(欲有)\n<li>오취잡거지(五趣雜居地)\n<li>색계(色界) 또는 색유(色有)\n<li>이생희락지(離生喜樂地)\n<li>정생희락지(定生喜樂地)\n\
    <li>이희묘락지(離喜妙樂地)\n<li>사념청정지(捨念淸淨地)\n<li>무색계(無色界) 또는 무색유(無色有)\n<li>공무변처지(空無邊處地)\n\
    <li>식무변처지(識無邊處地)\n<li>무소유처지(無所有處地)\n<li>비상비비상처지(非想非非想處地)\n\n삼유위\n\n3유위(三有爲) 또는\
    \ 3유위법(三有爲法)은 일체의 유위법을 크게 3종으로 나눈 것으로, 색법(色法)심법(心法)비색비심법(非色非心法)을 말한다. 여기서 색법은\
    \ 물질(物質)을 말하고, 심법은 마음[心]을 말하는데 마음작용(심소법)을 포함한다. 비색비심법은 불상응법(不相應法) 즉 심불상응행법(心不相應行法)을\
    \ 말한다.\n\n삼작의\n\n3작의(三作意)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 작의(作意)의 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈\
    \ 것으로, 학작의(學作意)무학작의(無學作意)비학비무학작의(非學非無學作意)를 말한다.\n\n학작의(學作意)은 유학(有學) 즉 유학위(有學位:\
    \ 배울 것이 있는 계위)의 성자인 수다원사다함아나함의 작의를 말하고,  무학작의(無學作意)는 무학(無學) 즉 무학위(無學位: 배울 것이 없는\
    \ 계위)의 성자인 아라한의 작의를 말하고, 비학비무학작의(非學非無學作意)는 유학 또는 무학의 성자가 아닌 범부의 작의를 말한다.\n\n삼제\n\
    \n1. 3제(三際)는 전제(前際)중제(中際)후제(後際)를 말한다. 각각 과거현재미래에 해당한다. 3세(三世)와 동의어이다.\n\n2. 3제(三諦)는\
    \ 천태종의 주요 교학 가운데 하나인 삼제원융(三諦圓融)에서의 3제를 가리키는 낱말로, 공제(空諦)가제(假諦)중제(中諦)를 통칭하는 낱말이다.\
    \ 공제(空諦)는 일체법은 실체로서의 존재가 아니라 공(空)으로서의 존재라는 것을 뜻한다. 가제(假諦)는 일체법은 연(緣)에 의해 가(假)로\
    \ 존재하는 가적(假的)인 존재라는 것을 뜻한다. 중제(中諦)는 일체법은 공(空)이나 가(假)의 어느 일면으로서는 파악할 수 없는, 사려분별(思慮分別)을\
    \ 초월한 절대존재로서의 중(中)이라는 것을 뜻한다.\n\n삼촉\n\n3촉(三觸)은 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》에서 촉(觸)의\
    \ 마음작용을 3가지로 나눈 것으로, 순락수촉(順樂受觸)순고수촉(順苦受觸)순불고불락수촉(順不苦不樂受觸)을 말한다.\n\n순락수촉(順樂受觸)은\
    \ 이 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 낙수(樂受) 즉 즐거운 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.\n\n순고수촉(順苦受觸)은 이\
    \ 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 고수(苦受) 즉 괴로운 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.\n\n순불고불락수촉(順不苦不樂受觸)은\
    \ 이 촉(觸)에 바탕하여 3수(三受) 가운데 불고불락수(不苦不樂受) 즉 괴롭지도 즐겁지도 않은 느낌이 따라 일어나는 촉(觸)을 말한다.\n\
    \n삼해탈문\n\n3해탈문(三解脫門)은 해탈하여 열반을 득하는 방편[門]인 공해탈문(空解脫門)무상해탈문(無相解脫門)무원해탈문(無願解脫門)의\
    \ 3가지 선정을 말한다. 3해탈(三解脫)3탈문(三脫門) 또는 3문(三門)이라고도 한다. 공해탈문은 일체법이 공하다는 것 즉 실체[自性]가\
    \ 없다는 것을 관조하는 선정이고, 무상해탈문은 일체법에 차별[相]이 없다는 것을 관조하는 선정이고, 무원해탈문은 공용(功用, 願)이 필요하지\
    \ 않다는 것을 관조하는 선정 즉 무공용(無功用, 無願)을 성취하는 선정이다.\n\n삼행\n\n3행(三行)은 신행(身行)구행(口行)의행(意行)을\
    \ 말하며,  신업(身業)구업(口業)의업(意業)의 3업(三業)의 다른 말이다. 구행은 어행(語行)이라고도 하고, 의행은 심행(心行)이라고도\
    \ 한다. 《잡아함경》 제12권  제298경 〈법설의설경(法說義說經)〉, 《연기경(緣起經)》 그리고 용수의 《중론》 제26품 〈관십이인연품(觀十二因緣品)〉등에\
    \ 3행(三行)이 나오는데, 이들은 모두 3업(三業)과 같은 뜻이다.\n\n삼혜\n\n3혜(三慧, )는 문혜(聞慧)사혜(思慧)수혜(修慧)의\
    \ 3가지 뛰어난 유루혜(有漏慧), 즉 세간의 지혜를 말한다. 이들 3가지 지혜는 또한 문소성혜(聞所成慧)사소성혜(思所成慧)수소성혜(修所成慧)라고도\
    \ 불린다. 3혜는 모두 무루성혜(無漏聖慧) 즉 무루지(無漏智)가 생겨나게 하는 역할을 한다. 3가지 뛰어난 지혜라는 뜻에서 3승혜(三勝慧)라고도\
    \ 불린다.\n\n문혜(聞慧) 또는 문소성혜(聞所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 교법을 들음에 따라 생겨나는 뛰어난 지혜[勝慧]를 말하고, 사혜(思慧)\
    \ 또는 사소성혜(思所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 들은 교법의 바른 이치를 스스로 생각하고 고찰함에 따라 생겨나는 뛰어난 지혜[勝慧]를 말하며,\
    \ 수혜(修慧) 또는 수소성혜(修所成慧)는 스승이나 친구로부터 들은 교법을 바탕으로 반복적으로 선정(禪定, 等持)을 수행함으로써 생겨나는 뛰어난\
    \ 지혜[勝慧]를 말한다.\n\n《구사론》에서는 견도(見道, 見諦道)의 단계로 나아가기 위한 방편, 즉 범부(凡夫)의 상태에서 4향4과(四向四果)의\
    \ 성자(聖者)의 단계로 들어가기 위한 수단은 바로 계(戒, 尸羅)에 머물면서 이들 3가지 지혜를 부지런히 닦는 것이라고 말하고 있다. 그리고\
    \ 문혜(聞慧)사혜(思慧)수혜(修慧)의 순서가 바로 이들 3가지 방편을 수행하는 순서라고 말하고 있다.\n\n삼화\n\n3화(三和)는 3사화합(三事和合)의\
    \ 다른 말이다.\n\n삼화분별변이\n\n3화분별변이(三和分別變異)은 '3사화합과 유사한 어떤 변이물'이라는 뜻으로 촉(觸)의 마음작용을 가리키는\
    \ 낱말이다. 즉, 촉(觸)의 동의어이다.\n\n《성유식론》 제3권에 따르면,\n'3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 3화(三和)는 근(根)경(境)식(識)의\
    \ 3가지가 서로 수순(隨順)하는 것을 말한다. 즉, 감각기관[所依根]식[能緣識]인식대상[所緣境]의 3가지가 화합하는 것을 말한다.\n\n\
    '3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 변이(變異)는 근경식의 3사(三事)가 화합하고 있는 상태에서는 이들 3사의 각각이 모두 마음작용을 생겨나게\
    \ 하는 공능(功能: 작용)을 가지는데, 이들이 가진 이러한 공능 즉 작용에 의거하여 3사화합의 상태로부터 어떤 마음작용이 생겨나는 것을 변이(變異)라고\
    \ 한다.\n\n'3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'에서 분별(分別)은 일반적인 '사유분별'에서의 분별과는 다른 의미로 상사(相似: 유사함)의 의미인데,\
    \ 3사화합(三事和合)의 상태와 유사한 모습의 어떤 마음작용을 가리키거나 또는 그러한 마음작용이 일어나는 것을 가리킨다. 한편, 3사화합(三事和合)의\
    \ 상태와 유사한 모습을 가진 마음작용이란 여러 마음작용들 가운데 촉(觸)이 유일하다.\n\n따라서 '3화분별변이(三和分別變異)'는 3사화합의\
    \ 상태와 '유사한 모습[分別]'의 마음작용으로서 3사의 마음작용을 일으키는 공능에 의해 생겨나는[變異] 어떤 마음작용을 말한다. 즉, 촉(觸)을\
    \ 말한다. 그리고 이러한 뜻에서, 아주 엄밀히 그 뜻을 규명하는 경우가 아닌한 일반적인 용법에서는 촉(觸)과 3사화합(三事和合) 즉 3화(三和)를\
    \ 사실상 동의어로 취급한다.\n\n삼화합성\n\n3화합성(三和合性)은 3사화합(三事和合)의 다른 말이다. 3화합성의 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '3가지가\
    \ 화합된 성질' 즉 '3가지가 화합된 실체'로, 3가지는 근(根)경(境) 식(識)을 말한다.\n\n참고 문헌\n\n각주"
  - "Valdense\n\nEl movimiento valdense surge,  a partir del movimiento de los Pobres\
    \ de Lyon, en el siglo XII, a partir de la predicación de Pedro Valdo, es actualmente\
    \ considerada como una iglesia protestante, movimiento al que se unió en el siglo\
    \ XVI.\n\nPrecursores\n\nLos historiadores no concuerdan en cuanto a los orígenes\
    \ de los valdenses. De acuerdo con los archivos de la Inquisición, en Carcassonne,\
    \ Francia, el movimiento de los \"Pobres de Lyon\" comenzó hacia 1170, bajo la\
    \ dirección de un francés de Lyon llamado Vaudes, Valdés, Waldo o Pedro Valdo.​​​​\n\
    En cambio, algunos protestantes​​ afirman que los valdenses constituyen un eslabón\
    \ en la cadena continua de disidentes que surgieron entre la época del emperador\
    \ Constantino (siglo IV) y los reformadores protestantes del siglo XVI. Algunos\
    \ historiadores protestantes opinan que el nombre de valdense, aplicado también\
    \ a los procedentes del país de Vaud, se deriva de la palabra latina vallis, que\
    \ significa 'valle', y se refiere al hecho de que aquellos disidentes a quienes\
    \ se perseguía con persistencia como herejes se vieron obligados a refugiarse\
    \ en los valles alpinos de Francia e Italia.​ De acuerdo con este punto de vista\
    \ Pedro y sus seguidores llegaron a ser el punto de reunión para grupos similares\
    \ de perseguidos por la Iglesia católica, algunos de los cuales habían estado\
    \ en las sombras por largo tiempo en los valles del Delfinado.​ \nSe conoce poco\
    \ sobre la doctrina y los preceptos que guiaban a estos grupos, si bien estos\
    \ grupos publicaron escritos tempranos, poemas en versos rítmicos, tratados de\
    \ controversia y confesiones de fe, en los que se exponen sus principios religiosos\
    \ y su moral; Pero estos escritos atrajeron la atención de los eruditos sólo en\
    \ el momento de la Reforma.​\nEstos curiosos documentos muy probablemente anteriores\
    \ a la Reforma comenzada en Suiza, fueron escritos en un dialecto que aún hoy\
    \ en día (1854) la gente todavía analfabeta de las ciudades más un cercanas a\
    \ la cadena central de los Alpes, donde los modismos de los dos versante han sido\
    \ menos afectados, todavía lo hablan. \"Nosotros mismos hemos experimentado esto\
    \ mediante la lectura de algunos pastores valdenses a la La Nobla Leyczon, el\
    \ documento más importante de esta literatura\".​​\nEn este sentido, aunque los\
    \ valdenses primitivos (previos a la Reforma protestante) se consideraban a sí\
    \ mismos como un remanente fiel de la verdadera Iglesia cristiana tras la época\
    \ del papa Silvestre (314-335 d. C.), los valdenses mismos consideran que su movimiento\
    \ fue fundado por Pedro Valdo y los Pobres de Lyon.​​\n\nBiografía de Pedro Valdo.\
    \ Inicios del movimiento valdense\n\nSe dice que Pedro Valdo era un comerciante\
    \ adinerado de Lyon que estaba casado y tenía dos hijas. Siendo hombre devoto\
    \ y católico practicante, en 1177 tras la muerte repentina de un conocido pidió\
    \ a un amigo teólogo que le diera consejo de las Escrituras en cuanto a lo que\
    \ debía hacer para agradar a Dios. En respuesta, su amigo citó el evangelio de\
    \ Mateo 19:21, donde Jesús dijo al joven rico: \"Si quieres ser perfecto, ve,\
    \ vende tus bienes y da a los pobres y tendrás tesoro en el cielo y, ven, sé mi\
    \ seguidor\".\nLa leyenda continúa diciendo que Valdo tomó a pecho este consejo.\
    \ Así, después de proveer para el sustento de su esposa y colocar a sus dos hijas\
    \ en un convento, comisionó a dos sacerdotes, Etienne d'Anse y Bernard Ydros,\
    \ para que tradujeran los Evangelios y otros libros de la Biblia al idioma vernáculo\
    \ —el occitano— que se hablaba en las regiones de la Provenza y el Delfinado (actualmente,\
    \ el sudeste de Francia). Entonces distribuyó el resto de sus posesiones entre\
    \ los pobres y se puso a estudiar las escrituras. Además, predicó en las calles\
    \ de Lyon, invitando a los habitantes a que despertaran espiritualmente y regresaran\
    \ al cristianismo según él lo entendía en las Escrituras. Se dice que ponía énfasis\
    \ en la declaración de Jesús: \"No podéis servir a dos amos, a Dios y al Dinero\"\
    \ (Mateo 6:24, Lucas 16:13).\nÉl consiguió que los Evangelios y otros libros de\
    \ la Biblia fueran traducidos al habla común y se atrevió a predicar en las calles,\
    \ donde hizo muchos discípulos, tanto hombres como mujeres.​\nPuesto que Valdo\
    \ había sido bien conocido como próspero hombre de negocios, muchas personas le\
    \ escucharon y pronto tuvo un grupo de seguidores. Les alegró oír el mensaje consolador\
    \ de la Biblia en su propio idioma, pues hasta entonces la traducción y producción\
    \ de cada ejemplar de la Biblia tenía un alto costo: copiar a mano cada Biblia\
    \ demandaba a un monje un mínimo de 3 años. Muchas personas convinieron en renunciar\
    \ a sus bienes y dedicarse a enseñar la Biblia en el idioma de la gente común.\
    \ Se les llegó a conocer como los \"Pobres de Lyon\". Para ellos, cualquier cristiano,\
    \ fuera hombre o mujer, podía predicar siempre y cuando tuviese suficiente conocimiento\
    \ de las Escrituras.\nEn el movimiento valdense debe verse la fusión de varios\
    \ movimientos religiosos separados de la Iglesia oficial, como los pobres de \n\
    Lombardía,​ continuadores de los humiliati o arnaldistas, seguidores de Arnaldo\
    \ de Brescia,​ y posiblemente petrobrusianos, seguidores de Pedro de Bruys y enricianos,\
    \ de Enrique de Lausana.\nAquella predicación laica hizo que en 1179 el papa Alejandro\
    \ III, al que el propio Valdo había apelado, prohibiese a Valdo y sus seguidores\
    \ predicar sin el permiso del obispo local. El obispo Bellesmains de Lyon rehusó\
    \ dar su consentimiento por considerar que se estaba predicando un evangelio diferente.\
    \ Los registros históricos indican que, ante esta proscripción, Valdo respondió\
    \ a la jerarquía usando las palabras de los Hechos de los Apóstoles: \"Tenemos\
    \ que obedecer a Dios como gobernante más bien que a los hombres.\"\nValdo y sus\
    \ asociados continuaron predicando pese a la amenaza de excomunión y persecución.\
    \ Así, el papa Lucio III los excomulgó en 1184 y el obispo de Lyon los expulsó\
    \ de la diócesis.\nEl edicto de excomunión, que se extendió contra ellos en el\
    \ año 1181, les obligó a salir de Lyon, lo que fue beneficioso para su causa.\
    \ Pedro Valdo llegó hasta Polonia en la misma frontera de Rusia, donde murió en\
    \ 1217 después de cincuenta y siete años de predicación de las doctrinas valdenses.\n\
    Recién el 17 de febrero de 1848, con cartas patentes, el rey de Saboya Carlos\
    \ Alberto, reconocía los derechos civiles a los valdenses acontecimiento fundamental\
    \ para la historia religiosa de Italia y por supuesto para el  pueblo valdense.\n\
    \nArticulación con la Reforma\n\nEl maestro valdense alemán Federico Reiser abandonó\
    \ en 1426 el pacifismo valdense y se unió al ejército taborita que avanzaba hacia\
    \ Viena y en 1431 fue ordenado como ministro husita de la Palabra. Él y su esposa\
    \ Ana Weiler fueron ejecutados en Estrasburgo en 1458, pero su influencia se extendió\
    \ a muchos valdenses italianos y franceses de los Alpes, que llegaron a sentirse\
    \ identificados con el husismo taborita, y en 1483 se levantaron contra el duque\
    \ Carlos I de Saboya. En cambio, algunos valdenses de la época, como el hermano\
    \ Lucas de Praga, se unieron a los husitas moderados.\nEn 1526 se celebró en Laus\
    \ un sínodo, en el cual se discutieron las ideas de la Reforma protestante. Una\
    \ opinión sostenía mantener los vínculos con los husitas; otra, acercarse a la\
    \ Reforma suiza y otra a Lutero. El barba Martín Gonin difundió los escritos de\
    \ Lutero y encabezó al sector partidario de unirse al protestantismo y distanciarse\
    \ de los husitas. \nEl sínodo de Merindol (Provenza) en 1530 se orientó hacia\
    \ los reformadores suizos. Luego en el sínodo de Chanforan en 1532 y a propuesta\
    \ de Jorge Morel, adoptó una nueva confesión de fe acorde con la Reforma suiza.\
    \ Se apartó de esta decisión una minoría dirigida por Daniel de Valencia y Juan\
    \ de Molines; congregaciones del valle del Po, Calabria y Apulia tampoco aceptaron\
    \ la decisión del sínodo y en algunos casos se sumaron al movimiento anabaptista.\
    \ Sin embargo, la mayoría de los valdenses se unieron después al protestantismo,\
    \ al considerar que en lo fundamental compartían la misma fe.\n\nRelaciones con\
    \ la Iglesia católica\n\nEn época reciente, el papa san Juan Pablo II pidió perdón\
    \ a los valdenses en una reunión que tuvo con ellos en Asís. También el papa Francisco\
    \ ha pedido perdón, al visitar una iglesia valdense en Turín el pasado 22 de junio\
    \ de 2015: «Por parte de la Iglesia católica, os pido perdón por las actitudes\
    \ y comportamientos no cristianos, incluso inhumanos, que en nuestra historia\
    \ hemos tenido contra vosotros. En nombre de Cristo Jesús, perdonadnos». \nEn\
    \ 22 de junio de 2015 el papa Francisco visitó por primera vez en la historia\
    \ un templo valdense, en Turín, volviendo a pedir perdón por el trato dado en\
    \ el pasado a los Valdenses.​ A la histórica visita estuvieron presentes tanto\
    \ el moderador de la sección italiana (pastor E. Bernardini)​ como el moderador\
    \ de la sección latinoamericana (sr. O. Oudri)​ de la Iglesia Valdense.\n\nDoctrinas\
    \ de los Valdenses\n\nTradicionalmente se ha atribuido a este movimiento una notable\
    \ influencia dualista. Los valdenses primitivos rechazaban la veneración de imágenes,\
    \ la transubstanciación, la existencia del Purgatorio, la veneración a María,\
    \ las oraciones a los santos, la veneración de la cruz y de las reliquias, el\
    \ arrepentimiento de última hora, la necesidad de que la confesión se haga ante\
    \ sacerdotes (ellos practicaban un tipo de confesión ante Dios guiados por sus\
    \ “barbas” o predicadores itinerantes), las misas por los muertos y las indulgencias\
    \ papales. Además, rechazaban el bautismo de infantes (aunque no todas las congregaciones\
    \ valdenses, lo que plugo mucho a Lutero que sí estaba por el bautismo infantil),\
    \ la pena de muerte (aunque en esto hay muchas dudas, ya que plantearon estas\
    \ cuestiones a los Reformadores del siglo XVI) sobre si era o no lícita la pena\
    \ de muerte y si les era lícito lit. \"matar a los infiltrados que les denunciaban\
    \ y entregaban al \"Anticristo\" —para ellos la Iglesia católica—\", el uso de\
    \ armamentos, la participación en guerras y guardaban el verdadero día de reposo\
    \ en sábado conforme al cuarto mandamiento (Éxodo 20:8-11).\nSin embargo, en lo\
    \ referente al celibato del clero, algunos valdenses anteriores a la Reforma protestante\
    \ estimaban que para ser parte del cuerpo de predicadores itinerantes (o “barbas”)\
    \ había que vivir una vida célibe, por lo que se abstenían de relaciones sexuales\
    \ y del matrimonio. Tenían también -como ellos mismos documentan- un grupo de\
    \ mujeres vírgenes dedicadas al Señor. Tras el concilio que se planteó para abrazar\
    \ o no la Reforma en el siglo XVI, del que se da cuenta arriba, rechazaron el\
    \ celibato obligatorio como \"doctrina diabólica\".\nLos predicadores itinerantes\
    \ o “barbas” eran escogidos de entre los fieles valdenses (principalmente gente\
    \ de muy humilde extracción y campesina), a los que se les apartaba durante los\
    \ meses de invierno para enseñarles a leer y escribir, y tenían que aprender de\
    \ memoria el Evangelio de Mateo y el de Juan, así como las epístolas universales\
    \ y las paulinas pastorales (a Tito, Timoteo, etc.), para lo cual tardaban alrededor\
    \ de dos años. Posteriormente, según alguna fuente, se apartaban durante dos años\
    \ en un lugar secreto del norte de Italia donde hacían voto de castidad, tras\
    \ lo cual pasaban a formar parte del cuerpo de los “barbas”.\nSi bien antes de\
    \ abrazar la reforma practicaban de una manera muy sencilla los siete sacramentos\
    \ de Roma, pues practicaban una especie de confesión con los “barbas”, la imposición\
    \ de manos, oraciones a ciertas horas y otros, posteriormente por influencia de\
    \ los reformadores del siglo XVI aceptaron sólo dos: el bautismo, \"abierta confesión\
    \ de nuestra fe y del cambio de nuestra vida\", y la comunión o Cena, en que con\
    \ fe, amor y autoexamen, recibimos el pan y el vino, ya que nosotros también llegamos\
    \ a ser parte del cuerpo y sangre de Cristo\". Consideraban el matrimonio como\
    \ \"bueno, santo e instituido por Dios, de manera que a nadie se debe prohibir\
    \ casarse\" (en alusión a la prohibición católica del matrimonio de los sacerdotes\
    \ y al rechazo de los cátaros a la sexualidad y la procreación), aunque estimaban\
    \ la castidad como un don que, como hemos comentado, solo practicaron, antes de\
    \ la Reforma, algunos de los predicadores valdenses.\nLos valdenses rechazaron\
    \ el ejercicio por parte de la Iglesia de poder estatal, de jurisdicción temporal,\
    \ la imposición de la fe a la fuerza o la dominación por las armas. También rechazaron\
    \ el uso de imponentes y elegantes edificios religiosos. Hacían un alegato particular\
    \ a la renuncia de los bienes materiales en favor de los menos privilegiados,\
    \ como lo hizo su fundador.\nEn su obra de predicar, los valdenses primitivos\
    \ enseñaban la Biblia y daban mucha importancia al Sermón de la montaña y al Padre\
    \ nuestro, en los cuales se muestra que el reino de Dios es lo que se debe buscar\
    \ principalmente y lo que se debe pedir en oración (Mateo 6:10,33). Sostenían\
    \ que cualquier cristiano, fuera hombre o mujer, que poseyera suficiente conocimiento\
    \ de la Biblia estaba autorizado para predicar la \"buena nueva\" (el Evangelio).\
    \ Además, consideraban a Jesús como el único mediador entre Dios y el hombre.\
    \ Puesto que Jesús había muerto una vez para siempre, sostenían que un sacerdote\
    \ no podía repetir este sacrificio celebrando una misa. Los valdenses primitivos\
    \ conmemoraban la muerte de Cristo, tal como lo hacen hoy en día, utilizando pan\
    \ y vino como símbolos.\nLos valdenses primitivos sostenían que no era necesario\
    \ ir a una iglesia para adorar a Dios. Celebraban reuniones clandestinas en establos,\
    \ hogares particulares y dondequiera que pudieran hacerlo. Durante estas reuniones\
    \ estudiaban la Biblia y preparaban nuevos predicadores, los cuales acompañaban\
    \ a los más experimentados. Viajaban por parejas de granja en granja y, cuando\
    \ estaban en los pueblos y aldeas, iban de casa en casa. El libro de consulta\
    \ intitulado Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique en un artículo que, por lo demás,\
    \ no favorece a los valdenses, declara:\n\"Desde la más tierna edad, sus hijos\
    \ empezaban a aprender los Evangelios y las Epístolas. La predicación de sus diáconos,\
    \ sacerdotes y obispos consistía principalmente en citas de la Biblia\".\nTomo\
    \ 15, columna 2591.\n\nOrganización\n\nLos valdenses actuales, ya muy distanciados\
    \ de las prácticas de sus predecesores anteriores a la Reforma del siglo XVI,\
    \ están organizados en congregaciones que funcionan de modo asambleario, son coordinadas\
    \ por un pastor y eligen un consistorio. También eligen delegados a sínodos. En\
    \ el ámbito internacional, el sínodo anual elige una junta, la Mesa Valdense,\
    \ que tiene un moderador. Hace algunas décadas se ha dividido, por cuestiones\
    \ administrativas en dos secciones: la sección italiana, y la sección sudamericana.\n\
    \nConsistorio\n\nLa organización de las iglesias valdenses se basa en la Asamblea\
    \ de los miembros de la iglesia inscriptos y en el Concejo de la Iglesia o Consistorio,\
    \ elegido por la Asamblea. El Consistorio se compone de los pastores, ancianos\
    \ y diáconos en proporción a la fuerza numérica de la iglesia. Dirige las actividades\
    \ de la iglesia, ejerce el ministerio pastoral y la disciplina, cumple las funciones\
    \ administrativas.\nPor ello, el consistorio es una organización sin fines de\
    \ lucro con personalidad jurídica, que tiene fines de culto, la educación y la\
    \ caridad. Estos tres objetivos, que constituyen la naturaleza eclesial de la\
    \ institución, en el pasado respondieron a las necesidades de la educación y la\
    \ atención de la población Valdense, que hasta 1848 fue privado de sus derechos\
    \ civiles y políticos y no podían asistir a las instituciones educativas y de\
    \ caridad del estado o católicos.​\n\nSínodo\n\nEl Sínodo es la asamblea general\
    \ que expresa la unidad de las iglesias valdenses. Compuesta en partes iguales\
    \ por los diputados laicos elegidos por los miembros de las iglesias individuales\
    \ y miembros del ministerio, normalmente se reúne una vez al año y delibera sobre\
    \ aspectos doctrinales, legislativos, judiciales y de gobierno de la Iglesia Valdense,\
    \ eligen a los miembros de la Mesa Valdense que es presidida por el Moderador,\
    \ estos últimos constituyen el órgano ejecutivo por el período, hasta el sínodo\
    \ siguiente. Todo lo actuado por la Mesa es controlado y verificado por una comisión\
    \ independiente.​\n\nLa Mesa Valdense\n\nLa Mesa Valdese es el órgano representativo\
    \ y administrativo de la Iglesia Valdense, elegido por los miembros laicos y pastores\
    \ reunidos en el Sínodo Valdense. Compuesto por un Moderador, un vice Moderador\
    \ y un número de miembros fijados por los reglamentos de la iglesia, ya sea pastores\
    \ o laicos, se mantiene en el cargo desde un Sínodo a otros, actuando bajo su\
    \ directiva contra la toma de sus acciones a la sesión siguiente Sínodo. \nSe\
    \ desarrollan anualmente dos sínodos, uno para la sección italiana de la iglesia\
    \ y el otro para la sección sudamericana, consecuentemente existen dos Mesas Valdenses,\
    \ y dos moderadores.\n\nModerador\n\nEl Moderador, elegido pro tempore del Sínodo\
    \ Valdense preside las actividades de Mesa Valdense y legalmente representa a\
    \ la Iglesia Valdense desde una sesión del Sínodo y el siguiente. El moderador\
    \ puede ser elegido de entre los delegados de las diversas iglesias: puede ser\
    \ un pastor o un laico, no habiendo discriminación por sexo.\n\nExpansión de los\
    \ valdenses en Europa\n\nComo consecuencia de las persecuciones, estos disidentes\
    \ del siglo XII se refugiaron en los Alpes y por toda la Occitania. \nLos registros\
    \ históricos muestran que, a principios del siglo XIII, podían hallarse valdenses\
    \ no sólo en el sur de Francia, principalmente en la zona del macizo de Luberon,\
    \ y el norte de Italia, sino también en el este y norte de Francia, Flandes, Alemania,\
    \ Austria y hasta en Bohemia, donde se dice que Valdo murió en 1217.\nDesde el\
    \ año 1200 hubo en Alsacia y Lorena tres grandes centros de actividad misionera.\
    \ En Metz, el barba (pastor) Crespin y sus numerosos hermanos confundían al obispo\
    \ Beltrán, quien en vano se esforzaba por suprimirlos. En Estrasburgo, los inquisidores\
    \ mantenían siempre el fuego de la intolerancia contra la propaganda activa que\
    \ hacía el barba Juan y más de 500 valdenses que componían la iglesia perseguida\
    \ de aquella ciudad.\nEn Bohemia, donde Pedro Valdo terminó sus días, los resultados\
    \ de la obra misionera valdense fueron fecundos y es muy probable que las prédicas\
    \ valdenses influyeran sobre el sacerdote católico checo Jan Hus y dieran así\
    \ origen a la iglesia de los husitas.\nA mediados del siglo XIII, el inquisidor\
    \ de Passau —Baviera— nombraba 42 poblaciones donde los valdenses habían echado\
    \ raíces; y en Austria, el inquisidor Krens hacía quemar a principios del siglo\
    \ XIV 130 valdenses. Se cree que el número de ellos en Austria no bajaba de 80 000.\n\
    En Italia, los valdenses estaban diseminados y bien establecidos en todas partes\
    \ de la península. Tenían sedes en las grandes ciudades y un ministerio itinerante\
    \ perfectamente organizado. En Lombardía, los discípulos de Arnaldo de Brescia,\
    \ gran opositor del papa a pesar de que nunca llegó a separarse de la Iglesia\
    \ católica, y que fue quemado vivo en 1155, se unían fácilmente a los valdenses\
    \ cuando éstos les predicaban el Evangelio. En Milán poseían una escuela que era\
    \ centro de una gran actividad misionera.\nEn Calabria se establecieron muchos\
    \ valdenses del Piamonte en 1300 en Fuscaldo y Montecarlo. Habían conseguido cierta\
    \ tolerancia y les permitían celebrar secretamente sus cultos con tal de que pagaran\
    \ los diezmos al clero.\nEn tres de los valles del Piamonte, Lucerna, Perusa y\
    \ San Martín, los valdenses formaron pueblos enteros en las primeras décadas del\
    \ siglo XIII. Perduran comunidades valdenses en los valles orientales de los Alpes\
    \ Cotios, en especial en la cuenca alta del río Dora Riparia, teniendo sus principales\
    \ centros en las ciudades de Oulx y Susa. Por ese motivo, estos pequeños valles\
    \ del Piamonte son conocidos como Valvaldenses o Valles Valdenses, hablándose\
    \ allí aún el occitano e incluso el arpitano.\nEstos datos históricos que poseemos\
    \ de la abundante literatura producida por los valdenses prueban que el protestantismo\
    \ —aún sin ese nombre— tuvo un origen anterior a Lutero: más de 340 años antes\
    \ de que se produjese el movimiento espiritual de la Reforma, existían ya muchos\
    \ cristianos que no comulgaban con los dogmas de la Iglesia católica. \nReinerius,\
    \ inquisidor de Passau en el siglo XIII, dijo de los valdenses: \n\"Entre todas\
    \ las sectas que existen o que han existido, no hay ninguna más perniciosa para\
    \ la iglesia que la secta de los Lyoneses; y esto por tres razones: La primera\
    \ por su gran antigüedad, pues algunos dicen que los valdenses se remontan al\
    \ tiempo de Silvestre y hasta hay quien asegura que al tiempo de los apóstoles.\
    \ La segunda porque es la más extendida y apenas si hay un país donde no exista\
    \ esta secta. La tercera razón es que, mientras todas las demás sectas despiertan\
    \ horror y la repulsa de sus oyentes por sus blasfemias en contra de Dios, ésta\
    \ demuestra una gran semblanza de piedad; tanto que sus adherentes viven justamente\
    \ delante de todos los hombres y creen en todos los artículos del Credo, respetando\
    \ en todo a Dios: Solamente blasfeman de la Iglesia y del clero romanos; por esto\
    \ tan grandes multitudes de laicos les prestan atención\".\n \ny en otra ocasión:\
    \ \n\"Los herejes valdenses se distinguen por su comportamiento y el habla. Son\
    \ impasibles y sensatos. No se esfuerzan en llamar la atención con vestidos extravagantes\
    \ o indecorosos. No son comerciantes con el fin de evitar mentir, jurar o engañar.\
    \ Viven únicamente del trabajo artesano de sus manos. También sus maestros son\
    \ tejedores y zapateros. No acumulan riquezas, sino que se contentan con lo necesario\
    \ para vivir. Comen y beben con moderación, no frecuentan posadas ni van a bailes\
    \ u otros lugares de mala reputación. Son lentos para la ira. Son trabajadores,\
    \ se dedican a aprender y a enseñar. Les reconocerán por su manera de hablar:\
    \ con cordura y veracidad. No difaman, no hablan con palabras vulgares o vacías.\
    \ Evitan toda expresión que pueda ser mentirosa o de juramento. No dirán 'sinceramente'\
    \ o 'de verdad', sino que se limitarán a decir 'sí' o 'no'. Según ellos hacen\
    \ así porque Jesús lo ordenó en Mateo 5:37\".\nPassauer Anonymus\n\nLos valdenses\
    \ de Bohemia\n\nBohemia fue una de las regiones más propicias para la propaganda\
    \ valdense. Visitada por Pedro Valdo mismo, quien según la tradición murió allí\
    \ en 1217, ya, hacia mediados del siglo, contaba más de 40 localidades ocupadas\
    \ por Valdenses y citadas por un inquisidor de Passau en su relación; no tardaron\
    \ en asolar las persecuciones, de las que la principal fue la del inquisidor Gallo,\
    \ en 1335. Pero en Bohemia el movimiento valdense no debía tardar en ser absorbido\
    \ por el despertar religioso que toma nombre de otro gran precursor de la Reforma:\
    \ Juan Huss. Este no recibió ninguna influencia directa de Pedro Valdo, pero puede\
    \ suponerse que indirectamente su protesta se eslabona a la suya, por cuanto Huss\
    \ fue en Bohemia el secuaz del reformador inglés Juan Wicleff, quien a su vez\
    \ habría estado en relación con los discípulos de Valdo, que habían pasado a Inglaterra.​\n\
    \nHacia 1430 los Valdenses se unieron a los Husitas y principalmente al partido\
    \ de los Taboritas; entre los hombres más eminentes que tuvieron en aquella época\
    \ y que se esforzaron por la unión, es de recordarse Federico Reiser, muerto mártir,\
    \ en 1458, en Estrasburgo, donde había ido a visitar a los hermanos valdenses.\
    \ Los valdenses bohemios constituyeron en 1467 Los Hermanos Unidos (de los que\
    \ derivó la Iglesia Morava), cuyo primer obispo fue consagrado por Esteban, venerado\
    \ obispo taborita que debía subir a la hoguera en Viena, en aquel mismo año.\n\
    \nLos valdenses en Alemania y Austria\n\nAustria y todavía más Alemania fueron\
    \ durante siglos recorridas en todos sentidos por los propagandistas valdenses,\
    \ tanto que ya en el siglo XIII «no había comarca en la que esta secta no tuviese\
    \ adherentes» (\"Fere nulla est terra in qua haec secta non ait\". Bibl. Max.\
    \ Patr. XXV, 264) Pero la Inquisición se puso a la obra: llenó las prisiones,\
    \ confiscó los bienes, levantó centenares de hogueras, hasta sofocar a los disidentes.\
    \ ¿Mas quién se atreverá a decir que estos hayan desaparecido sin haber antes\
    \ ejercido en Alemania una providencial influencia de preparación para la Reforma\
    \ Luterana? De cualquier modo, esparcieron antes que Lutero el conocimiento y\
    \ el amor a la Biblia.​\n\nLos valdenses en España\n\nLos valdenses recorrieron\
    \ con ánimo misionero el sur de Alemania, Suiza, Francia y llegaron a España,\
    \ donde formaron grupos de cristianos disidentes de Roma en las provincias del\
    \ norte y sobre todo en Cataluña. El hecho de que dos concilios y tres reyes se\
    \ hayan ocupado de expulsarlos de España demuestra que su número tenía que ser\
    \ considerable.\nEl clero, impotente para detener el avance y, alarmado, pidió\
    \ al papa Celestino III que tomase medidas contra este movimiento. El papa mandó\
    \ un delegado en 1194, que convocó la asamblea de prelados y nobles en Mérida,\
    \ asistiendo personalmente el mismo rey Alfonso II de Aragón, quien dictó el siguiente\
    \ decreto:\n\"Ordenamos a todo valdense que, en vista de que están excomulgados\
    \ de la Santa Iglesia, son enemigos declarados de este reino y tienen que abandonarlo,\
    \ e igualmente todos los estados de nuestros dominios. En virtud de esta orden,\
    \ cualquiera que desde hoy se permita recibir en su casa a los susodichos valdenses,\
    \ asistir a sus perniciosos discursos o proporcionarles alimentos, atraerá por\
    \ esto la indignación de Dios Todopoderoso y la nuestra; sus bienes serán confiscados\
    \ sin apelación y será castigado como culpable del delito de lesa majestad; además\
    \ cualquier noble o plebeyo que encuentre dentro de nuestros estados a uno de\
    \ estos miserables sepa que si los ultraja, los maltrata o los persigue, no hará\
    \ con esto nada que no nos sea agradable\".\nDesde entonces, la persecución se\
    \ hizo sentir con violencia, y en una sola ejecución 114 valdenses fueron quemados\
    \ vivos y sus cenizas echadas al río Ter en Gerona. Sin embargo, muchos lograron\
    \ esconderse y seguir secretamente su predicación en el reino de León, Vizcaya\
    \ y Cataluña, pues al contrario de lo que decretaba la orden real, los veían con\
    \ costumbres austeras y anunciando de manera sencilla y llana el Evangelio, y\
    \ hasta se menciona al obispo de Huesca, uno de los más notables prelados de Aragón,\
    \ como protector decidido de los perseguidos valdenses. Pero las persecuciones\
    \ contra ellos no cesaron, llegando a su apogeo por el año 1237, cuando 45 fueron\
    \ arrestados en Castellón y 15 de ellos quemados vivos en la hoguera.\nLa principal\
    \ rama de la Iglesia Cristiana sucesora de la Iglesia Cristiana Valdense en España\
    \ es: Iglesia Evangélica Española (Alianza Evangélica Española (AEE)), hay otras\
    \ todas ellas articuladas en torno a la Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas\
    \ de España.\n\nLos valdenses en el Río de la Plata\n\nEl centro administrativo\
    \ de la Iglesia Evangélica Valdense del Río de la Plata se encuentra en la localidad\
    \ de Colonia Valdense, en el departamento de Colonia, República Oriental del Uruguay,\
    \ ubicada a 121 km de Montevideo y a 57 de Colonia del Sacramento.\nLas primeras\
    \ familias valdenses llegaron al Uruguay en 1856, donde establecieron una colonia\
    \ agrícola en la zona denominada del Rosario Oriental. Enseguida se expandieron\
    \ por el litoral uruguayo y por la República Argentina, en la región sur de la\
    \ provincia de La Pampa en la localidad de Jacinto Arauz, lugar al que llegaron\
    \ alrededor de 1901, y al centro de la provincia de Santa Fe y norte de la provincia\
    \ de Entre Ríos. Fue característico en los lugares donde se asentaron, la preocupación\
    \ por la construcción de un espacio de culto y de un espacio para la formación\
    \ escolar, además de la marcada vocación agrícola.​\nEntre los años 40 y 60, surgen\
    \ comunidades valdenses urbanas, en ciudades grandes como Buenos Aires y Montevideo,\
    \ así como en capitales departamentales como Paysandú o Reconquista, al norte\
    \ de la provincia de Santa Fe. En 1969, la Iglesia de esta última ciudad, estableció\
    \ en el Barrio Nuevo un lugar de reunión y lectura de la Biblia, que por las necesidades\
    \ se transformó en un comedor comunitario para sábados y domingos, para 500 familias\
    \ pobres. La actividad misionera ha llevado a la incorporación de nuevas personas\
    \ a la vida de fe de la Iglesia.\nActualmente la Iglesia Evangélica Valdense del\
    \ Río de la Plata está compuesta por unas quince congregaciones en Uruguay y diez\
    \ en Argentina, con unos 3000 miembros activos.\n\nLos valdenses en Estados Unidos\n\
    \nLos primeros valdenses comenzaron a llegar a los Estados Unidos en 1875, se\
    \ establecieron en Monett, posteriormente, junio de 1893 fundaron la localidad\
    \  que actualmente tiene el nombre de Valdese, en Carolina del Norte."
- source_sentence: ¿Cuál es el origen y significado del término "caruggi" en el idioma
    ligur?
  sentences:
  - 'Reino del Congo


    Historia


    Las tradiciones verbales sobre la historia primitiva del país se establecieron
    por escrito por primera vez a fines del siglo XVI, y las más completas se registraron
    a mediados del siglo XVII, incluidas las escritas por el misionero capuchino italiano
    Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo. Una investigación más detallada en las tradiciones
    orales modernas, inicialmente realizada a principios del siglo XX por misioneros
    redentoristas como Jean Cuvelier y Joseph de Munck, no parecen relacionarse con
    el período muy temprano.

    Según la tradición de Congo, el origen del reino se encuentra en el país muy grande
    y no muy rico de Mpemba Kasi, ubicado justo al sur del actual Matadi en la República
    Democrática del Congo.​ Una dinastía de gobernantes de este pequeño gobierno construyó
    su dominio a lo largo del valle de Kwilu, y sus miembros están enterrados en Nsi
    Kwilu, su capital. Las tradiciones del siglo XVII aluden a este cementerio sagrado.
    Según el misionero Girolamo da Montesarchio, un capuchino italiano que visitó
    la zona desde 1650 hasta 1652, el sitio era tan sagrado que mirarlo era mortal.
    Los súbditos del siglo XVII de Mpemba Kasi llamaban a su país "Madre del Rey del
    Congo" con respecto a la antigüedad del territorio. En algún momento alrededor
    de 1375, Nimi a Nzima, gobernante de Mpemba Kasi, hizo una alianza con Nsaku Lau,
    el gobernante del vecino reino de Mbata. Esta alianza garantizaba que cada uno
    de los dos aliados ayudaría a asegurar la sucesión del linaje de su aliado en
    el territorio del otro.


    Fundación del reino imperial


    El primer rey del Reino del Congo fue Lukeni lua Nimi (1380-1420). El nombre Nimi
    a Lukeni apareció en tradiciones orales posteriores y algunos historiadores modernos,
    notablemente Jean Cuvelier, lo popularizaron. Lukeni lua Nimi, o Nimi a Lukeni,
    se convirtió en el fundador del Congo cuando conquistó el reino de Mwene Kabunga
    (o Mwene Mpangala), que yacía en una montaña al sur. Él transfirió su poder a
    esta montaña, el Mongo dia Kongo o "montaña del Congo", e hizo de Mbanza Kongo,
    la ciudad de allí, su capital. Dos siglos después, los descendientes de Mwene
    Kabunga aún desafiaban simbólicamente la conquista en una celebración anual. Los
    gobernantes que siguieron a Lukeni todos reclamaron alguna forma de relación con
    su kanda, o linaje, y fueron conocidos como los Kilukeni. El Kilukeni kanda o
    "casa", como fue registrado en documentos portugueses, gobernó Congo sin oposición
    hasta 1567.

    Después de la muerte de Nimi a Lukeni, su hermano, Mbokani Mavinga, tomó el trono
    y gobernó hasta aproximadamente 1467. Tenía dos esposas y nueve hijos. Su reinado
    vio una extensión del Reino del Congo para incluir al estado vecino el Reino de
    Loango y otras áreas ahora abarcadas por la actual República del Congo.

    Los Mwene Congos solían otorgar las gobernaciones a los miembros de su familia
    o sus clientes. A medida que esta centralización aumentó, las provincias aliadas
    perdieron gradualmente la influencia hasta que sus poderes fueron solo simbólicos,
    manifestados en Mbata, una vez un co-reino, pero en 1620 simplemente conocido
    por el título "Abuelo del Rey del Congo" (Nkaka''ndi a Mwene Kongo).​​

    La alta concentración de población alrededor del Mbanza Kongo y sus alrededores
    jugó un papel crítico en la centralización del Congo. La capital era una zona
    densamente poblada en una región escasamente poblada donde las densidades de la
    población rural probablemente no superaban las 5 personas por km². Los primeros
    viajeros portugueses describieron a Mbanza Kongo como una ciudad grande, del tamaño
    de la ciudad portuguesa de Évora, como lo era en 1491. Hacia el final del siglo
    XVI, la población del Congo era probablemente cerca de medio millón de personas
    en una región central de aproximadamente 130,000 kilómetros cuadrados. A principios
    del siglo XVII, la ciudad y su interior tenían una población de alrededor de 100.000
    habitantes, o uno por cada cinco habitantes en el Reino (según las estadísticas
    bautismales compiladas por los sacerdotes jesuitas). Esta concentración permitió
    que los recursos, soldados y excedentes de alimentos estuvieran fácilmente disponibles
    a pedido del rey. Esto hizo que el rey fuera abrumadoramente poderoso e hizo que
    el reino se centralizara mucho.

    En el momento del primer contacto registrado con los europeos, el Reino del Congo
    era un estado altamente desarrollado en el centro de una extensa red comercial.
    Además de los recursos naturales y el marfil, el país fabricaba y comercializaba
    artículos de cobre, metales ferrosos, tela de rafia y cerámica. La gente del Congo
    hablaba en el idioma Kikongo. Las regiones orientales, especialmente aquella parte
    conocida como los Siete Reinos de Kongo dia Nlaza (o en Kikongo Mumbwadi o "los
    Siete"), fueron particularmente famosas por la producción de telas.


    Los portugueses y el cristianismo


    En 1483, el explorador portugués Diogo Cão navegó por el inexplorado río Congo,
    encontrando pueblos del Congo y convirtiéndose en el primer europeo en encontrar
    el reino del congo.​ Cão dejó hombres en el Congo y llevó a los nobles del Congo
    a Portugal. Regresó con los nobles del Congo en 1485. En ese momento, el rey gobernante,
    Nzinga a Nkuwu, se convirtió al cristianismo.​ Cão regresó al reino con sacerdotes
    y soldados católicos en 1491, bautizando a Nzinga a Nkuwu, así como a sus principales
    nobles, comenzando con el gobernante de Soyo, la provincia costera. Al mismo tiempo,
    un ciudadano congoleño instruido que regresaba de Portugal abrió la primera escuela.
    Nzinga a Nkuwu tomó el nombre cristiano de Juan I en honor del rey de Portugal
    en ese momento, Juan II.​

    Juan I gobernó hasta su muerte alrededor de 1506 y fue sucedido por su hijo Afonso
    Mvemba a Nzinga. Se enfrentó a un desafío serio de un medio hermano, Mpanzu a
    Kitima. El rey venció a su hermano en una batalla librada en Mbanza Kongo. Según
    el relato de Afonso, enviado a Portugal en 1506, pudo ganar la batalla gracias
    a la intervención de una visión celestial de Santiago y la Virgen María. Inspirado
    por estos eventos, posteriormente diseñó un escudo para el Congo que fue utilizado
    por todos los reyes siguientes en documentos oficiales, parafernalia real y similares
    hasta 1860.​ Mientras el rey Juan I volvió a sus creencias tradicionales, Afonso
    I estableció el cristianismo como la religión del estado de su reino.​

    El Rey Afonso trabajo para crear una versión viable de la Iglesia católica en
    el Congo, proveyendo sus ingresos de los bienes reales y los impuestos que proporcionaban
    salarios para sus trabajadores. Con asesores de Portugal como Rui d''Aguiar, el
    capellán real portugués enviado para ayudar al desarrollo religioso del Congo,
    Afonso creó una versión sincrética del cristianismo que seguiría siendo parte
    de su cultura para el resto de la existencia independiente del reino. El propio
    rey Afonso estudió mucho en esta tarea. Rui d''Aguir dijo una vez que Afonso sabía
    más de los principios de la iglesia que él.

    A la iglesia del Congo siempre le faltaron clérigos ordenados y se compensó con
    el empleo de un laicado fuerte. Los maestros de escuela congoleños o mestres fueron
    el ancla de este sistema. Reclutados de la nobleza y entrenados en las escuelas
    del reino, proporcionaron instrucción religiosa y servicios a otros basándose
    en la creciente población cristiana del congo. Al mismo tiempo, permitieron el
    crecimiento de formas sincréticas de cristianismo que incorporaron las ideas religiosas
    más antiguas del congo con las del cristianismo. Ejemplos de esto son la introducción
    de palabras de KiKongo para traducir conceptos cristianos. Las palabras de KiKongo
    ukisi (una palabra abstracta que significa encanto, pero que solía significar
    "santo") y nkanda (libro de significado) se fusionaron para que se creara la palabra
    Biblia cristiana y fuera conocida por los locales como: "nkanda ukisi". La iglesia
    se hizo conocida como el nzo a ukisi. Mientras que algunos clérigos europeos a
    menudo denunciaban estas tradiciones mixtas, nunca fueron capaces de erradicarlas.

    Parte del establecimiento de esta iglesia fue la creación de un sacerdocio fuerte
    y para este fin el hijo de Afonso, Enrique, fue enviado a Europa para ser educado.
    Enrique se convirtió en sacerdote ordenado y en 1518 fue nombrado obispo de Útica
    (una diócesis del norte de África recientemente reclamada a los musulmanes). Regresó
    al Congo a principios de la década de 1520 para dirigir la nueva iglesia del Congo.
    Murió en 1531 cuando estaba a punto de ir a Europa para el Concilio de Trento.

    Hoy en día, el catolicismo es la religión más grande de Angola, la sección de
    habla portuguesa del antiguo reino del congo.


    Esclavitud y rivalidades reales


    En las siguientes décadas, el Reino del Congo se convirtió en una importante fuente
    de esclavos para los comerciantes portugueses y otras potencias europeas. El Cantino
    Atlas de 1502 menciona al Congo como una fuente de esclavos para la isla de Santo
    Tomé. La esclavitud había existido en el Congo mucho antes de la llegada de los
    portugueses, y las primeras cartas de Alfonso I del Congo muestran la evidencia
    de la existencia de los mercados de esclavos. También muestran la compra y venta
    de esclavos dentro del país y sus cuentas sobre la captura de esclavos en la guerra
    que fueron entregados y vendidos a comerciantes portugueses. Es probable que la
    mayoría de los esclavos exportados a los portugueses fueran cautivos de guerra
    de las campañas de expansión del Congo. Además, las guerras de esclavos ayudaron
    a Alfonso a consolidar su poder en las regiones fronterizas del sur y del este.​

    A pesar de su largo establecimiento dentro de su reino, Alfonso I del Congo creía
    que la trata de esclavos debería estar sujeta a la ley del Congo. Cuando sospechó
    que los portugueses estaban recibiendo esclavos ilegales para vender, escribió
    al rey Juan III de Portugal en 1526 implorándole que detuviera la práctica. Finalmente,
    Alfonso decidió establecer un comité especial para determinar la legalidad de
    la esclavización de los que estaban siendo vendidos.

    Una característica común de la vida política en el reino del congo era una feroz
    competencia por la sucesión al trono. La propia llegada de Alfonso al trono fue
    intenso, aunque se sabe poco al respecto. Sin embargo, se sabe mucho sobre cómo
    tuvieron lugar estas luchas a partir de la contienda que siguió a la muerte de
    Alfonso a finales de 1542 o principios de 1543. Esto se debe en gran parte a la
    investigación detallada llevada a cabo por funcionarios reales en 1550, que sobrevive
    en los archivos portugueses. En esta investigación se puede ver que las facciones
    se formaron detrás de hombres prominentes, como el hijo de Alfonso I, Pedro Nkanga
    a Mvemba y Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi, su nieto que finalmente derrocó a Pedro en 1545.
    Aunque las facciones se colocaron en el idioma del parentesco (usando el término
    portugués geração o linaje, probablemente kanda en Kikongo) no se formaron estrictamente
    a lo largo de líneas de herencia ya que los parientes cercanos a menudo estaban
    en facciones separadas. Los beligerantes incluían a nobles con títulos de nombramiento
    para las gobernaciones provinciales, miembros del consejo real y también funcionarios
    en la jerarquía de la Iglesia ahora bien desarrollada.

    El Rey Diogo I hábilmente reemplazó o superó a sus competidores atrincherados
    después de que fue coronado en 1545. Se enfrentó a una importante conspiración
    liderada por Pedro I, que se había refugiado en una iglesia, y a quien Diogo respecto
    de la regla de asilo de la Iglesia le permitió permanecer en ella. Sin embargo,
    Diogo llevó a cabo una investigación sobre la trama, cuyo texto fue enviado a
    Portugal en 1552 y nos da una excelente idea de la forma en que los conspiradores
    esperaban derrocar al rey al atraer a sus seguidores para que lo abandonaran.

    También surgieron problemas entre Diogo y los colonos portugueses en Santo Tomé
    conocidos como Tomistas. Según un tratado entre el Congo y Portugal, los primeros
    eran solo para comerciar dentro del reino con esclavos de este último. Eso significaba
    que los portugueses estaban restringidos a los esclavos ofrecidos por el Rey Diogo
    o aquellos a quienes autorizaba a vender esclavos. Cada año los Tomistas llegaban
    con 12 a 15 barcos para transportar entre 400 y 700 esclavos (entre 5,000 y 10,000
    esclavos por año). Esto no fue suficiente para aprovechar el suministro cada vez
    mayor de esclavos del Congo gracias a las guerras en su frontera oriental. Los
    capitanes tratarían de sobrecargar sus cargas, lo que provocaría revueltas. Sin
    embargo, el factor que realmente rompió el trato fue el hábito de los Tomistas
    de navegar río arriba al Malebo Pool para comprar esclavos de los comerciantes
    de BaTeke que fueron cada vez más tomados con productos europeos sobre las conchas
    de nzimbu que les ofreció el manikongo. Enfurecido por esta ruptura del contrato,
    el rey Diogo rompió relaciones en 1555 y expulsó a aproximadamente 70 portugueses
    que vivían en su reino (muchos de los cuales habían vivido allí durante mucho
    tiempo y tenían esposas africanas y niños de raza mixta).

    El intento del rey de pacificar el inquieto reino de Ndongo en 1556 resultó contraproducente,
    dando como resultado la independencia de este último. A pesar de este revés, disfrutó
    de un largo reinado que terminó con su muerte en 1561.

    El sucesor del rey Diogo, cuyo nombre se perdió en la historia, fue asesinado
    por los portugueses, y reemplazado por un hijo bastardo, que era más flexible
    con los intereses de los Tomistas, Alfonso II. La gente común del Congo se enfureció
    por su entronización y respondieron con disturbios en todo el reino. Muchos portugueses
    fueron asesinados, y el puerto real de Mpinda fue cerrado a los portugueses, lo
    que puso fin a la trata de esclavos entre el Congo y Portugal. A menos de un año
    de este caos, el rey Alfonso II fue asesinado mientras asistía a misa. Fue sucedido
    por su hermano, Bernardo I. El rey Bernardo permitió que continuara el boicot
    al comercio portugués, mientras restablecía en silencio las relaciones con Lisboa.
    El rey Bernardo I fue asesinado en guerra contra Yaka, en 1567. El siguiente manikongo,
    Enrique I fue arrastrado a una guerra en la parte oriental del país, donde fue
    asesinado, dejando el gobierno en manos de su hijastro Álvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua
    Mvemba. Fue coronado como Álvaro I, "de común acuerdo", entre congoleños y portugueses
    según algunos testigos.


    Congo bajo la Casa de Kwilu


    Álvaro I subió al trono durante otra contienda por el trono en 1568. Siendo del
    valle del río Kwilu y no un familiar de sangre de ninguno de los reyes anteriores,
    su reinado marcó el comienzo de la Casa de Kwilu. Ciertamente hubo facciones que
    se oponían a él, aunque no se sabe específicamente quiénes eran. Inmediatamente,
    Álvaro tuvo que luchar contra los invasores del este (que algunos historiadores
    creen que eran en realidad rebeldes dentro del país, ya fueran campesinos o nobles
    descontentos de facciones rivales) llamados los Jagas. Para hacer esto, decidió
    solicitar la ayuda de los portugueses con base en Santo Tomé, quienes enviaron
    una expedición bajo el mando de Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaior para ayudar. Como
    parte del mismo proceso, Álvaro aceptó permitir a los portugueses establecer una
    colonia en su provincia de Luanda, al sur de su reino. Además de permitir que
    los portugueses se establecieran en Luanda, el Congo brindó apoyo a los portugueses
    en su guerra contra el Reino de Ndongo en 1579. El reino de Ndongo estaba ubicado
    tierra adentro al este de Luanda y aunque ya había sido reclamado en los títulos
    reales del Congo desde 1535, probablemente nunca estuvo bajo una administración
    firme del Congo.

    Álvaro también trabajó duro para occidentalizar al Congo, introduciendo gradualmente
    títulos de estilo europeo para sus nobles, de modo que el Mwene Nsundi se convirtió
    en el Duque de Nsundi; el Mwene Mbamba se convirtió en el Duque de Mbamba. El
    Mwene Mpemba se convirtió en Marqués de Mpemba, y el Mwene Soyo se convirtió en
    el Conde de Soyo. Él y su hijo Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga (coronado en 1587) otorgaron
    órdenes de caballería llamadas la Orden de Cristo. La capital también fue renombrada
    São Salvador o "Santo Salvador" en portugués durante este período. En 1596, los
    emisarios de Álvaro en Roma persuadieron al Papa de reconocer a São Salvador como
    la catedral de una nueva diócesis que incluiría al Congo y el territorio portugués
    en Angola. Sin embargo, el rey de Portugal ganó el derecho de nominar a los obispos
    a esta sede, que se convirtió en una fuente de tensión entre los dos países.

    Los obispos portugueses en el reino a menudo eran favorables a los intereses europeos
    en un momento en que las relaciones entre el Congo y Angola eran tensas. Se negaron
    a nombrar sacerdotes, lo que obligó al Congo a depender cada vez más de los laicos.
    Documentos de la época muestran que los maestros legos (llamados mestres en documentos
    en portugués) eran remunerados y nombrados por la corona, y en ocasiones los reyes
    del Congo retenían ingresos y servicios a los obispos y sus seguidores (una táctica
    llamada "excomunión del país") . Controlar los ingresos era vital para los reyes
    del Congo, ya que incluso a los misioneros jesuitas se les pagaban los sueldos
    del tesoro real.

    Al mismo tiempo que se desarrolló este problema eclesiástico, los gobernadores
    de Angola comenzaron a extender sus campañas en áreas que el Congo consideraba
    firmemente bajo su soberanía. Esto incluyó la región alrededor de Nambu a Ngongo,
    que el gobernador João Furtado atacó a mediados de la década de 1590. Otras campañas
    en las cercanías llevaron a denuncias de los gobernantes del Congo contra estas
    violaciones de su soberanía.


    Faccionalismo


    Álvaro I y su sucesor, Álvaro II, también enfrentaron problemas con los rivales
    faccionales de familias que habían sido desplazadas de la sucesión. Para aumentar
    el apoyo contra algunos enemigos, tuvieron que hacer concesiones a otros. Una
    de las concesiones más importantes fue permitirle a Manuel, el Conde de Soyo,
    ocupar el cargo durante muchos años, comenzando antes de 1591. Durante este mismo
    período, Álvaro II hizo una concesión similar a António da Silva, el Duque de
    Mbamba. António da Silva fue lo suficientemente fuerte como para decidir la sucesión
    del reino, seleccionando a Bernardo II en 1614, pero poniéndolo a un lado en favor
    de Álvaro III en 1615. Fue solo con dificultad que Álvaro III pudo poner su propia
    elección en como Duque de Mbamba cuando António da Silva murió en 1620 en lugar
    de que la provincia cayera en manos del hijo del duque. Al mismo tiempo, sin embargo,
    Álvaro III creó a otro noble poderoso y semi independiente, quien sostuvo a Nsundi
    para él.


    Congo bajo la Casa de Nsundi


    Las tensiones entre Portugal y el Congo aumentaron aún más cuando los gobernadores
    de la Angola portuguesa se volvieron más agresivos. Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos,
    que llegó como gobernador en 1617, usó grupos mercenarios africanos llamados Imbangala
    para hacer una guerra devastadora en Ndongo, y luego atacar y saquear algunas
    provincias del sur del Congo. Estaba particularmente interesado en la provincia
    de Kasanze, una región pantanosa que se encuentra justo al norte de Luanda. Muchos
    esclavos deportados a través de Luanda huyeron a esta región y a menudo se les
    concedió refugio, y por esta razón, Mendes de Vasconcelos decidió que se necesitaba
    una acción decidida para detenerlos. El siguiente gobernador de Angola, João Correia
    de Sousa, utilizó el Imbangala para lanzar una invasión a gran escala del sur
    del Congo en 1622, tras la muerte de Álvaro III. Correia de Sousa afirmó que tenía
    el derecho de elegir al rey del Congo. También estaba molesto porque los electores
    congoleños eligieron a Pedro II, un antiguo duque de Mbamba. Pedro II era originario
    del ducado de Nsundi, de ahí el nombre de la casa real que creó, la Casa de Nsundi.
    Correia de Sousa también sostuvo que Pedro II había protegido a esclavos fugitivos
    de Angola durante su última gobernación de Mbamba.


    Primera guerra portuguesa-congoleña


    La primera guerra portuguesa-congoleña comenzó inicialmente debido a una campaña
    portuguesa contra el Reino de Kasanze, que se llevó a cabo sin piedad. A partir
    de ahí, el ejército se trasladó a Nambu un Ngongo, cuyo gobernante, Pedro Afonso,
    también estaba protegido por esclavos fugitivos. Aunque Pedro Afonso, se enfrento
    a un abrumador ejército de más de 20,000 personas, acordó devolver algunos fugitivos,
    el ejército atacó a su país y lo mató.

    Tras su éxito en Nambu a Ngongo, el ejército portugués avanzó hacia Mbamba en
    noviembre. Las fuerzas portuguesas obtuvieron una victoria en la Batalla de Mbumbi.
    Allí se enfrentaron a una fuerza local rápidamente reunida liderada por el nuevo
    duque de Mbamba y reforzada por fuerzas de Mpemba lideradas por su marqués. Tanto
    el duque de Mbamba como el marqués de Mpemba fueron asesinados en la batalla.
    Según las cuentas de Esikongo, fueron comidos por los aliados Imbangala de los
    portugueses. Sin embargo, Pedro II, el recién coronado rey del congo, llevó al
    ejército principal, incluidas las tropas de Soyo, a Mbamba y derrotó decisivamente
    a los portugueses, expulsándolos del país en una batalla librada cerca de Mbanda
    Kasi en enero de 1623. Residentes portugueses del Congo, asustados por las consecuencias
    de sus negocios con los portugueses después de la invasión, escribieron una carta
    hostil a Correia de Sousa, denunciando su invasión.

    Tras la derrota de los portugueses en Mbandi Kasi, Pedro II declaró a Angola un
    enemigo oficial. El rey entonces escribió cartas denunciando a Correia de Sousa
    al Rey de España y al Papa. Mientras tanto, los disturbios antipaludados estallaron
    en todo el reino y amenazaron a su comunidad comercial de larga data. Los portugueses
    de todo el país fueron desarmados humillantemente e incluso obligados a abandonar
    sus ropas. Pedro, ansioso por no alienar a la comunidad mercantil portuguesa y
    consciente de que generalmente se habían mantenido leales durante la guerra, hizo
    todo lo que pudo para preservar sus vidas y propiedades, lo que llevó a algunos
    de sus detractores a llamarlo "rey de los portugueses".

    Como resultado de la victoria del Congo, la comunidad comercial portuguesa de
    Luanda se rebeló contra el gobernador, esperando preservar sus lazos con el rey.
    Respaldados por los jesuitas, que también habían reanudado su misión allí, obligaron
    a João Correia de Sousa a renunciar y huir del país. El gobierno interino que
    siguió a la partida fue encabezado por el obispo de Angola. Fueron muy conciliadores
    con el Congo y acordaron devolver más de un millar de esclavos capturados por
    Correia de Sousa, especialmente los nobles menores capturados en la Batalla de
    Mbumbi.​

    Independientemente de las aperturas del nuevo gobierno en Angola, Pedro II no
    había olvidado la invasión y planeaba eliminar a los portugueses del reino por
    completo. El rey envió una carta a los Estados Generales neerlandeses proponiendo
    un ataque militar conjunto contra Angola con un ejército del Congo y una flota
    holandesa. Pagaría a los holandeses con oro, plata y marfil por sus esfuerzos.
    Según lo planeado, una flota holandesa bajo el mando del célebre almirante Piet
    Hein llegó a Luanda para llevar a cabo un ataque en 1624. El plan no pudo llevarse
    a cabo ya que Pedro había muerto y su hijo, García Mvemba, Nkanga había sido elegido
    rey. El rey García I era más indulgente con los portugueses y había sido persuadido
    con éxito por sus diversos gestos de conciliación. Él no estaba dispuesto a presionar
    el ataque contra Angola en ese momento, alegando que como católico, no podía aliarse
    con los no católicos para atacar la ciudad.


    Faccionalismo y retorno de la Casa de Kwilu


    El final del primer cuarto del siglo 17 vio un nuevo estallido en la lucha política
    del Congo. En el corazón del conflicto se encontraban dos casas nobles luchando
    por la realeza. En un lado del conflicto estaba la Casa de Kwilu, que contaba
    con la mayoría de los reyes llamados Álvaro. Fueron expulsados ​​por la Casa opuesta
    de Nsundi, cuando Pedro II fue colocado en el trono por poderosas fuerzas locales
    en São Salvador, probablemente como un compromiso cuando Álvaro III murió sin
    un heredero lo suficientemente mayor como para gobernar.

    Como el poder reinante, la Casa de Nsundi trabajó fervientemente para colocar
    a los partidarios en posiciones de toma de reinado en todo el imperio. O Pedro
    II o García logré asegurar Soyo en manos del Conde Paulo, que lo sostuvo y apoyó
    la Casa de Nsundi desde aproximadamente 1625 hasta 1641. Mientras tanto, Manuel
    Jordão, un partidario de la Casa de Kwilu, logró forzar a García I a huir y colocó
    a Ambrósio I de la Casa de Kwilu en el trono.

    El rey Ambrósio no pudo o no eliminó a Paulo de Soyo, aunque finalmente eliminó
    a Jordão. Después de un reinado marcado por los rumores de movilizaciones de guerra
    y otras interrupciones, un gran disturbio en la capital resultó en la muerte del
    rey por parte de una turba. Ambrosio fue reemplazado por Álvaro IV por el duque
    de Mbamba, Daniel da Silva. El rey Alvaro IV tenía solo once años y era fácil
    de manipular. En 1632, Daniel da Silva marchó sobre la capital para "rescatar
    a su sobrino de sus enemigos". En ese momento, estaba bajo la protección del Conde
    de Soyo, Paulo, Alvaro Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba y su hermano García II
    Nkanga a Lukeni. Después de una batalla dramática en Soyo, el joven rey fue restaurado
    con éxito solo para ser envenenado más tarde por Alvaro V, un Kimpanzu.


    El Congo bajo la Casa de Kinlaza


    Después de librar una segunda guerra contra sus primos, Nimi a Lukeni y Nkanga
    a Lukeni, Álvaro V fue asesinado y sustituido por Alvaro VI en 1636, iniciando
    el gobierno de la Casa de Kinlaza sobre el Congo. Después de su muerte en 1641,
    el hermano de Álvaro VI se hizo cargo, y fue coronado García II. La antigua Casa
    de Nsundi se consolidó con sus rivales de la Casa de Kwilu como el linaje de Kimpanzu
    de los muertos Alvaro V.

    García II tomó el trono en vísperas de varias crisis. Uno de sus rivales, Daniel
    da Silva (que probablemente recibió el patrocinio del Daniel da Silva que fue
    asesinado por García II mientras defendía a Alvaro IV), logró asegurar el condado
    de Soyo y lo usó como base contra García II para el conjunto de su reinado. Como
    resultado, a García II se le impidió consolidar por completo su autoridad. Otro
    problema que enfrentaba el rey García II fue una rebelión en la región de Dembos,
    que también amenazó su autoridad. Por último, estaba el acuerdo hecho por Pedro
    II en 1622, que prometía el apoyo del Congo a los holandeses en una ofensiva para
    expulsar a Portugal de Luanda.


    Reyes del Congo


    El sistema de la corte del Congo se trataba de una monarquía electiva, no hereditaria,
    basada en kandas o linajes familiares relacionados.


    Cultura


    Como producto del primer contacto en 1483 entre Diogo Cão y el reino del Congo,​
    una embajada del reino africano viajó hasta Portugal, permaneciendo en ese país
    durante un breve tiempo.​ A su regreso en 1491, fueron acompañados por misioneros
    católicos y por artesanos y carpinteros portugueses que introdujeron la tecnología
    y las técnicas occidentales en el país; tras la adopción oficial del catolicismo
    bajo el reinado del manicongo João I, la cultura portuguesa se convirtió en una
    importante influencia en la sociedad, desarrollándose además relaciones diplomáticas
    entre la monarquía del manicongo y las monarquías europeas. Al año de la llegada
    de la religión católica se construyó en la capital del país una de las primeras
    iglesias​ que fue elevada al estatus de catedral en 1596, ya bajo el rey Álvaro
    II del Congo, convirtiéndose la antigua Catedral de San Salvador del Congo en
    una de las primeras catedrales católicas en el Africa subsahariana. Como ejemplo
    de comunicación diplomática, este mismo monarca intentó en 1613, a través del
    papa Paulo V, que el rey de Portugal se hiciera cargo del costo del mantenimiento
    de los obispos y los canónigos de la catedral.​

    En 1518 se llevó a cabo la consagración en Roma, por parte de León X, de Don Enrique,
    hijo de Alfonso I, como obispo titular de Útica, siendo el primer obispo autóctono
    del África negra.​ Una misión de los carmelitas descalzos trabajó en el Congo
    desde 1584–88, estableciéndose también una misión de los dominicos entre 1610
    y 1612. Una escuela de los jesuitas con una biblioteca fue fundada en la capital
    en 1621, bajo el reinado de Álvaro III, permaneciendo en funcionamiento hasta
    1678,​ tras el inicio unos años antes de la guerra civil del Reino del Congo.
    Como consecuencia de la divulgación de la religión católica en el país, surgieron
    también desde finales del siglo XVII e inicios del siglo XVIII herejías e iluminados
    locales, como en los casos del profeta Appolonia Mafuta o la líder del antonianismo,
    Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita.

    Debido al temprano contacto con los europeos, el kikongo fue la primera lengua
    bantú en ser escrita en alfabeto latino y en tener un diccionario. Un catecismo
    fue producido en 1557 bajo la autoridad de Diogo Gomes, un jesuita nacido en el
    Reino del Congo de padres portugueses. En 1624, Mateus Cardoso, otro jesuita portugués
    editó y publicó una traducción kikongo del catecismo portugués de Marcos Jorge.​
    El diccionario fue publicado ca. 1648 por Manuel Robredo, un obispo secular. Por
    su parte, un capuchino italiano, Bonaventura da Sardegna, fue el primero en escribir
    una gramática para el kikongo hacia 1645.'
  - 'Caruggi de Génova


    Caroggi o caruggi (pronunciado [ka''ru?i], en singular caroggio o caruggio, a
    veces denominados erróneamente carroggi, carrugi o carugi)​ es el término con
    el que se designan en idioma ligur los característicos y estrechos callejones
    sombríos de muchas ciudades y pueblos de la riviera ligur.


    Origen y características


    El término deriva de quadrivium, quizá con la contribución de "carro". Según algunos
    tiene el mismo origen que la palabra italiana carriaggi, la francesa charriage
    o la española carruaje (en latín càrrus+àticum, o carràticum o carriàticum, carro+aggio).

    En la toponimia oficial el vocablo caruggio es traducido usualmente como vicolo
    (callejón). Había también un Carrubeus rectus, Vico Dritto o Via Retta, que conducía
    a la antigua Piazza Ponticello (Pontixello), eliminada tras las actuaciones del
    plano regulador de 1934, antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, como parte de la
    remodelación del antiguo barrio de Borgo Lanaiuoli y la zona de Ravecca, al lado
    del Piano di Sant''Andrea.

    Son numerosas las calles estrechas de Génova que reciben el nombre de vico, o
    menos frecuentemente, vicolo, pero también, pese a ser caruggi a todos efectos,
    algunas llevan el nombre de via o piazza, aunque se trate de plazas de estrechas
    dimensiones.

    Buena parte de los caruggi que se despliegan desde Sottoripa (actualmente en estado
    de fuerte degradación a pesar de los continuos intentos de restauración) tienen
    el nombre de un específico sector laboral, en su mayoría artesanal, debido a que
    en el pasado las distintas actividades se concentraban en determinados callejones
    de los distintos sestiere (las partes en las que todavía se divide el centro histórico).

    Así, existe una Via Orefici (es decir, orfebres), donde encontramos el bellísimo
    bajorrelieve que representa la Adoración de los Magos y el templete pintada de
    color gris por Pellegrino Piola, Vico Indoratori, Piazza di Pellicceria (donde
    desde el siglo XIII han tenido sede las peleterías más apreciadas de Génova),
    Salita Pollaiuoli, Macelli di Soziglia...

    Naturalmente, con el paso del tiempo este rasgo ha perdido mucho de su valor original,
    aunque los callejones de Génova continúan atrayendo turistas por su amplia y diversa
    oferta artesanal, garantizada por la presencia de numerosas tiendas de restauradores
    de madera, antiguas mercerías y talleres de arte.

    Algunos callejones tienen nombres sugerentes y de referencia popular, como Vico
    dell''Amor Perfetto o Vico Carabaghe.

    Hasta 1958, antes de que entrara en vigor la Ley Merlin, en los caruggi de Génova
    se situaban los burdeles más populares y frecuentados de la ciudad, que a menudo
    tenían el mismo nombre del lugar en el que se ubicaban.


    Caroggi y creuze


    Distinta del caroggio, pero similar por sus angostas proporciones, es la creuza
    (a menudo crosa en italiano), camino, escalinata o pequeña cuesta que desciende
    rápidamente de las colinas al valle. Si se sitúa cerca del mar, a menudo en proximidad
    de trivi (cruces de tres calles), la creuza se convierte en una Creuza de mâ,
    es decir, una crêuza de mar, como cantó Fabrizio De André en el tema titulado,
    precisamente, Creuza de mâ. Además, este popular cantautor había tenido ocasión
    de dedicar una canción suya a uno de los caruggi más importantes de Génova: la
    Via del Campo, que une la Piazza Fossatello a la Via di Pré y al barrio homónimo.

    En la etimología completa, el término se puede referir, en un sentido amplio,
    al equipaje que va detrás de los grupos de trabajadores y de los ejércitos, constituido
    en este caso por carros y animales de carga, o a un gran carro dedicado al transporte
    de bienes traídos de lejos.

    En este sentido, los callejones de la Génova antigua eran (en ausencia de grandes
    vías de comunicación) la calle natural, el paso obligado para entregar hombres
    y mercancías.


    En la literatura


    El escritor (turinés de nacimiento pero genovés de adopción) Gaspare Invrea (más
    conocido con el pseudónimo de Remigio Zena) ha ambientado en los caruggi de Génova
    (aunque prefirió inventar una Piazzetta della Pece Greca como fulcro de la historia)
    las aventuras de la Bricicca, extraordinaria figura femenina protagonista de su
    novela más conocida: La bocca del lupo.


    Via di Prè


    Via di Prè es el caruggio más conocido de Génova. También da nombre al sestiere
    de Prè.

    Más que caruggio, calle, que desde la posguerra empezó a albergar un rico mercado
    de frutas y verduras muy frecuentado por las amas de casa por su conveniencia,
    con la inmigración del sur de Italia, la calle empezó a estar cubierta por numerosas
    tiendas de ropa, de productos caseros, de artículos llamados "imposibles de encontrar"
    y numerosas tiendas con todas las novedades electrónicas del momento.

    No se debe olvidar el famoso mercadillo "Shanghai", situado en el lado del puerto,
    el cual ofrecía a precios muy convenientes todos los productos de primera necesidad.
    En la parte final de la Via Prè adyacente a la Porta di Vacca se podía encontrar
    el único vendedor negro que ofrecía auténticos productos africanos.'
  - "프란츠 카프카(, 1883년 7월 3일 ~ 1924년 6월 3일)는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국의 유대계 소설가이다. 현재 체코의 수도인 프라하(당시\
    \ 오스트리아-헝가리 제국의 영토)에서 유대인 부모의 장남으로 태어나 독일어를 쓰는 프라하 유대인 사회 속에서 성장했다. 1906년 법학으로\
    \ 박사학위를 취득, 1907년 프라하의 보험회사에 취업했다. 그러나 그의 일생의 유일한 의미와 목표는 문학창작에 있었다. 1917년 결핵\
    \ 진단을 받고 1922년 보험회사에서 퇴직, 1924년 오스트리아 빈 근교의 결핵요양소 키얼링(Kierling)에서 사망하였다. 카프카는\
    \ 사후 그의 모든 서류를 소각하기를 유언으로 남겼으나, 그의 친구 막스 브로트(Max Brod)가 카프카의 유작, 일기, 편지 등을 출판하여\
    \ 현대 문학사에 카프카의 이름을 남겼다.\n\n카프카의 삶\n\n가족 \n\n카프카는 오스트리아-헝가리 제국 프라하의 독일어를 쓰는 꽤 부유층의\
    \ 유대인 가정에서 태어났다.\n\n아버지의 정신적 폭력 \n콘골드(1972)에 따르면, 아버지 헤르만 카프카는 '거대하고 이기적이고 거만한\
    \ 사업가'로 그리고, 카프카 자신에 따르면, '강하고 건강하고 먹성 좋으며 목소리가 크고 자기 만족감에 충만한, 우세하고 끈기있고 인간 본성과\
    \ 지식을 갖춘 진짜 카프카'로 그린다. 헤르만 카프카는 야콥 카프카의 넷째 아들로 남부의 피세크(Pisek) 가까운 곳의 유대인 마을인 오섹(Osek)에서\
    \ 프라하로 이주해, 외판원으로 몇 년간 일한 후, 액세서리를 파는 소매점을 열었다. 사업상 상표는 jackdaw(카프카의 체코어)로, 소매점은\
    \ 곧 15명의 직원을 둘 정도로 성장한다. 그곳에서 헤르만 카프카는 포데브라디(Poděbrady)의 양조업자 야콥 뢰비(Jakob Löwy)의\
    \ 딸 율리(1856-1943)와 결혼하였다.\n\n현실적이고 빈틈없는 아버지 헤르만에게 아들 카프카는 헛소리나 해대는 몽상가에 불과했고,\
    \ 어린 카프카의 눈에 아버지는 지독한 일벌레에 가족은 안중에도 없이 사업의 성공에만 미친 사람으로 보였다. 더구나 어머니 율리도 남편의 사업을\
    \ 도와 하루 12시간씩 일하느라 평일에는 부모 모두 집에 없었고, 카프카와 그의 형제들은 보모와 하인들이 돌아가며 키웠다.\n\n자수성가한\
    \ 상인으로 억세고 독선적이었던 헤르만은 틈만 나면 아들 카프카에게 \"나는 그 어려운 환경에서도 이만큼 해냈는데, 부족한 게 없는 너는 왜\
    \ 그렇게밖에 못하냐?\"며 몰아 붙였고, 카프카는 수모감에 사로잡혔다. 실제 교육학자 전용오 방송통신대학교 교육학과 교수는 인간과 교육 강의에서\
    \ 자녀에게 열등감을 심는 말인, 자녀에게 비교하는 말을 하지 말라고 말한 바 있으니, 카프카가 부친의 말 때문에 느꼈을 감정은 열등감과 수모감이었을\
    \ 것임은 어렵지 않게 짐작할 수 있다.\n\n동생들 \n카프카의 나이 두 살 때, 그리고 네 살 때 동생인 게오르크와 하인리히가 태어났지만\
    \ 곧 죽고 만다. 여섯 살 때인 1889년에는 여동생 가브리엘레(엘리,1889-1941)가, 또 1년 뒤에는 발레리(발리,1890-1942)가,\
    \ 그리고 그 2년 뒤에는 오틀리(오틀라, 1892-1943)가 태어났지만, 세 여동생은 폴란드 우치의 게토나 나치 강제 수용소로 흩어져 그곳에서\
    \ 죽었다. 그 중 오틀라는 테레지엔슈타트 강제 수용소로 보내진 뒤 다시 죽음의 수용소로 알려진 아우슈비츠 강제 수용소에서 죽은 것으로 추정된다.\n\
    \n교육 \n그의 아버지는 카프카에게 상인의 기질이 보이지 않자 독일계 인문 중고등학교에 입학시킨다. 이곳에서 카프카는 루돌프 일로비, 시오니스트\
    \ 휴고 베르크만, 에발트 펠릭스 프리브람, 오스카 폴락 등 평생을 두고 교유하게 될 몇 사람의 친구들을 만나게 된다. 1901년 프라하의\
    \ 카를 대학교(카렐 대학교)에 진학한 카프카는 주로 문학과 예술사 강의에 흥미를 보였으나, 아버지의 요구대로 법학을 택한다.\n\n카프카는\
    \ 독일어를 제1언어로 배웠으나 체코어도 유창했다. 나중에 카프카는 프랑스어와 그 문화도 조금 알게 되었다. 그가 좋아하는 작가 중 하나는\
    \ 플로베르였다. 1889년에서 1893년 그는 정육시장에 있는 도이체 크나벤슐레(Deutsche Knabenschule)라는 남자 초등학교를\
    \ 다녔다. 이곳은 지금 프라하의 Masná 거리이다. 유대인의 전통을 배우는 시간은 13세 때의 Bar Mitzvah 축제와 아버지와 1년에\
    \ 4번 유대교 회당(시나고그, 신약성서 루가복음서와 사도행전에 나오는 회당이 유대인 등의 종교적 공동체인 시나고그임.)가서 예배를 하는 종교\
    \ 교육이 전부였다. 초등학교를 마친 후 엄격한 고전 지향적인 주립 김나지움(Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium)에 입학한다.\
    \ 이곳은 구시가지 광장(Stare Mesto)의 킨스키(Kinský) 궁전에 있다. 1901년 졸업시험(Matura exam)을 끝냈다.\n\
    \n직업 \n1907년 11월 1일 그는 제네랄리(Assicurazioni Generali)라는 공격적인 이탈리아계 보험회사에 들어가서 거의\
    \ 9개월 정도 일했다. 이 시기 그의 편지에 따르면 그는 그 일을 별로 좋아하지 않았다. 아침 8시~오후 6시까지의 근무시간 때문에 글쓰는\
    \ 데 집중할 수 없었다. 1908년 7월 15일 관두고 2주 후 보다 마음에 드는 보헤미안 왕국의 노동자 사고 보험회사에 들어갔다. 그는\
    \ 종종 보험 담당관으로서의 자신의 일을 밥벌이(Brotberuf, 브로트베루프)라고 불렀다. 1908년 보헤미아 왕국 노동자 상해 보험 회사로\
    \ 자리를 옮긴 후로는 죽기 2년 전인 1922년까지 그곳에서 법률고문으로 근무하는 한편, 오후 2시에 퇴근하여 밤늦도록 글을 썼다.\n\n\
    그러나 그는 일에 무관심 하지 않았다. 직장 생활 동안 몇 번의 승진이 그가 열심히 일했음을 말해준다. 이 시기 그의 삶은 많이 알려지지 않았는데,\
    \ 피터 드러커에 따르면 카프카는 안전헬멧을 발명했다. 1912년 이 일로 메달을 받았다. 보헤미아 왕국의 강철 밀 기계(steel mill)\
    \ 사망률을 1000명당 25명까지 낮췄기 때문이다. 그는 연례 보고서를 직접 편집, 작성하는 일도 맡았으며, 그 사본을 친구들에게 보낼 만큼\
    \ 자부심이 있었다.\n\n병행하여 카프카는 문학작업도 해나갔다. 가까운 친구인 막스 브로드, 펠릭스 웰치 등이 속한 그룹을 '친밀한 프라하\
    \ 동아리(Der enge Prager Kreis)'로 부르기도 했다.\n\n1911년 여동생 엘리의 배우자인 카를 헤르만이 카프카에게 석면공장(프라하\
    \ 석면 헤르만 회사)을 같이 하자고 제안했다. 카프카는 처음에는 많은 자유시간을 그 일에 할애하며 긍정적인 태도를 보였다. 그 시기 그는\
    \ 이디시 극장(Yiddish theatre)의 공연에 관심을 갖게 되었다. 막스 브로트는 이디시 극장에 대해 카프카를 염려했다. 그는 그\
    \ 밖의 카프카의 모든 일에 지지를 보냈었다. 이 공연은 카프카가 유다이즘과 관계를 키워 가게 된 시작점이었다.\n\n이 무렵 유럽의 노동\
    \ 환경은 무척 열악했다. 카프카는 공무 출장과 노동자들과의 접촉 등 이곳에서의 업무를 통해 관료기구의 무자비성, 노동자들에 대한 가혹한 대우와\
    \ 이들의 비참한 생활상을 직접 체험하고 자본주의 사회의 내면을 속속들이 꿰뚫어 볼 수 있었을 것이다. 카프카가 자신의 작품에서 개인의 소외와\
    \ 무력감에 대해 보여주는 깊은 통찰은 여기에서 나온 것이라고도 할 수 있다.\n\n말년 \n\n1912년 그의 평생지기 막스 브로트의 집에서\
    \ 카프카는 펠리체 바우어를 만났다. 펠리체는 베를린에 있는 속기용 구술 녹음기 회사를 다니며 일하고 있었다. 그 후 5년간 많은 편지를 주고\
    \ 받았고 종종 만났다. 두 번이나 약혼하기도 했지만 1917년 결국 그들은 헤어졌다.\n\n1917년부터 카프카는 결핵을 앓기 시작했다.\
    \ 회복을 위해 쉬는 게 필요했고 가족들, 특히 그의 셋째 누이 오틀라가 그를 돌보았다. 그 자신은 자신이 육체적으로 또 정신적으로 남들에게\
    \ 혐오스럽게 인식될까 봐 걱정했다. 그러나 그는 소년 같고 깔끔하고 꾸미지 않은 외모, 조용하고 멋진 태도, 꽤 지적이고 천연덕스러운 유머로\
    \ 다른 사람들에게 인상을 남겼다.\n\n1920년대 초반 그는 체코의 저널리스트이자 작가인 밀레나 예젠스카(Milena Jesenská)와\
    \ 깊은 관계를 맺었다. 1923년 그는 가족들의 영향권에서 벗어나 글쓰기에 집중하기 위해 베를린으로 잠깐 가 있었다. 베를린에서는 도라 디아만트와\
    \ 함께 살았다. 그녀는 정통 유태교 집안 출신으로 유치원 교사였다. 그녀는 게토에서 벗어날 만큼 충분히 독립적이었다. 도라는 그의 연인이\
    \ 되었고 카프카가 탈무드에 관심을 갖게 하는 데 영향을 줬다.\n\n카프카가 임상적인 우울증과 사회불안증을 앓았음은 정설로 이해된다. 또\
    \ 편두통, 불면증, 변비, 부스럼과 불안정증도 있었는데 보통 과도한 스트레스를 받으면 증세들이 나타났다. 그는 채식이나 멸균되지 않은 우유(이\
    \ 우유는 아마 결핵의 원인이 되었을 것)의 대량 음용 등 자연요법 처방을 통해 여러 병에 대처하려 했다. 그러나 결핵은 악화되었다. 그는\
    \ 프라하로 돌아왔다. 그 다음 비엔나에서 가까운 결핵요양소에 갔고 그곳에서 1924년 6월 3일 사망했다. 굶주림이 원인인 것으로 보인다.\
    \ 카프카의 목은 음식을 먹으면 너무 아픈 상태였다. 정맥영양은 아직 개발되지 않은 때라 영양공급을 할 방법이 없었다. (변신의 그레고르나\
    \ 단식광대의 주인공과 닮은 운명이다.) 그의 유해는 프라하로 보내졌고 1924년 6월 11일 지즈코프(Žižkov) 구역에 있는 유대인 묘지에\
    \ 매장되었다.\n\n개인적인 면 \n카프카는 평생 불행하게 지냈다. 프라하의 상층부를 장악하고 있던 독일인에게는 유대인이라는 이유로, 같은\
    \ 유대인들로부터는 시온주의에 반대한다는 이유로 배척받았다. 생전에 카프카는 출판업자들의 요청으로 마지못해 발표하기 전까지는 자신의 작품을\
    \ 세상에 내놓기를 꺼렸으며, 발표된 작품들도 대중의 몰이해 속에 거의 팔리지도 않았다. 그는 죽음을 앞두고 친구에게 보낸 유서에서 자신의\
    \ 모든 글을 불태워줄 것을 부탁했을 만큼 쓰는 것 외의 다른 것을 바라지 않았지만, 세계의 불확실성과 인간의 불안한 내면을 독창적인 상상력으로\
    \ 그려낸 그의 작품은 타계후 전 세계에 알려졌다.\n\n카프카는 공식적인 종교에 대해 전생애에 걸쳐 무관심했다. 그의 글에서 유대인으로서의\
    \ 특성을 결코 나타낸 적이 없음에도 불구하고 그의 유대인 뿌리를 당황스럽게 여기지는 않았다. 지적으로 하시디즘(유대교 신비주의의 하나)이\
    \ 그의 맘을 강하게 끌었다. 특히 초월적이고 신비주의적 경험 같은 면 때문에 그랬다. 생애 마지막 10년간에는 팔레스타인으로 이주할 생각도\
    \ 있다고 말했다. '판결', '화부', '단식광대', '시골 의사' 등에 나타난 윤리적 절차적 진퇴양난의 상황은 법과 정의 같은 것에 관련된\
    \ 유대교의 가르침에 대한 카프카의 관심을 담고 있다. '가수 요제핀'에서의 논쟁적 해설자의 웃길 만큼 세심한 스타일은 랍비들의 수사적 관습을\
    \ 은근히 나타낸다.\n\n카프카의 문학 세계 \n\n카프카는 생전에 몇 편의 단편만을 발표하였으며, 발표된 작품은 그가 작성한 작품 중 일부분에\
    \ 불과하다. 그의 대부분 작품은 미완성으로 마감되었으며(예외는 《변신》 뿐인 것으로 간주된다.) 그가 죽을 때까지 거의 주목받지 못했다.\
    \ 죽기전 그의 친구이자 문학적 유산 관리 집행인인 막스 브로트에게 원고를 모두 파기시켜달라고 부탁하였으나, 그는 카프카의 유언을 어기고 보유하고\
    \ 있던 많은 작품을 출간하게 감독하였다. 출간된 작품은 곧 주목받기 시작했고 평론가들의 호평을 받았다. 연인 도라 디아만트 또한 카프카의\
    \ 유언대로 부분적으로 원고를 파기하였으나, 비밀리에 20편의 노트와 35편의 편지를 숨겨 가지고 있다가 1933년에 게슈타포에 의해서 압수당했다.\
    \ 이 유실된 원고에 대한 국제적인 조사가 아직도 진행 중이다.\n\n1912년에 『실종자』(후에 『아메리카』로 개제), 『변신』을 쓰기 시작했고,\
    \ 1914년에는 『유형지에서』와 『심판』 집필에 들어갔다. 1916년에는 단편집 『시골 의사』를 탈고했다. 1917년에 폐결핵이 발병하여\
    \ 여러 곳으로 정양을 다니게 되고, 1922년에 『성』을 집필하기 시작했다. 결국 폐결핵으로 1924년에 빈 교외의 키어링 요양원에서 사망했다.\
    \ 『변신』 외에 대표작으로 『심판』 『성(城)』 『실종자』 『유형지에서』 『시골의사』 『시골에서의 결혼 준비』 등이 있다.\n\n카프카의\
    \ 모든 출판된 작품은, 밀레나 예젠스카에게 체코어로 쓴 몇편의 편지를 제외하고, 대부분 독일어로 쓰였다.\n\n문체 \n\n프라하에서 태어난\
    \ 카프카는 체코어에 유창했다. 그러나 그는 프라하 독일어로 저술했는데, 보헤미아의 수도인 그곳의 유태인과 비주류인 기독교인들이 쓰는 언어였다.\
    \ 그는 프라하 독일어가 고지 독일어 (High German) 보다 진실성이 있다고 생각했다. 프라하 독일어를 잘 사용함으로써 그는 그의 작품을\
    \ 완전히 그 자신만의 것으로 만들 수 있었다.\n\n독일어로 글을 쓰면서 아주 긴 문장을 쓸 수도 있었다. 카프카는 마침표 바로 앞에서 기대하지\
    \ 않았던 문장의 박력을 종종 주기도 했다. 그런 박력은 의미와 강조점을 마무리하는 것이었다.\n\n번역자가 직면하는 또 다른 거의 극복할\
    \ 수 없는 문제는 그가 여러 의미로 해석될 수 있는 단어를 집중적으로 썼다는 것이다. 예를 들면 그가 ''를 \"판결\" 마지막 문장에 쓴\
    \ 경우를 들 수 있다. 이 문장은 \"그 순간 끝없는 교통행렬이 다리를 건너고 있었다.\" 와 같이 번역될 수 있다. 이런 명백히 이중 의미를\
    \ 지닌 'Verkehr'란 단어를 쓴 이유는 카프카의 고백에 따르면 이렇다. 그의 친구이자 전기작가인 막스 브로트에게 한 고백에 따르면 그는\
    \ \"격렬한 사정'을 생각하며 썼다는 것이다. 물론 영어 번역에서는 '교통'이란 번역밖에 다른게 뭐가 있겠는가?\n\n한 작가의 삶이 물론\
    \ 그의 문학 창작에 경우에 따라서는 큰 역할을 하지 않을 수도 있지만, 카프카의 길지 않은 삶의 여정은 그의 문학 세계의 섬세한 면을 이해하는\
    \ 데 적지 않은 도움을 준다. 그의 문학 창작에 결정적인 역할을 한 사건을 대충 간추려 본다면 가족관계, 특히 아버지상, 그의 약혼녀 펠리스\
    \ 바우어, 유대인의 주체의식 등을 들 수 있겠다. 문학비평의 측면에서는 자주 거론된 \"삶의 의미 추구\"에 관한 문제를 여기서 짧게 손꼽을\
    \ 수 있겠다.\n\n카프카는 1904년 문학 친구였던 오스카 폴라크에게 보낸 한 편지에서 문학에 대해 이렇게 강력한 견해를 밝힌 바 있다.\n\
    \n그는 친구에게 독서가 우리에게 강한 충격을 가하지 않는다면 무엇 때문에 책을 읽느냐고 반문한다, 우리에게 필요한 책은 “큰 고통을 주는\
    \ 불행처럼, 우리가 정말 사랑하는 사람의 죽음처럼, 우리가 모든 사람에게서 떠나 숲 속으로 추방당한 것처럼, 자살처럼” 충격을 주는 것이어야\
    \ 한다고 말한다.\n\n비평가의 해석\n\n카프카와 펠리체 바우어 (Felice Bauer) \n\n카프카는 펠리체 바우어와의 첫대면 (1912년\
    \ 8월 13일)을 그의 일기장에 다음과 같이 기록하였다:\n\n펠리체 바우어가 이 짧은 기록에서 마치 카프카 소설의 한 인물처럼 묘사된 것에서\
    \ 우리는 그녀의 존재가 카프카의 삶에 어떠한 변화를 가져오게 되었는지 아마 미루어 짐작하기 힘들 것이다. 그러나 이 첫대면 후 카프카는 그야말로\
    \ 억제할 수 없는 창작열에 사로잡히게 된다. 약 한달 후 그는 하루밤 사이에 (9월 23일) 유명한 단편 \"판결\"을 써서 펠리체 바우어에게\
    \ 바치게 된다. 그리고 그가 그녀에게 수도 없이 써 보낸 편지는 훌륭한 서한문학으로 평가됨과 동시에, 오늘날 카프카의 섬세한 문학세계를 이해하는\
    \ 데 좋은 실마리를 제공하고 있다.\n\n펠리체 바우어는 카프카와 마찬가지로 유대인으로서 카프카를 알게 된 당시 독일의 베를린에 거주하는\
    \ 사무여직원이었다.\n\n출판 이력\n\n저작\n\n장편 \n 아메리카 (Amerika) 혹은 실종자 (Der Verschollene)\n\
    \ 심판 (Der Prozess)\n 성 (Das Schloß)\n\n중편\n\n단편 \n 선고 (Das Urteil)\n 지방에서의 결혼예식\
    \ (Hochzeitvorbereitungen auf dem Lande)\n 관찰 (Betrachtung)\n 변신 (Die Verwandlung)\
    \ http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5200\n 유형지에서 (In der Strafkolonie)\n 단식 예술가 (Der\
    \ Hungerkünstler)\n 시골 의사 (Ein Landarzt)\n 학술원에 보내는 보고서(Ein Bericht für eine Akademie)\n\
    \n일기와 공책\n\n편지\n\n번역\n\n사소한 정보\n\n각주\n\n외부 링크 \n \n Franz Kafka 아버지에게 드리는 편지\n\
    \n \n1883년 출생\n1924년 사망\n체코의 소설가\n오스트리아의 소설가\n체코의 무신론자\n오스트리아의 무신론자\n유대계 오스트리아인\n\
    유대계 체코인\n한국어 전집이 출간된 저자\n프라하 출신\n프라하 카렐 대학교 동문\n결핵으로 죽은 사람\n실존주의자\n19세기 오스트리아\
    \ 사람\n오스트리아의 사회주의자\n오스트리아의 아나키스트\n괴기물 작가\n오스트리아의 공무원\n명언가"
- source_sentence: What was the outcome of the War of the Sixth Coalition?
  sentences:
  - "The 2nd Armoured Division was a division of the British Army that was active\
    \ during the early stages of the Second World War. The division's creation had\
    \ been discussed since the beginning of 1939, with the intent to form it by splitting\
    \ the 1st Armoured Division. A lack of tanks delayed this until December 1939.\
    \ For a short period after its creation, the division had no assigned units until\
    \ the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was assigned to it from the 1st Armoured Division,\
    \ and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade from Southern Command.\n\nIn early 1940,\
    \ 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, leaving the 2nd Armoured\
    \ Division understrength and equipped largely with light tanks. After the Battle\
    \ of France, with the threat of a German invasion of the United Kingdom, priority\
    \ for equipment shifted to the 2nd Armoured Division, which was brought up to\
    \ strength. The plan was to use the division to counter-attack the flanks of a\
    \ feared German invasion force. In August 1940, an armoured regiment from the\
    \ division was transported to Egypt and transferred to the 7th Armoured Division,\
    \ but it was replaced by another. In October, it was decided to transfer the rest\
    \ of the division to Egypt, as reinforcements for Middle East Command.\n\nBefore\
    \ leaving for Egypt, the division exchanged brigades with the 1st Armoured Division.\
    \ Since the brigade received in exchange consisted of only one armoured regiment,\
    \ division strength was reduced to three armoured regiments. Upon arriving in\
    \ Egypt in December 1940, the division was further reduced in order to provide\
    \ support for Operation Lustre, an expeditionary force to Greece. The detached\
    \ units included two-thirds of the division's tanks, a battalion of infantry,\
    \ and artillery support. The remnants of the division then moved to the province\
    \ of Cyrenaica in Italian Libya, which had been conquered during Operation Compass.\
    \ The division's remaining tanks were worn-out; they were supplemented by captured\
    \ Italian models that were equally decrepit. In March, a German-Italian counter-attack\
    \ led to the destruction of the division, and the ejection of the British from\
    \ Cyrenaica, except for Tobruk. The consensus of historians is that there was\
    \ little the division could have done to prevent this, given the circumstances\
    \ of its being under equipped, poorly supplied, lacking proper training, and having\
    \ inadequate communications and an unclear chain of command.\n\nBackground\nDuring\
    \ the interwar period, the British Army examined the lessons learnt from the First\
    \ World War; and a need was seen for experimentation with and development of theories\
    \ of manoeuvre and armoured warfare, as well as the creation of the short-lived\
    \ Experimental Mechanized Force. The long-term impact was for the army to start\
    \ to move towards mechanisation, to enhance battlefield mobility. By the 1930s,\
    \ the army had established three types of divisions: the infantry division, the\
    \ mobile division (later called an armoured division), and the motor division\
    \ (a motorised infantry division). The primary role of the infantry division was\
    \ to penetrate the enemy's defensive line, with the support of infantry tanks.\
    \ Any gap created would then be exploited by mobile divisions, and the territory\
    \ thus captured would be secured by the fast-moving motor divisions. These tactics\
    \ would transform the attack into a break-through, while maintaining mobility.\n\
    \nThe Mobile Division was created in October 1937; it included six light tank\
    \ regiments, three medium tank regiments, two motorized infantry battalions, and\
    \ two artillery regiments. The light-tank units were intended for reconnaissance\
    \ only. General John Burnett-Stuart, who was responsible for training the Mobile\
    \ Division, stated that the infantry were not \"to be put on to a position by\
    \ tanks and told to hold it, and they are not meant to fight side by side with\
    \ your tanks in the forefront\"; the infantry's role was simply to protect the\
    \ tanks when they were stationary. Burnett-Stuart's tactics did not conform with\
    \ British doctrine, which promoted combined-arms co-operation to win battles,\
    \ as did German armoured warfare doctrine, which held that tanks by themselves\
    \ would not be a decisive weapon. However, Burnett-Stuart's thinking predominated\
    \ within the British armoured forces until the doctrine was reformed in 1942.\n\
    \nIn the 1930s, tensions increased between Germany and the United Kingdom. During\
    \ 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia\
    \ led to an international crisis. This was resolved in September 1938 by the Munich\
    \ Agreement, which allowed for German annexation. Tensions did not subside, and\
    \ the British government debated how best to prepare the army for war. In January\
    \ 1939, the Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha proposed splitting\
    \ the Mobile Division into two smaller formations but found no support for this\
    \ move. The issue was broached again a month later, and was accepted in principle\
    \ by the cabinet. Shortly after, the French were informed of a preliminary timetable\
    \ for the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in the event of war:\
    \ \"One Regular Armoured Division will become available about the middle of 1940,\
    \ the second would not be available 'till a later date. The formation of a second\
    \ division during this period was complicated by the slow pace of British tank\
    \ production.\n\nFormation and home service\n\nThe 2nd Armoured Division was activated\
    \ on 15 December 1939, with Major-General Frederick Hotblack as the first general\
    \ officer commanding (GOC). Hotblack had joined the Royal Tank Corps in 1916,\
    \ and by 1918 he had become the army's expert on German tanks. During the 1930s,\
    \ he had been posted to Germany, where he witnessed and reported on the development\
    \ of German armoured forces. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in\
    \ September 1939, he was the BEF's senior advisor on armoured vehicles. \n\nThe\
    \ division had no assigned fighting sub-units until the following month, when\
    \ the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was transferred from the 1st Armoured Division\
    \ (previously the Mobile Division), and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was transferred\
    \ from Southern Command. On assignment to the division, the 1st Light Armoured\
    \ Brigade comprised three armoured regiments: the 1st King's Dragoon Guards (KDG),\
    \ the 3rd The King's Own Hussars (3H), and the 4th Queen's Own Hussars (4H). The\
    \ 22nd Heavy Brigade consisted of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the 3rd\
    \ and the 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters).\n\nThe 2nd Support Group,\
    \ which would comprise the division's supporting arms, was formed in February.\
    \ It did not have sub-units allocated until March; it was then composed of the\
    \ 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers; the 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery\
    \ (12 RHA); the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light-Anti-aircraft/Anti-tank Regiment;\
    \ and two motorised infantry units – the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, King's Royal\
    \ Rifle Corps, and the 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The\
    \ Prince Consort's Own).\n\nThe war establishment – the nominal full wartime strength\
    \ – for a light armoured brigade was 108 light tanks and 66 cruiser tanks. A heavy\
    \ armoured brigade's war establishment was 157 cruiser tanks. British doctrine\
    \ defined light tanks as reconnaissance vehicles armed only with machine guns.\
    \ Cruiser tanks were swift moving, more heavily armoured, and equipped with both\
    \ a machine gun and an anti-tank gun. The primary role of the cruiser tank was\
    \ to engage and destroy opposing armoured forces. Its main weapon, a 2-pounder\
    \ anti-tank gun, was only supplied with armour-piecing rounds. This meant that\
    \ cruiser tanks were ineffective against entrenched infantry, or in suppressing\
    \ hostile artillery. Despite its war establishment, the division comprised a total\
    \ of only 77 Vickers light tanks in January 1940.\n\nIn early 1940, to bring it\
    \ up to full strength, the 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment,\
    \ to ensure it would be operationally effective when deployed to France. However,\
    \ the 2nd Armoured Division strength only increased slowly; and it was not immediately\
    \ issued with cruiser tanks. On 14 April, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade became\
    \ the 1st Armoured Brigade, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was renamed the\
    \ 22nd Armoured Brigade. The renaming followed a change in the war establishment\
    \ of an armoured regiment. The armament of regiments and brigades was to be homogeneous,\
    \ with each brigade having 166 cruiser tanks. In total, including tanks assigned\
    \ to headquarter units, an armoured division now had an establishment of 340 tanks,\
    \ sixteen 25-pounder field gun-howitzers, and twenty-four 2-pounder anti-tank\
    \ guns. By May, the division had 31 light tanks in the 1st Armoured Brigade. The\
    \ 22nd Armoured Brigade had no serviceable tanks, and made do with lorries in\
    \ lieu of tanks. The division had two 25-pounders, supplemented by four First\
    \ World War–vintage 18-pounder field guns, four QF  howitzers of similar vintage,\
    \ and two anti-tank guns.\n\nOn 10 May, Major-General Justice Tilly took command\
    \ after Hotblack was removed following an apparent stroke. Tilly had been an armoured\
    \ warfare instructor and commander of the 1st Tank Brigade prior to the outbreak\
    \ of the war.\n\nDuring this period, the division was held in reserve in the Lincolnshire\
    \ area. In June, the number of serviceable tanks fluctuated between 178 and 197.\
    \ After the Battle of France, the division was moved to a position between Northampton,\
    \ Northamptonshire, and Newmarket, Suffolk. The division's role was to strike\
    \ into the flanks or the rear of any potential German landing in East Anglia or\
    \ north of The Wash. During July, the division was given equipment priority and\
    \ received new 25-pounders. By 4 August, the division had 17 new cruiser tanks,\
    \ and the number of light tanks had increased to 226. During August, despite the\
    \ threat of invasion, the War Office decided to reinforce Middle East Command.\
    \ The 3H was transferred to Egypt to reinforce the 7th Armoured Division; it was\
    \ replaced by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3RTR). The division had a steady increase\
    \ in tank strength, and at the end of September it had 256 light tanks and 54\
    \ cruisers.\n\nBy October, the threat of a German invasion had receded. The British\
    \ could now spare additional forces for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre,\
    \ including the 2nd Armoured Division. Prior to being dispatched, the 22nd Armoured\
    \ Brigade was exchanged for the 3rd Armoured Brigade of the 1st Armoured Division.\
    \ The 3rd Armoured Brigade consisted of only one regiment, the 5th Royal Tank\
    \ Regiment (5RTR). The division departed Liverpool in late October, on Convoy\
    \ W.S. 4a.\n\nOverseas service\n\nArrival in the Middle East\nThe convoy sailed\
    \ around the Cape of Good Hope and arrived at Suez at the end of December. The\
    \ division arrived in Egypt with just three armoured regiments: the 4H, the 3RTR,\
    \ and the 5RTR. The KDG, which had previously been equipped with light tanks,\
    \ had been made the division's armoured-car regiment. This had been intended as\
    \ a stop-gap measure while the 1st The Royal Dragoons, based in Palestine, was\
    \ mechanised to take on the role. In January 1941, after the division's arrival\
    \ in Egypt, the KDG were outfitted with Marmon-Herrington Armoured Cars. On arrival,\
    \ Tilly reported to General Archibald Wavell (in command of Middle East Command\
    \ and all British land forces in the Middle East) that \"the mechanical state\
    \ of his two Cruiser regiments\" was in question, with \"the tracks ... practically\
    \ worn out\" and \"engines [that] had already done a considerable mileage\" without\
    \ overhaul before being transported. The intention had been to replace the tracks\
    \ once the tanks arrived in Egypt, but the available spare parts were found to\
    \ be useless.\n\nOn 5 January, Tilly died following an air crash. He was replaced\
    \ by Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry on 12 February 1941. Gambier-Parry had\
    \ served in the infantry during the First World War, transferred to the Royal\
    \ Tank Corps in the 1920s, and commanded an infantry brigade in the 1930s. Prior\
    \ to his appointment as GOC, he was part of a diplomatic mission to Greece.\n\n\
    While the division was en route to Egypt, Operation Compass had been launched.\
    \ This was a counter-attack against the Italian invasion of Egypt. The initial\
    \ objective was limited: to destroy forward Italian forces and advance as far\
    \ as Sollum, near the Libyan border, if the situation allowed. By the time the\
    \ division had arrived, Compass was on the verge of defeating the Italian 10th\
    \ Army. By February, the offensive had captured the Italian Libyan province of\
    \ Cyrenaica. Further prosecution of the offensive was discussed, but it was believed\
    \ that the province of Tripolitania would be too hard to defend or supply if captured\
    \ and that the occupation of Cyrenaica would provide sufficient security for Egypt.\
    \ The British believed that there would not be an Axis threat to their gains until\
    \ at least May, by which time additional Allied forces would be available to reinforce\
    \ the Cyrenaica garrison.\n\nBritish strategy shifted to supporting Greece, and\
    \ to maintaining the status-quo in the Balkans, to prevent additional countries\
    \ from being occupied by Germany or Italy. After discussions with the Greek government,\
    \ it was decided to dispatch a substantial expeditionary force. This was partly\
    \ made up by reducing the garrison in Cyrenaica. The transportation of this force\
    \ was codenamed Operation Lustre. On 27 February, as a result, the 1st Armoured\
    \ Brigade was detached from the division and assigned to the expeditionary force.\
    \ On 18 March, it arrived in Greece with two armoured regiments, which included\
    \ 52 cruisers and 52 light tanks. The division also lost the 1st Battalion, The\
    \ Rangers, the 12RHA, and the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Regiment to the expeditionary\
    \ force. These units subsequently fought in the Battle of Greece.\n\nMove to Libya\n\
    \nIn March, the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division departed Egypt and travelled\
    \ to Libya, suffering many breakdowns en route. The 5RTR began the journey with\
    \ 58 cruisers, but arrived with 23. Once in Libya, the division consisted of the\
    \ KDG, the 3H, the 5RTR, the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, and the 104th RHA. The\
    \ 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6RTR), based in Cyrenaica, was assigned to the division.\
    \ The 6RTR had been involved in Operation Compass, and towards the end of the\
    \ operation had been stripped of its remaining serviceable tanks to reinforce\
    \ other British units. It was then re-equipped with captured Italian Fiat M13/40\
    \ tanks. Although equipped with a good 47mm anti-tank gun, the M13 was slow, uncomfortable,\
    \ and mechanically unreliable. The British tanks were also unreliable, having\
    \ exceeded their engine lives. Other division deficiencies included a lack of\
    \ transport, understaffed workshops, a lack of spare parts, and radios that lacked\
    \ the required equipment to remain functional. By the end of March, the division\
    \ had 102 tanks: 3H had 26 MK VI light tanks and 12 M13s; 5RTR, 25 Cruiser Mk\
    \ IVs; 6RTR, 36 M13s; 3rd Armoured Brigade HQ, 3 MK VI light tanks.\n\nBenghazi\
    \ was the port closest to the frontline. However, Axis bombing had rendered it\
    \ unusable for landing supplies. The 2nd Armoured Division therefore had to rely\
    \ on overland routes from Tobruk, which was about  away via the coastal road,\
    \ or  via desert tracks. A lack of transport meant the British Army created a\
    \ series of static stockpiles to supply their forward area. This made it impossible\
    \ to supply a garrison west of El Agheila, which was the most favourable defensive\
    \ position. It also restricted the mobility of the 2nd Armoured Division, which\
    \ could not move beyond the range of their supply dumps.\n\nThe terrain between\
    \ El Agheila and Benghazi was optimal for armoured warfare, and no easily defensible\
    \ infantry position existed. Lieutenant-General Philip Neame, GOC Cyrenaica Command,\
    \ believed his position was untenable without a fully equipped armoured division\
    \ supported by two complete infantry divisions and adequate air support. The only\
    \ other major formation available to Neame was the 9th Australian Division. It\
    \ was under-equipped, under-trained, and lacked direct communication with the\
    \ 2nd Armoured Division. One of the 9th Australian Division's brigades remained\
    \ at Tobruk. The other two were positioned north of Benghazi to hold the high\
    \ ground of the Jebel Akhdar. The 3rd Armoured Brigade was based southeast of\
    \ Mersa Brega, where the 2nd Support Group was located. Neame was ordered to give\
    \ ground if attacked, as the conservation of his force was important. The 2nd\
    \ Armoured Division had the conflicting objectives of avoiding tank losses while\
    \ having to be ready to operate offensively against the flanks of any attacking\
    \ Axis armoured force. Neame also predicted that once operations got underway,\
    \ the 2nd Armoured Division's tank numbers would rapidly dwindle due to breakdowns.\n\
    \nAxis offensive\n\nMarch\n\nAfter the destruction of the 10th Army, Italy dispatched\
    \ reinforcements to its frontline. This included four infantry divisions, the\
    \ 102 Motorised Division \"Trento\" and the 132nd Armoured Division \"Ariete\"\
    . Germany supplemented this effort with the two-division strong  ( Erwin Rommel).\
    \ At the end of March, the German 5th Light Division (147 tanks) and the \"Ariete\"\
    \ Division (46 M13/40s) were on the border of Cyrenaica. The British underestimated\
    \ the size of the Axis effort, believing that only four divisions would be available\
    \ to them until the end of May, of which only two could be used in offensive operations\
    \ due to supply constraints. Royal Air Force (RAF) aerial reconnaissance observed\
    \ Axis troop movements towards Cyrenaica, and on 25 February spotted German armoured\
    \ cars that were superior in speed and armament to those used by the 2nd Armoured\
    \ Division. The reconnaissance elements of the latter avoided contact with their\
    \ German counterparts to minimise losses.\n\nThe British forward area was patrolled\
    \ by one platoon from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, supported by an anti-tank\
    \ gun from the 9th Australian Division, and elements of the KDG. On 23 March,\
    \ the division had its first action when a German reconnaissance patrol was engaged\
    \ and forced to withdraw, near El Agheila, the Australians claiming three German\
    \ vehicles knocked out. Axis forces took up position in an abandoned colonial\
    \ fort near El Agheila and ambushed a patrol from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles\
    \ the following day. German armoured cars also attacked and one was knocked out\
    \ by the Australian gun crew, which also suffered casualties. The British screening\
    \ force then withdrew to Mersa Brega, ceding El Agheila to the Axis. German tanks\
    \ followed, and one or two were lost to anti-tank mines (possibly left over Italian\
    \ mines, which had not been cleared).\n\nOn 31 March, the Axis resumed their advance,\
    \ and engaged just after dawn. Sources describe either one engagement from both\
    \ the British and German perspectives or two clashes. The German 5th Light Division\
    \ reported engaging up to five British tanks, in two inconclusive engagements\
    \ with no losses on either side. While observing the Axis advance, the 5RTR reported\
    \ a patrol of four enemy tanks, which they engaged, claiming three Italian tanks\
    \ possibly destroyed, with one British tank damaged in return. By 09:00, the 3rd\
    \ Armoured Brigade started a planned withdrawal. After 10:00, German forces attacked\
    \ the 2nd Support Group. Fighting lasted through the day, with the British fending\
    \ off several assaults, including attacks by German Junkers Ju 87  dive bombers.\
    \ The 2nd Armoured Division claimed two aircraft destroyed and the Germans recorded\
    \ their own tanks being subjected to friendly fire. A request for the 3rd Armoured\
    \ Brigade to be deployed to reinforce the 2nd Support Group was denied. Gambier-Parry\
    \ reported that there was \"insufficient time to get them into action from their\
    \ present position before dark\". After dark, the 2nd Support Group withdrew \
    \ to Agedabia. The Germans captured Mersa Brega the next morning, without further\
    \ incident. The fighting cost the division 59 men, one tank, eight universal carriers\
    \ and numerous other vehicles.\n\nApril\n\nThe Germans followed, and attacked\
    \ the 2nd Support Group on 2 April. The latter withdrew a further , and lost men\
    \ in rearguard actions or to being surrounded. On the desert flank, the 3rd Armoured\
    \ Brigade continued to withdraw, although only at  in order to match the slowest\
    \ vehicles, which were towing artillery. For most of the day, their movements\
    \ were shadowed by armoured vehicles they were unable to identify. During the\
    \ afternoon, the withdrawal was further slowed by breakdowns, conflicting orders,\
    \ and the need to rest and refuel. This allowed the shadowing armoured vehicles\
    \ to gain ground. Nine tanks from the 5RTR were ordered to conduct a rearguard\
    \ action and took up hull-down positions. The 5RTR believed the shadowing tanks\
    \ were Italian, although they were actually German. The German tanks advanced\
    \ in an arrowhead formation towards the 5RTR. When the range was between , both\
    \ sides opened fire. The 5RTR suffered five tank losses and 24 casualties. The\
    \ 5RTR's after action report claimed at least eight enemy tanks in return, although\
    \ German records indicate that only three German tanks were destroyed, \"along\
    \ with an unrecorded number damaged\". The remaining British tanks withdrew to\
    \ friendly positions, and the regiment regrouped  further back. The brigade then\
    \ resumed its retreat, with no German vehicles following. During the day, Gambier-Parry,\
    \ Neame, and Wavell all issued contradictory orders and queries to the division.\
    \ These concerned the feasibility of withdrawal, the division's capacity to block\
    \ the coastal road, and whether the division should remain concentrated or split\
    \ up. The discussions were hampered by ignorance of events, and notably included\
    \ Neame informing Gambier-Parry that the 3rd Armoured Brigade was not to be committed\
    \ en masse without his permission.\n\nEarly on 3 April, the 3rd Armoured Brigade\
    \ reached Antelat (~ northeast of Agedabia, and half way to Msus), and had been\
    \ located by German aerial reconnaissance. Unknown to the division, the bulk of\
    \ the German 5th Light Division had halted near Bir el Ageradt and was focused\
    \ on resupplying, although German and Italian detachments were ordered to probe\
    \ the southern flank of the 2nd Armoured Division and reconnoitre towards Msus.\
    \ In the afternoon, the movements of the 3H and the 6RTR caused alarm and confusion\
    \ within the 5RTR, which at first believed them to be German. The RAF then reported\
    \ Axis forces approaching Msus, the site of the main divisional supply dump. The\
    \ 3rd Armoured Brigade, along with some elements of the Support Group, were ordered\
    \ to move to Msus to deal with the hostile force. However, the division was crippled\
    \ by a breakdown in communication, resulting in conflicting, late, and missed\
    \ orders. None of the division arrived at Msus during the day. It was established\
    \ late in the afternoon that the RAF had mistakenly identified friendly vehicles\
    \ in the area as the enemy. By the end of the day, the 3rd Armoured Brigade had\
    \ been reduced to 18 light tanks, 26 M13s, and 12 cruisers.\n\nOn 4 April, Axis\
    \ forces entered Benghazi, which had been abandoned by the Allies. During the\
    \ day, divisional artillery fire halted German reconnaissance forces near Charruba.\
    \ At midday, Lieutenant-General Richard O'Connor (GOC British Troops in Egypt)\
    \ arrived at the front and held a meeting with the senior commanders in Cyrenaica,\
    \ including Gambier-Parry, who opined that the Axis forces would not attempt a\
    \ further advance now that Benghazi had been taken. However, the decision was\
    \ made to withdraw from the Jebel Achdar, and for the 2nd Armoured Division to\
    \ concentrate at Mechili to protect the withdrawal of the Australian infantry.\
    \ Brigadier Edward Vaughan's recently arrived 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was ordered\
    \ to secure Mechili, an old Italian stone-and-mud colonial fort ringed by trenches,\
    \ to ensure it was in Allied hands when the division arrived. Communication failures\
    \ impeded the division's withdrawal during the day, and further tanks were lost\
    \ from breakdowns. A supply convoy dispatched for the division was attacked by\
    \ 18 Axis aircraft, and destroyed with the loss of  of fuel. By the end of the\
    \ day, the 5RTR had nine cruiser tanks, and the 6RTR had nine M13s. The following\
    \ day, alarmist reports suggested Axis armoured forces had passed Msus; but the\
    \ KDG, and other Allied units, verified that this was not the case. The tank sightings\
    \ turned out to be the 2nd Armoured Division. In reality, the nearest Axis unit\
    \ was  from Msus.\n\nGeneral withdrawal\n\nOn 6 April, Axis forces moved towards\
    \ Mechili, with the intention of advancing toward the coast, and thereby encircling\
    \ the retreating Allied forces. This move was reported by the KDG and the RAF.\
    \ The division started the day with 8 cruiser tanks, 14 light tanks, and 2 M13s.\
    \ During the day, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was attached to the division. Mechili\
    \ was subjected to Axis artillery fire, and Indian patrols took numerous Axis\
    \ prisoners around the perminter throughout the day. Neame, unaware of these events,\
    \ set off into the desert to locate Gambier-Parry to deliver new instructions.\
    \ At the same time, the attack on the fort prompted O'Connor to order a general\
    \ withdrawal of all Allied forces towards Gazala, via Derna.\n\nConflicting and\
    \ confusing orders to withdraw were issued, which fragmented the division, the\
    \ withdrawal orders failing entirely to reach the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. At\
    \ first, the division moved east towards Mechili. Following its instructions,\
    \ the 2nd Support Group turned north towards the coastal road. The divisional\
    \ headquarters, including Gambier-Parry and a battery of artillery, continued\
    \ towards Mechili. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, which had run low on fuel, moved\
    \ north to Maraura, but found little petrol there. The brigade then moved towards\
    \ Derna, via Giovanni Berta. At the same time, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade escorted\
    \ a fuel convoy from Mechili towards where they expected the division to be. In\
    \ the afternoon, a patrol of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade, based at El Adem, intercepted\
    \ advanced Italian troops at Acroma, near Tobruk, and took 18 prisoners. A buildup\
    \ of Axis forces took place near Mechili. Towards dusk, a German officer demanded\
    \ the garrison's surrender and was refused. Near Derna, German troops briefly\
    \ managed to block some desert tracks, before moving to a position near the coastal\
    \ road east of the town. German patrols intercepted and disrupted some Allied\
    \ convoys, and captured Neame and O'Connor, but the route east remained open until\
    \ the following day.\n\nEarly on 7 April, Brigadier Reginald Rimington, GOC 3rd\
    \ Armoured Brigade, was mortally wounded and captured after an ambush on a desert\
    \ track en route to Derna. By dawn, the 2nd Support Group and the 3rd Armoured\
    \ Brigade were stretched out, stuck in traffic west of Derna; Gambier-Parry and\
    \ the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade had been surrounded at Mechili; and other elements\
    \ of the division were positioned near Derna to control the road and desert tracks,\
    \ fighting with Axis forces intermittently throughout the day. At Timimi, near\
    \ Gazala, Axis armoured cars ambushed retreating Australian forces, but were repulsed\
    \ by a lone cruiser tank from the 5RTR, whose remaining tanks arrived at Derna\
    \ in the afternoon. By 14:30, the majority of the division had moved through Derna.\
    \ To the south of Derna, German forces had captured the town's airfield and established\
    \ a blocking position. The division's rearguard, now separated from the rest of\
    \ the division, fought an afternoon-long battle with this German force. Several\
    \ German attacks were fended off, with eight German armoured cars claimed as destroyed.\
    \ Around 17:15, the 5RTR attacked the German position and lost their remaining\
    \ tanks but successfully covered the withdrawal of the remainder of the rearguard.\
    \ Barton Maughan, author of the Australian official history for this period of\
    \ the fighting, wrote \"by coincidence ... the 5th Royal Tanks ... [were] where\
    \ they were most needed and could be most effectively employed that day\". The\
    \ British official history recorded \"the action cleared the road also for any\
    \ troops that remained in Derna\" as well as allowing the rearguard to get away.\n\
    \nDemise\nAt Mechili, on 7 April, the Germans continued to build up their forces\
    \ surrounding the British position. The garrison was subjected to intermittent\
    \ artillery fire, and skirmishing took place around the perimeter. Two separate\
    \ German envoys demanded the garrison surrender, and both demands were refused\
    \ by Gambier-Parry. Around 22:00, Gambier-Parry re-established communication with\
    \ Cyrenaica Command. He was informed that neither the rest of his division nor\
    \ any other force would be joining him, and was ordered to break out at first\
    \ light, with El Adem his destination.\n\nThe planned break-out was to be led\
    \ by a single cruiser tank, with infantry support from the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade.\
    \ The intent was to use a small force to punch a hole through the Axis defensive\
    \ positions prior to dawn, to negate the Axis anti-tank gun advantage; that would\
    \ then be followed by the rest of the force east into the desert. Maughan wrote,\
    \ \"If the original plan had been adhered to, if it had been boldly executed,\
    \ a great measure of success might have been achieved. But the operation miscarried\
    \ badly\". On 8 April, the tank was delayed and the cover of dark lost. Despite\
    \ this, the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry (18th Cavalry) achieved surprise when\
    \ they attacked and scattered the personnel of an Italian battery. Instead of\
    \ exploiting this success, the rest of the escape column waited for the cruiser\
    \ tank to advance. A second attack was launched by the 11th Prince Albert Victor's\
    \ Own Cavalry (Frontier Force), which likewise broke through the Axis defenses.\
    \ However, the cruiser tank was destroyed when it advanced towards the battery\
    \ silenced by the 18th Cavalry; the Italians had returned to their guns.\n\nFollowing\
    \ this Allied failure, the Axis forces attacked the garrison. Gambier-Parry decided\
    \ to surrender, to spare further casualties, and fighting ceased by 08:00. Roughly\
    \ 3,000 Allied troops were captured at Mechili, including Gambier-Parry and Vaughan.\
    \ A force of at least 150 men, from the 3rd RHA and the 2nd Lancers (Gardner's\
    \ Horse), refused to capitulate. They charged, unmolested, through Axis positions\
    \ in non-armoured vehicles. The majority of this small force made it to Tobruk,\
    \ taking prisoners en route. Elements of the 6RTR, which had failed to reach Derna\
    \ prior to the Axis arrival, moved south into the desert to avoid contact. They\
    \ continued east, before meeting British reconnaissance forces near El Adem on\
    \ 10 April, and reached Tobruk just prior to midnight. On 10 May 1941, the 2nd\
    \ Armoured Division was disbanded. The units that constituted the division continued\
    \ the war with other formations. In October 1941, XXX Corps was formed with officers\
    \ largely from the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division HQ staff.\n\nAssessment\n\
    \"This division [has not] had an opportunity for adequate training...  It was\
    \ a collection of units, three of which had only [just] joined... rather than\
    \ a trained formation. The breakdown in control and administration was largely\
    \ due to this fact\". – From a contemporary after action report, by 2nd Armoured\
    \ Division senior officers.\n\nAn unnamed officer from the division later blamed\
    \ the division's fate on Gambier-Parry, whom he called \"a conventional and slow\
    \ minded soldier who couldn't cope with the unexpected\". The historian David\
    \ French wrote that some critics, such as Major-General David Belchem, blamed\
    \ the poor performance of British armoured formations in the desert on officers\
    \ who had cavalry backgrounds and knew little of armoured warfare. French wrote\
    \ \"such strictures are exaggerated\", highlighted that Gambier-Parry started\
    \ his career in the infantry before he transferred to the Royal Tank Corps, and\
    \ stated that singling him out for blame is harsh.\n\nSeveral factors have been\
    \ identified as key reasons for the division's rapid decline in tank strength\
    \ and ineffectiveness in the face of Axis forces: tanks that were not serviceable,\
    \ an inadequate logistical support system, a lack of training, a burdensome chain\
    \ of command, and ineffective communications. The 5RTR lost 38 tanks in Libya,\
    \ but only nine were lost to enemy action. With the exception of one that was\
    \ destroyed when it hit a thermos bomb, the rest had broken down. The lack of\
    \ a forward port or railhead meant that supplies had to be moved at least , but\
    \ there was insufficient transport to build up a sufficient stockpile of supplies\
    \ for the division. The division's staff were undertrained for the task they were\
    \ asked to perform. While brave, the tank crews were inflexible and failed to\
    \ follow their tactical training. British tactical doctrine encouraged ambush\
    \ counter-attacks, but the formation failed to undertake any. At the squadron\
    \ and regimental level, the chain of command impeded mobility, as permission was\
    \ needed to move a single tank from an assigned position. This resulted in rapid\
    \ tank losses once combat was underway. At the higher level, the division received\
    \ instructions from Gambier-Parry, Neame, Wavell, and O'Connor. This overlapping\
    \ chain of command resulted in delayed, misunderstood, mixed, and changed orders\
    \ that severely impeded the division's capability.\n\nDue to these factors, the\
    \ general and historian David Fraser wrote, once \"the Germans chose to drive\
    \ across the chord of the Cyrenaican arc there was little to stop them\". At no\
    \ point during the Axis advance, did the division offer a threat or hindrance.\
    \ However, when they did engage, both sides lacked flexibility and acted against\
    \ their own doctrines. Furthermore, the German lack of understanding of what the\
    \ 2nd Armoured Division was doing resulted in their 5th Light Division having\
    \ to send 83 tanks to workshops for repairs after they had chased the 2nd Armoured\
    \ Division through the desert.\n\nGeneral officer commanding\n\nOrders of battle\n\
    \nDecember 1939 – October 1940\n\n1st Light Armoured Brigade (assigned 19 January\
    \ 1940, and renamed the 1st Armoured Brigade on 14 April)\n 3rd (The King's Own)\
    \ Hussars (until 14 August 1940)\n 4th Queen's Own Hussars\n 1st King's Dragoon\
    \ Guards\n 3rd Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment (from 11 August 1940)\n\n22nd Heavy\
    \ Armoured Brigade (assigned 15 January 1940, and renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade\
    \ on 14 April)\n 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars\n 3rd County of London Yeomanry\
    \ (Sharpshooters)\n 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)\n\n3rd Armoured\
    \ Brigade (assigned 5 October 1940)\n 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n\n2nd\
    \ Support Group (assigned 5 February 1940)\n 1st Battalion The Rangers, The King's\
    \ Royal Rifle Corps\n 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The\
    \ Prince Consort's Own)\n 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light Anti-Aircraft/Anti-Tank\
    \ Regiment\n 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (until 7 August 1940)\n 2nd\
    \ Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (from 11 July 1940)\n 3rd Field Squadron, Royal\
    \ Engineers (until 9 June 1940)\n 142nd Field Park Troop (from 30 March 1940 until\
    \ 9 June)\n\nDivisional troops\n 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals, Royal Corps\
    \ of Signals\n Royal Engineers\n 3rd Field Squadron (assigned 10 June 1940)\n\
    \ 142nd Field Park Troop (assigned 10 June 1940)\n\nLibya, 1941\n\n3rd Armoured\
    \ Brigade\n 3rd (The King's Own) Hussars\n 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n\
    \ 6th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n\n3rd Indian Motor Brigade (6–8 April 1941)\n\
    \ 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)\n 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier\
    \ Force)\n 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry\n\n2nd Support Group\n 1st Battalion,\
    \ Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own) (also known as\
    \ the 9th Battalion, the Rifle Brigade (Tower Hamlets Rifles)\n 1st Company, Free\
    \ French 1st Motor Marine Infantry Battalion (attached)\n 102nd (Northumberland\
    \ Hussars) Anti-Tank Regiment\n 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery\n\
    \nDivisional troops\n 1st King's Dragoon Guards (Armoured Car, divisional reconnaissance\
    \ regiment until 22 March 1941)\n 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals\n\nSee also\n\
    \n British Army during the Second World War\n British Armoured formations of World\
    \ War II\n List of British divisions in World War II\n\nNotes\n Footnotes\n\n\
    \ Citations\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\nArmoured\
    \ divisions of the British Army in World War II\nBritish armoured divisions\n\
    Military units and formations established in 1939\nMilitary units and formations\
    \ disestablished in 1941\nMilitary units and formations of the British Empire\
    \ in World War II"
  - "La dynastie Liang , 502 — 557) est la troisième dynastie du Sud en Chine, précédée\
    \ par la dynastie Qi du Sud et suivie par la dynastie Chen. Cette dynastie correspond\
    \ essentiellement au règne de l'empereur Wudi (Xiao Yan), qui débute en 502, date\
    \ à laquelle il monte sur le trône en renversant le dernier empereur des Qi du\
    \ Sud, et s'achève en 549 alors qu'il a perdu l'essentiel de son pouvoir au profit\
    \ du général Hou Jing. Ses successeurs ne conservèrent le pouvoir que quelques\
    \ années, en raison de la persistance des troubles internes et des déstabilisations\
    \ venues depuis les dynasties du Nord.\n\nLa période de la dynastie Liang, dominée\
    \ par la personnalité de Wudi, marqua l'apogée de la prospérité de la civilisation\
    \ de Chine méridionale durant la période de division. Sa capitale Jiankang était\
    \ alors sans doute la plus vaste agglomération du monde, l'agriculture et le commerce\
    \ en plein développement, après avoir connu une longue phase d'essor et de stabilité\
    \ depuis le  sous l'égide des dynasties du Sud qui avaient précédé les Liang.\
    \ Wudi fut un fervent bouddhiste, favorisant la suprématie de cette religion,\
    \ et l'érection de nombreux lieux de culte. La vie littéraire fut également florissante\
    \ dans les cercles de la cour, plusieurs des poètes de l'époque Liang devenant\
    \ des références durant les dynasties postérieures.\n\nLa dynastie de Liang du\
    \ Sud (Nan Liang, 南梁) ou Liang postérieur, fondée en 555 et contrôlant un territoire\
    \ réduit dans la région du Moyen Yangzi, affirma être le vrai successeur de la\
    \ dynastie Liang puis fut éliminée par la dynastie Sui en 587.\n\nHistoire politique\
    \ et militaire\n\nLa prise de pouvoir de Xiao Yan/Wudi \nthumb|upright=1.8|Les\
    \ principales villes et ensembles géographiques de la période des Dynasties du\
    \ Nord et du Sud (noms modernes entre parenthèses).\nLa dynastie Liang succéda\
    \ en 502 à la dynastie des Qi du Sud en 501. Il ne s'agit pas à proprement parler\
    \ d'un changement dynastique, puisque le fondateur de la nouvelle dynastie, Xiao\
    \ Yan, était un prince appartenant au lignage impérial des Qi du Sud, les Xiao.\
    \ La dynastie Qi fut marquée par des coups d’État et des assassinats qui avaient\
    \ ravagé le clan impérial. Xiao Yan, placé comme d'autres membres de son clan\
    \ à la tête d'une province, celle de Yong qui était dirigée depuis l'importante\
    \ garnison de Xiangyang située sur la rivière Han, défendant la frontière nord\
    \ de l'empire (sud du Shaanxi et du Hubei actuels). La cour impériale était passée\
    \ en 498 sous la coupe de Xiao Baojuan, le « marquis de Donghun », personnage\
    \ de sinistre réputation qui poursuivit l'épuration du clan impériale et de l'élite\
    \ politique de l'empire, suscitant la révolte de son frère Xiao Baorong, à qui\
    \ Xiao Yan apporta un appui décisif avec ses troupes. Victorieux sur le plan militaire,\
    \ ils pénétrèrent dans la capitale Jiankang en 501, et l'empereur fut assassiné\
    \ par des membres de la cour qui leur ouvrirent la voie. Xiao Baorong devint empereur,\
    \ mais Xiao Yan qui détenait la réalité du pouvoir organisa sa destitution un\
    \ an plus tard, fondant une nouvelle dynastie, sous le nom de Liang.\n\nLa période\
    \ de prospérité \n\nXiao Yan, plus connu sous son nom posthume d'empereur Wu (Wudi,\
    \ 502-549), régna pendant 48 années, longévité remarquable, ces années occupant\
    \ la grande majorité de la durée de sa dynastie. La première partie de son règne\
    \ fut une ère de paix et de prospérité, dans la continuité des longues périodes\
    \ de paix intérieure qu'avaient connu les dynasties méridionales précédentes,\
    \ certes secouées par des luttes pour le pouvoir mais qui laissèrent en général\
    \ ses provinces épargnées par les longs conflits et les destructions. Cette période\
    \ est donc couramment considérée comme l'apogée de la prospérité des dynasties\
    \ du Sud. \n\nLe rival septentrional, l'empire des Wei du Nord dont les assauts\
    \ avaient considérablement mis à mal les dynasties précédentes et contre lesquels\
    \ les Liang durent lutter à plusieurs reprises dans des conflits frontaliers,\
    \ s'enfonça dans les années 520 dans une crise interne qui déboucha sur une guerre\
    \ civile en 528, dont les prolongements décimèrent la capitale et la famille impériale.\
    \ Wudi profita de cette opportunité en accueillant à sa cour des réfugiés du Nord,\
    \ en premier lieu le prince Yuan Hao, à qui il offrit son appui. Il confia à ses\
    \ généraux, qui avaient déjà conduit des campagnes victorieuses contre les Wei\
    \ durant les années précédentes, la tâche de conduire des troupes au Nord pour\
    \ établir son nouveau protégé sur le trône. Ils parvinrent à reprendre la capitale\
    \ des Wei, Luoyang, et à installer Yuan Hao sur le trône. Mais aussitôt cela fait\
    \ ce dernier rejeta l'allégeance promise aux Liang et les troupes méridionales\
    \ furent forcées de battre en retraite après avoir pillé plusieurs villes des\
    \ Wei.\n\nLa révolte de Hou Jing et ses conséquences \nthumb|La situation politique\
    \ de la Chine vers 546, après la division du Nord entre les Wei de l'Est et les\
    \ Wei de l'Ouest.\n\nYuan Hao ne profita pas de sa position longtemps, puisqu'il\
    \ fut renversé et tué en 530, et l'empire des Wei divisé en deux branches rivales\
    \ contrôlées par des généraux, les Wei de l'Est et les Wei de l'Ouest, avec lesquels\
    \ les Liang furent en conflit, mais qui concentrèrent d'abord l'essentiel de leur\
    \ force à lutter l'un contre l'autre. Wudi accueillit à sa cour en 547 le général\
    \ Hou Jing, qui avait précédemment servi les Wei de l'Est puis fait défection\
    \ chez les Wei de l'Ouest avant de fuir au Sud. L'alliance entre les Liang et\
    \ le général du Nord se solda par une lourde défaite contre les Wei de l'Est et\
    \ un armistice. Hou Jing craignant d'être victime d'une alliance entre Wudi et\
    \ les Wei de l'Est, il se rebella en 548 et assiégea Jiankang qui tomba l'année\
    \ suivante. Cette guerre dévastatrice marqua la fin de la prospérité de Jiankang\
    \ et la région du Bas Yangzi, qui subirent de nombreuses destructions, et constitua\
    \ un tournant dans l'histoire des dynasties méridionales, puisqu'elles virent\
    \ également la disparition ou la fuite d'une grande partie de ses élites ainsi\
    \ qu'un basculement du rapport de force militaire en faveur des puissances du\
    \ Nord. Wudi fut capturé par son ennemi en 549 et mourut peu après en prison.\
    \ Hou Jing, maître de l'empire des Liang, intronisa successivement deux princes\
    \ du lignage impérial, Xiao Gang et Xiao Dong avant d'essayer de fonder sa propre\
    \ dynastie, les Han. Durant ces mêmes années, les Wei du Nord firent main basse\
    \ sur la partie orientale du bassin de la rivière Han. Les autres princes du lignage\
    \ Xiao, tenant plusieurs provinces importantes, n'avaient pas vraiment fourni\
    \ un appui à Wudi et à ses successeurs contre le rebelle. Le plus puissant d'entre\
    \ eux, Xiao Yi (nom posthume Yuandi, 551-554), fils de Wudi, s'allia aux Wei de\
    \ l'Ouest, qui ne voyaient pas d'un bon œil l'implantation de leur ancien général\
    \ dans le Sud, et Hou Jing fut défait en 552. Ne pouvant s'établir à Jiankang,\
    \ qui avait subi trop de destructions, le nouvel empereur (nom posthume Yuan)\
    \ s'installa dans la ville de Jiangling (actuelle Jingzhou) sur le Moyen Yangzi.\
    \ Son frère Xiao Ji s'était au même moment proclamé empereur des Liang depuis\
    \ sa base, dans le Sichuan, puis lança en 553 une attaque contre Jiangling. Cela\
    \ profita aux Wei de l'Ouest, qui envahirent le Sichuan, tandis que Xiao Yi sortait\
    \ victorieux du conflit fratricide. Il ne put cependant remettre la main sur le\
    \ Sichuan.\n\nLa chute de la dynastie \n\nEn 554, les Wei de l'Ouest poursuivirent\
    \ leur progression et s'emparèrent de Jiangling et de la région du Moyen Yangzi,\
    \ capturant et tuant Xiao Yi. Le prince Xiao Cha, petit-fils de Wudi et réfugié\
    \ au Nord depuis plusieurs années, y fut installé et y fonda la dynastie des Liang\
    \ postérieurs, les Wei de l'Ouest emmenant à l'issue du conflit  captifs vers\
    \ le Nord. Le clan Xiao avait perdu tout pouvoir sur la dynastie Liang, ce qu'il\
    \ restait de l'empire étant dominé par ses principaux généraux, Wang Sengbian,\
    \ un autre général originaire du Nord, et Chen Baxian, issu d'un clan méridional\
    \ de second rang. Ils appuyèrent la montée sur le trône de Xiao Fangzhi, fils\
    \ de Xiao Yi. Wang Sengbian conclut un accord avec les Qi du Nord (la dynastie\
    \ ayant supplanté les Wei de l'Est) pour remplacer l'empereur par Xiao Yuanming,\
    \ un neveu de Wudi qui s'était réfugié à leur cour, en échange de la cessation\
    \ du conflit entre les deux. Ce changement de souverain plaçait de fait la dynastie\
    \ Liang sous la coupe des Qi du Nord, ce qui suscita en 555 un coup d’État contre\
    \ le nouveau monarque et son protecteur, qui fut conduit par Chen Baxian. Wang\
    \ Sengbian fut tué, et Xiao Fangzhi rétabli sur le trône. Les troupes de Chen\
    \ Baxian repoussèrent l'année suivante la réplique de Qi du Nord, qui menaçaient\
    \ Jiankang. En 557, le général destitua l'empereur et monta lui-même sur le trône,\
    \ fondant la dynastie Chen. La dynastie des Liang postérieurs subsista autour\
    \ de Jiangling durant trois décennies, étant vassale successivement des Wei de\
    \ l'Ouest, puis des Zhou du Nord et des Sui, qui l'annexèrent en 587.\n\nGouvernement\
    \ et société\n\nÉlites et pouvoir \n\nLes empires des dynasties du Sud étaient\
    \ dominés par des élites, que l'on désigne souvent par le terme d'« aristocratie ».\
    \ Les textes de l'époque distinguent plutôt entre « gentilshommes » (shi) et gens\
    \ du commun (shu). L'appartenance au premier groupe était enregistrée dans les\
    \ « Registres jaunes » (en raison de leur couleur), et ouvrait droit à des exemptions\
    \ de taxes et de corvées. Ce groupe fournissait l'essentiel des cadres de la fonction\
    \ publique. Ces familles étaient organisées en lignages, élément-clef de leur\
    \ identification. Ces élites étaient pour la plupart des descendants des familles\
    \ ayant migré dans le Sud durant les premières décennies du , lors de l'effondrement\
    \ de l'empire des Jin occidentaux et la fondation de celui des Jin orientaux,\
    \ et qui n'avaient depuis cessé d'occuper les hautes positions dans la hiérarchie\
    \ sociale, après avoir écarté les lignages originaires du Sud. Le lignage de la\
    \ famille impériale (celui des Xiao de Lanling sous les Qi et les Liang), systématiquement\
    \ d'origine nordique, mais jamais issu des plus grandes familles, occupait la\
    \ position la plus importante. Venaient ensuite un groupe de familles éminentes\
    \ (gaomen) dont le prestige était le plus élevé, les plus fameuses étant les Wang\
    \ de Langye, les Wang de Taiyuan, les Yu de Yingchuan et les Xie de Chen (dont\
    \ l'ascension est plus récente), qui sont attestées durant toute la période des\
    \ dynasties du Sud, ce qui constitue des cas exceptionnels car ce milieu était\
    \ marquée par une rotation régulière, en raison de phénomènes d'ascension et de\
    \ descension sociales. Ainsi les Yu de Yinchuan déclinent sous les Liang. D'autres\
    \ lignages originaires du Nord gagnent à l'inverse en importance sous les Qi et\
    \ les Liang même si on ne leur reconnaît pas la même honorabilité que les lignages\
    \ les plus illustres : les Chu de Yangdi dont plusieurs des membres sont ministres\
    \ depuis que le chef de leur clan avait appuyé la prise de pouvoir des Xiao sous\
    \ les Qi ; les Ren de Bochang, une vieille famille qui avait connu un déclin,\
    \ eut un regain de prestige, en grande partie grâce au lettré Ren Fang. Venaient\
    \ ensuite le groupe des familles de notables locaux (hanmen), dont le prestige\
    \ était moindre mais dont le concours était essentiel pour l'administration et\
    \ l'armée, de même que celui des lignages autochtones du sud (appelés Wu, nom\
    \ antique de la région du Bas-Yangzi) qui avaient en général une moindre honorabilité\
    \ même si certains avaient localement des pouvoirs importants. C'était notamment\
    \ le cas des Shen de Wuxing, ayant un ancrage dans la région du Bas-Yangzi, et\
    \ connaissant dans la seconde moitié du  une ascension dans l'armée, avant de\
    \ faire une brillante reconversion dans les lettres et la haute administration\
    \ avec Shen Yue, qui fut un des principaux conseillers de Wudi, après avoir servi\
    \ les Qi, en plus d'être reconnu comme l'un des plus remarquables poètes de l'époque.\n\
    \nDepuis la chute des Jin orientaux et l'établissement des Song du Sud dans la\
    \ première moitié du , les lignages éminents avaient été dépossédés des postes\
    \ à haute responsabilité, alors qu'ils les avaient détenu systématiquement au\
    \ . Afin d'éloigner la menace qu'ils faisaient peser sur le pouvoir, c'étaient\
    \ les membres de la famille impériale qui détenaient les fonctions les plus importantes,\
    \ à savoir les gouvernements provinciaux et militaires. Ces lignages valorisaient\
    \ avant tout l'éducation lettrée, les activités intellectuelles et la morale traditionnelle\
    \ confucéenne, bien qu'ils soient souvent acquis au bouddhisme. Leur généalogie\
    \ prestigieuse était mise en avant, dans des textes comme les Enseignements familiaux\
    \ du clan des Yan de Yan Zhitui (531-590), un lettré formé sous les Liang puis\
    \ emmené captif dans le Nord après l'effondrement de cette dynastie, qui y fait\
    \ une histoire morale de sa famille devant servir de modèle pour l'éducation de\
    \ ses jeunes membres. Le prestige des lignages bénéficiait ainsi de la carrière\
    \ d'un ministre d'un renom ou d'un lettré talentueux, facteurs qui jouèrent aussi\
    \ dans l'ascension de familles moins prestigieuses (comme avec Shen Yue et Ren\
    \ Fang sous les Qi et les Liang). Les lignages éminents privilégiaient les unions\
    \ matrimoniales avec d'autres grandes familles ou bien celle de l'empereur, refusant\
    \ les alliances avec des lignages moins prestigieux. Les membres des clans importants\
    \ détenaient des charges à la cour, mais celles-ci étaient généralement honorifiques\
    \ (les postes dits « purs »), et n'offraient pas un pouvoir réel sur l'administration\
    \ de l'empire. Ils continuaient cependant d'accaparer les dignités en profitant\
    \ du système de sélection des fonctionnaires, celui des Neuf-rangs et des Juges\
    \ impartiaux, dans lequel un jury sélectionné parmi ces mêmes familles était censé\
    \ distinguer les personnages les plus méritants en leur confiant les postes en\
    \ question, alors que dans les faits ils choisissaient le plus souvent en fonction\
    \ de l'origine du candidat, privilégiant les membres des clans importants. Ils\
    \ disposaient par ailleurs de richesses importantes grâce à leurs grands domaines\
    \ et donc d'un pouvoir au niveau local sur leurs dépendants. Cette haute aristocratie\
    \ méridionale ne semble pas avoir survécu aux troubles de la fin des Liang, nombre\
    \ de ses membres étant tués ou bien déportés au Nord à l'issue des prises de Jiankang\
    \ et de Jiangling. \n\nLes empereurs, s'appuyant sur l'institution du Secrétariat\
    \ impérial (zhongshu sheng), et les membres du clan impérial qui disposaient de\
    \ leur propre cour dans la province qui leur était confiée (généralement un « pays »\
    \ ou « royaume », guo), préféraient s'entourer de personnages venant des familles\
    \ moins honorables de notables provinciaux, afin de contrecarrer le pouvoir des\
    \ grands lignages, et c'étaient donc ces personnages-là qui disposaient des fonctions\
    \ effectives d'administration de l'empire. À cette fin, Wudi réinstaura le système\
    \ des examens impériaux, reposant notamment sur la connaissance des classiques,\
    \ qui était tombé en désuétude depuis la fin des Han et à cette fin il élargit\
    \ aux lettrés d'origine humble les admissions d'étudiants à l'Académie impériale.\
    \ Cela devait permettre un recrutement plus méritocratique que précédemment et\
    \ contrecarrer l'emprise des lignages éminents sur le système de recrutement officiel.\
    \ De même, les aristocrates méridionaux dédaignant les fonctions militaires, celles-ci\
    \ revenaient à des membres des clans moins importants. Ce système de patronage\
    \ entre le clan impérial et les clans moins honorables semble avoir joué un rôle\
    \ structurant dans la vie politique des dynasties méridionales, plutôt que la\
    \ domination honorifique des grands lignages aristocratiques. Cela assurait ainsi\
    \ un lien entre le gouvernement impérial établi dans la capitale et les communautés\
    \ locales de l'empire, souvent d'origine provinciale. Ces promotions se faisaient\
    \ notamment parmi les « cliques » des garnisons frontalières de Xiangyang et de\
    \ Jiangling, dans la région stratégique du Moyen Yangzi, sur lesquelles s'appuyèrent\
    \ de façon privilégiée Xiao Yan/Wudi et son fils Xiao Yi/Yuandi. Les membres des\
    \ lignages autochtones du Sud jouèrent alors un rôle plus important : c'est le\
    \ cas du lignage des Shen de Wuxin ; mais cela concernait aussi des personnes\
    \ d'extraction plus modeste, comme Chang Yizhi qui fut un des généraux de Wudi.\
    \ Leur rôle devait s'affirmer sous les Chen. Cela ne fut cependant pas suffisant\
    \ pour sécuriser la position des empereurs, puisque même si les aristocrates furent\
    \ écartés des luttes pour le pouvoir, celles-ci reposèrent surtout sur les membres\
    \ du clan impérial, qui disposaient de l'essentiel des forces militaires, et sur\
    \ les généraux de basse extraction les plus talentueux qui pouvaient revendiquer\
    \ l'exercice effectif du pouvoir ou même renverser le clan impérial. Ce fut le\
    \ cas de Chen Baxian, qui débuta sa carrière dans l'administration locale pour\
    \ parvenir grâce à l'exercice de commandements militaires importants jusqu'au\
    \ sommet de l’État, en désignant le dernier empereur des Liang puis en fondant\
    \ la dynastie Chen (trajectoire connue avant lui par les autres généraux fondateurs\
    \ des dynasties méridionales, Liu Yu et Xiao Daocheng, également issus de la petite\
    \ notabilité locale).\n\nJiankang \nthumb|Plan schématique de Jiankang (Nankin)\
    \ sous les dynasties du Sud, d'après les textes de l'époque.\n\nJiankang, l'actuelle\
    \ Nankin, était la capitale des dynasties méridionales depuis l'époque du royaume\
    \ de Wu, au . Son développement avait surtout été initié sous les Jin orientaux,\
    \ dans la première moitié du . Elle fut reconstruite après une rébellion destructrice\
    \ dans les années 330-332, sur un plan qui devait subsister par la suite. Elle\
    \ profita de la prospérité du Sud pour croître considérablement et devenir une\
    \ des plus grandes cités au Monde, puisqu'il a été estimé que sa population aurait\
    \ pu atteindre le million d'habitants dans la première moitié du , sous les Liang,\
    \ avant le siège et les destructions de 548-549 qui sonnèrent le glas de sa prospérité.\
    \ \n\nL'aspect de Jiankang sous les Liang n'est connu que par les textes. Ils\
    \ indiquent qu'il s'agissait d'une vaste cité d'une forme rectangulaire, établie\
    \ à distance de la rivière Qinhuai, un affluent du Yangzi, situé au sud, rejoint\
    \ par d'autres voies secondaires traversant la ville, et au nord-ouest du lac\
    \ de la Tortue Noire (Xuanwu). Son plan reprenait le modèle des plus anciennes\
    \ cités impériales, à commencer par Luoyang. Depuis les Qi du Sud, son enceinte\
    \ était en terre damée, avec sans doute un revêtement en briques, percée par plusieurs\
    \ portes monumentales. La cité palatiale, elle-même protégée par une enceinte\
    \ double puis triplée par Wudi des Liang, occupait un vaste espace dans sa partie\
    \ centre-nord. Elle avait été détruite par un incendie en 500-501, et reconstruite\
    \ dans les dernières années des Qi du Sud, et disposait de somptueux palais et\
    \ parcs, dont certains furent restaurés et agrandis par Wudi : les portes et tours\
    \ furent élevées d'un niveau, le pavillon du Faîte Suprême (Taiji) doté d'une\
    \ travée supplémentaire (ce qui porta leur nombre à 13). L'espace résidentiel\
    \ s'étendait à l'origine vers le Sud. L'axe principal de la cité était la voie\
    \ impériale reliant la cité-palais à la rivière Qinghuai, où elle rejoignait le\
    \ temples des Ancêtres dynastiques, qui fut doté d'une nouvelle terrasse sous\
    \ le règne de Wudi, celui dédié au Sol et au Grain, l'Académie impériale, puis\
    \ la porte et le pont de l'Oiseau écarlate, long d'environ 125 mètres et large\
    \ de 25, permettant de franchir la rivière et d'accéder plus au Sud aux espaces\
    \ sacrificiels destinés au Ciel. Les berges autour du pont, aménagées de digues\
    \ par Wudi afin de protéger des crues, étaient un espace de transit majeur. Les\
    \ voies de la cité murée étaient sans doute en damier, tandis que celles des faubourgs,\
    \ qui s'étaient considérablement étendus dans toutes les directions, devaient\
    \ avoir un tracé irrégulier. Les alentours de la rivière étaient donc essentiellement\
    \ peuplés par les couches basses et moyennes de la population, tandis que l'élite\
    \ résidait dans la partie nord de la ville, protégée par une enceinte, autour\
    \ de la cité impériale, et dans des manoirs situés dans la région du Bas-Yangzi\
    \ à proximité de la capitale. Plusieurs marchés situés le long des berges de la\
    \ Qinghuai ou desservis par des chenaux concentraient l'intense activité commerciale\
    \ de la ville. L'essor du bouddhisme se voyait également dans le paysage urbain,\
    \ marqué par la présence de temples (500 suivant les textes postérieurs), les\
    \ plus importants disposant de pagodes. Enfin, de nombreux parcs, les plus importants\
    \ étant les parcs impériaux, avait été construits dans l'agglomération.\n\nL'essor\
    \ économique du Sud \n\nJiankang était une cité devant son développement à la\
    \ présence de l'administration impériale, mais aussi et de plus en plus à son\
    \ activité économique, surtout commerciale et artisanale, les espaces agricoles\
    \ étant peu nombreux dans la ville et relégués plus loin dans sa province. La\
    \ prospérité de Jiankang dépendait aussi de celui de sa province, Yangzhou, le\
    \ Bas-Yangzi, dont l'agriculture et l'artisanat s'étaient développés, notamment\
    \ dans le zones de San-Wu et de Guiji (aujourd'hui Shaoxing), au sud-est, où les\
    \ élites disposaient de domaines, commençant à développer des cultures commerciales,\
    \ et un artisanat également destiné à la commercialisation (céramique, laque,\
    \ étoffes, papier, forges). Certains personnages devinrent d'importants hommes\
    \ d'affaires, se livrant au commerce ou à l'usure, à l'image de Xiao Hong (473-526),\
    \ frère de Wudi, qui s'enrichit en se livrant au prêt immobilier sur gages dans\
    \ la capitale, suscitant des critiques au sein même de son clan, marquées par\
    \ la publication d'un pamphlet dénonçant l'avarice. Le nombre de marchés existant\
    \ dans la ville semble avoir été considérable, car il ne fut apparemment pas limité\
    \ par le pouvoir impérial comme cela était pourtant d'usage dans les capitales\
    \ chinoises antiques et médiévales. Ce commerce profitait de la prospérité de\
    \ la région de Jiankang, mais aussi de celle des provinces plus lointaines de\
    \ l'empire et du commerce international, essentiellement celui avec les pays situés\
    \ plus au Sud, en Asie du Sud-Est et en direction de l'Océan indien, développement\
    \ qui profita également à des cités portuaires situées au sud de l'empire, en\
    \ premier lieu Canton, où le commerce générait des revenus fiscaux considérables\
    \ pour l’État. Certaines villes de l'intérieur ont également connu un essor et\
    \ généré d'importants revenus fiscaux, comme Chengdu, capitale du Sichuan, qui\
    \ prospérait grâce au commerce avec les autres provinces méridionales et le Nord.\n\
    \nSi les troubles de la fin des Liang marquèrent un coup d'arrêt pour la prospérité\
    \ de Jiangkang et sa région, qui subirent d'importantes dévastations et ne connurent\
    \ pas réellement de reprise sous la brève dynastie Chen, les dynasties du Sud\
    \ posèrent les bases de l'expansion démographique et économique des régions méridionales\
    \ qui devait être un phénomène majeur de la période de la dynastie Tang.\n\nAspects\
    \ culturels\n\nReligion : courants, écrits, arts \nthumb|L'entrée de l'empereur\
    \ Wu des Liang dans la communauté bouddhique. Peinture murale de la période Ming\
    \ (). Musée Guimet.\n\nLa période de dynastie Liang est un âge d'or du bouddhisme\
    \ chinois, marqué par la personnalité de l'empereur Wudi, qui fut un fervent bouddhiste.\
    \ Certes ses prédécesseurs des dynasties du Nord (notamment le prince de Jingling\
    \ sous les Qi du Sud) avaient déjà témoigné de leurs faveurs envers cette religion,\
    \ mais il alla bien plus loin, faisant du bouddhisme une religion d’État. Il organisa\
    \ un vaste programme de collecte de textes sacrés (sutras), qu'il envoyait parfois\
    \ chercher dans des pays étrangers, puis la rédaction de catalogues et d'anthologies\
    \ de textes, d'encyclopédies bouddhistes, rédigea lui-même des commentaires, et\
    \ réunit à plusieurs organisa des discussions religieuses. Si l'on en juge par\
    \ ses écrits et ceux de son cercle, l'empereur était favorable au courant de l'«\
    \ école du nirvana », dont le texte de base est le Sutra du Nirvana, qui fut promue\
    \ en Chine par le moine Daosheng (360-434), qui avait une approche universaliste\
    \ du salut bouddhiste, chaque homme ayant dans son esprit un embryon de ce qui\
    \ pouvait faire de lui un Bouddha, qui ne demandait qu'à atteindre l'illumination\
    \ de façon subite, et non graduelle comme le voulaient les autres tendances. Son\
    \ soutien à l'essor du bouddhisme fut marqué par plusieurs réformes rituelles,\
    \ comme celle de 517 quand il supprima du culte ancestral les sacrifices sanglants\
    \ traditionnels, remplacés par des offrandes « pures » non sanglantes, et fit\
    \ fermer les monastères taoïstes, leur clergé rendu à la vie civile. Il chercha\
    \ à se donner un statut au sein de la communauté bouddhiste en se faisant proclamer\
    \ bodhisattva en 519, puis recteur de la communauté bouddhiste, en se présentant\
    \ comme le successeur (et la réincarnation) de l'illustre empereur indien Ashoka,\
    \ grand promoteur du bouddhisme, faisant restaurer un monastère qui lui était\
    \ dédié, et fit plusieurs fois « don de sa personne » à la communauté bouddhiste,\
    \ devenant moine au monastère Tongtai de Jiankang en 547 et 549 selon les textes\
    \ médiévaux. Cette politique ne fut pas sans susciter des réactions négatives\
    \ jusque dans le clergé bouddhiste, qui n'appréciait pas forcément de voir l'empereur\
    \ être doté d'un tel prestige religieux alors qu'il restait laïc. Wudi organisa\
    \ plusieurs grandes assemblées réunissant des milliers de croyants laïcs, pour\
    \ mettre en place des réformes religieuses, promouvoir le culte de reliques, et\
    \ ce fut l'occasion de consécration de monastères, de stupas, de statues, et de\
    \ nombreux dons dont les produits furent recueillis par des Trésoreries qu'il\
    \ avait créées. \n\nLe bouddhisme connut de ce fait un essor sans précédent à\
    \ cette période. Jiankang disposait selon les textes médiévaux de 500 temples,\
    \ le plus important étant le temple Tongtai, disposant d'une pagode de neuf étages,\
    \ et il y en avait plusieurs centaines dans le reste de l'empire. Cette architecture\
    \ en bois a complètement disparu, de même que les formes d'art religieux de cette\
    \ période, avant tout les statues et les peintures murales des temples. On sait\
    \ par les textes que le plus illustre peintre de la période, Zhang Sengyou, avait\
    \ réalisé de tels décors qui suscitaient l'admiration de ses contemporains. Il\
    \ ne resterait de ses travaux que des copies de ses peintures sur rouleaux, encore\
    \ que l'origine du modèle de celles-ci soient discutées ; c'est ainsi le cas d'un\
    \ manuscrit illustré représentant sous forme humaine les cinq planètes et les\
    \ vingt-huit constellations, ici un sujet astrologique emprunté au répertoire\
    \ mythologique taoïste. \n\nLe seul témoignage de sanctuaire bouddhiste de cette\
    \ époque subsiste dans les faubourgs de Nankin, sur le Mont Qixia, où avaient\
    \ été creusées depuis les années 480, sous les Qi du Sud, à l'initiative de riches\
    \ laïcs puis de membres de la famille impériale, des grottes servant de lieu de\
    \ culte bouddhiste, suivant un modèle importé depuis l'Inde, et très populaire\
    \ à la même époque dans le Nord (Yungang, Longmen). Sous les Liang, le site fut\
    \ étendu à deux reprises, dans la première puis la seconde moitié de la dynastie.\
    \ Les autres témoignages les plus importants sur l'art bouddhiste méridional de\
    \ l'ère des Liang proviennent du monastère de Wanfosi à Chengdu, dans le Sichuan,\
    \ qui a livré de remarquables stèles renvoyant aux thèmes en vogue du bouddhisme\
    \ de l'époque, comme la Terre pure d'Amitabha, Maitreya, et une représentation\
    \ du Bouddha qui selon l'inscription l'accompagnant est « dans le style d'Ashoka ».\
    \ Le style artistique de ces stèles, et des statues de bouddhas et bodhisattvas\
    \ provenant de ce même site, sont souvent marquées par les influences des écoles\
    \ de sculpture de l'Inde des Gupta.\n\nPlusieurs moines bouddhistes produisirent\
    \ des écrits à finalité religieuse, à l'image des Biographies des Moines éminents\
    \ (Gaoseng zhuan) de Huijiao (497-554). Un autre moine, Sengyou (445-518), rédigea\
    \ un important catalogue des écritures bouddhistes traduites, la Collection de\
    \ notes concernant la traduction du Tripitaka (Chu sanzang jiji), citant plus\
    \ de  textes, et une collection d'écrits bouddhistes dus à des moines et des laïcs,\
    \ la Propagation de la Lumière (Hongming ji), source inestimable pour la connaissance\
    \ de la religion de cette période. Parmi les écrits commandés par Wudi, on compte\
    \ des Mémoires de Bouddha (Fo Ji) dont la préface fut rédigée par le poète et\
    \ conseiller impérial Shen Yue, lui-même un ardent bouddhiste, et la première\
    \ encyclopédie sur le bouddhisme.\n\nPour autant, les autres tendances religieuses\
    \ ne firent pas l'objet de persécutions systématiques. Wudi prit ainsi des mesures\
    \ en faveur de la restauration des études des classiques confucéens en ouvrant\
    \ des écoles à cette fin et en donnant plus de poids aux examens impériaux. Les\
    \ confucianistes animèrent les débats anti-bouddhistes portant sur l'immortalité\
    \ de l'âme (défendue par les bouddhistes) ou sa destructibilité (défendue par\
    \ les confucianistes), qui existaient depuis le siècle précédent. Fan Zhen (450-515)\
    \ rédigea un traité sur De la destructibilité de l'esprit (Shen mie lun), polémique\
    \ qui fut débattue à la cour de Wudi, qui produit lui-même une réponse, L'esprit\
    \ est indestructible (Shen bu mie). Quant à Xun Ji, il estimait dans son Mémoire\
    \ sur le bouddhisme que les précédentes dynasties du Sud devaient leur brièveté\
    \ à leur soutien au bouddhisme, qui aurait complètement déstructuré la société\
    \ ; ce violent réquisitoire ne fut pas aussi bien reçu par Wudi que ceux de ses\
    \ prédécesseurs, et il fut mis à mort en 547. Wudi, malgré sa politique anti-taoïste\
    \ qui entraîna la suite de nombreux moines de cette religion, aida le taoïste\
    \ Tao Hongjing (456-536) à s'établir dans l'ermitage du Maoshan. Ce personnage\
    \ rédigea pourtant un traité défavorable au bouddhisme, le Traité sur les Barbares\
    \ et les Chinois (Yi Xia lun), qui comme son nom l'indique reproche à cette religion\
    \ son origine étrangère. Il fut surtout un des principaux acteurs de la constitution\
    \ de l'école de la « Haute pureté » (Shangqing), par la rédaction de son principal\
    \ ouvrage, le Zhengao (Déclarations de (l'homme) vrai), ouvrage relatant avec\
    \ des commentaires la révélation faite au fondateur de ce courant, Yang Xi, qui\
    \ aurait vécu dans la seconde moitié du . Wudi soutint également le culte de la\
    \ divinité chamanique Jiang Ziwen, un des esprits les plus vénérés de la région\
    \ de la capitale, même s'il imposa qu'on cessât de lui vouer des sacrifices sanglants\
    \ et tenta de rendre sa vénération plus en accord avec le bouddhisme.\n\nLettrés\
    \ et belles-lettres \n\nL'empereur Wudi fut un grand promoteur des études lettrées.\
    \ Il réorganisa l'enseignement de l'Académie impériale et élargit largement le\
    \ nombre d'étudiants qui y étaient formés, et finança plusieurs écoles à la capitale,\
    \ dont une destinée aux princes de la famille impériale, ainsi que d'autres écoles\
    \ dans les grandes villes provinciales. Par ailleurs il accueillait à la cour\
    \ des lettrés, leur demandant notamment de composer des poèmes, les plus méritants\
    \ recevant des gratifications, et prit lui-même la plume à de nombreuses reprises,\
    \ notamment dans le cadre des débats religieux, même s'il fut également un promoteur\
    \ des études des classiques confucéens. De la même manière que pour l'administration,\
    \ nombre des lettrés dont il assura la promotion étaient des gentilshommes de\
    \ rang inférieur certains étant même issus de lignages autochtones du Sud. Shen\
    \ Yue (441-513 ; on lui doit notamment la mise en évidence de l'existence des\
    \ quatre tons dans la langue chinoise), issu d'un lignage méridional et qui disposait\
    \ déjà d'une grande renommée après avoir fait partie du cercle littéraire du prince\
    \ de Jingling des Qi du Sud dans les années 483-493 (l'ère Yongming), et Ren Fang\
    \ furent parmi les principaux lettrés sur lesquels il s'appuya au début de son\
    \ règne. Ceux-ci firent profiter à leur tour de leur statut auprès de l'empereur\
    \ pour promouvoir d'autres lettrés de même extraction sociale qu'ils accueillaient\
    \ dans leurs cercles littéraires, comme les frères Dao Gai et Dao Qia qui étaient\
    \ dans l'entourage de Ren Fang et furent remarqués par l'empereur. Les princes\
    \ Xiao Tong (501-531), Xiao Gang et Xiao Yi, fils Wudi, furent tout aussi dédiés\
    \ que leur père à la promotion des belles-lettres, participant au mouvement de\
    \ promotion de lettrés, de collection de manuscrits et de compilation de textes\
    \ qui fut important à cette période. Il a pu être proposé qu'ils aient constitué\
    \ des écoles littéraires rivales, le premier étant plutôt « conservateur » et\
    \ les deux autres plus « avant-gardistes » (par leur promotion de la poésie de\
    \ cour), mais dans les faits il apparaitrait plutôt qu'ils aient eu des goûts\
    \ voisins, appréciant les mêmes poètes. Sous les auspices impériaux, les collections\
    \ de la Bibliothèque impériale furent alors dotées d'une grande quantité de manuscrits,\
    \ plus que sous les dynasties précédentes, et les collections privées furent également\
    \ plus étoffées. Wudi avait repris et porté à son paroxysme une idée qui était\
    \ déjà existante sous les dynasties méridionales précédentes, selon laquelle les\
    \ cercles lettrés de Jiankang étaient les dépositaires de la tradition lettrées\
    \ chinoise, face au Nord « barbare » dont la culture était vue comme moins raffinée,\
    \ ne retenant de celle-ci que les « chants du Nord » liés à la culture nomade\
    \ et à la virilité guerrière attribuée aux peuples du Nord. Cette conception d'un\
    \ Sud plus raffiné culturellement triompha sous les Sui et les Tang, ce qui explique\
    \ pourquoi la tradition littéraire méridionale a été plus valorisée et préservée\
    \ par la suite, tandis que celle du Nord a été délaissée.\n\nParmi les œuvres\
    \ marquantes de la période figurent des anthologies littéraires reprenant des\
    \ œuvres des périodes précédentes. La plus célèbre est le Wenxuan (Choix littéraire\
    \ ou Florilège), compilé par le prince Xiao Tong, qui présente une sélection de\
    \ poèmes « rhapsodiques » (fu) et « réguliers » (shi) et de textes en prose classés\
    \ par genre. Le Yutai xinyong (Nouveaux chants des terrasses de jade), compilé\
    \ par le poète Xu Ling (507-583), peut-être à la demande du prince Xiao Gang,\
    \ est une collection de poèmes regroupant surtout des compilations courtes, pentasyllabes,\
    \ très prisées à cette période, relevant de la poésie de cour et destinée par\
    \ son auteur à divertir les femmes de la cour impériale. Dans un autre registre,\
    \ le Hongming ji (Propagation de la lumière) est une anthologie d'écrits bouddhistes.\n\
    \nLa « poésie de palais » (gongti shi), mise en avant dans les Nouveaux chants\
    \ des terrasses de jade et promue par le prince Xiao Gang et son entourage, notamment\
    \ les poètes Xu Ling et Xu Ying qui ont donné son autre nom au genre, le « style\
    \ Xu-Yu », connut une grande vogue à Jiankang et dans les villes provinciales.\
    \ Ce style est souvent caractérisé d'ornemental, avant tout porté sur l'aspect\
    \ formel. Marqué par les idées bouddhistes, notamment sur la méditation, l'illusion\
    \ et l'illumination, il s'attache en fait à révéler et immortaliser ce qui est\
    \ caché parmi ce qui peut être observé visuellement. Les poèmes en prose de type\
    \ fu continuèrent à être prisés, dans des compositions longues ou d'autres plus\
    \ courtes, plus originales.\n\nLa critique littéraire connu également un développement\
    \ important, avec la rédaction de deux ouvrages majeurs du genre, quoi qu'ayant\
    \ rencontré un faible écho à l'époque. Le Wenxin diaolong (quelque chose comme\
    \ « Le cœur de la littérature et la sculpture des dragons ») de Liu Xie (465-520),\
    \ lettré issu d'un lignage en déclin qui passa de longue années à étudier dans\
    \ un monastère bouddhiste avant d'occuper des charges administratives de second\
    \ rang, comprend une tentative de classification de la production littéraire en\
    \ une trentaine de genres, suivie d'une analyse de concepts littéraires (processus\
    \ de création, style et procédés rhétorique, réception des œuvres, etc.). Cette\
    \ œuvre fut jugée peu importante à l'époque, et fut surtout reconnue à l'époque\
    \ contemporaine. Le Shipin (Notation de la poésie) de Zhong Rong (468-518), autre\
    \ lettré n'ayant occupé que des fonctions secondaires, propose une critique et\
    \ une évaluation des qualités de poètes, principalement choisis parmi ceux de\
    \ la période de division.\n\nSuivant la tradition postérieure, c'est également\
    \ sous la dynastie Liang qu'aurait été composé le Classique des Mille Caractères\
    \ (Qianzi wen), par Zhou Xingsi à la demande de l'empereur Wu pour servir à l'éducation\
    \ de ses fils. C'est un manuel destiné à l'apprentissage de la calligraphie, s'inspirant\
    \ avant tout du tracé des caractères par l'illustre calligraphe Wang Xizhi (321-379).\
    \ Cet ouvrage devait connaître un grand succès sous la dynastie Tang, devenant\
    \ un des ouvrages de base pour l'apprentissage de l'écriture chinoise et la calligraphie.\n\
    \nLes événements accompagnant la chute de la dynastie Liang (prise de Jiankang\
    \ en 549, puis celle de Jiangling en 554) sonnèrent le glas de cette période de\
    \ création littéraire, avec la mort des poètes et mécènes de la famille impériale\
    \ (Xiao Gang et Xiao Yi), et l'exil vers le Nord de plusieurs des importants lettrés\
    \ de la période, souvent emmenés captifs dans les capitales du Nord, Chang'an\
    \ et Ye, à l'image des poètes Xu Ling, Yu Ying et Shen Jiong et d'autres lettrés\
    \ comme Yan Zhitui, qui furent plusieurs à s'inspirer de ces années de chaos dans\
    \ leurs œuvres (à l'image de la Lamentation pour le Sud, long fu de Yu Ying).\
    \ Ils exercèrent une forte influence sur la littérature des dernières dynasties\
    \ du Nord, tandis que la tradition lettrée méridionale subsista tant bien que\
    \ mal sous les Chen grâce à certains rentrés d'exil (Xu Ling, Shen Jiong) et d'autres\
    \ qui avaient été formés sous les derniers temps des Liang (Yin Keng).\n\nArts\
    \ et architecture funéraires \n\nPeu de témoignages de l'art de la dynastie Liang\
    \ subsistent. La sculpture est représentée par les statues, stèles et piliers\
    \ délimitant les bords des « voies des esprits » (shendao) conduisant aux tombes\
    \ des membres de la famille impériale, qui avaient le privilège de disposer de\
    \ tels aménagements : en 507, un édit autorisa les notables à placer à l'entrée\
    \ de leur tombe un pilier en pierre indiquant leur nom et leur rang, mais leur\
    \ interdit les statues humaines ou animales et les stèles. L'ensemble le plus\
    \ complet préservé est celui de la tombe du prince Xiao Xiu, mort en 518, située\
    \ comme d'autres tombes princières dans le district de Qixia, dans les faubourgs\
    \ nord-ouest de Nankin. Leur entrée comprend des statues de « chimères », immortalisées\
    \ au début du  par Victor Segalen, comme il s'en trouvait déjà sous les dynasties\
    \ méridionales précédentes. Sous les Liang, il s'agit de « lions » (shizi), représentés\
    \ la gueule ouverte et la langue pendante, avec une paire d'ailes, et un décor\
    \ relativement simple sur l'arrière, qui contraste avec ceux des périodes précédentes,\
    \ plus chargés. Venaient ensuite des stèles, supportées par une statue en forme\
    \ de tortue. Les inscriptions qu'elles portaient sont en général trop érodées\
    \ pour être lues. Les voies des esprits étaient également marquées par des colonnes\
    \ à chapiteaux supportant une statue de chimère en miniature, et une inscription\
    \ donnant le nom de l'occupant de la tombe à laquelle elles conduisent ; sur celle\
    \ de Xiao Jing, le nom est écrit à l'envers, comme pour être lu dans un miroir,\
    \ pour une raison indéterminée. À leur base se trouvaient des petites statues\
    \ représentant des sortes de dragons. Les quelques tombes princières explorées\
    \ (aucune tombe d'empereur n'ayant fait l'objet de fouilles), comme celles de\
    \ Xiao Xiu et Xiao Rong, sont situées sous un tertre et ont un plan en forme de\
    \ « jarre » : elles sont constituées d'une vaste chambre principale de forme grossièrement\
    \ ovoïde, reliée à un couloir d'accès fermé par plusieurs portes de pierre.\n\n\
    Liste des empereurs\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\nBibliographie \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\
    \nCatégorie:Dynasties du Nord et du Sud\nLiang\nCatégorie:Dynastie Liang"
  - "In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in\
    \ Germany as the War of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the\
    \ United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States defeated\
    \ France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba.  After the disastrous French invasion\
    \ of Russia of 1812 in which they had been forced to support France, Prussia and\
    \ Austria joined Russia, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal and the rebels in\
    \ Spain who were already at war with France.\n\nThe War of the Sixth Coalition\
    \ saw major battles at Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden. The even larger Battle of\
    \ Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations) was the largest battle in European\
    \ history before World War I. Ultimately, Napoleon's earlier setbacks in Portugal,\
    \ Spain, and Russia proved to be the seeds of his undoing. With their armies reorganized,\
    \ the allies drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813 and invaded France in 1814.\
    \ The Allies defeated the remaining French armies, occupied Paris, and forced\
    \ Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile. The French monarchy was revived by the\
    \ allies, who handed rule to the heir of the House of Bourbon in the Bourbon Restoration.\n\
    \nThe \"Hundred Days\" War of the Seventh Coalition was triggered in 1815 when\
    \ Napoleon escaped from his captivity on Elba and returned to power in France.\
    \  He was defeated again for the final time at Waterloo, ending the Napoleonic\
    \ Wars.\n\nBackground: Invasion of Russia\n\nIn June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia\
    \ to compel Emperor Alexander I to remain in the Continental System. The Grande\
    \ Armée, consisting of as many as 650,000 men (roughly half of whom were French,\
    \ with the remainder coming from allies or subject areas), crossed the Neman River\
    \ on 23 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed\
    \ a \"Second Polish War\".  But against the expectations of the Poles, who supplied\
    \ almost 100,000 troops for the invasion force, and having in mind further negotiations\
    \ with Russia, he avoided any concessions toward Poland. Russian forces fell back,\
    \ destroying everything potentially of use to the invaders until giving battle\
    \ at Borodino (7 September) where the two armies fought a devastating battle.\
    \ Despite the fact that France won a tactical victory, the battle was inconclusive.\
    \ Following the battle the Russians withdrew, thus opening the road to Moscow.\
    \ By 14 September, the French had occupied Moscow but found the city practically\
    \ empty. Alexander I (despite having almost lost the war by Western European standards)\
    \ refused to capitulate, leaving the French in the abandoned city of Moscow with\
    \ little food or shelter (large parts of Moscow had burned down) and winter approaching.\
    \ In these circumstances, and with no clear path to victory, Napoleon was forced\
    \ to withdraw from Moscow.\n\nSo began the disastrous Great Retreat, during which\
    \ the retreating army came under increasing pressure due to lack of food, desertions,\
    \ and increasingly harsh winter weather, all while under continual attack by the\
    \ Russian army led by Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Kutuzov, and other militias.\
    \ Total losses of the Grand Army were at least 370,000 casualties as a result\
    \ of fighting, starvation and the freezing weather conditions, and 200,000 captured.\
    \ By November, only 27,000 fit soldiers re-crossed the Berezina River. Napoleon\
    \ now left his army to return to Paris and prepare a defence of Poland against\
    \ the advancing Russians. The situation was not as dire as it might at first have\
    \ seemed; the Russians had also lost around 400,000 men, and their army was similarly\
    \ depleted. However, they had the advantage of shorter supply lines and were able\
    \ to replenish their armies with greater speed than the French, especially because\
    \ Napoleon's losses of cavalry and wagons were irreplaceable.\n\nFormation of\
    \ the Sixth Coalition\n\nRussia, Britain and Sweden form an alliance \n\nAt the\
    \ beginning of 1812 Britain had already been at war with France for eight years,\
    \ and had been fighting alongside the Portuguese and Spanish in the Peninsular\
    \ War for more than three years.\nRussia and Sweden, which had opposed Napoleon\
    \ up to 1807 and 1810 respectively, had been forced to join his Continental System\
    \ against Britain, but continued to trade secretly with her.\nOn 9 January 1812,\
    \ French troops occupied Swedish Pomerania to end the illegal trade with the United\
    \ Kingdom from Sweden, which was in violation of the Continental System. Swedish\
    \ estates were confiscated and Swedish officers and soldiers were taken as prisoners.\
    \ In response, Sweden declared neutrality and signed the secret Treaty of Saint\
    \ Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark–Norway on 5 April. On 18 July,\
    \ the Treaty of Örebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and\
    \ Britain and Russia, forming an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden.\
    \ When Napoleon marched on Moscow in June 1812, neither Britain nor Sweden was\
    \ able to give direct military support to Russia, though that same month the British\
    \ and Spanish armies had advanced into central Spain, defeating the French at\
    \ Salamanca and capturing Madrid, tying down a French army of 230,000. Britain\
    \ also helped subsidize the Russian war effort while Swedish Crown Prince Charles\
    \ John, formerly French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, had struck up a friendship\
    \ with Alexander, and gave him moral support, strategic and tactical advice on\
    \ how to defeat the French, as well as valuable insights on Napoleon himself (having\
    \ had much contact with Napoleon as a member of the extended Imperial Family).\
    \ However Russia bore the brunt of the French onslaught on her territory alone.\n\
    \nAfter the French Grande Armée retreated from Moscow on 18/19 October 1812 and\
    \ suffered heavy casualties due to extreme cold, food shortages and repeated Russian\
    \ attacks, Napoleon did not seem to be as invincible as before. On 14 December,\
    \ the last French troops had left Russian soil, and Paris' allies were seriously\
    \ considering rebellion and joining the Tsar's side.\n\nDefection of Prussia \n\
    The Convention of Tauroggen was a truce signed 30 December 1812 at Tauroggen (now\
    \ Tauragė, Lithuania), between Generalleutnant Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg on\
    \ behalf of his Prussian troops (who had been compelled to augment the Grande\
    \ Armée during the invasion of Russia), and by General Hans Karl von Diebitsch\
    \ of the Russian Army. According to the Treaty of Tilsit (9 July 1807), Prussia\
    \ had to support Napoleon's invasion of Russia. This resulted in some Prussians\
    \ leaving their army to avoid serving the French, like Carl von Clausewitz, who\
    \ joined Russian service. When Yorck's immediate French superior Marshal MacDonald,\
    \ retreated before the corps of Diebitsch, Yorck found himself isolated. As a\
    \ soldier his duty was to break through, but as a Prussian patriot his position\
    \ was more difficult. He had to judge whether the moment was favorable for starting\
    \ a war of liberation; and, whatever might be the enthusiasm of his junior staff-officers,\
    \ Yorck had no illusions as to the safety of his own head, and negotiated with\
    \ Clausewitz. The Convention of Tauroggen armistice, signed by Diebitsch and Yorck,\
    \ \"neutralized\" the Prussian corps without consent of their king. The news was\
    \ received with the wildest enthusiasm in Prussia, but the Prussian Court dared\
    \ not yet throw off the mask, and an order was despatched suspending Yorck from\
    \ his command pending a court-martial. Diebitsch refused to let the bearer pass\
    \ through his lines, and the general was finally absolved when the Treaty of Kalisch\
    \ (28 February 1813) definitely ranged Prussia on the side of the Allies.\n\n\
    Meanwhile, Austria's alliance with France ended in February 1813, and Austria\
    \ then moved to a position of armed neutrality. It would not declare war on France\
    \ until half a year later, in August 1813.\n\nDeclarations of war \nOn 3 March\
    \ 1813, after the United Kingdom agreed to Swedish claims to Norway, Sweden entered\
    \ an alliance with the United Kingdom and declared war against France, liberating\
    \ Swedish Pomerania shortly thereafter. On 17 March, King Frederick William III\
    \ of Prussia published a call to arms to his subjects, An Mein Volk, and declared\
    \ war on France as well. The first armed conflict occurred on 5 April in the Battle\
    \ of Möckern, where combined Prusso-Russian forces defeated French troops.\n\n\
    Meanwhile, Napoleon withdrew some 20,000 troops from the ongoing Peninsular War\
    \ to reinforce his position in Central Europe, which left his Iberian forces weakened\
    \ and vulnerable to Anglo–Spanish–Portuguese attacks. On 17 March 1813, his brother\
    \ King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain withdrew from Madrid, a clear sign of losing\
    \ control. Wellington led a 123,000-strong army across northern Spain, taking\
    \ Burgos in late May, and decisively defeating Jourdan at the Battle of Vitoria\
    \ on 21 June. Marshal Soult failed to turn the tide in his large-scale Battle\
    \ of the Pyrenees (25 July to 2 August).\n\nIn June, the United Kingdom formally\
    \ entered the coalition. Initially, Austria remained loyal to France, and foreign\
    \ minister Metternich aimed to mediate in good faith a peace between France and\
    \ its continental enemies, but it became apparent that the price was to be the\
    \ dismantling of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Napoleon-controlled union\
    \ of all German states aside from Prussia and Austria, and the return to France's\
    \ pre-Revolutionary borders. Napoleon was not interested in any such compromise\
    \ that would in effect end his empire, so Austria joined the allies and declared\
    \ war on France in August 1813.\n\nWar in Germany\n\nSpring campaign of 1813 \n\
    \nNapoleon vowed that he would create a new army as large as that he had sent\
    \ into Russia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from 30,000 to 130,000\
    \ and eventually to 400,000. Napoleon inflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies\
    \ at Lützen (near Leipzig, 2 May) and Bautzen (20–21 May 1813) but his army lost\
    \ about the same number of men during those encounters. Both battles involved\
    \ total forces of over 250,000 – making them among the largest battles of the\
    \ Napoleonic Wars to that point in time. The lack of horses for Napoleon's cavalry\
    \ did not allow him to follow-up his victories with a vigorous pursuit, robbing\
    \ him of decisive results.\n\nDespite losing as many men as the Allies, Napoleon's\
    \ victories had greatly demoralized the Prussians and Russians. Losses were heavy,\
    \ and the Russian and Prussian forces were in shambles. Both Allied armies were\
    \ in dire need of substantial reinforcements en route from the east and from Prussian\
    \ recruiting depots. Many Russian officers yearned to return to Russia having\
    \ achieved their goal of ridding Russia of the French. Frederick William of Prussia\
    \ had always viewed a renewed war with France as dubious, and the two defeats\
    \ at Lützen and Bautzen had led him to reconsider peace. Moreover, the Prussians\
    \ and the Russians were hopeful of bringing the Austrians into the war and a break\
    \ in the fighting would give them time to negotiate with Vienna. Another victory\
    \ by Napoleon may very well have led to a favorable peace as not only were the\
    \ Russians and Prussians at their nadir, but the Austrians, with their 150,000\
    \ troops would have seen a decisive French victory as ample proof that another\
    \ war with France would be most undesirable.\n\nHowever, despite the two victories\
    \ over the Prussians and Russians, French losses had been heavy and a chronic\
    \ lack of horses for his cavalry meant that Napoleon could not fully exploit his\
    \ victories and inflict a decisive defeat in the same vein as Austerlitz or Friedland.\
    \ Napoleon's new army was filled with fresh conscripts, lacked many necessities\
    \ and was exhausted from their long march from France and Napoleon's rapid maneuvering.\
    \ The French were \"in dire need of a period of reconstruction and recuperation\"\
    \ and Napoleon needed time to acquire horses for his depleted cavalry and bring\
    \ up more reinforcements. Therefore, Napoleon was amiable to the armistice offered\
    \ by the Allies despite the Allies being in a grave condition. During the armistice,\
    \ a disastrous interview with Austrian Chancellor Metternich, in which Napoleon\
    \ heaped recriminations on the Austrians and threw his hat to the ground and stamped\
    \ it with his foot, ensured that Austria would join the coalition against France.\
    \ Napoleon did not know it at the time, but the armistice would turn out to be\
    \ a grave mistake as the Allies gained far more from the suspension of hostilities\
    \ than he did.\n\nMeanwhile, on 19 May 1813, a Swedish corps of 15,000 occupied\
    \ Hamburg without orders from Bernadotte, following a Danish declaration that\
    \ they would hold the city for Napoleon, irrevocably binding Denmark to France,\
    \ an action that would guarantee full Swedish cooperation in North Germany. The\
    \ Swedish occupation of Hamburg came as welcome news to the Allies, insofar as\
    \ holding a wealthy center of finance was a blow against Napoleon. However, Bernadotte's\
    \ initial misgivings at extending his troops so far from the Allied lines were\
    \ validated when Marshal Davout approached Hamburg with a large French force,\
    \ intent on retaking the city. The Swedes quietly withdrew on 26 May and Davout\
    \ would occupy the city until after Napoleon's abdication in 1814. It would be\
    \ the last major action of the Spring before the Armistice of Pläswitz.\n\nArmistice\
    \ of Pläswitz; Austria joins the coalition \n\nThe belligerents declared an armistice\
    \ from 4 June 1813 which lasted until 13 August, during which time both sides\
    \ attempted to recover from approximately a quarter of a million losses since\
    \ April. During this time Allied negotiations finally brought Austria out in open\
    \ opposition to France (like Prussia, Austria had moved from nominal ally of France\
    \ in 1812 to armed neutral in 1813). Two principal Austrian armies deployed in\
    \ Bohemia and Northern Italy, adding 300,000 troops to the Allied armies. In total\
    \ the Allies now had around 800,000 frontline troops in the German theatre, with\
    \ a strategic reserve of 350,000. As a consequence of the armistice, the French\
    \ lost their initial advantage in numbers as the Austrians, and Russia's huge\
    \ manpower reserves, were brought to the front.\n\nNapoleon succeeded in bringing\
    \ the total imperial forces in the region up to around 650,000 (although only\
    \ 250,000 were under his direct command, with another 120,000 under Nicolas Charles\
    \ Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout). The Confederation of the Rhine furnished Napoleon\
    \ with the bulk of the remainder of the forces, with Saxony and Bavaria as principal\
    \ contributors. In addition, to the south, Murat's Kingdom of Naples and Eugène\
    \ de Beauharnais's Kingdom of Italy had a combined total of 100,000 men under\
    \ arms. In Spain an additional 150–200,000 French troops were being steadily beaten\
    \ back by Spanish and British forces numbering around 150,000. Thus in total around\
    \ 900,000 French troops were opposed in all theatres by somewhere around a million\
    \ Allied troops (not including the strategic reserve being formed in Germany).\n\
    \nDuring the armistice, three Allied sovereigns, Alexander of Russia, Frederick\
    \ Wilhelm of Prussia, and Bernadotte of Sweden (by then Regent of the Kingdom\
    \ due to his adoptive father's illness) met at Trachenberg Castle in Silesia to\
    \ coordinate the war effort. Allied staffs began creating a plan for the campaign\
    \ wherein Bernadotte once again put to use his fifteen years of experience as\
    \ a French general as well as his familiarity with Napoleon. The result was the\
    \ Trachenberg Plan, authored primarily by Bernadotte and the Austrian Chief of\
    \ Staff, Field-Marshal Lieutenant Joseph Radetzky, that sought to wear down the\
    \ French using a Fabian Strategy, avoiding direct combat with Napoleon, engaging\
    \ and defeating his marshals whenever possible and slowly encircling the French\
    \ with three independent armies until the French Emperor could be cornered and\
    \ brought to battle against vastly superior numbers.\n\nFollowing the conference,\
    \ the Allies stood up their three armies: The Army of Silesia, with 95,000 Prussians\
    \ and Russians, commanded by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher; the Army of the\
    \ North, 120,000 Swedes, Russians, Prussians, and German troops from Mecklenburg,\
    \ the Hanseatic region and North Germany, under the independent command of Sweden's\
    \ Crown Prince Bernadotte; and the Army of Bohemia, the primary Allied force in\
    \ the field, with which the Allied sovereigns Alexander, Francis and Frederick\
    \ William oversaw the Campaign, numbering 225,000 Austrians, Russians, and Prussians\
    \ commanded by Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg.\n\nRenewal of hostilities; French\
    \ losses and defecting allies \n\nFollowing the end of the armistice, Napoleon\
    \ seemed to have regained the initiative at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), where\
    \ he inflicted one of the most lop-sided losses of the era on the Prussian-Russian-Austrian\
    \ forces. On 26 August, the Allies under Prince von Schwarzenberg attacked the\
    \ French garrison in Dresden. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield in the early\
    \ hours of 27 August with the Guard and other reinforcements and despite being\
    \ severely outnumbered having only 135,000 men to the Coalition's 215,000, Napoleon\
    \ chose to attack the Allies. Napoleon turned the Allied Left Flank, and in skillful\
    \ use of terrain, pinned it against the flooded Weißeritz River and isolated it\
    \ from the rest of the Coalition Army. He then gave his famed cavalry commander,\
    \ and King of Naples, Joachim Murat leave to destroy the surrounded Austrians.\
    \ The day's torrential rain had dampened gunpowder, rendering the Austrians' muskets\
    \ and cannon useless against the sabers and lances of Murat's Cuirassiers and\
    \ Lancers who tore the Austrians to shreds, capturing 15 standards and forcing\
    \ the balance of three divisions, 13,000 men, to surrender.\n\nThe Allies were\
    \ forced to retreat in some disorder having lost nearly 40,000 men to only 10,000\
    \ French. However, Napoleon's forces were also hampered by the weather and unable\
    \ to close the encirclement the Emperor had planned before the Allies narrowly\
    \ slipped the noose. So while Napoleon had struck a heavy blow against the Allies,\
    \ several tactical errors had allowed the Allies to withdraw, thus ruining Napoleon's\
    \ best chance at ending the war in a single battle. Nonetheless, Napoleon had\
    \ once again inflicted a heavy loss on the primary Allied Army despite being outnumbered\
    \ and for some weeks after Dresden Schwarzenberg declined to take offensive action.\n\
    \nHowever at about the same time the French sustained several serious defeats,\
    \ first at the hands of Bernadotte's Army of the North on 23 August, with Oudinot's\
    \ thrust towards Berlin beaten back by the Prussians, at Großbeeren. At the Katzbach\
    \ the Prussians, commanded by Blücher, took advantage of Napoleon's march toward\
    \ Dresden to attack Marshal MacDonald's Army of the Bober. During a torrential\
    \ rainstorm on 26 August, and due to conflicting orders and a breakdown of communications,\
    \ MacDonald's several corps found themselves isolated from one another with many\
    \ bridges over the Katzback and Neisse rivers destroyed by surging waters. 200,000\
    \ Prussians and French collided in a confused battle that degenerated into hand-to-hand\
    \ combat. However, Blucher and the Prussians rallied their scattered units and\
    \ attacked an isolated French corps and pinned it against the Katzbach, annihilating\
    \ it; forcing the French into the raging waters where many drowned. The French\
    \ suffered 13,000 killed and wounded and 20,000 captured. The Prussians lost but\
    \ 4,000 men.\n\nNapoleon himself, lacking reliable and numerous cavalry, was unable\
    \ to prevent the destruction of a whole army corps, which had isolated itself\
    \ pursuing the enemy following the Battle of Dresden without support, at the Battle\
    \ of Kulm (29–30 August 1813), losing 13,000 men further weakening his army. Realizing\
    \ that the Allies would continue to defeat his subordinates, Napoleon began to\
    \ consolidate his troops to force a decisive battle.\n\nThe French then suffered\
    \ another grievous loss at the hands of Bernadotte's army on 6 September at Dennewitz\
    \ where Ney was now in command, with Oudinot now as his deputy. The French were\
    \ once again attempting to capture Berlin, the loss of which Napoleon believed\
    \ would knock Prussia out of the War. However, Ney blundered into a trap set by\
    \ Bernadotte and was stopped cold by the Prussians, and then routed when the Crown\
    \ Prince arrived with his Swedes and a Russian corps on their open flank. This\
    \ second defeat at the hands of Napoleon's ex-Marshal was catastrophic for the\
    \ French, with them losing 50 cannon, four Eagles and over 20,000 men. Further\
    \ losses occurred during the pursuit that evening, and into the following day,\
    \ as the Swedish and Prussian cavalry took a further 13,000–14,000 French prisoners.\
    \ Ney retreated to Wittenberg with the remains of his command and made no further\
    \ attempt at capturing Berlin. Napoleon's bid to knock Prussia out of the War\
    \ had failed; as had his operational plan to fight the battle of the central position.\
    \ Having lost the initiative, he was now forced to concentrate his army and seek\
    \ a decisive battle at Leipzig.\n\nCompounding the heavy military losses suffered\
    \ at Dennewitz, the French were now losing the support of their German vassal\
    \ states as well. News of Bernadotte's victory at Dennewitz sent shock waves across\
    \ Germany, where French rule had become unpopular, inducing Tyrol to rise in rebellion\
    \ and was the signal for the King of Bavaria to proclaim neutrality and begin\
    \ negotiations with the Austrians (on the basis of territorial guarantees and\
    \ Maximillian's retention of his crown) in preparation of joining the Allied cause.\
    \ A body of Saxon troops had defected to Bernadotte's Army during the battle and\
    \ Westphalian troops were now deserting King Jerome's army in large numbers. Following\
    \ a proclamation by the Swedish Crown Prince urging the Saxon Army (Bernadotte\
    \ had commanded the Saxon Army at the Battle of Wagram and was well liked by them)\
    \ to come over to the Allied cause, Saxon generals could no longer answer for\
    \ the fidelity of their troops and the French now considered their remaining German\
    \ allies unreliable. Later, on 8 October 1813, Bavaria officially ranged itself\
    \ against Napoleon as a member of the Coalition.\n\nBattle of Nations and the\
    \ Frankfurt peace proposals \n\nNapoleon withdrew with around 175,000 troops to\
    \ Leipzig in Saxony where he thought he could fight a defensive action against\
    \ the Allied armies converging on him. There, at the so-called Battle of Nations\
    \ (16–19 October 1813) a French army, ultimately reinforced to 191,000, found\
    \ itself faced by three Allied armies converging on it, ultimately totalling more\
    \ than 430,000 troops. Over the following days the battle resulted in a defeat\
    \ for Napoleon, who however was still able to manage a relatively orderly retreat\
    \ westwards. However, as the French forces were pulling across the White Elster,\
    \ the bridge was prematurely blown and 30,000 troops were stranded to be taken\
    \ prisoner by the Allied forces.\n\nNapoleon defeated an army of his former ally\
    \ Bavaria at the Battle of Hanau (30–31 October 1813) before pulling what was\
    \ left of his forces back into France. Meanwhile, Davout's corps continued to\
    \ hold out in its siege of Hamburg, where it became the last Imperial force east\
    \ of the Rhine.\n\nThe Allies offered peace terms in the Frankfurt proposals in\
    \ November 1813. Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France, but it would be reduced\
    \ to its \"natural frontiers\".  That meant that France could retain control of\
    \ Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of the Rhine River), while giving\
    \ up control of all the rest, including all of Poland, Spain and the Netherlands,\
    \ and most of Italy and Germany.  Metternich told Napoleon these were the best\
    \ terms the Allies were likely to offer; after further victories, the terms would\
    \ be harsher and harsher. Metternich aimed to maintain France as a balance against\
    \ Russian threats, while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars.\n\nNapoleon,\
    \ expecting to win the war, delayed too long and lost this opportunity; by December\
    \ the Allies had withdrawn the offer. When his back was to the wall in 1814 he\
    \ tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals.\
    \  The Allies now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of France to\
    \ its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of Belgium and the Rhineland (in Germany).\
    \  Napoleon adamantly refused.\n\nWar in Denmark and Norway\nFollowing the Battle\
    \ of Leipzig, Bernadotte and his Army of the North parted ways with the rest of\
    \ the Coalition armies, determined to see the guarantees over the Danish cession\
    \ of Norway to Sweden enforced. In December 1813, Bernadotte's Army, now some\
    \ 65,000, composed only of Swedish and Russian troops following the secondment\
    \ of the Prussian troops to Blücher's army, attacked the Danish Army in Holstein.\
    \ In a lightning campaign of only two weeks the Swedes subdued the Danes. General\
    \ Anders Skjöldebrand defeated the Danes at Bornhöved on 7 December 1813. Three\
    \ days later, the Danish Auxiliary Corps scored a minor victory at Sehested.\n\
    \nHowever, while the Danish victory managed to ensure the retreat of the main\
    \ Danish army from immediate destruction, and brought about a three-week armistice,\
    \ it could not change the course of war. Following a break-down of negotiations,\
    \ the armistice concluded and on 14 January 1814 Bernadotte invaded Schleswig,\
    \ swiftly invested and reduced its fortresses and occupied the entire province.\
    \ The Danes, heavily outnumbered, could not prevent an Allied advance on Jutland\
    \ or Copenhagen, and sued for peace. It would be the final chapter in the long\
    \ and bloody history of conflicts between Sweden and Denmark with the former definitively\
    \ victorious.\n\nOn 14 January 1814, the Treaty of Kiel was concluded between\
    \ Sweden and Denmark–Norway. By the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of Norway\
    \ was to be ceded to the King of Sweden. However, the Norwegians rejected this,\
    \ declaring independence and adopting their own constitution on 17 May. On 27\
    \ July, Bernadotte and his Swedish forces (the Russians parted ways after the\
    \ Danish Campaign) invaded Norway with 70,000 well-trained, well-equipped men,\
    \ many of whom were veterans of the Leipzig Campaign. Facing them were 30,000\
    \ Norwegian militia, who were short on equipment and training but full of patriotic\
    \ ardor and acquitted themselves well in the face of overwhelming odds. Following\
    \ a short war, where the Norwegians fought well, winning battles at Lier and Matrand,\
    \ but could not stop the Swedes from advancing, an armistice (the Convention of\
    \ Moss) was concluded on 14 August. The terms of Union were generous to the Norwegians\
    \ as Bernadotte and the Swedes had no wish to inaugurate the union of Sweden and\
    \ Norway with further bloodshed. Norway agreed to enter into a personal union\
    \ with Sweden as a separate state with its own constitution and institutions,\
    \ except for the common king and foreign service. The Union between Sweden and\
    \ Norway was formally established on 4 November 1814, when the Parliament of Norway\
    \ adopted the necessary constitutional amendments, and elected Charles XIII of\
    \ Sweden as King of Norway.\n\nWith his primary goal of detaching Norway from\
    \ Denmark and binding it with Sweden achieved, Bernadotte and his Army of the\
    \ North played no further major role in the war against the French beyond occupying\
    \ the Low Countries and masking the French forces still garrisoned in fortresses\
    \ throughout northern Germany.\n\nPeninsular War\n\nWhile events unfolded in the\
    \ East, the Peninsular War in Iberia continued to be Napoleon's \"Spanish ulcer\"\
    \ tying down hundreds of thousands of French soldiers. In 1813, Arthur Wellesley,\
    \ Duke of Wellington, finally broke the French power in Spain and forced the French\
    \ to retreat. In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base\
    \ from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late\
    \ May and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph\
    \ Bonaparte into the valley of the River Zadorra. At the Battle of Vitoria, 21\
    \ June, the 65,000 French under Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese\
    \ and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellington pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastián,\
    \ which was sacked and burnt.\n\nThe allies chased the retreating French, reaching\
    \ the Pyrenees in early July. Marshal Soult was given command of the French forces\
    \ and began a counter-offensive, dealing the allied generals two sharp defeats\
    \ at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. Yet, he was put again\
    \ onto the defensive by the British army and its Portuguese allies, lost momentum,\
    \ and finally fled after the allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (28 and\
    \ 30 July).\n\nIn the Battle of the Pyrenees Wellington fought far from his supply\
    \ line but won with a mixture of manoeuvre, shock and persistent hounding of the\
    \ French forces.\n\nOn 7 October, after Wellington received news of the reopening\
    \ of hostilities in Germany, the Coalition allies finally crossed into France,\
    \ fording the Bidasoa river. On 11 December, a beleaguered and desperate Napoleon\
    \ agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay, under which\
    \ he would release and recognize Ferdinand VII as King of Spain in exchange for\
    \ a complete cessation of hostilities. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting\
    \ Napoleon, and the fighting continued on into France.\n\nWar in France\n\nDuring\
    \ the last months of 1813 and into 1814 Wellington led the Peninsular army into\
    \ south-west France and fought a number of battles against Marshals Soult and\
    \ Suchet. The Peninsular army gained victories at Vera pass, the Battle of Nivelle,\
    \ the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (10–14 December 1813), the Battle of Orthez\
    \ (27 February 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (10 April).\n\nAfter retreating\
    \ from Germany, Napoleon fought a series of battles, including the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube,\
    \ in France, but was steadily forced back against overwhelming odds.  During the\
    \ campaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts, but only a fraction\
    \ of these were ever raised. In early February Napoleon fought his Six Days' Campaign,\
    \ in which he won multiple battles against numerically superior enemy forces marching\
    \ on Paris. However, he fielded less than 80,000 soldiers during this entire campaign\
    \ against a Coalition force of between 370,000 and 405,000 engaged in the campaign.\
    \ At the Treaty of Chaumont (9 March) the Allies agreed to preserve the Coalition\
    \ until Napoleon's total defeat. After defeating the French on the outskirts of\
    \ Paris, on 31 March the Coalition armies entered the city with Tsar Alexander\
    \ I at the head of the army followed by the King of Prussia and Prince Schwarzenberg.\
    \ On 2 April the French Senate passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur, which\
    \ declared Napoleon deposed.\n\nAbdication and peace\nNapoleon was determined\
    \ to fight on, proposing to march on Paris. His soldiers and regimental officers\
    \ were eager to fight on. But Napoleon's marshals and senior officers mutinied.\
    \ On 4 April, Napoleon was confronted by his marshals and senior officers, led\
    \ by Ney. They told the Emperor that they refused to march. Napoleon asserted\
    \ that the army would follow him. Ney replied, \"The army will follow its chiefs\"\
    .\n\nNapoleon abdicated on 11 April 1814 and the war officially ended soon after,\
    \ although some fighting continued until May. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was\
    \ signed on 11 April 1814 between the continental powers and Napoleon, followed\
    \ by the Treaty of Paris on 30 May 1814 between France and the Great Powers including\
    \ Britain. The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and restored the\
    \ Bourbon monarchy in the person of Louis XVIII. The Allied leaders attended Peace\
    \ Celebrations in England in June, before progressing to the Congress of Vienna\
    \ (between September 1814 and June 1815), which was held to redraw the map of\
    \ Europe.\n\nSee also \n Napoleonic Wars\n Peninsular War\n War of the Fifth Coalition\n\
    \ The Hundred Days or the War of the Seventh Coalition\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\
    \nCitations\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n Napoleon, His Armies\
    \ and Tactics\n Collection of historical eBooks about the War of the Sixth Coalition\
    \ \n\nCoalition, 6th\n1810s in France\n1810s in Europe\nConflicts in 1813\nConflicts\
    \ in 1814\nCoalition Wars"
---

# SentenceTransformer based on distilbert/distilroberta-base

This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model finetuned from [distilbert/distilroberta-base](https://huggingface.co/distilbert/distilroberta-base). It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 768-dimensional dense vector space and can be used for semantic textual similarity, semantic search, paraphrase mining, text classification, clustering, and more.

## Model Details

### Model Description
- **Model Type:** Sentence Transformer
- **Base model:** [distilbert/distilroberta-base](https://huggingface.co/distilbert/distilroberta-base) <!-- at revision fb53ab8802853c8e4fbdbcd0529f21fc6f459b2b -->
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Output Dimensionality:** 768 tokens
- **Similarity Function:** Cosine Similarity
<!-- - **Training Dataset:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **Language:** Unknown -->
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->

### Model Sources

- **Documentation:** [Sentence Transformers Documentation](https://sbert.net)
- **Repository:** [Sentence Transformers on GitHub](https://github.com/UKPLab/sentence-transformers)
- **Hugging Face:** [Sentence Transformers on Hugging Face](https://huggingface.co/models?library=sentence-transformers)

### Full Model Architecture

```
SentenceTransformer(
  (0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: RobertaModel 
  (1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 768, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': True, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
)
```

## Usage

### Direct Usage (Sentence Transformers)

First install the Sentence Transformers library:

```bash
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```

Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer

# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SentenceTransformer("kiwi1229/distilroberta-dis-01")
# Run inference
sentences = [
    'What was the outcome of the War of the Sixth Coalition?',
    'In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in Germany as the War of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States defeated France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba.  After the disastrous French invasion of Russia of 1812 in which they had been forced to support France, Prussia and Austria joined Russia, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal and the rebels in Spain who were already at war with France.\n\nThe War of the Sixth Coalition saw major battles at Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden. The even larger Battle of Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations) was the largest battle in European history before World War I. Ultimately, Napoleon\'s earlier setbacks in Portugal, Spain, and Russia proved to be the seeds of his undoing. With their armies reorganized, the allies drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813 and invaded France in 1814. The Allies defeated the remaining French armies, occupied Paris, and forced Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile. The French monarchy was revived by the allies, who handed rule to the heir of the House of Bourbon in the Bourbon Restoration.\n\nThe "Hundred Days" War of the Seventh Coalition was triggered in 1815 when Napoleon escaped from his captivity on Elba and returned to power in France.  He was defeated again for the final time at Waterloo, ending the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nBackground: Invasion of Russia\n\nIn June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia to compel Emperor Alexander I to remain in the Continental System. The Grande Armée, consisting of as many as 650,000 men (roughly half of whom were French, with the remainder coming from allies or subject areas), crossed the Neman River on 23 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a Patriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed a "Second Polish War".  But against the expectations of the Poles, who supplied almost 100,000 troops for the invasion force, and having in mind further negotiations with Russia, he avoided any concessions toward Poland. Russian forces fell back, destroying everything potentially of use to the invaders until giving battle at Borodino (7 September) where the two armies fought a devastating battle. Despite the fact that France won a tactical victory, the battle was inconclusive. Following the battle the Russians withdrew, thus opening the road to Moscow. By 14 September, the French had occupied Moscow but found the city practically empty. Alexander I (despite having almost lost the war by Western European standards) refused to capitulate, leaving the French in the abandoned city of Moscow with little food or shelter (large parts of Moscow had burned down) and winter approaching. In these circumstances, and with no clear path to victory, Napoleon was forced to withdraw from Moscow.\n\nSo began the disastrous Great Retreat, during which the retreating army came under increasing pressure due to lack of food, desertions, and increasingly harsh winter weather, all while under continual attack by the Russian army led by Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Kutuzov, and other militias. Total losses of the Grand Army were at least 370,000 casualties as a result of fighting, starvation and the freezing weather conditions, and 200,000 captured. By November, only 27,000 fit soldiers re-crossed the Berezina River. Napoleon now left his army to return to Paris and prepare a defence of Poland against the advancing Russians. The situation was not as dire as it might at first have seemed; the Russians had also lost around 400,000 men, and their army was similarly depleted. However, they had the advantage of shorter supply lines and were able to replenish their armies with greater speed than the French, especially because Napoleon\'s losses of cavalry and wagons were irreplaceable.\n\nFormation of the Sixth Coalition\n\nRussia, Britain and Sweden form an alliance \n\nAt the beginning of 1812 Britain had already been at war with France for eight years, and had been fighting alongside the Portuguese and Spanish in the Peninsular War for more than three years.\nRussia and Sweden, which had opposed Napoleon up to 1807 and 1810 respectively, had been forced to join his Continental System against Britain, but continued to trade secretly with her.\nOn 9 January 1812, French troops occupied Swedish Pomerania to end the illegal trade with the United Kingdom from Sweden, which was in violation of the Continental System. Swedish estates were confiscated and Swedish officers and soldiers were taken as prisoners. In response, Sweden declared neutrality and signed the secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark–Norway on 5 April. On 18 July, the Treaty of Örebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia, forming an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden. When Napoleon marched on Moscow in June 1812, neither Britain nor Sweden was able to give direct military support to Russia, though that same month the British and Spanish armies had advanced into central Spain, defeating the French at Salamanca and capturing Madrid, tying down a French army of 230,000. Britain also helped subsidize the Russian war effort while Swedish Crown Prince Charles John, formerly French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, had struck up a friendship with Alexander, and gave him moral support, strategic and tactical advice on how to defeat the French, as well as valuable insights on Napoleon himself (having had much contact with Napoleon as a member of the extended Imperial Family). However Russia bore the brunt of the French onslaught on her territory alone.\n\nAfter the French Grande Armée retreated from Moscow on 18/19 October 1812 and suffered heavy casualties due to extreme cold, food shortages and repeated Russian attacks, Napoleon did not seem to be as invincible as before. On 14 December, the last French troops had left Russian soil, and Paris\' allies were seriously considering rebellion and joining the Tsar\'s side.\n\nDefection of Prussia \nThe Convention of Tauroggen was a truce signed 30 December 1812 at Tauroggen (now Tauragė, Lithuania), between Generalleutnant Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg on behalf of his Prussian troops (who had been compelled to augment the Grande Armée during the invasion of Russia), and by General Hans Karl von Diebitsch of the Russian Army. According to the Treaty of Tilsit (9 July 1807), Prussia had to support Napoleon\'s invasion of Russia. This resulted in some Prussians leaving their army to avoid serving the French, like Carl von Clausewitz, who joined Russian service. When Yorck\'s immediate French superior Marshal MacDonald, retreated before the corps of Diebitsch, Yorck found himself isolated. As a soldier his duty was to break through, but as a Prussian patriot his position was more difficult. He had to judge whether the moment was favorable for starting a war of liberation; and, whatever might be the enthusiasm of his junior staff-officers, Yorck had no illusions as to the safety of his own head, and negotiated with Clausewitz. The Convention of Tauroggen armistice, signed by Diebitsch and Yorck, "neutralized" the Prussian corps without consent of their king. The news was received with the wildest enthusiasm in Prussia, but the Prussian Court dared not yet throw off the mask, and an order was despatched suspending Yorck from his command pending a court-martial. Diebitsch refused to let the bearer pass through his lines, and the general was finally absolved when the Treaty of Kalisch (28 February 1813) definitely ranged Prussia on the side of the Allies.\n\nMeanwhile, Austria\'s alliance with France ended in February 1813, and Austria then moved to a position of armed neutrality. It would not declare war on France until half a year later, in August 1813.\n\nDeclarations of war \nOn 3 March 1813, after the United Kingdom agreed to Swedish claims to Norway, Sweden entered an alliance with the United Kingdom and declared war against France, liberating Swedish Pomerania shortly thereafter. On 17 March, King Frederick William III of Prussia published a call to arms to his subjects, An Mein Volk, and declared war on France as well. The first armed conflict occurred on 5 April in the Battle of Möckern, where combined Prusso-Russian forces defeated French troops.\n\nMeanwhile, Napoleon withdrew some 20,000 troops from the ongoing Peninsular War to reinforce his position in Central Europe, which left his Iberian forces weakened and vulnerable to Anglo–Spanish–Portuguese attacks. On 17 March 1813, his brother King Joseph Bonaparte of Spain withdrew from Madrid, a clear sign of losing control. Wellington led a 123,000-strong army across northern Spain, taking Burgos in late May, and decisively defeating Jourdan at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June. Marshal Soult failed to turn the tide in his large-scale Battle of the Pyrenees (25 July to 2 August).\n\nIn June, the United Kingdom formally entered the coalition. Initially, Austria remained loyal to France, and foreign minister Metternich aimed to mediate in good faith a peace between France and its continental enemies, but it became apparent that the price was to be the dismantling of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Napoleon-controlled union of all German states aside from Prussia and Austria, and the return to France\'s pre-Revolutionary borders. Napoleon was not interested in any such compromise that would in effect end his empire, so Austria joined the allies and declared war on France in August 1813.\n\nWar in Germany\n\nSpring campaign of 1813 \n\nNapoleon vowed that he would create a new army as large as that he had sent into Russia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from 30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000. Napoleon inflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Lützen (near Leipzig, 2 May) and Bautzen (20–21 May 1813) but his army lost about the same number of men during those encounters. Both battles involved total forces of over 250,000 – making them among the largest battles of the Napoleonic Wars to that point in time. The lack of horses for Napoleon\'s cavalry did not allow him to follow-up his victories with a vigorous pursuit, robbing him of decisive results.\n\nDespite losing as many men as the Allies, Napoleon\'s victories had greatly demoralized the Prussians and Russians. Losses were heavy, and the Russian and Prussian forces were in shambles. Both Allied armies were in dire need of substantial reinforcements en route from the east and from Prussian recruiting depots. Many Russian officers yearned to return to Russia having achieved their goal of ridding Russia of the French. Frederick William of Prussia had always viewed a renewed war with France as dubious, and the two defeats at Lützen and Bautzen had led him to reconsider peace. Moreover, the Prussians and the Russians were hopeful of bringing the Austrians into the war and a break in the fighting would give them time to negotiate with Vienna. Another victory by Napoleon may very well have led to a favorable peace as not only were the Russians and Prussians at their nadir, but the Austrians, with their 150,000 troops would have seen a decisive French victory as ample proof that another war with France would be most undesirable.\n\nHowever, despite the two victories over the Prussians and Russians, French losses had been heavy and a chronic lack of horses for his cavalry meant that Napoleon could not fully exploit his victories and inflict a decisive defeat in the same vein as Austerlitz or Friedland. Napoleon\'s new army was filled with fresh conscripts, lacked many necessities and was exhausted from their long march from France and Napoleon\'s rapid maneuvering. The French were "in dire need of a period of reconstruction and recuperation" and Napoleon needed time to acquire horses for his depleted cavalry and bring up more reinforcements. Therefore, Napoleon was amiable to the armistice offered by the Allies despite the Allies being in a grave condition. During the armistice, a disastrous interview with Austrian Chancellor Metternich, in which Napoleon heaped recriminations on the Austrians and threw his hat to the ground and stamped it with his foot, ensured that Austria would join the coalition against France. Napoleon did not know it at the time, but the armistice would turn out to be a grave mistake as the Allies gained far more from the suspension of hostilities than he did.\n\nMeanwhile, on 19 May 1813, a Swedish corps of 15,000 occupied Hamburg without orders from Bernadotte, following a Danish declaration that they would hold the city for Napoleon, irrevocably binding Denmark to France, an action that would guarantee full Swedish cooperation in North Germany. The Swedish occupation of Hamburg came as welcome news to the Allies, insofar as holding a wealthy center of finance was a blow against Napoleon. However, Bernadotte\'s initial misgivings at extending his troops so far from the Allied lines were validated when Marshal Davout approached Hamburg with a large French force, intent on retaking the city. The Swedes quietly withdrew on 26 May and Davout would occupy the city until after Napoleon\'s abdication in 1814. It would be the last major action of the Spring before the Armistice of Pläswitz.\n\nArmistice of Pläswitz; Austria joins the coalition \n\nThe belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813 which lasted until 13 August, during which time both sides attempted to recover from approximately a quarter of a million losses since April. During this time Allied negotiations finally brought Austria out in open opposition to France (like Prussia, Austria had moved from nominal ally of France in 1812 to armed neutral in 1813). Two principal Austrian armies deployed in Bohemia and Northern Italy, adding 300,000 troops to the Allied armies. In total the Allies now had around 800,000 frontline troops in the German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000. As a consequence of the armistice, the French lost their initial advantage in numbers as the Austrians, and Russia\'s huge manpower reserves, were brought to the front.\n\nNapoleon succeeded in bringing the total imperial forces in the region up to around 650,000 (although only 250,000 were under his direct command, with another 120,000 under Nicolas Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout). The Confederation of the Rhine furnished Napoleon with the bulk of the remainder of the forces, with Saxony and Bavaria as principal contributors. In addition, to the south, Murat\'s Kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais\'s Kingdom of Italy had a combined total of 100,000 men under arms. In Spain an additional 150–200,000 French troops were being steadily beaten back by Spanish and British forces numbering around 150,000. Thus in total around 900,000 French troops were opposed in all theatres by somewhere around a million Allied troops (not including the strategic reserve being formed in Germany).\n\nDuring the armistice, three Allied sovereigns, Alexander of Russia, Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia, and Bernadotte of Sweden (by then Regent of the Kingdom due to his adoptive father\'s illness) met at Trachenberg Castle in Silesia to coordinate the war effort. Allied staffs began creating a plan for the campaign wherein Bernadotte once again put to use his fifteen years of experience as a French general as well as his familiarity with Napoleon. The result was the Trachenberg Plan, authored primarily by Bernadotte and the Austrian Chief of Staff, Field-Marshal Lieutenant Joseph Radetzky, that sought to wear down the French using a Fabian Strategy, avoiding direct combat with Napoleon, engaging and defeating his marshals whenever possible and slowly encircling the French with three independent armies until the French Emperor could be cornered and brought to battle against vastly superior numbers.\n\nFollowing the conference, the Allies stood up their three armies: The Army of Silesia, with 95,000 Prussians and Russians, commanded by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher; the Army of the North, 120,000 Swedes, Russians, Prussians, and German troops from Mecklenburg, the Hanseatic region and North Germany, under the independent command of Sweden\'s Crown Prince Bernadotte; and the Army of Bohemia, the primary Allied force in the field, with which the Allied sovereigns Alexander, Francis and Frederick William oversaw the Campaign, numbering 225,000 Austrians, Russians, and Prussians commanded by Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg.\n\nRenewal of hostilities; French losses and defecting allies \n\nFollowing the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed to have regained the initiative at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), where he inflicted one of the most lop-sided losses of the era on the Prussian-Russian-Austrian forces. On 26 August, the Allies under Prince von Schwarzenberg attacked the French garrison in Dresden. Napoleon arrived on the battlefield in the early hours of 27 August with the Guard and other reinforcements and despite being severely outnumbered having only 135,000 men to the Coalition\'s 215,000, Napoleon chose to attack the Allies. Napoleon turned the Allied Left Flank, and in skillful use of terrain, pinned it against the flooded Weißeritz River and isolated it from the rest of the Coalition Army. He then gave his famed cavalry commander, and King of Naples, Joachim Murat leave to destroy the surrounded Austrians. The day\'s torrential rain had dampened gunpowder, rendering the Austrians\' muskets and cannon useless against the sabers and lances of Murat\'s Cuirassiers and Lancers who tore the Austrians to shreds, capturing 15 standards and forcing the balance of three divisions, 13,000 men, to surrender.\n\nThe Allies were forced to retreat in some disorder having lost nearly 40,000 men to only 10,000 French. However, Napoleon\'s forces were also hampered by the weather and unable to close the encirclement the Emperor had planned before the Allies narrowly slipped the noose. So while Napoleon had struck a heavy blow against the Allies, several tactical errors had allowed the Allies to withdraw, thus ruining Napoleon\'s best chance at ending the war in a single battle. Nonetheless, Napoleon had once again inflicted a heavy loss on the primary Allied Army despite being outnumbered and for some weeks after Dresden Schwarzenberg declined to take offensive action.\n\nHowever at about the same time the French sustained several serious defeats, first at the hands of Bernadotte\'s Army of the North on 23 August, with Oudinot\'s thrust towards Berlin beaten back by the Prussians, at Großbeeren. At the Katzbach the Prussians, commanded by Blücher, took advantage of Napoleon\'s march toward Dresden to attack Marshal MacDonald\'s Army of the Bober. During a torrential rainstorm on 26 August, and due to conflicting orders and a breakdown of communications, MacDonald\'s several corps found themselves isolated from one another with many bridges over the Katzback and Neisse rivers destroyed by surging waters. 200,000 Prussians and French collided in a confused battle that degenerated into hand-to-hand combat. However, Blucher and the Prussians rallied their scattered units and attacked an isolated French corps and pinned it against the Katzbach, annihilating it; forcing the French into the raging waters where many drowned. The French suffered 13,000 killed and wounded and 20,000 captured. The Prussians lost but 4,000 men.\n\nNapoleon himself, lacking reliable and numerous cavalry, was unable to prevent the destruction of a whole army corps, which had isolated itself pursuing the enemy following the Battle of Dresden without support, at the Battle of Kulm (29–30 August 1813), losing 13,000 men further weakening his army. Realizing that the Allies would continue to defeat his subordinates, Napoleon began to consolidate his troops to force a decisive battle.\n\nThe French then suffered another grievous loss at the hands of Bernadotte\'s army on 6 September at Dennewitz where Ney was now in command, with Oudinot now as his deputy. The French were once again attempting to capture Berlin, the loss of which Napoleon believed would knock Prussia out of the War. However, Ney blundered into a trap set by Bernadotte and was stopped cold by the Prussians, and then routed when the Crown Prince arrived with his Swedes and a Russian corps on their open flank. This second defeat at the hands of Napoleon\'s ex-Marshal was catastrophic for the French, with them losing 50 cannon, four Eagles and over 20,000 men. Further losses occurred during the pursuit that evening, and into the following day, as the Swedish and Prussian cavalry took a further 13,000–14,000 French prisoners. Ney retreated to Wittenberg with the remains of his command and made no further attempt at capturing Berlin. Napoleon\'s bid to knock Prussia out of the War had failed; as had his operational plan to fight the battle of the central position. Having lost the initiative, he was now forced to concentrate his army and seek a decisive battle at Leipzig.\n\nCompounding the heavy military losses suffered at Dennewitz, the French were now losing the support of their German vassal states as well. News of Bernadotte\'s victory at Dennewitz sent shock waves across Germany, where French rule had become unpopular, inducing Tyrol to rise in rebellion and was the signal for the King of Bavaria to proclaim neutrality and begin negotiations with the Austrians (on the basis of territorial guarantees and Maximillian\'s retention of his crown) in preparation of joining the Allied cause. A body of Saxon troops had defected to Bernadotte\'s Army during the battle and Westphalian troops were now deserting King Jerome\'s army in large numbers. Following a proclamation by the Swedish Crown Prince urging the Saxon Army (Bernadotte had commanded the Saxon Army at the Battle of Wagram and was well liked by them) to come over to the Allied cause, Saxon generals could no longer answer for the fidelity of their troops and the French now considered their remaining German allies unreliable. Later, on 8 October 1813, Bavaria officially ranged itself against Napoleon as a member of the Coalition.\n\nBattle of Nations and the Frankfurt peace proposals \n\nNapoleon withdrew with around 175,000 troops to Leipzig in Saxony where he thought he could fight a defensive action against the Allied armies converging on him. There, at the so-called Battle of Nations (16–19 October 1813) a French army, ultimately reinforced to 191,000, found itself faced by three Allied armies converging on it, ultimately totalling more than 430,000 troops. Over the following days the battle resulted in a defeat for Napoleon, who however was still able to manage a relatively orderly retreat westwards. However, as the French forces were pulling across the White Elster, the bridge was prematurely blown and 30,000 troops were stranded to be taken prisoner by the Allied forces.\n\nNapoleon defeated an army of his former ally Bavaria at the Battle of Hanau (30–31 October 1813) before pulling what was left of his forces back into France. Meanwhile, Davout\'s corps continued to hold out in its siege of Hamburg, where it became the last Imperial force east of the Rhine.\n\nThe Allies offered peace terms in the Frankfurt proposals in November 1813. Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France, but it would be reduced to its "natural frontiers".  That meant that France could retain control of Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of the Rhine River), while giving up control of all the rest, including all of Poland, Spain and the Netherlands, and most of Italy and Germany.  Metternich told Napoleon these were the best terms the Allies were likely to offer; after further victories, the terms would be harsher and harsher. Metternich aimed to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars.\n\nNapoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long and lost this opportunity; by December the Allies had withdrawn the offer. When his back was to the wall in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals.  The Allies now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of Belgium and the Rhineland (in Germany).  Napoleon adamantly refused.\n\nWar in Denmark and Norway\nFollowing the Battle of Leipzig, Bernadotte and his Army of the North parted ways with the rest of the Coalition armies, determined to see the guarantees over the Danish cession of Norway to Sweden enforced. In December 1813, Bernadotte\'s Army, now some 65,000, composed only of Swedish and Russian troops following the secondment of the Prussian troops to Blücher\'s army, attacked the Danish Army in Holstein. In a lightning campaign of only two weeks the Swedes subdued the Danes. General Anders Skjöldebrand defeated the Danes at Bornhöved on 7 December 1813. Three days later, the Danish Auxiliary Corps scored a minor victory at Sehested.\n\nHowever, while the Danish victory managed to ensure the retreat of the main Danish army from immediate destruction, and brought about a three-week armistice, it could not change the course of war. Following a break-down of negotiations, the armistice concluded and on 14 January 1814 Bernadotte invaded Schleswig, swiftly invested and reduced its fortresses and occupied the entire province. The Danes, heavily outnumbered, could not prevent an Allied advance on Jutland or Copenhagen, and sued for peace. It would be the final chapter in the long and bloody history of conflicts between Sweden and Denmark with the former definitively victorious.\n\nOn 14 January 1814, the Treaty of Kiel was concluded between Sweden and Denmark–Norway. By the terms of the treaty, the Kingdom of Norway was to be ceded to the King of Sweden. However, the Norwegians rejected this, declaring independence and adopting their own constitution on 17 May. On 27 July, Bernadotte and his Swedish forces (the Russians parted ways after the Danish Campaign) invaded Norway with 70,000 well-trained, well-equipped men, many of whom were veterans of the Leipzig Campaign. Facing them were 30,000 Norwegian militia, who were short on equipment and training but full of patriotic ardor and acquitted themselves well in the face of overwhelming odds. Following a short war, where the Norwegians fought well, winning battles at Lier and Matrand, but could not stop the Swedes from advancing, an armistice (the Convention of Moss) was concluded on 14 August. The terms of Union were generous to the Norwegians as Bernadotte and the Swedes had no wish to inaugurate the union of Sweden and Norway with further bloodshed. Norway agreed to enter into a personal union with Sweden as a separate state with its own constitution and institutions, except for the common king and foreign service. The Union between Sweden and Norway was formally established on 4 November 1814, when the Parliament of Norway adopted the necessary constitutional amendments, and elected Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway.\n\nWith his primary goal of detaching Norway from Denmark and binding it with Sweden achieved, Bernadotte and his Army of the North played no further major role in the war against the French beyond occupying the Low Countries and masking the French forces still garrisoned in fortresses throughout northern Germany.\n\nPeninsular War\n\nWhile events unfolded in the East, the Peninsular War in Iberia continued to be Napoleon\'s "Spanish ulcer" tying down hundreds of thousands of French soldiers. In 1813, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, finally broke the French power in Spain and forced the French to retreat. In a strategic move, Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the valley of the River Zadorra. At the Battle of Vitoria, 21 June, the 65,000 French under Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellington pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastián, which was sacked and burnt.\n\nThe allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Marshal Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the allied generals two sharp defeats at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. Yet, he was put again onto the defensive by the British army and its Portuguese allies, lost momentum, and finally fled after the allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (28 and 30 July).\n\nIn the Battle of the Pyrenees Wellington fought far from his supply line but won with a mixture of manoeuvre, shock and persistent hounding of the French forces.\n\nOn 7 October, after Wellington received news of the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the Coalition allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidasoa river. On 11 December, a beleaguered and desperate Napoleon agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay, under which he would release and recognize Ferdinand VII as King of Spain in exchange for a complete cessation of hostilities. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting Napoleon, and the fighting continued on into France.\n\nWar in France\n\nDuring the last months of 1813 and into 1814 Wellington led the Peninsular army into south-west France and fought a number of battles against Marshals Soult and Suchet. The Peninsular army gained victories at Vera pass, the Battle of Nivelle, the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (10–14 December 1813), the Battle of Orthez (27 February 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (10 April).\n\nAfter retreating from Germany, Napoleon fought a series of battles, including the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, in France, but was steadily forced back against overwhelming odds.  During the campaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conscripts, but only a fraction of these were ever raised. In early February Napoleon fought his Six Days\' Campaign, in which he won multiple battles against numerically superior enemy forces marching on Paris. However, he fielded less than 80,000 soldiers during this entire campaign against a Coalition force of between 370,000 and 405,000 engaged in the campaign. At the Treaty of Chaumont (9 March) the Allies agreed to preserve the Coalition until Napoleon\'s total defeat. After defeating the French on the outskirts of Paris, on 31 March the Coalition armies entered the city with Tsar Alexander I at the head of the army followed by the King of Prussia and Prince Schwarzenberg. On 2 April the French Senate passed the Acte de déchéance de l\'Empereur, which declared Napoleon deposed.\n\nAbdication and peace\nNapoleon was determined to fight on, proposing to march on Paris. His soldiers and regimental officers were eager to fight on. But Napoleon\'s marshals and senior officers mutinied. On 4 April, Napoleon was confronted by his marshals and senior officers, led by Ney. They told the Emperor that they refused to march. Napoleon asserted that the army would follow him. Ney replied, "The army will follow its chiefs".\n\nNapoleon abdicated on 11 April 1814 and the war officially ended soon after, although some fighting continued until May. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on 11 April 1814 between the continental powers and Napoleon, followed by the Treaty of Paris on 30 May 1814 between France and the Great Powers including Britain. The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and restored the Bourbon monarchy in the person of Louis XVIII. The Allied leaders attended Peace Celebrations in England in June, before progressing to the Congress of Vienna (between September 1814 and June 1815), which was held to redraw the map of Europe.\n\nSee also \n Napoleonic Wars\n Peninsular War\n War of the Fifth Coalition\n The Hundred Days or the War of the Seventh Coalition\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n Napoleon, His Armies and Tactics\n Collection of historical eBooks about the War of the Sixth Coalition \n\nCoalition, 6th\n1810s in France\n1810s in Europe\nConflicts in 1813\nConflicts in 1814\nCoalition Wars',
    'The 2nd Armoured Division was a division of the British Army that was active during the early stages of the Second World War. The division\'s creation had been discussed since the beginning of 1939, with the intent to form it by splitting the 1st Armoured Division. A lack of tanks delayed this until December 1939. For a short period after its creation, the division had no assigned units until the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was assigned to it from the 1st Armoured Division, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade from Southern Command.\n\nIn early 1940, 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, leaving the 2nd Armoured Division understrength and equipped largely with light tanks. After the Battle of France, with the threat of a German invasion of the United Kingdom, priority for equipment shifted to the 2nd Armoured Division, which was brought up to strength. The plan was to use the division to counter-attack the flanks of a feared German invasion force. In August 1940, an armoured regiment from the division was transported to Egypt and transferred to the 7th Armoured Division, but it was replaced by another. In October, it was decided to transfer the rest of the division to Egypt, as reinforcements for Middle East Command.\n\nBefore leaving for Egypt, the division exchanged brigades with the 1st Armoured Division. Since the brigade received in exchange consisted of only one armoured regiment, division strength was reduced to three armoured regiments. Upon arriving in Egypt in December 1940, the division was further reduced in order to provide support for Operation Lustre, an expeditionary force to Greece. The detached units included two-thirds of the division\'s tanks, a battalion of infantry, and artillery support. The remnants of the division then moved to the province of Cyrenaica in Italian Libya, which had been conquered during Operation Compass. The division\'s remaining tanks were worn-out; they were supplemented by captured Italian models that were equally decrepit. In March, a German-Italian counter-attack led to the destruction of the division, and the ejection of the British from Cyrenaica, except for Tobruk. The consensus of historians is that there was little the division could have done to prevent this, given the circumstances of its being under equipped, poorly supplied, lacking proper training, and having inadequate communications and an unclear chain of command.\n\nBackground\nDuring the interwar period, the British Army examined the lessons learnt from the First World War; and a need was seen for experimentation with and development of theories of manoeuvre and armoured warfare, as well as the creation of the short-lived Experimental Mechanized Force. The long-term impact was for the army to start to move towards mechanisation, to enhance battlefield mobility. By the 1930s, the army had established three types of divisions: the infantry division, the mobile division (later called an armoured division), and the motor division (a motorised infantry division). The primary role of the infantry division was to penetrate the enemy\'s defensive line, with the support of infantry tanks. Any gap created would then be exploited by mobile divisions, and the territory thus captured would be secured by the fast-moving motor divisions. These tactics would transform the attack into a break-through, while maintaining mobility.\n\nThe Mobile Division was created in October 1937; it included six light tank regiments, three medium tank regiments, two motorized infantry battalions, and two artillery regiments. The light-tank units were intended for reconnaissance only. General John Burnett-Stuart, who was responsible for training the Mobile Division, stated that the infantry were not "to be put on to a position by tanks and told to hold it, and they are not meant to fight side by side with your tanks in the forefront"; the infantry\'s role was simply to protect the tanks when they were stationary. Burnett-Stuart\'s tactics did not conform with British doctrine, which promoted combined-arms co-operation to win battles, as did German armoured warfare doctrine, which held that tanks by themselves would not be a decisive weapon. However, Burnett-Stuart\'s thinking predominated within the British armoured forces until the doctrine was reformed in 1942.\n\nIn the 1930s, tensions increased between Germany and the United Kingdom. During 1937 and 1938, German demands for the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia led to an international crisis. This was resolved in September 1938 by the Munich Agreement, which allowed for German annexation. Tensions did not subside, and the British government debated how best to prepare the army for war. In January 1939, the Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore-Belisha proposed splitting the Mobile Division into two smaller formations but found no support for this move. The issue was broached again a month later, and was accepted in principle by the cabinet. Shortly after, the French were informed of a preliminary timetable for the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in the event of war: "One Regular Armoured Division will become available about the middle of 1940, the second would not be available \'till a later date. The formation of a second division during this period was complicated by the slow pace of British tank production.\n\nFormation and home service\n\nThe 2nd Armoured Division was activated on 15 December 1939, with Major-General Frederick Hotblack as the first general officer commanding (GOC). Hotblack had joined the Royal Tank Corps in 1916, and by 1918 he had become the army\'s expert on German tanks. During the 1930s, he had been posted to Germany, where he witnessed and reported on the development of German armoured forces. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, he was the BEF\'s senior advisor on armoured vehicles. \n\nThe division had no assigned fighting sub-units until the following month, when the 1st Light Armoured Brigade was transferred from the 1st Armoured Division (previously the Mobile Division), and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was transferred from Southern Command. On assignment to the division, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade comprised three armoured regiments: the 1st King\'s Dragoon Guards (KDG), the 3rd The King\'s Own Hussars (3H), and the 4th Queen\'s Own Hussars (4H). The 22nd Heavy Brigade consisted of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, and the 3rd and the 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters).\n\nThe 2nd Support Group, which would comprise the division\'s supporting arms, was formed in February. It did not have sub-units allocated until March; it was then composed of the 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers; the 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (12 RHA); the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light-Anti-aircraft/Anti-tank Regiment; and two motorised infantry units – the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, King\'s Royal Rifle Corps, and the 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort\'s Own).\n\nThe war establishment – the nominal full wartime strength – for a light armoured brigade was 108 light tanks and 66 cruiser tanks. A heavy armoured brigade\'s war establishment was 157 cruiser tanks. British doctrine defined light tanks as reconnaissance vehicles armed only with machine guns. Cruiser tanks were swift moving, more heavily armoured, and equipped with both a machine gun and an anti-tank gun. The primary role of the cruiser tank was to engage and destroy opposing armoured forces. Its main weapon, a 2-pounder anti-tank gun, was only supplied with armour-piecing rounds. This meant that cruiser tanks were ineffective against entrenched infantry, or in suppressing hostile artillery. Despite its war establishment, the division comprised a total of only 77 Vickers light tanks in January 1940.\n\nIn early 1940, to bring it up to full strength, the 1st Armoured Division was given priority for equipment, to ensure it would be operationally effective when deployed to France. However, the 2nd Armoured Division strength only increased slowly; and it was not immediately issued with cruiser tanks. On 14 April, the 1st Light Armoured Brigade became the 1st Armoured Brigade, and the 22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade was renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade. The renaming followed a change in the war establishment of an armoured regiment. The armament of regiments and brigades was to be homogeneous, with each brigade having 166 cruiser tanks. In total, including tanks assigned to headquarter units, an armoured division now had an establishment of 340 tanks, sixteen 25-pounder field gun-howitzers, and twenty-four 2-pounder anti-tank guns. By May, the division had 31 light tanks in the 1st Armoured Brigade. The 22nd Armoured Brigade had no serviceable tanks, and made do with lorries in lieu of tanks. The division had two 25-pounders, supplemented by four First World War–vintage 18-pounder field guns, four QF  howitzers of similar vintage, and two anti-tank guns.\n\nOn 10 May, Major-General Justice Tilly took command after Hotblack was removed following an apparent stroke. Tilly had been an armoured warfare instructor and commander of the 1st Tank Brigade prior to the outbreak of the war.\n\nDuring this period, the division was held in reserve in the Lincolnshire area. In June, the number of serviceable tanks fluctuated between 178 and 197. After the Battle of France, the division was moved to a position between Northampton, Northamptonshire, and Newmarket, Suffolk. The division\'s role was to strike into the flanks or the rear of any potential German landing in East Anglia or north of The Wash. During July, the division was given equipment priority and received new 25-pounders. By 4 August, the division had 17 new cruiser tanks, and the number of light tanks had increased to 226. During August, despite the threat of invasion, the War Office decided to reinforce Middle East Command. The 3H was transferred to Egypt to reinforce the 7th Armoured Division; it was replaced by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment (3RTR). The division had a steady increase in tank strength, and at the end of September it had 256 light tanks and 54 cruisers.\n\nBy October, the threat of a German invasion had receded. The British could now spare additional forces for the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre, including the 2nd Armoured Division. Prior to being dispatched, the 22nd Armoured Brigade was exchanged for the 3rd Armoured Brigade of the 1st Armoured Division. The 3rd Armoured Brigade consisted of only one regiment, the 5th Royal Tank Regiment (5RTR). The division departed Liverpool in late October, on Convoy W.S. 4a.\n\nOverseas service\n\nArrival in the Middle East\nThe convoy sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and arrived at Suez at the end of December. The division arrived in Egypt with just three armoured regiments: the 4H, the 3RTR, and the 5RTR. The KDG, which had previously been equipped with light tanks, had been made the division\'s armoured-car regiment. This had been intended as a stop-gap measure while the 1st The Royal Dragoons, based in Palestine, was mechanised to take on the role. In January 1941, after the division\'s arrival in Egypt, the KDG were outfitted with Marmon-Herrington Armoured Cars. On arrival, Tilly reported to General Archibald Wavell (in command of Middle East Command and all British land forces in the Middle East) that "the mechanical state of his two Cruiser regiments" was in question, with "the tracks ... practically worn out" and "engines [that] had already done a considerable mileage" without overhaul before being transported. The intention had been to replace the tracks once the tanks arrived in Egypt, but the available spare parts were found to be useless.\n\nOn 5 January, Tilly died following an air crash. He was replaced by Major-General Michael Gambier-Parry on 12 February 1941. Gambier-Parry had served in the infantry during the First World War, transferred to the Royal Tank Corps in the 1920s, and commanded an infantry brigade in the 1930s. Prior to his appointment as GOC, he was part of a diplomatic mission to Greece.\n\nWhile the division was en route to Egypt, Operation Compass had been launched. This was a counter-attack against the Italian invasion of Egypt. The initial objective was limited: to destroy forward Italian forces and advance as far as Sollum, near the Libyan border, if the situation allowed. By the time the division had arrived, Compass was on the verge of defeating the Italian 10th Army. By February, the offensive had captured the Italian Libyan province of Cyrenaica. Further prosecution of the offensive was discussed, but it was believed that the province of Tripolitania would be too hard to defend or supply if captured and that the occupation of Cyrenaica would provide sufficient security for Egypt. The British believed that there would not be an Axis threat to their gains until at least May, by which time additional Allied forces would be available to reinforce the Cyrenaica garrison.\n\nBritish strategy shifted to supporting Greece, and to maintaining the status-quo in the Balkans, to prevent additional countries from being occupied by Germany or Italy. After discussions with the Greek government, it was decided to dispatch a substantial expeditionary force. This was partly made up by reducing the garrison in Cyrenaica. The transportation of this force was codenamed Operation Lustre. On 27 February, as a result, the 1st Armoured Brigade was detached from the division and assigned to the expeditionary force. On 18 March, it arrived in Greece with two armoured regiments, which included 52 cruisers and 52 light tanks. The division also lost the 1st Battalion, The Rangers, the 12RHA, and the 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Regiment to the expeditionary force. These units subsequently fought in the Battle of Greece.\n\nMove to Libya\n\nIn March, the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division departed Egypt and travelled to Libya, suffering many breakdowns en route. The 5RTR began the journey with 58 cruisers, but arrived with 23. Once in Libya, the division consisted of the KDG, the 3H, the 5RTR, the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, and the 104th RHA. The 6th Royal Tank Regiment (6RTR), based in Cyrenaica, was assigned to the division. The 6RTR had been involved in Operation Compass, and towards the end of the operation had been stripped of its remaining serviceable tanks to reinforce other British units. It was then re-equipped with captured Italian Fiat M13/40 tanks. Although equipped with a good 47mm anti-tank gun, the M13 was slow, uncomfortable, and mechanically unreliable. The British tanks were also unreliable, having exceeded their engine lives. Other division deficiencies included a lack of transport, understaffed workshops, a lack of spare parts, and radios that lacked the required equipment to remain functional. By the end of March, the division had 102 tanks: 3H had 26 MK VI light tanks and 12 M13s; 5RTR, 25 Cruiser Mk IVs; 6RTR, 36 M13s; 3rd Armoured Brigade HQ, 3 MK VI light tanks.\n\nBenghazi was the port closest to the frontline. However, Axis bombing had rendered it unusable for landing supplies. The 2nd Armoured Division therefore had to rely on overland routes from Tobruk, which was about  away via the coastal road, or  via desert tracks. A lack of transport meant the British Army created a series of static stockpiles to supply their forward area. This made it impossible to supply a garrison west of El Agheila, which was the most favourable defensive position. It also restricted the mobility of the 2nd Armoured Division, which could not move beyond the range of their supply dumps.\n\nThe terrain between El Agheila and Benghazi was optimal for armoured warfare, and no easily defensible infantry position existed. Lieutenant-General Philip Neame, GOC Cyrenaica Command, believed his position was untenable without a fully equipped armoured division supported by two complete infantry divisions and adequate air support. The only other major formation available to Neame was the 9th Australian Division. It was under-equipped, under-trained, and lacked direct communication with the 2nd Armoured Division. One of the 9th Australian Division\'s brigades remained at Tobruk. The other two were positioned north of Benghazi to hold the high ground of the Jebel Akhdar. The 3rd Armoured Brigade was based southeast of Mersa Brega, where the 2nd Support Group was located. Neame was ordered to give ground if attacked, as the conservation of his force was important. The 2nd Armoured Division had the conflicting objectives of avoiding tank losses while having to be ready to operate offensively against the flanks of any attacking Axis armoured force. Neame also predicted that once operations got underway, the 2nd Armoured Division\'s tank numbers would rapidly dwindle due to breakdowns.\n\nAxis offensive\n\nMarch\n\nAfter the destruction of the 10th Army, Italy dispatched reinforcements to its frontline. This included four infantry divisions, the 102 Motorised Division "Trento" and the 132nd Armoured Division "Ariete". Germany supplemented this effort with the two-division strong  ( Erwin Rommel). At the end of March, the German 5th Light Division (147 tanks) and the "Ariete" Division (46 M13/40s) were on the border of Cyrenaica. The British underestimated the size of the Axis effort, believing that only four divisions would be available to them until the end of May, of which only two could be used in offensive operations due to supply constraints. Royal Air Force (RAF) aerial reconnaissance observed Axis troop movements towards Cyrenaica, and on 25 February spotted German armoured cars that were superior in speed and armament to those used by the 2nd Armoured Division. The reconnaissance elements of the latter avoided contact with their German counterparts to minimise losses.\n\nThe British forward area was patrolled by one platoon from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles, supported by an anti-tank gun from the 9th Australian Division, and elements of the KDG. On 23 March, the division had its first action when a German reconnaissance patrol was engaged and forced to withdraw, near El Agheila, the Australians claiming three German vehicles knocked out. Axis forces took up position in an abandoned colonial fort near El Agheila and ambushed a patrol from the 1st Tower Hamlets Rifles the following day. German armoured cars also attacked and one was knocked out by the Australian gun crew, which also suffered casualties. The British screening force then withdrew to Mersa Brega, ceding El Agheila to the Axis. German tanks followed, and one or two were lost to anti-tank mines (possibly left over Italian mines, which had not been cleared).\n\nOn 31 March, the Axis resumed their advance, and engaged just after dawn. Sources describe either one engagement from both the British and German perspectives or two clashes. The German 5th Light Division reported engaging up to five British tanks, in two inconclusive engagements with no losses on either side. While observing the Axis advance, the 5RTR reported a patrol of four enemy tanks, which they engaged, claiming three Italian tanks possibly destroyed, with one British tank damaged in return. By 09:00, the 3rd Armoured Brigade started a planned withdrawal. After 10:00, German forces attacked the 2nd Support Group. Fighting lasted through the day, with the British fending off several assaults, including attacks by German Junkers Ju 87  dive bombers. The 2nd Armoured Division claimed two aircraft destroyed and the Germans recorded their own tanks being subjected to friendly fire. A request for the 3rd Armoured Brigade to be deployed to reinforce the 2nd Support Group was denied. Gambier-Parry reported that there was "insufficient time to get them into action from their present position before dark". After dark, the 2nd Support Group withdrew  to Agedabia. The Germans captured Mersa Brega the next morning, without further incident. The fighting cost the division 59 men, one tank, eight universal carriers and numerous other vehicles.\n\nApril\n\nThe Germans followed, and attacked the 2nd Support Group on 2 April. The latter withdrew a further , and lost men in rearguard actions or to being surrounded. On the desert flank, the 3rd Armoured Brigade continued to withdraw, although only at  in order to match the slowest vehicles, which were towing artillery. For most of the day, their movements were shadowed by armoured vehicles they were unable to identify. During the afternoon, the withdrawal was further slowed by breakdowns, conflicting orders, and the need to rest and refuel. This allowed the shadowing armoured vehicles to gain ground. Nine tanks from the 5RTR were ordered to conduct a rearguard action and took up hull-down positions. The 5RTR believed the shadowing tanks were Italian, although they were actually German. The German tanks advanced in an arrowhead formation towards the 5RTR. When the range was between , both sides opened fire. The 5RTR suffered five tank losses and 24 casualties. The 5RTR\'s after action report claimed at least eight enemy tanks in return, although German records indicate that only three German tanks were destroyed, "along with an unrecorded number damaged". The remaining British tanks withdrew to friendly positions, and the regiment regrouped  further back. The brigade then resumed its retreat, with no German vehicles following. During the day, Gambier-Parry, Neame, and Wavell all issued contradictory orders and queries to the division. These concerned the feasibility of withdrawal, the division\'s capacity to block the coastal road, and whether the division should remain concentrated or split up. The discussions were hampered by ignorance of events, and notably included Neame informing Gambier-Parry that the 3rd Armoured Brigade was not to be committed en masse without his permission.\n\nEarly on 3 April, the 3rd Armoured Brigade reached Antelat (~ northeast of Agedabia, and half way to Msus), and had been located by German aerial reconnaissance. Unknown to the division, the bulk of the German 5th Light Division had halted near Bir el Ageradt and was focused on resupplying, although German and Italian detachments were ordered to probe the southern flank of the 2nd Armoured Division and reconnoitre towards Msus. In the afternoon, the movements of the 3H and the 6RTR caused alarm and confusion within the 5RTR, which at first believed them to be German. The RAF then reported Axis forces approaching Msus, the site of the main divisional supply dump. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, along with some elements of the Support Group, were ordered to move to Msus to deal with the hostile force. However, the division was crippled by a breakdown in communication, resulting in conflicting, late, and missed orders. None of the division arrived at Msus during the day. It was established late in the afternoon that the RAF had mistakenly identified friendly vehicles in the area as the enemy. By the end of the day, the 3rd Armoured Brigade had been reduced to 18 light tanks, 26 M13s, and 12 cruisers.\n\nOn 4 April, Axis forces entered Benghazi, which had been abandoned by the Allies. During the day, divisional artillery fire halted German reconnaissance forces near Charruba. At midday, Lieutenant-General Richard O\'Connor (GOC British Troops in Egypt) arrived at the front and held a meeting with the senior commanders in Cyrenaica, including Gambier-Parry, who opined that the Axis forces would not attempt a further advance now that Benghazi had been taken. However, the decision was made to withdraw from the Jebel Achdar, and for the 2nd Armoured Division to concentrate at Mechili to protect the withdrawal of the Australian infantry. Brigadier Edward Vaughan\'s recently arrived 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was ordered to secure Mechili, an old Italian stone-and-mud colonial fort ringed by trenches, to ensure it was in Allied hands when the division arrived. Communication failures impeded the division\'s withdrawal during the day, and further tanks were lost from breakdowns. A supply convoy dispatched for the division was attacked by 18 Axis aircraft, and destroyed with the loss of  of fuel. By the end of the day, the 5RTR had nine cruiser tanks, and the 6RTR had nine M13s. The following day, alarmist reports suggested Axis armoured forces had passed Msus; but the KDG, and other Allied units, verified that this was not the case. The tank sightings turned out to be the 2nd Armoured Division. In reality, the nearest Axis unit was  from Msus.\n\nGeneral withdrawal\n\nOn 6 April, Axis forces moved towards Mechili, with the intention of advancing toward the coast, and thereby encircling the retreating Allied forces. This move was reported by the KDG and the RAF. The division started the day with 8 cruiser tanks, 14 light tanks, and 2 M13s. During the day, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was attached to the division. Mechili was subjected to Axis artillery fire, and Indian patrols took numerous Axis prisoners around the perminter throughout the day. Neame, unaware of these events, set off into the desert to locate Gambier-Parry to deliver new instructions. At the same time, the attack on the fort prompted O\'Connor to order a general withdrawal of all Allied forces towards Gazala, via Derna.\n\nConflicting and confusing orders to withdraw were issued, which fragmented the division, the withdrawal orders failing entirely to reach the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. At first, the division moved east towards Mechili. Following its instructions, the 2nd Support Group turned north towards the coastal road. The divisional headquarters, including Gambier-Parry and a battery of artillery, continued towards Mechili. The 3rd Armoured Brigade, which had run low on fuel, moved north to Maraura, but found little petrol there. The brigade then moved towards Derna, via Giovanni Berta. At the same time, the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade escorted a fuel convoy from Mechili towards where they expected the division to be. In the afternoon, a patrol of the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade, based at El Adem, intercepted advanced Italian troops at Acroma, near Tobruk, and took 18 prisoners. A buildup of Axis forces took place near Mechili. Towards dusk, a German officer demanded the garrison\'s surrender and was refused. Near Derna, German troops briefly managed to block some desert tracks, before moving to a position near the coastal road east of the town. German patrols intercepted and disrupted some Allied convoys, and captured Neame and O\'Connor, but the route east remained open until the following day.\n\nEarly on 7 April, Brigadier Reginald Rimington, GOC 3rd Armoured Brigade, was mortally wounded and captured after an ambush on a desert track en route to Derna. By dawn, the 2nd Support Group and the 3rd Armoured Brigade were stretched out, stuck in traffic west of Derna; Gambier-Parry and the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade had been surrounded at Mechili; and other elements of the division were positioned near Derna to control the road and desert tracks, fighting with Axis forces intermittently throughout the day. At Timimi, near Gazala, Axis armoured cars ambushed retreating Australian forces, but were repulsed by a lone cruiser tank from the 5RTR, whose remaining tanks arrived at Derna in the afternoon. By 14:30, the majority of the division had moved through Derna. To the south of Derna, German forces had captured the town\'s airfield and established a blocking position. The division\'s rearguard, now separated from the rest of the division, fought an afternoon-long battle with this German force. Several German attacks were fended off, with eight German armoured cars claimed as destroyed. Around 17:15, the 5RTR attacked the German position and lost their remaining tanks but successfully covered the withdrawal of the remainder of the rearguard. Barton Maughan, author of the Australian official history for this period of the fighting, wrote "by coincidence ... the 5th Royal Tanks ... [were] where they were most needed and could be most effectively employed that day". The British official history recorded "the action cleared the road also for any troops that remained in Derna" as well as allowing the rearguard to get away.\n\nDemise\nAt Mechili, on 7 April, the Germans continued to build up their forces surrounding the British position. The garrison was subjected to intermittent artillery fire, and skirmishing took place around the perimeter. Two separate German envoys demanded the garrison surrender, and both demands were refused by Gambier-Parry. Around 22:00, Gambier-Parry re-established communication with Cyrenaica Command. He was informed that neither the rest of his division nor any other force would be joining him, and was ordered to break out at first light, with El Adem his destination.\n\nThe planned break-out was to be led by a single cruiser tank, with infantry support from the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade. The intent was to use a small force to punch a hole through the Axis defensive positions prior to dawn, to negate the Axis anti-tank gun advantage; that would then be followed by the rest of the force east into the desert. Maughan wrote, "If the original plan had been adhered to, if it had been boldly executed, a great measure of success might have been achieved. But the operation miscarried badly". On 8 April, the tank was delayed and the cover of dark lost. Despite this, the 18th King Edward\'s Own Cavalry (18th Cavalry) achieved surprise when they attacked and scattered the personnel of an Italian battery. Instead of exploiting this success, the rest of the escape column waited for the cruiser tank to advance. A second attack was launched by the 11th Prince Albert Victor\'s Own Cavalry (Frontier Force), which likewise broke through the Axis defenses. However, the cruiser tank was destroyed when it advanced towards the battery silenced by the 18th Cavalry; the Italians had returned to their guns.\n\nFollowing this Allied failure, the Axis forces attacked the garrison. Gambier-Parry decided to surrender, to spare further casualties, and fighting ceased by 08:00. Roughly 3,000 Allied troops were captured at Mechili, including Gambier-Parry and Vaughan. A force of at least 150 men, from the 3rd RHA and the 2nd Lancers (Gardner\'s Horse), refused to capitulate. They charged, unmolested, through Axis positions in non-armoured vehicles. The majority of this small force made it to Tobruk, taking prisoners en route. Elements of the 6RTR, which had failed to reach Derna prior to the Axis arrival, moved south into the desert to avoid contact. They continued east, before meeting British reconnaissance forces near El Adem on 10 April, and reached Tobruk just prior to midnight. On 10 May 1941, the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded. The units that constituted the division continued the war with other formations. In October 1941, XXX Corps was formed with officers largely from the remnants of the 2nd Armoured Division HQ staff.\n\nAssessment\n"This division [has not] had an opportunity for adequate training...  It was a collection of units, three of which had only [just] joined... rather than a trained formation. The breakdown in control and administration was largely due to this fact". – From a contemporary after action report, by 2nd Armoured Division senior officers.\n\nAn unnamed officer from the division later blamed the division\'s fate on Gambier-Parry, whom he called "a conventional and slow minded soldier who couldn\'t cope with the unexpected". The historian David French wrote that some critics, such as Major-General David Belchem, blamed the poor performance of British armoured formations in the desert on officers who had cavalry backgrounds and knew little of armoured warfare. French wrote "such strictures are exaggerated", highlighted that Gambier-Parry started his career in the infantry before he transferred to the Royal Tank Corps, and stated that singling him out for blame is harsh.\n\nSeveral factors have been identified as key reasons for the division\'s rapid decline in tank strength and ineffectiveness in the face of Axis forces: tanks that were not serviceable, an inadequate logistical support system, a lack of training, a burdensome chain of command, and ineffective communications. The 5RTR lost 38 tanks in Libya, but only nine were lost to enemy action. With the exception of one that was destroyed when it hit a thermos bomb, the rest had broken down. The lack of a forward port or railhead meant that supplies had to be moved at least , but there was insufficient transport to build up a sufficient stockpile of supplies for the division. The division\'s staff were undertrained for the task they were asked to perform. While brave, the tank crews were inflexible and failed to follow their tactical training. British tactical doctrine encouraged ambush counter-attacks, but the formation failed to undertake any. At the squadron and regimental level, the chain of command impeded mobility, as permission was needed to move a single tank from an assigned position. This resulted in rapid tank losses once combat was underway. At the higher level, the division received instructions from Gambier-Parry, Neame, Wavell, and O\'Connor. This overlapping chain of command resulted in delayed, misunderstood, mixed, and changed orders that severely impeded the division\'s capability.\n\nDue to these factors, the general and historian David Fraser wrote, once "the Germans chose to drive across the chord of the Cyrenaican arc there was little to stop them". At no point during the Axis advance, did the division offer a threat or hindrance. However, when they did engage, both sides lacked flexibility and acted against their own doctrines. Furthermore, the German lack of understanding of what the 2nd Armoured Division was doing resulted in their 5th Light Division having to send 83 tanks to workshops for repairs after they had chased the 2nd Armoured Division through the desert.\n\nGeneral officer commanding\n\nOrders of battle\n\nDecember 1939 – October 1940\n\n1st Light Armoured Brigade (assigned 19 January 1940, and renamed the 1st Armoured Brigade on 14 April)\n 3rd (The King\'s Own) Hussars (until 14 August 1940)\n 4th Queen\'s Own Hussars\n 1st King\'s Dragoon Guards\n 3rd Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment (from 11 August 1940)\n\n22nd Heavy Armoured Brigade (assigned 15 January 1940, and renamed the 22nd Armoured Brigade on 14 April)\n 2nd Royal Gloucestershire Hussars\n 3rd County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)\n 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters)\n\n3rd Armoured Brigade (assigned 5 October 1940)\n 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n\n2nd Support Group (assigned 5 February 1940)\n 1st Battalion The Rangers, The King\'s Royal Rifle Corps\n 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort\'s Own)\n 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Light Anti-Aircraft/Anti-Tank Regiment\n 12th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (until 7 August 1940)\n 2nd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (from 11 July 1940)\n 3rd Field Squadron, Royal Engineers (until 9 June 1940)\n 142nd Field Park Troop (from 30 March 1940 until 9 June)\n\nDivisional troops\n 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals\n Royal Engineers\n 3rd Field Squadron (assigned 10 June 1940)\n 142nd Field Park Troop (assigned 10 June 1940)\n\nLibya, 1941\n\n3rd Armoured Brigade\n 3rd (The King\'s Own) Hussars\n 5th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n 6th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment\n\n3rd Indian Motor Brigade (6–8 April 1941)\n 2nd Lancers (Gardner\'s Horse)\n 11th Prince Albert Victor\'s Own Cavalry (Frontier Force)\n 18th King Edward\'s Own Cavalry\n\n2nd Support Group\n 1st Battalion, Tower Hamlets Rifles, Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort\'s Own) (also known as the 9th Battalion, the Rifle Brigade (Tower Hamlets Rifles)\n 1st Company, Free French 1st Motor Marine Infantry Battalion (attached)\n 102nd (Northumberland Hussars) Anti-Tank Regiment\n 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery\n\nDivisional troops\n 1st King\'s Dragoon Guards (Armoured Car, divisional reconnaissance regiment until 22 March 1941)\n 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals\n\nSee also\n\n British Army during the Second World War\n British Armoured formations of World War II\n List of British divisions in World War II\n\nNotes\n Footnotes\n\n Citations\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\nArmoured divisions of the British Army in World War II\nBritish armoured divisions\nMilitary units and formations established in 1939\nMilitary units and formations disestablished in 1941\nMilitary units and formations of the British Empire in World War II',
]
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings.shape)
# [3, 768]

# Get the similarity scores for the embeddings
similarities = model.similarity(embeddings, embeddings)
print(similarities.shape)
# [3, 3]
```

<!--
### Direct Usage (Transformers)

<details><summary>Click to see the direct usage in Transformers</summary>

</details>
-->

<!--
### Downstream Usage (Sentence Transformers)

You can finetune this model on your own dataset.

<details><summary>Click to expand</summary>

</details>
-->

<!--
### Out-of-Scope Use

*List how the model may foreseeably be misused and address what users ought not to do with the model.*
-->

<!--
## Bias, Risks and Limitations

*What are the known or foreseeable issues stemming from this model? You could also flag here known failure cases or weaknesses of the model.*
-->

<!--
### Recommendations

*What are recommendations with respect to the foreseeable issues? For example, filtering explicit content.*
-->

## Training Details

### Training Dataset

#### Unnamed Dataset


* Size: 21,875 training samples
* Columns: <code>sentence_0</code>, <code>sentence_1</code>, and <code>sentence_2</code>
* Approximate statistics based on the first 1000 samples:
  |         | sentence_0                                                                         | sentence_1                                                                           | sentence_2                                                                           |
  |:--------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | type    | string                                                                             | string                                                                               | string                                                                               |
  | details | <ul><li>min: 4 tokens</li><li>mean: 36.21 tokens</li><li>max: 512 tokens</li></ul> | <ul><li>min: 512 tokens</li><li>mean: 512.0 tokens</li><li>max: 512 tokens</li></ul> | <ul><li>min: 30 tokens</li><li>mean: 510.33 tokens</li><li>max: 512 tokens</li></ul> |
* Samples:
  | sentence_0                                                                                                    | sentence_1                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | sentence_2                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
  |:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
  | <code>낮 12시에 발달한 순환 중심이 발생한 이후에 멕시코 만사니요 남서쪽 약 200해리 부근 해상에 위치한 열대폭풍 존은 어떻게 형성되고 발전하는 것인가요?</code>            | <code>독도()는 동해의 남서부, 울릉도와 오키 제도 사이에 위치한 동도와 서도를 포함해 총 91개의 크고 작은 섬들로 이루어져 있는 대한민국의 섬이다. 울릉도에서 뱃길로 200여 리나 떨어져 있다. 서양권에서는 1849년에 독도를 발견한 프랑스 선박인 '리앙쿠르 호'의 이름을 따서 리앙쿠르 암초(, )라고 부른다.<br><br>현재 대한민국이 실효지배하고 있으나 일본국 정부에서는 다케시마()라는 명칭으로 영유권을 주장하고 있다.<br><br>최종덕이 1965년 3월부터 최초 거주한 이래로 김성도 부부 및 독도경비대원 35명, 등대 관리원 2명, 울릉군청 독도관리 사무소 직원 2명 등 약 40명이 거주하고 있다. 또한, 2005년 동도에 대한 입도 신고제 도입 이후 2021년 4월 기준 약 200만 명이 방문하였고, 1일 평균 500명이 입도하고 있다.<br><br>명칭 <br>돌로 된 섬이란 뜻의 '돌섬'의 경상도 방언 명칭인 독섬을 한자의 음과 훈을 빌려쓰면서 독도(獨島)가 되었다. 과거에는 우산도(于山島)라고 불렸다.<br><br>독도 분쟁으로 인해 제3국에서는 리앙쿠르 암초(, )라는 중립적인 명칭을 주로 사용한다.<br><br>지리 및 지질 <br><br>이 섬은 동해의 해저 지형 중 울릉분지의 북쪽 경계부분에 위치하고 있으며, 평균 수심 2,000m의 해양 평원에 솟아 있는 화산섬이다. 두 개의 큰 섬인 동도(東島)와 서도(西島)를 중심으로 총 91개의 크고 작은 섬과 암초로 이루어져 있으며, 동도와 서도 사이의 거리는 151m이다. 일본에서는 동도를 오지마(男島), 서도를 메지마(女島)라고 부른다.<br><br>독도의 총 면적은 187,554m²로, 서도(西島)가 88,740m², 동도(東島)가 73,297m², 그 밖의 부속도서가 25,517m²이다. 서도의 최고 높이는 168.5m이고, 동도의 최고 높이는 98.6m이다. 2012년 11월부터 대한민국 정부 고시에 의거하여 서도의 최고봉은 '대한봉'(大韓峰), 동도의 최고봉은 '우산봉'(于山峰)으로 부른다. 동도의 최고봉은 1950년대에는 '성걸봉'으로 불렸으며, 2005년부터 고시 이전까지는 '일출봉'(日出峰)이라 불렸다. 동도와 서도 및 부속 도서는 대부분 수심 10m 미만의 얕은 땅으로 연결되어 있다.<br><br>독도의 동도는 동경 131도 52분 10.4초, 북위 37도 14분 26.8초에 위치하고 있다. 이 섬은 대한민국 경상북도 울릉도에서 동남쪽으로 약 87.4 km 떨어져 있으며, 일본 시마네 현 오키 제도에서는 약 157.5 km 떨어져 있다. 한반도에서의 거리는 약 216.8km이며, 일본 혼슈에서의 거리는 약 211km이다. 날씨가 좋으면 울릉도 동쪽 해안에서 육안으로 이 섬을 볼 수 있다.<br><br>독도는 약 460~250만 년 전에 형성된 해양섬 기원의 화산체로서, 섬 주변에 분포하는 지층들을 아래에서부터 괴상 응회각력암, 조면안산암 I, 층상 라필리응회암, 층상응회암, 조면안산암 II, 스코리아성 층상 라릴리응회암, 조면안산암III, 각력암, 조면암, 염기섬 암맥 등 총 9개의 화산암층으로 이루어져 있다. 현재는 오랜 세월동안 침식되어 화산의 흔적은 찾기 힘들다. 독도(특히 동도)의 지반은 불안정한데, 이것은 단층과 절리, 균열, 그리고 불완전한 공사 등이 원인으로 추정된다. 독도는 지질학적으로 울릉도의 화산암류와 비슷한 전암 화학조성을 갖는 알칼리 현무암, 조면 현무암, 조면 안산암 및 조면암으로 구성되어 있다.<br><br>서도<br>높이 168.5m, 둘레 2.6km, 면적 88,740m² 5필지, 동도에 비해 높이가 높고 면적이 넓지만, 경사가 급한 편이라 필지가 적은 편이다.<br><br>자연환경 - 지형<br> 대한봉: 서도의 정상<br> 탕건봉: 서도 북쪽에 위치하여 봉우리 형상이 탕건을 꼭 닮아 붙여진 이름. 서도 최고봉과 북편에 위치함. 주로 주상절리임. 오른쪽으로 탕건봉이며, 탕건봉 상부는 주상절리, 하부는 타포니 형태이다.<br> 삼형제굴바위: 형상을 아우르는 명칭으로 3개의 동굴이 있어 현지 어민들의 구전에 의한 명칭 안파식 대상에 발달한 시스택으로 서도에는 속하지 않지만 서도 근방에 위치<br> 상장군바위<br> 코끼리바위: 코끼리가 물을 마시는 형상의 독특한 모양에 대하여 불리는 바위<br> 김바위: 독특한 모양에 대한 일관된 명칭 구전으로 김은 해태를 의미함<br><br>동도<br>높이 98.6m, 둘레 2.8km 면적 73,297m² 7필지. 서도에 비해 높이가 낮고 면적이 좁지만, 둘레가 크고 완만해 필지가 많은 편이다.<br><br>자연환경 - 지형 <br> 한반도 바위: 북쪽에서 바라보면 마치 한반도 형상과 꼭 닮아 붙여진 이름. 실제 부속도서를 제외한 한반도의 형상이 보인다.<br> 숫돌바위: 의용수비대원들이 생활할 당시 칼을 갈았다는 곳으로 바위의 암질이 숫돌과 비슷하여 붙여진 이름. 선착장 근처에 노출되는 조면암맥. 차별침식으로 주변의 응회각력암층은 침식되어 없어지고 수면상에 솟아있어 숫돌바위라 일컬으며 주상절리가 거의 수평으로 발달되어 있다.<br> 얼굴바위: 사람의 얼굴과 흡사한 독특한 모양으로 현지어민들의 구전으로 붙여진 이름.<br> 독립문바위: 시아치(왼쪽)와 해식동굴(오른쪽) - 절리밀도가 높은 해안가에 위치하는 기반암 지대에서 발달 한다. 아치의 형태가 대한민국의 지도를 닮아서 잘 알려진 곳이다.<br> 천장굴: 분화구라고도 하였으나 학계에 의하면 침식에 의해 함몰로 생긴 천장동굴로 불린 명칭<br> 물오리바위: 물오리서식지로서 현지어민들에 의해 불리는 명칭으로 물오리는 바다가마우지를 지칭함<br> 춧발바위: 춧발은 갑, 곶 등이 튀어 나온 곳을 의미하는 현지 방언으로 구전되어온 명칭<br> 악어바위: 암석의 측면에서 형성된 풍화혈을 총칭하여 타포니라 한다. 집괴암을 구성하는 작은 역들이 염풍화 작용으로 인하여 기반암으로부터 떨어져 나가면 구멍이 형성되어 있다.<br><br>행정 구역 <br>대한민국의 행정구역에서는 경상북도 울릉군 울릉읍 독도리 산 1-96번지에 속하며 우편번호는 40240이다. 대한민국은 이 섬을 천연기념물 제336호 독도 천연보호구역으로 지정하여 보호하고 있다. 울릉군은 국민 공모를 통해 도로명 주소법에 따른 이 섬의 도로명 주소를 '독도안용복길'(서도)과 '독도이사부길'(동도)로 정하였다. 일본이 주장하는 행정 구역에서는 시마네현 오키군 오키노시마정에 속해 있다.<br><br>기후 <br><br>난류의 영향을 많이 받는 전형적인 해양성 기후로 연간 평균강수량은 1,240mm 정도, 연평균 기온 약 12℃, 1월 평균기온 1℃, 8월 평균기온 23℃로 온난한 편이다. 연평균 풍속은 4.3m/s로 겨울과 봄에는 북서풍이 빈번하고, 여름과 가을에는 남서풍이 빈번하여 계절에 따른 주풍향이 뚜렷하다. 안개가 잦고 연중 날씨 중 흐린 날은 160일 이상이며 비 또는 눈 오는 날은 150일 정도로, 겨울철 강수량이 많다. 즉, 일 년 중 맑은 날은 불과 45일 정도밖에 없다.<br><br>자연 및 자원 <br>두 섬과 주변 섬들은 서로 분리된 듯이 보이지만, 실제로는 해저 2천여 미터로부터 바다 위로 솟은 해산(海山)의 봉우리 부분에 해당된다.<br><br>천연기념물<br><br>독도천연보호구역 <br><br>대한민국은 독도 섬 주변의 바다에 다양한 해양생물이 서식하고 있으며, 섬 일대의 자연환경을 보존하기 위해 이 섬을 천연기념물로 지정하여 보호하고 있다.<br><br>1982년에 "독도 해조류(바다제비·슴새·괭이갈매기) 번식지(獨島海鳥類-繁殖地)"라는 이름으로 천연기념물로 지정했고, 1999년에 천연보호구역으로 명칭을 바꾸어 동식물 전체의 식생을 관리하게 되었다.<br><br>2005년 독도의 기존 토지 및 부속도서를 측량하고 그 결과에 따라 지적공부를 정정하여 독도의 지적현황이 전체적으로 변경됨에 따라 2006년 9월 14일 문화재청장은 문화재보호법 제6조에 의거 천연기념물 제336호로 지정된 《독도 천연보호구역》의 문화재구역을 당초 고시한 "경상북도 울릉군 울릉읍 독도리, 37필지 180,902평미터(보호구역)"을 "경상북도 울릉군 울릉읍 독도리, 101필지 187,554평방미터(지정구역)으로 정정고시하였다.<br><br>2002년 경상북도는 환경부에 '울릉도·독도 해상국립공원' 지정을 건의했으나, 이는 울릉군 주민들의 반대로 무산되었다.<br><br>독도 사철나무 <br><br>울릉군 독도리 30번지에 있는 독도 사철나무는 독도를 구성하는 2개 섬인 동도와 서도 중 동도의 천장굴 급경사 지역 위쪽 끝 부분에서 자라고 있으며, 강한 해풍과 극히 열악한 토양조건 등에서 자란 나무로 독도에서 생육하는 몇 안 되는 수목 중 가장 오래된 나무로 2012년 10월 25일 대한민국의 천연기념물 제538호로 지정되었다.<br><br>특정도서 <br>대한민국은 독도가 독특한 자연환경이 유지되고 있고, 해양생물상이 다양하고 풍부하여 독도 등 도서지역의 생태계보전에 관한 특별법에 의거 특정도서로 지정하였다.<br> 지정일자 : 2000년 9월 5일<br> 지정번호 : 제1호<br> 면적 : 187,554m2 (지번은 경상북도 울릉군 울릉읍 독도리 산1 ~ 산96이고, 2000년 9월 5일 특정도서로 최초 지정 당시 면적은 180,902m2였다)<br><br>국가지질공원 <br>2012년 12월 27일 환경부장관은 자연공원법 제36조의3의 규정에 의거 울릉도·독도 국가지질공원을 인증 고시하였다.<br> 지질공원의 명칭 : 울릉도·독도 국가지질공원<br> 지질공원의 구역 : 경상북도 울릉군 전 지역<br> 지질공원의 면적 : 1,279 평방킬로미터<br> 인증연월일 : 고시일<br> 공원관리청: 경상북도<br> 인증목적 : 울릉도·독도의 우수한 지질유산자원을 보전하고 교육·관광자원으로 활용하여 국민의 휴양 및 정서함양에 기여하고 지역경제 활성화 도모<br> 지정명소 : 23개소(울릉도 19, 독도 4)<br> 울릉도 : 19개소 (봉래폭포, 저동 해안산책로, 도동 해안산책로, 거북바위 및 향나무자생지, 국수바위, 버섯바위, 학포 해안, 황토굴, 태하 해안산책로 및 대풍감, 노인봉, 송곳봉, 코끼리바위, 용출소, 알봉, 성인봉 원시림, 죽암몽돌해안, 삼선암, 관음도, 죽도)<br> 독도 : 4개소 (숫돌바위, 독립문바위, 삼형제굴바위, 천장굴)<br><br>동물 <br>2005년과 2006년에 이루어진 실태조사를 통해 독도에서 관찰된 조류는 126종이다. 개체수가 가장 많은 종은 괭이갈매기이었고, 약 7,000여 마리가 서식하고 있다. 그리고 바다제비, 슴새, 참새가 서식하고 있는데, 최근 슴새의 수는 감소하고 있는 반면 바다제비 수는 증가하고 있다고 알려져 있다. 섬은 남북으로 왕래하는 철새들이 쉬어가는 주요 휴식처이다. 조류는 여러 가지의 천연 기념물이 있다. 짐승은 1973년 경비대에서 토끼를 방목하였으나 지금은 한 마리도 서식하지 않는다. 곤충은 7목 26과 37종이 서식하고 있다. 인근 해양에는 파랑돔, 가막베도라치, 일곱줄얼게비늘, 넙치, 미역치, 주홍감펭 등 다양한 어류가 서식하고 있다. 또한 대구지방환경청은 지난 2007년 5월부터 6개월 동안 경북대학교 울릉도·독도연구소와 공동으로 네 차례에 걸쳐 이 섬의 생태계를 조사한 결과 이 섬에 무척추동물 26종이 살고 있다는 사실을 2007년 12월 11일에 발표했다. 2013년에는 시베리아의 텃새인 솔양진이 수컷 한 개체가 남한 지역에서는 처음으로 동도에서 발견되었다.<br><br>바다사자 <br><br>바다사자(독도강치)는 동해 연안에 서식하던 강치의 아종이다. 현재 멸종되었다고 알려진 동물로, 조선시대 사람들은 이들을 "가제" 또는 "가지"로 불렀으며 이 섬을 중심으로 동해에 수만 마리가 서식했다고 한다. 이들이 머물렀다는 가제바위가 독도에 남아 있다. 러일 전쟁 전후로 가죽을 얻기 위해 시작된 일본인들의 무분별한 남획으로 바다사자는 서서히 그 모습을 감추었으며 1974년 홋카이도에서 새끼 강치가 확인된 이후로 목격되지 않는다. 1905년 일본 시마네현이 이 섬을 무단으로 편입한 이후 일본인들의 어획이 시작되었지만, 1905년 이전에 울릉도에 살던 한국인들이 1904년과 1905년에 독도에서 강치를 잡아 매년 가죽 800관(600엔)씩 일본에 수출한 기록이 1907년 시마네현 다케시마 섬 조사단의 오쿠하라 헤키운이 쓴 책 '죽도 및 울릉도'에 나온다.<br><br>식물 <br>박선주 등이 2008년과 2009년에 걸쳐 실행한 독도의 식물상 및 식생 조사에서는 독도의 식물은 29과 48속 49종, 1아종 3변종 총 53종류로 조사되었다. 이 중 특산식물은 섬기린초와 섬초롱꽃 2종류이고, 귀화식물은 갓, 방가지똥, 큰이삭풀, 콩다닥냉이, 흰명아주, 둥근입나팔꽃 6종류가 있다. 식생형은 주로 해국-땅채송화, 해국-갯제비쑥, 왕호장근-도깨비쇠고비, 돌피, 물피군락 등으로 구분된다.<br><br>경사가 급하여 토양이 발달하지 못하였고, 비는 내리는 대로 배수되어 수분이 부족하여 자생하는 식물이 적으나 울릉도에서 씨앗이 날아와 50~60종의 풀과 나무가 있다. 이 섬에 사는 식물은 키가 작아 강한 바람에 적응하고 잎이 두껍고 잔털이 많다. 물론 가뭄과 추위에도 잘 견딘다. 2007년 12월, 외부에서 들여와 직접 심은 나무 가운데 무궁화, 후박나무, 곰솔, 향나무 등이 대부분 말라 죽은 것으로 알려졌다.<br><br>인근 얕은 바다에는 모자반, 대황 등의 해양식물이 군락을 이루고 있다.<br><br>독도 사철나무는 독도에서 현존하는 수목 중 가장 오래된 나무로 독도에서 생육할 수 있는 수종이라는 의미뿐만 아니라, 국토의 동쪽 끝 독도를 100년 이상 지켜왔다는 영토적·상징적 가치가 큰 점을 감안하여 2012년 10월 5일 대한민국의 천연기념물 제538호로 지정되었다.<br><br>박테리아 <br>섬 일대는 '박테리아의 보고'로 불릴 만큼 다양한 종의 박테리아가 많이 서식하는 곳이다. 한국생명공학연구원에서 조사한 바에 따르면 2005년 5종, 2006년 13종, 2007년 16종, 2008년 4종 등 2008년 기준으로 이 섬에서 발견된 신종 박테리아는 38종에 이른다. 발견된 신종 박테리아들의 학명에는 독도넬라 코린시스(Dokdonella koreensis), 동해아나 독도넨시스(Donghaeana dokdonensis) 등과 같이 '독도'나 '동해'의 명칭이 포함되었다. 독도에서 발견된 박테리아들로 인해 2005년부터 2008년까지 대한민국이 3년 연속으로 신종 세균 발표 건수 1위를 차지했다.<br><br>매장 자원 <br><br>KAIST 생명공학과의 조사에 따르면, 섬 근해 해저에 이른바 '불타는 얼음'으로 불리는 메탄 하이드레이트(methane hydrate, 고체 천연가스 또는 메탄 수화물)가 확인된 양만 약 6억 톤가량 매장되어 있다고 밝혀졌다. 메탄 하이드레이트는 녹으면서 물과 메탄 가스를 발생시켜 효용가치가 큰 미래 청정자원으로 주요 선진국의 개발·연구 대상으로 주목받는 자원이다.<br><br>해양 <br>독도 주변은 쿠로시오 지류인 따뜻한 대만남류와 찬 북한 해류가 만나는 지역으로, 영양염류가 풍부하며, 이로 인한 동·식물 플랑크톤이 다양하고, 경제적 가치가 높은 회유성 어족이 다량 분포하고 있다.<br><br>독도는 지형적으로 수심 2,068 m 정도 되는 동해 새중에서 분출한 화산성해산으로, 물위로 솟아있는 독도의 면적은 비록 작지만(0.186km2), 수면아래 독도의 면적을 합하면 울릉도의 2배 이상되는 거대한 해산이며, 동도와 서도를 중심으로 주변에 물개바위를 비롯한 크고 작은 32개 이상의 바위섬과 암초가 있어 단단한 바닥에 부착하여 생활하는 해양 저서생물에게 좋은 서식지를 마련하고 있다.<br><br>독도의 바다는 난류와 한류가 만나는 곳으로 생물종이 다양하고 수산자원이 풍부한 곳으로 섬 주변에는 감태, 대황, 모자반 등 해조류를 비롯하여 게류, 고둥류가 넓게 서식하고 있고, 어류로서는 볼락, 자리돔, 도화돔 등의 냉온대성, 온대성 및 아열대성 생물종이 집합하여 서식하고 있다. 또한 독도의 섬효과를 통해 깊은 바다의 영양염류가 표층으로 용승되어 플랑크톤을 먹이로 하는 동해의 회유성 및 독도 정착성 어종의 치어와 유어들이 모여 사는 산란장 내지 성육장의 기능으로서도 중요한 어장이다.<br><br>해양 생물 <br>국립수산과학원에서 동도와 서도 주변연안 및 수중생태를 조사한 바에 의하면 해양·자포동물 22종, 고둥류 30종, 극피동물 23종, 갑각류 22종, 갈조식물류 17종과 어류 17종 등 총 169종이 서식하고 있는 것으로 나타났다.<br><br>독도 주변연안에서 서식하고 있는 갑각류 중에서 도화새우, 물렁가시붉은새우, 가시배새우를 통틀어 '독도새우'라고 부르고 있다.<br><br>환경 오염 <br>독도에 하수처리시설이 설치된 이후, 그 오작동으로 인해 독도 경비대나 등대 관리자와 같은 거주자들로부터 발생한 오수가 바다에 그대로 쏟아지는 일이 반복돼 독도 부근은 심각한 바다 오염의 우려가 높다. 독도 부근 바다에서는 바닷물이 우윳빛으로 변하거나, 해초들이 죽고 산호초가 석회화되는 현상이 발견되고 있다. 현재는 이러한 오염을 줄이기 위한 공공 단체와 시민 조직에 의한 노력이 진행 중이다.<br><br>교통<br><br>선착장 <br><br>동도에 선착장과 접안 시설(1997년 11월 완공, 1998년 8월 지적공부에 등록) 80미터로 500톤급 선박 접안이 가능하며, 유인 등대 1기가 설치되어 있다.<br><br>여객선 <br>대저해운에서 포항~울릉도~독도 구간을 1일 2회 운항한다. 단 풍랑 등 기상특보가 발생시 결항될 수 있다.<br><br>헬기장 <br><br>동도에 있는 독도헬기장()은 경찰청이 관할하는 헬리콥터 이착륙장이다. 동도에 있기 때문에 '동도 헬기장'으로도 불린다. 2008년 국제민간항공기구(ICAO)로부터 지명약어 RKDD를 부여받았다.<br><br>통신 <br>2013년 6월 12일 한국방송통신전파진흥원(KCA) 경북본부와 대구·경북 소재의 이통3사 및 협력사 공동 주관으로 독도에 입도해 독도의 전파환경을 측정한 결과 독도는 방송, 통신뿐 아니라 아마추어 무선 주파수까지 모두 양호하게 도달되며, 최신 초고속 광대역 통신인 롱텀에볼루션(LTE)까지 끊김없이 전달된 것으로 조사됐다.<br><br>주요 시설<br><br>동도 <br> 경비 초소: 1999년 건물 옥상(해발고도 95m)에 무인기상관측장비(Automatic Weather System, AWS)를 설치하여 독도의 기온, 풍향, 풍속, 강수량을 매시간 측정하여 그 자료를 무선통신으로 울릉도로 송신하고 있음<br> 막사 9동<br> 접안시설(선착장) : 1997년 11월 건립, 최대 500톤급 접안 가능, 길이 80m, 넓이 1,945㎡. 보통 울릉도에서 관광을 목적으로 배를 타고 독도로 가는 경우 내리는 장소이다.<br> 독도 등대 : 1954년 8월 최초 설치, 1998년 12월 증축 및 유인화(3명 근무), 등탑높이 15m, 넓이 161㎡, 광원거리 25마일, 디젤발전기 2기(75kw), 태양광발전(15kw)<br> 위성 안테나 : 2000년 6월 설치, 인터넷위성기지국 2기<br> 경비대 : 1997년 8월 증축(30명 근무), 숙소 1동 658㎡, 담수시설(27톤/1일 생산), 헬기장 1개소 400㎡, 케이블카 1기(300m, 1.5톤), (접안시설~경비대숙소 앞), 해수정화시설. 이곳에 근무하고 있는 경비대는 군인이 아닌 경찰이다.<br> 등반로 : 796m(폭 0.8~1m)<br> 해수정화시설<br><br>서도 <br>경비대 30여명이 생활하고 방문객들이 방문하는 경로인 동도와는 달리 주로 주민 숙소로 이용되는 서도는 시설물이 그리 많지 않은 편이다.<br> 주민숙소 : 2011년 8월 증축 완료(주민, 울릉군청 직원 각2명 거주 - 2018년 주민 중 한 분이셨던 김성도씨가 사망함에 따라 현재는 김신열씨 혼자 거주하고 있다.), 1동 373제곱미터, 담수기 2기(4톤/1일 생산), 디젤발전기 2기 (50kh)<br> 음용시설 : 물골 1톤/1일(3톤 저장 가능)<br> 등반로 : 550m (폭 0.6~0.8m)<br><br>기타 <br>문화재청은 이명박 정부 때인 2008년 독도 대포(大砲)의 문화재 지정을 추진했으나 좌절됐다. 당시 국무총리와 외교통상부 장관이 한일 정상회담을 앞두고 ’일본을 자극할 수 있다‘는 이유로 반대했기 때문으로 전해졌다.<br><br>이후 이건무 전 문화재청장과 엄승용 전 문화재청 사적명승국장, 독도단체 및 문화재계 관계자들이 독도 대포의 영토주권 수호 상징성과 보존가치를 고려해 문화재 지정 재추진을 주장(서울신문 2014년 8월 15일자 8면)했으나 지금까지 정부나 지자체에서 별다른 움직임이 없다.<br><br>역사<br><br>관련 법령과 정부 조직 <br> 독도 등 도서지역의 생태계보전에 관한 특별법<br> 독도의용수비대 지원법<br> 독도의 지속가능한 이용에 관한 법률<br> 독도지속가능이용위원회 : 독도의 지속가능한 이용을 위한 기본(시행)계획을 심의하기 위하여 설치된 대한민국 국토해양부 소속의 자문위원회이다.<br><br>관련 문화<br><br>전설 <br>독도와 관련되어 전해 내려오는 전설이 여러 있는데, 그중에 하나가 '구멍바위' 형성에 관한 전설이다. 전설에 따르면, 먼 옛날 힘센 노인 하나가 노인의 집 앞을 가리고 있던 바위를 묶어 배를 타고 옮기던 중에 다른 바위를 던져 바위에 구멍을 내고 난 후 독도에서 좌초되어 지금의 자리에 구멍바위가 있게 되었다는 것이다.<br><br>관광 <br>본래 이 섬은 대한민국에서 천연기념물로 지정되어 있어서 입도가 제한되었으나 2005년 3월 24일 대한민국 정부가 일본의 영유권 주장에 대항하기 위한 대책의 일환으로 입도 허가제를 신고제로 변경함으로써 동도 선착장에 한해서 하루 1,800명씩 일반인의 관광을 허용했다. 학술 조사와 같이 관광 이외의 목적으로 이 섬을 방문할 경우에는 14일 전에 신청서를 제출해야 한다.<br><br>기념 사업 <br><br>고종이 대한제국칙령 제41호 1900년 10월 25일로 독도를 울릉도의 부속 섬으로 제정된 일을 기념하기 위해 제정된 독도의 날이 기념일로 잘 알려져 있다.<br><br>1954년 9월 15일 대한민국은 3종의 독도 우표 3000만 장을 발행했는데 2환권과 5환권은 각각 500만 장, 10환권은 2000만 장이 팔렸다. 일본 외무성에서 독도 우표가 붙은 우편물을 받지 않겠다고 했으나, 만국우편연합(UPU) 규정중 '우편물 중계의 자유보장' 조항에 따라 허용하기로 하였다. 일본은 항의의 표시로 독도 우표가 붙은 한국 우편물에 먹칠을 해서 배달을 하였다. 대한민국은 이 섬을 도안으로 한 우표를 2002년과 2004년 1월 두 차례 더 발행했다. 2002년 8월 1일 내고향 특별우표 시리즈(32종)중 경북편에도 독도우표가 포함, 90만장이 발행되었으나 당시 일본의 항의는 없었다. 2004년 1월 대한민국이 독도 우표 4종 224만장을 발행하자 가와구치 일본 외상은 독도의 영유권을 주장하는 일본의 입장과 한국의 우표발행이 만국우편연합헌장의 정신에 위배된다고 주장하고 주일 한국대사에게 항의하였다.<br><br>2004년 6월 조선민주주의인민공화국에서 이 섬이 조선의 영토임을 보여주고 있는 고지도를 도안으로 한 우표를 발행하였으며 2006년 8월에는 도안이 약간 수정되어 대한민국에서 판매되기도 하였다.<br><br>대한결핵협회는 2006년 크리스마스 실로 독도의 자연을 그린 '아이러브 독도'를 발행하였다.<br><br>독도함(獨島艦, LPH-6111)은 대한민국 해군의 독도급 강습상륙함의 첫 번째 함이다. 독도의 이름을 함명으로 정하였다. 실제로는 LHD(다목적 강습상륙함)의 기능을 갖고 있으나, 공식적으로는 LPH(강습상륙함)라고 불리고 있다. 2002년 10월 말에 한진중공업이 대한민국 해군으로부터 수주를 받아 건조를 시작한 뒤, 2005년 7월 12일 진수하였고 2006년 5월 22일부터 시운전을 시작하여 2007년 7월 3일 취역하였다. 2010년 3월 천안함 침몰 사고 수색구조 작전에 투입되었다.<br><br>학문 <br>한국복지사이버대학에 2012년 독도학과가 개설되어 2014년 첫 졸업생을 배출하였다. 정치·경제·사회·문화·지리·환경·역사학적 관점에서 체계적으로 연구하고 교육할 수 있는 학문적 기반 구축을 위해 전국 최초로 개설되었으며, 울릉군수와 독도경비대장 등 독도와 관련해 직·간접적으로 업무를 담당하고 있는 여러 인사들뿐만 아니라, 교육계 전문가, 독도 관련 시민사회단체 대표 등 사회 각계각층에서 활발한 활동을 전개하는 인사들이 재학 중이거나 졸업하였다.<br><br>대중 문화 <br>1982년에 한국방송의 PD였던 박문영은 이 섬을 주제로 한 노래 〈독도는 우리 땅〉을 만들어 코미디 프로그램인 《유머 일번지》를 통해 발표했는데, 시기적절한 곡이라는 평가를 받아 곧 정광태의 정식 음반이 출시되면서 큰 인기를 모았다. 그 밖에도 박명수의 〈We Love 독도〉 등 수많은 연예인과 가수들이 독도에 관한 노래를 발표해 왔다.<br><br>2004년에 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국에서 공동으로 개발한 모바일 게임인 〈독도를 지켜라〉가 대한민국으로 수출되었다. 이 게임은 통일부로부터 외교적인 문제를 피할 것을 요청받아 〈섬을 지켜라〉로 이름을 바꾸었으나 네티즌들의 항의로 다시 〈독도를 지켜라〉로 바뀌었다.<br><br>각주<br><br>같이 보기 <br><br> 독도 분쟁<br> 독도 헬기장<br> 독도밀약<br> 독도방어훈련<br> 독도의 날<br> 독도의 달<br> 독도함<br> 대한민국 독도향우회<br> 독도의용수비대<br> 평화선<br> 한일어업협정<br> 안용복<br> 우산도<br> 울릉도<br><br>외부 링크<br><br>대한민국 정부 기관 <br> 독도종합정보시스템 - 대한민국 국토해양부<br> 독도 - 대한민국 외교통상부<br> 독도 - 경상북도청<br> 독도경비대 - 경북지방경찰청<br> 독도관리사무소 - 울릉군청<br>  독도박물관 - 울릉군청<br>  대한민국정부의 독도에 대한 기본입장(한국어, 영어) - 공감코리아<br>  대한민국정부의 독도에 대한 기본입장(일본어, 중국어) - 공감코리아<br>  Korean Government's Official Position on Dokdo - KOREA.net<br> 독도 천연보호구역 - 대한민국 문화재청<br><br>민간 단체 기관 <br>  독도연구소 - 동북아역사재단<br> 독도학회 홈페이지<br> 독도수호국제연대<br> KBS 실시간 웹캠 "여기는 독도입니다.", KBS<br><br>개인 <br>  Historical Facts about Dokdo - 캐나다인 스티븐 바버(Steven Barber)의 독도 역사 및 영토 근거<br>  Selected Research on Dokdo Island - 미국의 교사 마크 로브모(Mark S. Lovmo)의 문헌 연구<br> 독도 천연보호구역  - 남북의 천연기념물<br> 사이버독도닷컴 <br> 다케시마 문제<br><br>일본 외무성 <br> 일본의 영토  - 일본 외무성<br> 다케시마 - 법과 대화에 의한 해결을 지향하며(한국어)<br> 竹島について(일본어)<br><br>동해의 섬<br>영토 분쟁<br>대한민국의 극점<br>대한민국의 특정도서<br>울릉군의 섬<br>대한민국의 영토 분쟁<br>일본의 영토 분쟁<br>영토 분쟁 섬<br>일본-한국 관계<br>대한민국-일본 국경<br>경상북도의 섬<br>화산섬</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | <code>그래핀()은 탄소의 동소체 중 하나이며 탄소 원자들이 모여 2차원 평면을 이루고 있는 구조이다. 각 탄소 원자들은 육각형의 격자를 이루며 육각형의 꼭짓점에 탄소 원자가 위치하고 있는 모양이다. 이 모양을 벌집구조(honeycomb structure) 또는 벌집격자(honeycomb lattice)라고 부르기도 한다. 원자 1개의 두께로 이루어진 얇은 막으로, 두께는 0.2 nm(1nm은 10억 분의 1m) 즉 100억 분의 2m 정도로 엄청나게 얇으면서 물리적·화학적 안정성도 높다.<br><br>탄소의 다른 동소체에는 흑연, 탄소나노튜브, 풀러렌, 다이아몬드 등이 있다. 그래핀은 원자 한 층의 두께를 지니기 때문에 동일한 결합구조이지만 여러 층으로 구성되어 있는 흑연과는 확연히 다른 특성을 보인다.<br><br>그래핀이 주목받은 이유는 다음의 뛰어난 특성들 때문이다. 그래핀은 200,000 cm2/V•s의 매우 높은 전성(intrinsic) 전자이동도, ~5000 W/m•K의 높은 열전도도, ~1.0 TPa의 영 계수를 갖고 있으며 이론적 비표면적 또한 매우 크다. 또한 한 층으로 구성되어 있기 때문에 가시광선에 대한 흡수량이 매우 낮아 550nm의 파장을 갖는 빛에 대한 투과율이 97.7%로 확인되었다.<br><br>구리보다 100배 이상 전기가 잘 통하고, 반도체로 주로 쓰이는 단결정 실리콘보다 100배 이상 전자를 빠르게 이동시킬 수 있다. 강도는 강철보다 200배 이상 강하고, 최고의 열전도성을 자랑하는 다이아몬드보다 2배 이상 열전도성이 높으며, 탄성도 뛰어나 늘리거나 구부려도 전기적 성질을 잃지 않는다. 이런 특성으로 인해 그래핀은 차세대 신소재로 각광받는 탄소나노튜브를 뛰어넘는 소재로 평가받으며 ‘꿈의 나노물질'이라 불린다.<br><br>어원 <br>graphene은 흑연을 뜻하는 'graphite'와 탄소이중결합을 가진 분자를 뜻하는 접미사 '-ene'를 결합하여 만든 용어이다.<br><br>역사 <br>그래핀은 1947년부터 이론상으로는 제작이 가능할 것으로 알려져 있었다. 하지만 겹겹이 쌓인 흑연에서 그래핀만 분리하는 기술이 존재하지 않았기에 한동안은 말 그대로 이론으로만 존재하였다.<br><br>그러나 2004년 러시아 출신 물리학자 안드레 가임과 콘스탄틴 노보셀로프가 연필심에 스카치 테이프를 붙여 떼어낸 뒤, 테이프에 달라붙은 흑연 가루를 반복해서 유리 테이프로 떼어내는 방식으로 그래핀을 처음으로 분리하였다. 2010년 안드레 가임과 콘스탄틴 노보셀로프는 흑연에서 그래핀 만을 분리해낸 공로로 노벨 물리학상을 수상하였으며 그래핀을 다양한 영역에서 활용할 수 있게 하여 신소재 분야에 큰 업적을 남겼다.<br><br>그래핀의 물리적 화학적 기능은 현존하는 어떤 물질보다 뛰어나며, 활용 범위도 넓어 얇고 가벼우면서 내구성 강한 물체를 만들어 비행기나 자동차, 건축자재 등에 사용한다. 그래핀의 강도로 섬유를 만든다면 가장 가볍고 안전한 전투복과 방탄복을 만들 수 있다는 점에서 그래핀 시장에서는 그래핀을 이용한 탄소섬유가 주목받고 있기도 하다. 게다가 빠른 전기전도도는 전기저항을 줄여 의료산업 분야에서의 발전도 예상되고 있다.<br><br>하지만 그래핀을 상용화시키기 위해서는 안정적인 그래핀 생산 체계를 구축하는 것이 먼저인데, 그래핀을 안정적으로 생산해 내는 기술은 아직 개발되지 않은 상태로 머물러 있다.<br><br>성질 <br>그래핀의 결정 구조는, 한 꼭짓점에 세 개의 결합이 붙는 원자 구조(sp2 결합)에 의해 육각형 형태의 연결이 2차원 방향으로 뻗어나간 모양을 한다. 결과적으로 넓게 퍼진 벌집 모양의 2차원 결정 모양을 갖게 된다. 그래핀이 원자 하나 두께의 얇은 막으로 존재하는 이유는 이 때문이다. 이 때문에 그래핀은 안정적인 분자 구조로 존재할 수 있는 세상에서 가장 얇은 재질이 된다.<br><br>그래핀은 다른 재질에서 얻을 수 없는 특이한 전기적 성질을 가진다. 그래핀은 반도체가 가지는 특징인 띠구조(band structure)를 가져 반금속(semi-metal)으로 분류되는데,(하지만 그래핀의 에너지 밴드가 너무 가까워 반도체로 재료로써 부적합하여 이 밴드갭의 영역을 확보하는 연구가 진행 중이다. 그래서 최근에는 그래핀 이외에 2차원 물질을 통해 흑린 등 반도체의 재료로 활용하는 연구가 진행 중이다.) 이는 다시 말해 기존의 실리콘 대신 그래핀으로 반도체를 만들 수 있다는 것이다. 그래핀 내부의 전자는 이상하게도 질량이 0인 것처럼 행동한다. 그 이동 속도는 광속(299,792,458 m/s)에 가깝다. 이러한 성질 때문에, 그래핀은 고속 트랜지스터 등 차세대 전자 재료의 유력한 후보로 기대되고 있다.<br><br>그래핀이 나타내는 흥미로운 물리 현상 중 하나로 양자 홀 효과가 있다. 전자 분포가 2차원 평면에 넓게 퍼져 있는 상태에서 강한 자기장을 가할 때, 전자의 궤도나 에너지 준위가 이산적인 값을 띄는 (양자화되는) 현상이다. 이는 일반적으로 극저온에서만 관찰 가능하고, 반도체의 품질이 높다는 증거로 이용되고 있지만 그래핀에서는 이 현상이 상온에서도 관찰된다.<br><br>그래핀의 열 전도도는 5000k로 높은 열 전도도를 가진 다이아몬드의 2배 이상, 구리 12배 이상 높다. 또한 그래핀의 열 전도성은 연구가 활발한 분야인데 그 이유는 온도 조절 기능의 가능성 때문이다. 초기 관측의 결과는 상온에서 그래핀이 열분해 탄소보다 훨씬 높은 열 전도성을 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 후기의 연구에서, 한 층의 그래핀으로 실험했을 때, 열분해 탄소와 비슷한 열 전도성을 나타냈고, 이전의 결과는 실험 오류라는 의문을 제시했다. 측정 범위가 큰 것은 그래핀의 질이나 생산 조건뿐 아니라 측정의 불확정성이 큰 것에 의해 일어난다. 게다가, 상온에서 단일층의 그래핀이 비정질 물질에 더해질 때, 기질에 의한 그래핀 격자 파동의 흩어짐으로 인해 열 전도성이 매우 떨어지는 것으로 알려졌고, 비정질 산화물에 둘러싸인 그래핀은 열 전도성이 더 떨어질 수 있다. 이처럼, 중합 잔여물은 열 전도성을 낮출 수 있다.<br><br>그래핀은 강도 또한 매우 뛰어난데, 강철의 약 200배 정도 더 높은 것으로 알려져 있다.<br><br>응용 분야 <br>그래핀 나노 소재는 다양한 성능과 파급효과를 가지며 이를 이용한 부품 및 완제품, 관련 '원소재' 장비 등의 솔루션을 포함하는 산업으로서 응용분야는 무궁무진하다. 특히, 그래핀은 강도, 열전도율, 전자이동도 등 여러 가지 특성이 현존하는 물질 중 가장 뛰어난 신물질로 디스플레이, 이차전지, 태양전지, 자동차, 조명 등 다양한 산업에 응용되어 관련 산업의 성장을 견인할 전략적 핵심 소재로서 각광받고 있다.<br><br>투명 전극 재료는 광학적으로 가시광선 영역에서의 투과율이 80% 이상의 전기광학적 특성을 만족시켜야 하며 전하를 운반할 수 있는 전하가 충분하고 이들 전하가 쉽게 움직일 수 있는 구조를 가지고 있는 것이 중요하다. 투명 전극은 면저항의 영역에 따라 다음과 같은 응용분야에 주로 사용된다.<br><br> 10~100 Ω/sq - OLED 디스플레이 및 태양전지<br> ∼100 Ω/sq - PDP 광학필터 및 전자차폐재<br> ∼500 Ω/sq - 터치스크린 등<br><br>2007년 삼성 사에서 출시된 갤럭시는 기존 통화 중심의 휴대폰 시장을 정보전달 중심의 스마트폰으로 변화를 가져왔으며, 터치스크린에서도 저항막방식에서 멀티터치가 가능한 정전용량 방식으로 전환시키며 투명전극의 요구 면저항 값을 400 Ω/sq대에서 150 Ω/sq대로 올렸고, 지금까지 개발되어오던 투명전극 대체제들의 활용폭을 크게 감소시켰다. 이러한 상황 속에서 최근 몇년간 고투명도, 저면저항, 고유연성을 함께 갖춘 새로운 개념의 투명전극 소재 개발에 대한 요구가 증대되어오던 상황이었다. 이러한 중요한 시기에 등장한 그래핀은 불과 6년이란 짧은 기간에 수십인치 크기의 대면적 합성 기술이 개발되어 면저항값 30 Ω/sq 이하, 투명도 90%대 이상을 달성하였다. 특히, 그래핀 필름을 합성기판에서 분리하여 소자가 구현될 기판으로 전사(transfer printing)하는 방법을 이용하여 고무기판위에 10% 이상의 변형에서도 전기적 특성을 잃지 않는 신축성 투명 전극을 개발하는데 성공하여 최근 발표하였다. 현재까지 개발된 그래핀 지부는 ITO에 비해 산업적, 양산성 측면에서 취약한 면이 있으나, 우수한 기계적 특성, 높은 열전도, 낮은 재료 소모량 등 여러 측면에서 장점들을 가지고 있다.<br><br>그 외로 그래핀의 응용 분야는 터치패널, 플렉서블 디스플레이, 고효율 태양전지, 방열필름, 코팅 재료, 초박형 스피커, 이차전지용 전극, 초고속 충전기 등 다양하다.<br><br>시장 규모 <br>그래핀 소재의 시장규모는 2030년까지 매년 22.1% 증가, 세계시장 규모가 600조원에 이를 것으로 전망된다. 그래핀은 아직 상용화되지 않았지만 2016~2018년부터 대량생산될 것으로 예상되어 왔다.<br><br>그래핀은 향후 10~20년에 걸쳐 기존의 전도성 소재와 필름재 등을 대체하며 시장규모가 폭발적으로 증가할 것으로 예상되며, 그래핀을 이용한 완제품 및 그래핀 생산에 필요한 기계장비들의 시장규모가 급증할 것으로 보인다.<br><br>제조법 <br>안드레 가임과 콘스탄틴 노보셀로프가 그래핀을 최초 만들어낸 것은 흑연을 스카치테이프에 붙인 후 그것을 떼었다 붙였다를 반복하는 방법으로, 이는 물리적 박리법으로 구분된다. 이는 그래핀의 존재를 증명하는데는 성공했으나 대면적의 그래핀을 만드는 것이 불가능하고, 무엇보다 산업적으로 필요한 대량생산에 적합지 않아 그 후 산업계에서 쓰일 수 있는 다양한 방법들이 연구되어 왔다.<br><br>그래핀 상용화의 걸림돌 중 하나는 큰 면적의 그래핀을 만들기가 힘들었다는 점이었다. 현재 가장 넓은 면적의 그래핀을 만드는데 성공한 것은 화학증착법에 의하여 구리 호일에 그래핀을 형성한 후 롤투롤(roll-to-roll) 공정에 의하여 구리 호일을 제거하고 원하는 표면에 그래핀을 증착시키는 방식이다. 이는 일반적인 라미네이팅 공정에서 쓰이는 기계 장비로 제조가 가능하여 상업화에 가까이 다가섰다는 평가를 받는다.<br><br>그래핀의 제조 방법은 크게 다음과 같이 분류된다.<br><br>물리적 박리법 <br>물리적 박리법은 여러 층으로 구성된 흑연 결정에서 기계적인 힘으로 한 층을 벗겨내어 그래핀을 만드는 방법이다. 연필심에서 종이로 흑연의 얇은 막이 밀리면서 글씨가 부드럽게 써지듯이, 물리적 힘을 이용해 흑연 결정으로부터 한겹씩 그래핀을 생성시키는 방법이다. 상대적으로 낮은 에너지가 필요하고, 넓은 면적으로 만드는 것이 불가능하며, 결함의 비율이 높고 대량생산이 불가능하다는 단점이 있다. 안드레 가임과 콘스탄틴 노보셀로프 교수는 흑연을 스카치테이프에 놓고 스카치테이프의 양끝을 붙이고 떼어내는 것을 반복하는 방법으로 그래핀을 최초로 분리하였는데 이것이 물리적 박리법이다.<br><br>화학 증기 증착법 <br>화학 증기 증착법을 이용한 그래핀의 합성은 비교적 뛰어난 결정질을 갖는 단층 내지 수층 정도의 그래핀을 대면적으로 얻을 수 있는 방법으로, 그래핀을 성장시키고자 하는 기판표면에 높은 운동 에너지를 지닌 기체 또는 증기형태의 탄소 전구체를 흡착-분해시켜 탄소원자로 분리시키고 해당 탄소원자들이 서로 원자간 결합을 이루게 함으로써 결정질 그래핀을 성장시키는 방법이다.<br><br>촉매없이 흑연과 같은 sp2 결합구조를 지니는 탄소구조체를 합성하기 위해서는 열역학적으로 매우 높은 온도와 압력을 필요로 하기 때문에, 높은 결정질을 지니는 그래핀을 화학기상증착법을 이용하여 비교적 낮은 온도(~1273 K)에서 합성하기 위해서는 전이금속촉매가 필요하다고 보는 견해가 지배적이다. 촉매로서 가장 많이 사용되는 금속은 구리와 니켈이며, 그 외 금, 백금, 루테늄, 저마늄, 철, 이리듐 등의 촉매 위에서도 합성되었다.<br><br>화학적 박리법 <br>화학적 박리법은 흑연의 산화 - 환원 특성을 활용한 방법이다. 먼저 흑연을 강산과 산화제 등으로 산화시켜 산화 흑연(Graphite Oxide)을 제작한다. 산화 흑연은 친수성이어서 물분자가 면과 면사이로 삽입되는 것이 용이하므로, 물과 닿게 하면 산화 흑연의 강한 친수성으로 물 분자가 면과 면 사이에 침투한다. 이로 인해 면간 간격이 늘어나 장시간의 교반이나 초음파 분쇄기를 이용해 쉽게 박리시킬 수 있다. 그 종류에는 용액 환류, 수용액성 카르보디마이드, 하이드라진 분쇄가 있다.<br><br>공통적으로 미세한 흑연 결정을 강한 황산과 질산 혼합물에 넣어 그래핀 판들의 가장자리에 카르복실 화합물들이 붙어 있게 한다. 염화 티놀에 의해 산염화물로 바뀌고 다시 옥타데실아민을 써서 그래핀 아미드(Graphine-COOH)를 만든다. 이것들을 테트라히드로푸란, 테트라클로로메탄, 디클로로에탄같은 용액을 이용해 환수하면 분쇄가 일어나고 개별의 그래핀 판들이 생성된다.<br><br>하이드라진으로 환수하는 것은 그래핀의 20~30%를 잃을 수 있다. 마지막으로 카르보디마이드를 써서 분쇄하면 그래핀이 불안정하고 그래핀 시트가 그래핀 덩어리로 부서질 수 있다. 이 세가지 방법은 모두 박리된 그래핀의 질이 좋지 않다는 단점이 있다.<br><br>에피텍셜 합성법 <br>에피텍셜 합성법은 실리콘 카바이드(SiC)와 같이 탄소가 결정에 흡착되거나 포함되어 있는 재료를 약 1,500°C의 고온 상태에서 열처리하여 그래핀을 형성한다. 열처리 공정 중 탄소가 실리콘 카바이드 표면의 결을 따라 성장하면서 그래핀이 형성된다. 에피텍셜 합성법은 기계적 박리법이나 화학적 증착법에 의해 성장된 그래핀보다 특성이 뛰어나지 못하며 재료가 비싸고 제작이 어렵다.<br><br>같이 보기 <br> 그래페인<br> 그래파인<br> 실리센<br> 실리콘<br><br>각주<br><br>참고 문헌<br><br>외부 링크 <br><br> <br> <br> <br><br>단분자층<br>반도체 재료<br>방향족 화합물<br>탄소 동소체<br>신기술</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
  | <code>Ocaña. ¿Cuál fue el resultado de la guerra entre los Querandíes y los soldados de Ruiz de Ocaña?</code> | <code>Reserva natural integral y mixta Laguna de Rocha<br><br>Características naturales<br><br>La Reserva cuenta con una amplia gama de valores naturales que la hacen única en cuanto a biodiversidad dentro del Río Matanza.<br><br>Flora<br><br>Como todo espacio abandonado a su suerte la Laguna de Rocha sufrió durante muchas décadas la invasión de plagas y especies exóticas de otros continentes en su predio (Acacia negra, Mora blanca, Paraíso, Ricino, Ligustro, Ligustrina, Fresno, Madreselva, Álamos, Lirio amarillo, etc) que han ido desplazando a la flora nativa, hoy día al ser una Reserva Natural dicha invasión se revierte con el adecuado control y proyectos de restauración del ambiente original.<br>Se pueden observar casi todas las especies autóctonas de la región del noreste bonaerense, si bien sus poblaciones hoy son bajas cuando se libere la Reserva de las especies invasoras volverá a su plenitud la flora y su fauna asociada.<br>En los montes,<br>Anacahuita (Blepharocalix salicifolius)<br>Azotacaballo (Luehea divaricata)<br>Blanquillo (Sebastiana brasiliensis)<br>Canelón (Myrsine laetevirens o parvula)<br>Chal chal o Cocu (Allophylus edulis)<br>Higuerón (Ficus luschtaniana o monckii)<br>Fumo Bravo (Solanum granulosum-leprosum)<br>Molle Incienso (Schinus longifolius)<br>Murta (Myrceugenia glaucescens)<br>Lapachillo (Poecilante parviflora)<br>Laurel criollo (Ocotea acutifolia)<br>Ombú (Phytolacca dioica)<br>Ombusillo (Phytolacca tetramera)<br>Palo Amarillo (Terminalia australis)<br>Pindó "palmera" (Syagrus romanzoffiana)<br>Plumerillo rosado (Calliandra parviflora)<br>Sauco (Sambucus australis)<br>Tembetarí (Fagara hiemalis)<br>Timbó (Enterolobium contortisiliquum)<br>En los espacios abiertos y expuestos:<br>Algarrobo blanco (Prosopis alba)<br>Cina Cina (Parkinsoneana aculeata)<br>Chañar (Geoffroea decorticans)<br>Coronillo (Scutia buxifolia)<br>Espinillo o Aromito (Acacia caven)<br>Quebrachillo (Acanthosyris spinescens)<br>Sombra de Toro (Jodina rhombifolia)<br>Tala (Celtis tala)<br>En lugares bajos o suelos más húmedos (puede ser al lado de la laguna, arroyo):<br>Aliso de río (Tessaria integrifolia)<br>Ceibo (Erythrina crista galli)<br>Curupí (Sapium haematospermun)<br>Ingá verá (Ingá uruguensis)<br>Mataojo (Pouteria salicifolia)<br>Sangre de Drago (Crotón urucurana)<br>Sarandí blanco (Phyllantus sellowianus)<br>Sarandí colorado (Cephalanthus glabratus)<br>Sauce criollo (Salix humboldtiana)<br>Tarumá o Espina de bañado (Citharexylum montevidense)<br>Yerba de Bugre (Lonchocarpus nitidus)<br>Dudosos para el nordeste de Buenos Aires pero asilvestrados o nativos de lugares muy próximos:<br>Aguaribay (Schinus molle)<br>Algarrobo negro (Prosopis nigra)<br>Caldén (Prosopis caldenia)<br>Ñandubay (Prosopis affinis)<br>Ñangapirí o Pitanga (Eugenia uniflora)<br>Pata de Buey o Pezuña de vaca (Bahuinia candicans)<br>Arbustos y herbáceas:<br>Acacia café (Sesbania virgata) – Arbolito<br>Achira amarilla (Canna glauca)<br>Azucena Sangre de Buey (Rodophiala bifida)<br>Barba de Chivo (Caesalpinia gillesii)<br>Canario rojo (Diclipteda squarrosa)<br>Carpinchera (Mimosa pigra) – Arbolito<br>Carqueja (Baccharis trimera)<br>Cedrón del monte (Aloysia grattisima) – Arbolito<br>Chilca (Baccharis salicifolia)<br>Chirca (Dodonaea viscosa)<br>Cortadera (Cortaderia selloana)<br>Duraznillo (Cestrum parqui)<br>Hediondilla morada o Talilla (Lycium cestroides)<br>Hierba San Simón (Vernonia scorpioides)<br>Ñapinday (Acacia bonariensis) – Arbolito<br>Malvavisco (Abutilón grandiflorum)<br>Mariposa (Heteropteris angustifolia) – Arbolito<br>Mariposera (Eupatorium inulaefolium)<br>Lantana (Lantana megapotamica)<br>Quiebra arados (Vernonia rubricaulis)<br>Rosa de río (Hibiscus cisplatinus)<br>Salvia guarinitica<br>Seibillo (Sesbania punicea) - Arbolito<br>Sen del campo (Senna corymbosa) – Arbolito<br>Flor amarilla (Senecio bonaeriensis) <br>Senecio grisebachii<br>Tabaco del monte (Trixis praestans)<br>Enredaderas o lianas:<br>Amor porteño (Solanum amygdalifolium)<br>Isipó timbó (Serjania meridionalis)<br>Sacha Huasca (Dolichandra cynanchoydes)<br>Tasi (Morena brachystephana)<br>Uña de gato (Macfadyena unguis-cati)<br><br>Eutrofización<br><br>La Laguna esta sufriendo un acelerado proceso de eutrofización debido a la incesante contaminación orgánica que llega de los arroyos. Actualmente se encuentra en el periodo eutrófico próximo a la etapa distrófica, el cuerpo de agua se reduce debido al avance de la vegetación anfibia. La acumulación de masa vegetal, la cual es degradada por organismos descomponedores, aumenta la materia orgánica (que puede venir descargas cloacales) que vuelve al ciclo siendo utilizada por la vegetación anfibia acelerando el proceso de eutrofización. Desde el 2006 hasta el 2010, estudios realizados por el Instituto Superior de Formación Docente N 35 y el INA (Instituto Nacional del Agua) revelan que los niveles de contaminación de Laguna de Rocha son bajos, pero en delicado equilibrio. El alto poder purificante de la vegetación y los espejos de agua puede ser quebrado si la contaminación continua a en el corto plazo.<br><br>Batalla de Corpus Christi<br><br>En febrero de 1536 las naves de la expedición de Pedro de Mendoza llegaron al Río de La Plata, llamado "Mar dulce de Don Juan Díaz de Solís”. La primera población, según el ingeniero Eduardo Madero en su libro "Historias del puerto de Buenos Aires”:<br>"...fue fundada en los terrenos al margen del riachuelo de los navíos...luego fue trasladada y reedificada en una loma de mayor altura y extensión..." debido a que la creciente del río, era una terrible amenaza para el Real (nombre que se le dio al asentamiento).<br>Algunos autores, como es el caso del historiador Guillermo Furlong,​sostiene que el Real se estableció a la altura del actual puente Gral. José Félix Uriburu (Barrio de Nueva Pompeya) y que se eligió para el desplazamiento de la ciudad, el lugar más apropiado:<br>"...una sección profunda y alejada de la costa del Río de la Plata para los navíos, y un altiplano a media milla, para la población, lo que actualmente corresponde a las manzanas donde se levanta el policlínico penna y edificios públicos"<br>Luego de encontrar en lugar ideal para emplazar el Real, se procedió al desembarco de los setenta y dos caballos y yeguas q llegaron con vida, de los cien que fueron embarcados en Sanlucar de Barrameda y a la construcción de corrales para su protección y mantenimiento, usando árboles de tala y espinillo del lugar. Se dedicaron además a la construcción de algunos ranchos utilizando los materiales que les proveía el lugar. Los españoles toman conciencia de que no están solos en estas tierras. Los Querandíes, nativos del lugar, se hacen presentes en las cercanías del Real y sus alrededores, quedando asombrados por la vestimenta que portaban los expedicionarios, sus caballos, armas y sus naves.<br>Ulrico Schmidl, cronista de la expedición de Don Pedro de Mendoza, afirma que "...los susodichos Querandis nos han traído diariamente al Real durante catorce días su escasez en pescado y carnes...", de esta manera nuestros originarios se comportaron amable y servicialmente con los expedicionarios, y si bien era escasa la comida, esto se debía más bien a la precariedad con que contaban en cuanto a sus armas de caza y pesca para abastecer al gran contingente de hombres que habían llegado a sus tierras. Pasados los catorce días los nativos cortaron el contacto. Don Pedro de Mendoza, tomo como iniciativa enviar en calidad de alcalde a Juan Pavón junto a dos soldados, para recorrer el lugar en busca de información respecto del paradero de los nativos. Es posible que el repentino alejamiento de los Querandíes respecto del Real, haya sido a causa de un mal comportamiento o atrevimientos por parte de los soldados, tanto hispanos como de otras nacionalidades que acompañaban la expedición, más que por el trabajo extra que realizaban al momento de cazar y pescar, para abastecer a los visitantes.<br>Según el cronista, la ubicación de los querandíes era a cuatro leguas del Real, en un lugar que se suponen actualmente las inmediaciones del Río de La Matanza y la Ruta Provincial Nro 4 o Camino de cintura, frente al fraccionamiento de lotes del Barrio de San Sebastián, localidad de 9 de Abril, en una gran lomada de ombues donde se han ubicado actualmente restos de un importante asentamiento indígena de notable riqueza arqueológica.<br>Juan Pavón, recorre las cuatro leguas surcando las orillas del Riachuelo de los Navíos, hasta alcanzar y divisar las tolderías de los querandíes. Al tratar de entablar trato con ellos, no se dirige de la manera más adecuada y amigable, por lo que regresa al Real, rechazado y apaleado por parte de los querandíes, quienes ya no toleraban este comportamiento agresivo de su parte. Ya en el Real, Pavón provoca un alboroto tal por lo ocurrido en las tolderías Querandíes, que Pedro de Mendoza, agravado por una enfermedad, toma la decisión de enviar a su hermano Don Diego de Mendoza en su lugar, y a un grupo de soldados hacia el asentamiento Querandí para dar un escarmiento y apalearlos en represalia por lo ocurrido.<br>Don Diego de Mendoza reúne a 300 infantes y 30 jinetes, poniendo en marcha el ejército, que fue guiado por Juan Pavón en el recorrido hacia las tolderías aborígenes. Tras la llegada del ejército al mando de Don diego de Mendoza, los Querandíes quedan asombrados una vez más por la presencia que imponen los soldados con sus vestimentas, las banderas flameando y sus caballerizas al frente, todo tan deslumbrante a su mirada. Aun así se preparan en su mejor posición para atacar, y se esconden tras los juncales refugiándose en las tierras pantanosas cercanas al río.​<br>Los soldados perciben las posiciones de los Querandíes y se deciden a avanzar por las zonas donde es posible atravesar el río. Montando sus caballos dan paso al frente y para su sorpresa las tierras pantanosas atrapan a sus caballos hasta la cintura y con ellos a sus jinetes. En ese preciso momento, los Querandíes, hacen uso de la "bola arrojadiza" mostrando su destreza con una de las mejores armas a la hora de defenderse, logrando así manipular a sus presas. Se produce una lucha violenta y terminante, que tuvo como saldo un total de treinta y cinco víctimas, entre ellas, la muerte de Don Diego de Mendoza, sus dos primos los hermanos Pedro y Luis Benavidez y otros infortunados capitanes. Este encuentro fue el primero de carácter armado del historial del Río de La Plata, ocurrido el 15 de junio de 1536, denominado Combate de Corpus Christi, en referencia al día de la ceremonia cristiana.​<br>Según y con fundamentos de historiadores, cronistas e investigadores, en el paso de todo este tiempo, se puede afirmar que el encuentro entre Don Diego de Mendoza y los Querandíes se produjo en inmediaciones de la Laguna de Rocha, en las orillas del arroyo de igual nombre, a poca distancia del Río de La Matanza y en los campos que luego del año 1758 fueron propiedad de la estancia "Los Remedios" perteneciendo al partido de Esteban Echeverría entre 1913 y 1945. ​<br>Es importante señalar que tanto la toldería de Querandíes encontrada por Juan Pavón en 1536, en la expedición al mando de Don Pedro de Mendoza y en 1580 la gente de Don Juan de Garay, fue hallada en la gran lomada de ombues, cercanas al actual Barrio de San Sebastián, en la localidad de 9 de Abril, donde se han encontrado actualmente restos de notable valor arqueológico. Para dar por sentada la información que fue detallada recientemente, citaremos datos de algunos historiadores, cronistas e investigadores que han dejado a través del paso del tiempo indicios y fundamentos que encierran la justificación de que fue en nuestro territorio donde alguna vez hace más de 500 años fueron enfrentados españoles y querandíes.<br>El historiador Rvdo. Guillermo Furlong​afirma que:<br>"...el Real no pudo estar ni en San Telmo, ni en la vuelta de Rocha, ni en Retiro..." como afirman numerosos y otros tantos historiadores. Fijo "...una sección profunda y alejada de la costa del Río de La Plata para los navíos, y un altiplano a media milla para la población, o sea la manzana o manzanas donde ahora se levanta el policlínico Penna y otros edificios públicos..."<br>Ulrico Schmidl, cronista en la expedición de Don Pedro de Mendoza, informa que los Querandíes atacaron la ciudad "...quemando también cuatro barcas grandes, pues estos barcos estaban surtos hasta media legua de la misma..." corroborando así el acierto de Furlong. Por otra parte discrepa con la opinión del académico Enrique de Gandia y no acepta que el lugar del combate puede vincularse con la Batalla del Río Lujan, señalando que si bien a principios del siglo XVI en Germania se conocían once variantes para dar equivalencia a una legua (desde 1.470 metros a 3.200 metros), en la patria de Schmidl  (Baviera) el uso corriente de la legua era del orden de los 1.470 metros, lo que dan un total de 5.880 metros para el recorrido de cuatro leguas, agregando que "desde la actual Plaza de Mayo hasta Lujan la distancia es de 60.000 metros".<br>El ingeniero Eduardo Madero,  asegura que "... me parece exacto que el origen del nombre del Río Lujan, es debido a haber muerto en su margen derecha, después del mencionado combate (se entiende, el de Corpus Christi) el referido Pedro de Lujan..."​<br>Ruy Díaz de Guzmán, celebre cronista de indias, dice con exactitud que el combate de Corpus Christi "...tuvo lugar cerca de la vega del río y sobre un arroyo que servía de desagüe a una laguna situada a tres leguas de la recién fundada Buenos Aires..."​<br>El jesuita Nicolás del Techo en sus escritos históricos que datan del siglo XVII, hace mención del combate y cita la misma laguna.<br>El sacerdote Pedro Lozano, en sus recopilaciones también coincide con el precursor relator Ruy Díaz de Guzmán.<br>Eduardo Madero, además de coincidir con estos últimos realiza sus investigaciones y a través de sus conocimientos como ingeniero, mide y calcula el lugar donde se desarrolló dicho combate de Corpus Christi, afirmando al respecto que "...todo hace presumir que fuera en la parte superior del riachuelo y la laguna próxima a la actual Estancia "Los Remedios", en el partido de Lomas de Zamora...”​Vale aclarar que le referida estancia, por aquellos años pertenecía al partido de Cañuelas, y Madero tomo equivocadamente el límite entre los dos partidos, pasando por alto el trazado del viejo camino al pago de San Vicente, que atravesaba los campos de las estancias "Monte Grande" y "La Laguna", esto bien se puede apreciar en el plano de mensura Nro 27 del Partido de Esteban Echeverría. ​<br>Para poner aún más en claro lo expresado, la famosa estancia "Los Remedios" fundada en 1758 se hallaba en lo referente a sus campos, tras el actual Arroyo Ortega y que el camino al pago de San Vicente dividía a los dos partidos de Cañuelas y Lomas de Zamora. Madero para reforzar su punto de vista, se valió no solo de la información recogida por los primeros cronistas sino también que fue ayudado por la tipografía del terreno que no ofrece otra laguna que aquella a la cual se refería.<br>Don Pedro de Mendoza abandono el real que había construido y regreso a España, luego de soportar el fracaso de su expedición al Río de La Plata. La ciudadela quedó despoblada alrededor de 1541 y cumpliéndose las disposiciones de Don Domingo Martínez de Irala, se produce el traslado de los últimos pobladores a la ciudad de Asunción, quedando solamente siete caballos y cinco yeguas sueltos en la húmeda llanura.<br>El 11 de junio de 1580, cuarenta y cuatro años después de la fracasada expedición de Don Pedro de Mendoza, llega al Río de La Plata Don Juan de Garay, con mandato de fundador junto a una expedición de setenta y cuatro vecinos reunidos en Asunción a los cuales les prometió tierras, estancias, caballos e indígenas en función de bien de pago o premio. Luego de repartir los bienes materiales, decidió realizar un censo de aborígenes, para determinar la cantidad que habitaban la región, tarea a desempeñar por el nombrado Sargento Mayor Juan Ruiz de Ocaña.<br>En el año 1583, se descubre al primer Cacique, y esta bien claro y consta debidamente en el título de la encomienda otorgada al Sargento Mayor Juan Ruiz de Ocaña, por el Teniente Gobernador Don Antonio de Torres Pineda, el día 15 de junio de 1583, y dice: "...señalo y nombro un casique llamado telomian condie El qual fue el primer casique que se descubrió quatro leguas desta ciudad El Riachuelo arriba donde se tubo una cruda guerra con el y su gente..." (Según texto y ortografía original).<br>Condie y su hijo Diego se opusieron a las pretensiones de los nuevos fundadores, lo que concluyo en un choque de armas entre Querandíes y los soldados de Ruiz de Ocaña, por lo desigual y sangriento nomino para siempre a nuestro río limítrofe, como "Río de La Matanza".<br>"... esta derrota significo para el indígena la pérdida de su libertad y su inclusión como esclavo del altivo español..." palabras del historiador matancero Alfonso Corso.<br>Esta afirmación de Alfonso Corso no podría ser más falsa ni menos seria. Los aborígenes americanos eran hombres libres y súbditos de los reyes, desde que enterada la reina Isabel la Católica, que Colón había importado indios como esclavos “hubo muy gran enojo, diciendo estas palabras: ¿Qué poder tiene mío el Almirante para dar a nadie mis vasallos? (Bartolomé de las Casas, “Historia de las Indias”) A su vez, pocos años más tarde, en la cláusula testamentaria de la reina el 23 de noviembre de 1504, dijo: "suplico al Rey (...) y encargo y mando a la dicha Princesa, mi hija (Juana) (...), que así lo hagan y cumplan y que esto sea su principal fin; y que en ello pongan mucha diligencia y no consientan ni den lugar que los indios vecinos y moradores de las dichas Indias y Tierra Firme, ganadas y por ganar, reciban agravio alguno en sus personas ni bienes, mas manden que sean bien y justamente tratados; y si algún agravio han recibido, lo remedien y provean, por manera que no excedan cosa alguna lo que por las Letras Apostólicas de la dicha concesión (Bula “Inter caetera”) nos es mandado". Esta disposición testamentaria fue incorporada en la Recopilación de Leyes de los Reinos de Indias L° 6, T° 10.<br>Se puede observar que estos Querandíes junto a su cacique estaban igualmente a cuatro leguas de Buenos Aires, a la misma distancia que señalo Schmidl en 1536, y que el nuevo combate el llamado de "La Matanza" se produjo en la misma área y cercana a donde ocurrió el combate de Corpus Christi, frente a tierras que tiempo después pertenecieron a la Estancia "Los Remedios".<br>En el año 1984, el señor Daniel Conlazo, con el apoyo del señor Rogelio Ponsard y nuestro historiador local, Pedro Rubén Campomar realizaron un estudio en el llamado Yacimiento arqueológico Ezeiza III" donde se produjo el hallazgo de material lítico y un hermoso real de plata acuñado en Potosí. ​<br><br>Espada de Bracamonte<br><br>A fines del siglo pasado, dentro del predio de la estancia Los Remedio, limitada con el actual arroyo Ortega y la Laguna de Rocha, un paisano encontró enterrada la hoja de una espada de origen toledano, sin guarnición, sin puño y sin pomo. La hoja fue pulida y tras eliminar el óxido, se pudieron percibir en ella dos inscripciones grabadas tanto al dorso como al frente de la misma, leyéndose “Pro Fide et Patria” –Por la Fe y por la Patria- de un lado y “Bartolomé de Bracamonte”, del otro.<br>Félix Faustino Outes, celebre antropólogo, historiador y lingüista, estudio exhaustivamente la espada junto con su equipo, llegando a la siguiente conclusión:<br>“Creemos que aquella espada, seguramente abandonada en la pampa solitaria, donde cayo su dueño, es el testimonio de más valor para que podamos afirmar que el combate del 15 de junio de 1536, tuvo lugar en las márgenes del Río de la Matanza y más o menos próximo al sitio que indico el Señor Madero."<br>¿Quién fue Bartolomé de Bracamonte? Ruy Díaz de Guzmán lo cita como capitán de Pedro de Mendoza en “Anales del Descubrimiento, Población y Conquista del Río de la Plata” durante el relato de la batalla de Corpus Christi:<br>“A este fin salieron 300 soldados de infantería y 12 a caballo con los capitanes Perafán de Ribera, Francisco Ruiz Galán y don Bartolomé de Bracamonte” (Capítulo XI)​<br>“Los capitanes que llevaban la vanguardia no perdieron terreno por dar lugar a que saliesen los de a caballo a tiempo que la infantería estaba ya desbaratada toda y muerto don Bartolomé de Bracamonte, siguiendo Perefán de Ribera que peleaba con espada y rodela con toda la fuerza de los enemigos” (Capítulo XI)​<br>“Aunque desordenada la infantería, y muertos los bravos D. Bartolomé de Bracamonte y Perefán de Ribera, se sostuvo la vanguardia hasta el arribo de la caballería” (Capítulo III)​<br>Estos párrafos descartan, además, la hipótesis manejada en un primer momento según la cual Bartolomé de Bracamonte no fue el dueño si no su fabricante (Campomar durante un viaje a Toledo pudo saber que el apellido Bracamonte esta íntimamente ligado a la fabricación de armas blancas). Sin embargo el origen de los Bracamonte de esta historia, es probablemente la ciudad de Peñaranda de Bracamonte, en la Provincia de Salamanca, perteneciente a la comunidad autónoma de Castilla y León en España.<br>Este dato, curiosamente, es recogido por Manuel Mujica Lainez en su libro “Don Galaz de Buenos Aires” donde además cuenta la historia de Bartolomé:<br>“El marido de doña Uzenda, don Bartolomé de Bracamonte, había partido a su vez, de su vieja casa del Carralillo de la Hierba, en Salamanca, a rendir cuentas a Nuestro Señor” ​<br>Luego, recurriendo a fuentes contrarias a las citadas en este informe, escribe:<br>“Pensaba en Mosén Rubí de Bracamonte y en aquel don Bartolomé de Bracamonte, también de su alcurnia, de quien canta la fama que arribó al Plata con la flora de don Pedro de Mendoza y que murió peleando, como un guerrero mitológico, junto al hermano del Adelantado y al Diego Lujan que dio nombre al río”.​<br>La espada, luego de ser desenterrada y estudiada, hizo un largo recorrido hasta llegar a su actual emplazamiento. Su primer dueño fue Ignacio Escurra, pariente del Brigadier Rosas y dueño de la zona del hallazgo. Es el quien le agrega la empuñadura actúa, que no es la original. El señor Escurra dona la espada al General José Ignacio Garmendia, quien estaba preparando el “Museo de Armas de la Nación”. Al fallecer dicho general, el acero es subastado y comprado por le señor Jorge Böntlingk, quien la dona al Museo Histórico de Santa Fe, donde actualmente se encuentra.<br><br>Época de la Colonia<br><br>Para conocer la historia desde su inicio, debemos remontarnos por allá lejos, al año 1580 cuando Don Juan de Garay acompañado de sesenta hombres y una mujer hizo arribo a nuestras playas, donde cuarenta y cuatro años más temprano supo llegar Don Pedro de Mendoza y su expedición. Garay había prometido que entregaría, entre otras cosas, un conjunto de estancias a sus valientes seguidores, en recompensa de su patriada y compañía. Es así como comienza todo en el año 1629, haciéndole la entrega al Capitán español Don Juan Gutiérrez de Humanes, de las tierras que darán lugar en un futuro a la llamada Estancia "La laguna".<br>A mediados del siglo XVIII se sabe que la estancia estaba en manos de Martin Gutiérrez, descendiente del antes nombrado, de ahí que se conociera para ese entonces a la actual Laguna de Rocha como "La laguna de Humanes". Para ese tiempo, en el año 1746 el Capitán Francisco de Rocha, propietario de la antigua merced de Antonio de la Rocha, lindera a la estancia "La laguna", vende parte de sus tierras a Don Esteban Lomes, las mismas que en el año 1758 pasan a ser propiedad de Andrés Hidalgo. Y es el mismo Rocha quien posteriormente le venderá otra fracción lindera a sus tierras.<br>En el año 1758 la Estancia "La laguna" pasa a ser propiedad de Pedro Zabala y luego de Doña Maria Sánchez de Cueto, quien en 1805 vende la propiedad a su hijo Jorge Zemborain. En el transcurso del año 1811, la Estancia es transferida al activo comerciante inglés Don Diego Barton, quien instalo un saladero a cierta distancia de su nueva casa.​<br>Pero tiempo más tarde, en el año 1825, la historia de la Estancia "La Laguna" llega a su punto clave. Hace arribo a Buenos Aires la Fragata inglesa "The Simmetry of Scarboro", que traía a bordo a más de 200 personas de nacionalidad escocesa, reclutadas por los hermanos Juan y Guillermo Parish Robertson. Estos hermanos con su ambición a cuestas, poniendo el ojo firme al trabajo y progreso decidieron comprar tres estancias contiguas para establecer a sus compatriotas. Las estancias fueron "Santa Catalina", de Don Félix Castro; "Monte Grande", de Don Juan Wilson; y "La laguna" de Don Diego Barton, obteniendo un total de 6.000 hectáreas.<br>Es así como la colonia escocesa comienza a levantar sus hogares en estas tierras, y entre los más destacados trabajadores de terrenos fértiles de "La laguna" figuraban Juan Mac Clymont, Santiago Broach y Guillermo Grierson​ –padre de la histórica médica, Cecilia-, cada uno con sus respectivas granjas. En 1832, tras el fracaso de la colonia, Guillermo Parish Robertson, decide vender a Don Tomas Fair, las Estancias "Monte Grande" y "La Laguna". Ocurrida la muerte de Don Tomas Fair queda en posesión de su viuda y de sus hijos. En 1873, se vende parte de la Estancia "Monte Grande" a José Gregorio Lezama.<br>La Estancia "La laguna" en conjunto con otras tierras, pasa a manos de la compañía Sansinena de carnes congeladas, al mando de Don Gastón Simón Sansinena en el año 1879 aproximadamente, convirtiéndose este en el primer frigorífico, conocido por muchos años con el nombre de "La Negra" nombre impuesto por dicha empresa. Debido a este detalle la Estancia "La laguna" comienza a ser denominada Estancia "La Negra". La hacienda contó con el agua suficiente, clara, natural y buena sirviéndose de la Laguna de Rocha, por eso su tierra fue conceptuada como de alto valor. Hoy la Estancia La Negra o La Laguna, como mas deseen recordarla paso a tener otro nombre: "el Triángulo", ya con un nuevo dueño conocedor de la agricultura, se pudo observar la siembra y cosecha de trigo, maíz y girasol en el lugar.<br>En 1944, Edelmiro Farrel expropió parte de estas tierras con el propósito de destinarlas a la "construcción y habilitación de un aeropuerto nacional, caminos, autovías, viviendas, instalaciones complementarias, urbanización y formación de parques". Sin embargo, un amplio espacio que incluye espejos de agua y tierras circundantes logró resistir el avance urbanizador y mantener condiciones ambientales.<br>Si bien este relato menciona el paso de la Estancia por distintos dueños también es el paso de las aguas que la rodean, La Laguna De Rocha, en su espacio, dueña de toda naturaleza.​<br><br>Situación Legal<br><br>Desde enero de 1996 se ha entablado una batalla legal para que La Municipalidad de Esteban Echeverría por medio del entonces Secretario de Medio Ambiente, Ing. Pablo Pila, iniciase gestiones administrativas para crear la "Comisión Multisectorial de Diagnóstico y Propuestas de Soluciones".  Luego de infructosos intentos al gobierno municipal, Pila solicita la intervención del Juez en lo Criminal y Correccional de Lomas de Zamora, Dr. Hugo Van Schilt, quedando el expediente archivado. Ese mismo año, por ordenanza del Concejo Deliberante el sitio es declarado "Reserva Histórica Municipal".<br>En 1996, la firma SIDECO Americana compra alrededor de 120 ha, en las cuales proyectó tres barrios privados. Solamente uno se concretó en el año 2000.<br>En 1997, la Cámara de Diputados de la Nación elabora un Proyecto de Ley a efectos de que la Laguna de Rocha sea declarada Reserva Ecológica Municipal. El proyecto lo presenta el Diputado Nacional Alfredo Bravo (Frepaso).<br>El 18 de diciembre de 2008 la Comisión de Medio Ambiente de la Cámara de Diputados de la Provincia de Buenos Aires aprueba por unanimidad un proyecto presentado por el diputado Walter Martello (Ari-Coalición Cívica) para que el sitio sea declarado Paisaje Protegido. El 30 de diciembre, contrariando al Congreso Provincial, en una irregular sesión, el Concejo Deliberante declara a Laguna de Rocha.<br>El día 14 de diciembre del año 2012 se declara en Diputados, por una unanimidad, como Reserva Natural, Integral y Mixta. Sin embargo, pocos meses después se recorta el área protegida con el fin de cederle a los clubes Boca Juniors y Racing Club​ 64 hectáreas para que construyan su campo deportivo, teniendo el total apoyo del Intendente Municipal​ afectando seriamente el área adyacente a la Reserva Natural y generando un aumento en los riesgos de inundación en los barrios cercanos.​​​​​ Finalmente, el Boca Juniors consciente del riesgo que implicaba realizar la obra en la zona, anuncia en que retira el proyecto para trasladarlo al vecino distrito de Ezeiza.​<br>El 4 de diciembre del año 2013 se realiza la primera reunión del Comité de Gestión de la Reserva Natural Integral y Mixta Laguna de Rocha, el mismo fue encabezado por el Dr. Fernando Gray, Intendente del Municipio Esteban Echeverria. Participan de esta experiencia de gestión participativa autoridades Municipales, Autoridad de Cuenca Matanza Riachuelo, Organismo Provincial para el Desarrollo Sostenible, Instituto Nacional del Agua, Autoridad del Agua, Universidad de Flores, Facultad de Agronomía de la UBA y Instituto de Formación Técnica N 35. Las organizaciones no gubernamentales, vecinos y vecinas interesadas en la preservación de la reserva fueron inicialmente excluidos de la Reunión, pese a que estaban contempaldos en la Ley.​ Una serie de movilizaciones, culminó con la inclusión de todos los grupos avalados por la ley.​<br>En agosto de 2014, por orden del Juez Federal Jorge Rodríguez, se define como Autoridad de Aplicación de la reserva al Organismo Provincial para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Provincia de Buenos Aires.<br>En 2015 la Suprema Corte de Justicia de la provincia de Buenos Aires resolvió, la inconstitucionalidad de la Ley 14.516 que había desafectado unas 64 hectáreas del área protegida. La Reserva Natural Laguna de Rocha recupera así sus límites originales.​</code> | <code>Puerto Real<br><br>Comunicaciones<br><br>La población está unida por autovía a San Fernando, a El Puerto de Santa María y a Jerez de la Frontera, además de tener variante. El acceso por carretera a Cádiz se realiza por el puente José León de Carranza y el segundo puente sobre la bahía de Cádiz. Posee una estación de ferrocarril y dos apeaderos: Las Aletas y Universidad que mantienen servicios diarios de trenes de cercanías y regionales. Tiene puerto mercante, el Muelle de La Cabezuela dependiente de la Autoridad Portuaria de la Bahía de Cádiz.<br><br>Prehistoria y Edad Antigua<br><br>Si bien la historia de Puerto Real empezaría con la fundación por los Reyes Católicos existen vestigios arqueológicos precedentes. El más antiguo, el de El Retamar, data del Neolítico. Abundan en el término municipal los yacimientos de la época romana​, cuando la zona era un importante centro de producción alfarera. Se han encontrado hornos en varias zonas de la ciudad (El Gallinero, Puente Melchor, Olivar de los Valencianos, etc.) e incluso restos de una villa romana con un mosaico de Baco de enormes dimensiones en el mencionado enclave de Puente Melchor. Las ánforas producidas en el actual territorio de Puerto Real servían para transportar vino y salazones a otros lugares del Imperio romano; en Roma, en el Monte Testaccio, se han hallado restos de ánforas producidas en Puerto Real. Algunos autores sitúan en el actual término de Puerto Real el enclave romano de Portus Gaditanus, cuya localización exacta sigue siendo objeto de debate aún hoy.<br>Sea como fuera existe evidencia de poblamiento humano continuado desde la Antigüedad en el actual término municipal. Algunos de los núcleos de poblamiento diseminado actual (El Marquesado, Barrio de Jarana...), podrían muy bien ser herederos de antiguas alquerías medievales, caso del Barrio de Jarana, cuya continuidad desde la Sacrana romana hasta la Jarana actual parece asegurada a través de la Xarrana medieval de época islámica.<br><br>Fundación y Edad Moderna<br><br>La población como tal fue fundada el 18 de junio de 1483 por Carta Puebla de los Reyes Católicos,​ cuando estos se encontraban en Córdoba preparando su avance hacia Granada. Su intención era dotar a la Corona de un puerto marítimo en el Golfo de Cádiz, dado que todos los puertos de la región estaban bajo control nobiliario.​ La nueva población quedó bajo jurisdicción de Jerez de la Frontera,​ donde esta establecería su flota de barcos.​ Se autorizó el desplazamiento de 200 habitantes para habitar el lugar, se les dotó de tierras de labranza y solares donde edificar.​ Un año más tarde se constituyó el Ayuntamiento. Y unos años más tarde se le dotaría de identidad propia desgajándose del territorio de Jerez. En 8 de octubre de 1488, los Reyes Católicos decidieron volver a subordinar el Ayuntamiento de Puerto Real al de Jerez tras la participación de esta última en las conquistas de Ronda (1485) y Málaga (1487). Tras este favor, también participaron en la de Granada en 1492.​ La villa nunca se mostró favorable a depender de Jerez y después de varios años de conflictos el ayuntamiento de Puerto Real obtendrá su independencia de manos de Carlos I en el año 1543, no conforme con esta decisión Jerez seguirá litigando hasta que Felipe II vincula la población a la monarquía en el año 1572.​<br>La villa crecerá con la intención de convertirse en un puerto mercantil y se verá muy influenciada por los avatares de sus municipios colindantes, especialmente de Cádiz que se convertirá en el puerto más importante de España gracias al comercio con América.<br><br>Del siglo XIX a la actualidad<br><br>En 1797 una escuadra inglesa ataca Cádiz, obligando a la población a huir a Puerto Real. El hacinamiento al que se ve obligado a vivir a la población hace que sufran epidemias graves.​ La situación no mejorará con la invasión de los franceses en la Guerra de la Independencia Española, que arrasan la villa y la convertirán en el asedio de Cádiz. El 31 de agosto de 1823 las tierras de Puerto Real fueron escenario de la Batalla de Trocadero que enfrentaría a constitucionalistas contra los Cien Mil Hijos de San Luis, una armada organizada por Francia para devolver la corona al secuestrado Fernando VII. Aún quedan restos de esa batalla como el Castillo de San Luis, emplazados justo al sur del Puente Carranza, o el Caño de la Cortadura, que fue una zanja preparada para evitar que la artillería accediera a Cádiz.<br>Habría que esperar a mediados del siglo XIX para volver a ver inversiones en el desarrollo de Puerto Real. En 1843 se decide iniciar una feria de ganado con el propósito de mejorar la situación de la zona, y en el año 1856​ se inaugura la línea de ferrocarril Jerez-Trocadero con el objetivo de transportar los vinos hasta el muelle de Trocadero y transportarlos a toda Europa, principalmente a Inglaterra. Fue la primera línea de ferrocarril de Andalucía.​<br>A finales del siglo XIX Puerto Real vivió un florecimiento industrial gracias a la creación del dique de carena por Antonio López y López en 1872,​ que sería el origen del actual astillero. Los nuevos avances tecnológicos y las nuevas industrias modificaron la fisonomía de Puerto Real. En pleno siglo XX la guerra civil detendría este progreso, provocando muchos daños en la villa, como el incendio de la iglesia prioral y la pérdida de muchas vidas, existiendo una gran represión por parte del bando sublevado quienes asesinaron a decenas de militantes del Frente Popular y anarquistas.​​ La posguerra siguió haciendo estragos durante muchos años hasta que la industria volvió a recuperarse.<br>Durante la Guerra Civil se cavó una fosa común en el Cementerio de San Roque, recuperada en 2018 y nombrada Lugar de Memoria Democrática.​<br>A mediados del siglo XX desaparecerá un pueblo de obreros cercano a los astilleros, Matagorda, absorbiendo la industria todos sus terrenos. Tras el final de la dictadura militar, Puerto Real volverá a tener un ayuntamiento democrático, que fue de los primeros en exigir la autonomía de Andalucía. Las sucesivas crisis del sector naval desde la década de los ochenta y la más reciente crisis de la industria automovílistica pone en riesgo el futuro del empleo en la villa, que se encuentra a la expectativa de una nueva revitalización de la industria.<br><br>Infraestructura industrial<br><br>Puerto Real cuenta con tres polígonos industriales en funcionamiento, el polígono de Trocadero donde se encuentra Airbus y donde estaba la factoría de Delphi hasta su cierre, contiene industrias locales; el polígono de Cabezuelas de carácter logístico al apoyar al muelle homónimo (Muelle de la Cabezuela), con empresas como el Astillero de Puerto Real, de Navantia y Dragados Off Shore y el polígono de Tres Caminos. Está en proyecto el polígono de las Aletas en el que se pretende ampliar la industria aeronaútica entre otras,​ aunque depende de autorizaciones ambientales​ que se esperaban no antes de 2017​ y finalmente no se concretaron, abandonándose el proyecto.​<br><br>Feria<br><br>Sin desmerecer a las demás celebraciones, la Feria puede considerarse la fiesta más importante de Puerto Real, gracias a la gran aceptación local. Lleva celebrándose ininterrumpidamente desde 1843,​ año que celebró su primera edición bajo la denominación de Feria de Ganado. Esta temprana celebración la convierte en una de las ferias más antiguas de España, incluso más que poblaciones como Sevilla (1847) o Córdoba. La feria se articula en torno al recinto de "Las Canteras", esto permite disfrutar del amparo de los pinos del parque cercano, verdadero pulmón verde de la bahía.<br><br>Semana Santa<br><br>La Semana Santa de Puerto Real transcurre desde el Domingo de Ramos, con la salida de la Borriquita hasta el Domingo de Resurrección con la salida del Resucitado. Otras salidas procesionales relevantes son la Vera Cruz, el Miércoles Santo; el Nazareno, el Jueves Santo; y la Soledad, el Viernes Santo. La población cuenta en total con 10 Hermandades y Cofradías diferentes. <br>Destaca la imagen de Ntra. Sra. de la Soledad, única dolorosa fielmente documentada obra de Luisa Roldán "La Roldana", siendo esta una de las obras cumbres de la imaginería barrosa andaluza, la cual data del año 1.688.</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
  | <code>من هو القس الكويتي الذي يرتدي زي الكنيسة والكوفية خلال أداء الطقوس الدينية؟</code>                      | <code>تُعد المسيحية في الكويت ثاني أكثر الديانات انتشاراً بين السكان بعد الإسلام؛ حيث تبلغ أعداد الطائفة المسيحية بين الوافدين والأجانب وفقًا لإحصائية مركز بيو للأبحاث عام 2010 حوالي 400,000 مسيحي أي حوالي 14.3% من مجمل السكان. تشهد أعداد المسيحيين نمواً وازدياداً في البلاد، في يونيو من عام 2018 قدرت الهيئة العامة للمعلومات المدنية الكويتية أعداد الوافدين والمواطنين المسيحيين بحوالي 832,475 نسمة، أي حوالي 18.2% من مجمل سكان الكويت. وتتراوح أعداد المواطنين المسيحيين ممن يحملون الجنسيّة الكويتيّة بين 290 إلى 400 شخص.<br><br>يتوزع المسيحيين في الكويت على الكنائس الكاثوليكية والأرثوذكسية والبروتستانتية، تأتي الكنيسة الكاثوليكية في مقدمة الطوائف المسيحية من ناحية العدد مع 230 ألف نسمة، تليها الكنائس الأرثوذكسية مع 130 ألف نسمة، ومن ثم الكنائس البروتستانتية مع 30 ألف نسمة. ويتوزع المسيحيين في الكويت من ناحية إثنية فمنهم من قدم من آسيا أو من أوروبا والأمريكيتين وبلاد الشام ومصر إلى جانب أقلية صغيرة من العرب من المواطنين المحليين.<br>وتُمارس الطوائف المسيحية شعائرها الدينية بحرية تامة وهم يحملون إلى جانب المواطنين المسيحيين الكويتيين أكثر من 70 جنسية؛ ولا يجدون أي صعوبة في أداء شعائرهم وإضافة إلى الكتب المقدسة المترجمة بأكثر من 35 لغة لجميع الجاليات ولكن المشكلة تكمن في ضيق دور العبادة ومحدوديتها.<br>توجد في الكويت ثماني أو تسع كنائس معترف بها، بينها مجمع للكنائس في قلب العاصمة، تخدم حوالي 400 ألف مسيحي. ويمارس المسيحيون في الكويت طقوس العبادة يومي الجمعة والسبت من كل أسبوع.<br><br>يعود تاريخ المسيحية في بعض الأجزاء التي تُشكل اليوم الكويت (مثل جزيرة فيلكا والشويخ) إلى القرن الخامس والسادس، وضمت جزيرة فيلكا والشويخ على مستوطنات مسيحيَّة مزدهرة حتى القرن التاسع، وكانت على مذهب النسطورية. ونشأت فيها مجتمع مسيحي صوفي نسكي. في بداية القرن العشرين ضمت إمارة الكويت على مجتمع صغير من التجار الأرمن القادمين من بلاد فارس وحلب. ولعبت الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية في نشر الطب الحديث وتقديم الخدمات الصحيَّة في الإمارة من خلال تأسيس المستشفى الأمريكي عام 1914. يعود الوجود المسيحي الحديث والفعلي في الكويت إلى القرن العشرين، في عقد 1920 قدمت إلى الكويت عائلات مسيحية من جنوب شرق تركيا هرباً من الإبادة الجماعية للأرمن والإبادة الجماعية للسريان، وفي أواخر عقد 1930 و1940 هاجرت إلى الكويت عائلات مسيحية من العراق وفلسطين. وبعد صدور قانون الجنسية الكويتية عام 1959 أعطت الحكومة الكويتية لمن انطبقت عليه شروط الجنسية الكويتية منهم من دون تمييز عن المسلمين، ليشكلوا لاحقاً طائفة صغيرة من المواطنين المسيحيين الكويتيين. ونتيجة الطفرة المالية واكتشاف النفط فيها، تزايدت أعداد الوافدين المسيحيين القادمين للعمل في الكويت، ويقطن معظمهم في المدن الرئيسيَّة مثل الأحمدي وحولي والسالمية ومدينة الكويت وغيرها.<br><br>نظرة عامة <br>إثر النمو الاقتصادي المحقق في دول مجلس تعاون الخليج العربي وفدت إلى هذه الدول أعداد كبيرة من المغتربين من حول العالم كان منهم أيضًا مئات الآلاف من الشوام والعراقيين والمصريين ومن ضمنهم مسيحيون عرب، وبالتالي فالأغلبية الساحقة من مسيحيي الكويت هم من الوافدين القادمين من الهند والفلبين وسريلانكا ولبنان وأمريكا الجنوبية وأمريكا الشمالية ومختلف الدول الأوروبيَّة. وفقًا لتقديرات لعام 2015 يشكل المسيحيين حوالي 26.4% من مجمل الوافدين في الكويت. لا يجوز التبشير في الكويت في أوساط المسلمين. كما لا يُسمح في دور النشر المسيحية. ويحظر التعليم الديني المنظم للجماعات الدينية الأخرى غير الإسلامية. ومع ذلك، فإن الدستور يسمح للحرية الدينية. وهناك وجود لعديد من الكنائس في الكويت ومن ضمنها مجمع كنائس في قلب العاصمة. في عام 1969 أسست راهبات الكرمل مدرسة الكرمل الكاثوليكية، ومنذ عام 2012 أقام الرهبان الساليزيان مدرسة تُدّرس باللغة الإنجليزية.<br><br>الطوائف المسيحية <br><br>يتوزع المسيحيين في الكويت على الكنائس الكاثوليكية والأرثوذكسية والبروتستانتية، الطوائف المذكورة تشمل مسيحيين الكويت ولكنها لا تقتصر على ما يلي:<br><br> وفقاً لتقديرات مركز بيو للأبحاث عام 2010 كان هناك 230,000 كاثوليكي في الكويت أي حوالي 8.5% من السكان: ولهم كاتدرائية في مدينة الكويت والتي تنتمي إلى النيابة الرسولية للكويت. تتكون الجالية الكاثوليكية من الآسيويين بشكل خاص من الهند والفلبين وسريلانكا وبنغلاديش وباكستان ومن الأوروبيين ومن المسيحيين العرب القادمين من لبنان ومصر والأردن وفلسطين وسوريا. الكنيسة الكاثوليكية الإيطالية هي جزء من الكنيسة الكاثوليكية العالمية في ظل القيادة الروحية للبابا في روما وتشكل كبرى المذاهب المسيحية في البلاد. يملك الموارنة وتعود أصول معظمهم إلى لبنان، كاتدرائية كاثوليكية في مدينة الكويت. وهناك حضور لطائفة الروم الملكيين الكاثوليك في البلاد ولهم كنيسة في العاصمة الكويتية. ويتبع كاثوليك البلاد إدارياً النيابة الرسولية لشمال شبه الجزيرة العربية وهي الولاية الإقليمية لأتباع الطقوس اللاتينية والتي تغطي البلدان التالية من شبه الجزيرة العربية والمنطقة المحيطة وهي البحرين وقطر والمملكة العربية السعودية.<br> وفقاً لتقديرات مركز بيو للأبحاث عام 2010 يتواجد على الأقل 130,000 من المسيحيين الأرثوذكس أي حوالي 4.7% من السكان: لدى الكنيسة اليونانية الأرثوذكسية حوالي 3,500 عضو في حين أن الكنيسة الرسولية الأرمنية لديها حوالي 4,000 عضو ويعود تواجد الأرمن في الكويت إلى عام 1958 ولديهم كنيسة ومدرسة. تقدر عدد أتباع كنيسة التوحيد الأرثوذكسية الإثيوبية بحوالي 70,000 عضو، في حين تُقدر عدد أتباع الكنيسة الهندية الأرثوذكسية (مسيحيو مار توما) والكنيسة القبطية الأرثوذكسية بحوالي 60,000 عضو وهناك حضور لأتباع الكنيسة السريانية الأرثوذكسية والتي يُقدر أتباعها بحوالي 20,000 عضو.<br> وفقاً لتقديرات مركز بيو للأبحاث عام 2010 يعيش 30,000 من البروتستانت في الكويت أي حوالي 1.1% من السكان: لدى الكنيسة الأنجليكانية حوالي 115 عضو. في حين لدى الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في الكويت حوالي 15,000 عضو. هناك أيضًا تواجد لطوائف البروتستانتية مختلفة مع عشرات الآلاف من الأعضاء وتشمل هذه الطوائف السبتيين.<br> تشمل المجموعات المسيحية الأخرى كنيسة يسوع المسيح لقديسي الأيام الأخيرة (المورمون)، والتي لديها جناح (مجمع) في فيلا في السالمية.<br><br>تاريخ<br><br>العصور المبكرة <br><br>دخلت المسيحية إلى الكويت بين القرنين الخامس والسادس للميلاد حيث تم اكتشاف آثار كنيسة شبيهه بالكنائس الشرقية في جزيرة فيلكا، ويقدر علماء الآثار انها تعود إلى القرنين الخامس والسادس للميلاد. وتقع الكنيسة في منطقة القصور في جزيرة فيلكا، وكانت تُستعمل حتى العهد العباسي، ولكنها هُجرت بعد ذلك. وتشير الوثائق التاريخية إلى أنَّ مستوطنة نسطورية مسيحيَّة ازدهرت في فيلكا من القرن الخامس حتى القرن التاسع. ويُشير تقليد قديم للجزيرة هو أن المجتمع نشأ حول ناسك وصوفي مسيحي. في نهاية المطاف تم التخلي عن المزارع الصغيرة والقرى. كما وتم العثور على بقايا كنائس نسطورية من العصر البيزنطي في منطقة القصور في فيلكا.<br><br>ومن الدلائل التاريخيَّة على قدم الوجود المسيحي في الكويت، معركة يوم أوارة الأول في القرن الخامس للميلاد ومعركة يوم أوارة الثاني، المعركة الأولى كانت بين المنذر بن ماء السماء وقبيلة بكر بن وائل المسيحيَّة التي خرجت عن طاعته، فسار إليهم ليرجعهم إلى طاعته فأبوا، فقاتلهم وهزمهم وكان قد أقسم بأن يقتلهم في أعلى جبل واره حتى يسيل دمهم إلى الوادي، فبدأ في قتلهم في قمة الجبل، ولكن الدم جمد فقيل له لو صببت الماء لوصل الدم إلى الوادي، فصبوا الماء ووصل الدم إلى الوادي، وكان المنذر قد هم بإتخاذ إجراءات ضد المسيحيين. وعلى الرغم من ذلك سمح ليوحنا الديلمي بالتبشير العلني، وبعدها تنصر المنذر نفسه بحسب ما ذكره مؤرخوا الكنيسة. وذكر فيكتور التونوي أن المنذر تعمّد على يد أنصار مجمع خلقيدونية. وفي المعركة الثانية أعلنت قبيلة تميم العصيان على عمرو بن هند النُصراني ملك الحيرة، فقاموا بالإغارة على إبله، فقام بقتالهم فهزمهم، وأسر منهم الكثير وأمر بقتلهم وحرقهم في جبل واره. تُشير بعض الوثائق إلى مشاركة القبائل العربيَّة التي كانت تُدين بالمسيحية بمعركة ذات السلاسل وهي معركة وقعت في سنة 636م بين جيش المسلمين بقيادة خالد بن الوليد وجيش الإمبراطورية الساسانية بقيادة هرمز والتي وقعت في أرض كاظمة (شمال دولة الكويت حالياً)، وانتهت بانتصار المسلمين.<br><br>إمارة الكويت <br>في عام 1521، كانت الكويت تحت السيطرة البرتغالية، وكانت الإمبراطورية البرتغالية دولة مسيحية. تأسست مدينة الكويت سنة 1613 كمدينة تجارية على ساحل الخليج العربي واستوطنها العتوب الذين استأذنوا بني خالد حكام الإحساء سنة 1715 بالمقيم فيها فأذنوا لهم، فاستقروا فيها تحت حماية بني خالد حيث زاولوا التجارة وامتهنوا الغوص لجمع اللؤلؤ والتجارة البحرية من وإلى الهند، فازدهرت أعمالهم وتكاثر السكان في المدينة. وخضعت إمارة الكويت للسيطرة العثمانية. في عهد مبارك الصباح، أُطلق على الكويت اسم «مرسيليا الخليج الفارسي» لأن حيويتها الاقتصادية اجتذبت مجموعة كبيرة ومتنوعة من الناس. كان السكان متنوعين عرقياً، بما في ذلك العرب والفُرس والأفارقة واليهود والأرمن المسيحيون، وعُرفت إمارة الكويت بالتسامح الديني. وضمت الكويت على مجتمع من التجار الأرمن المسيحيين القادمين من حي جلفا بأصفهان وحلب.<br><br>العصور الحديثة<br><br>بعثات الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية <br><br>في عام 1895، توقف المبشر المسيحي صمويل مارينوس زويمر في مدينة الكويت، قادمًا من البحرين، وفي طريقه إلى البصرة، وهو أحد مؤسسي الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية. وكانت تلك نقطة البداية التي انطلق منها اهتمام الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية بالعمل في الكويت، وقد ذكر الطبيب لويس إسكندر في كتابه حول تاريخ البعثة العربية أن المنظمة كانت تعتبر الكويت موقعًا مبشرًا بالنجاح لنشاطها، كما استفاد أفراد العائلة المالكة في السعودية من الخدمات الطبيَّة التي تقدمها البعثة في الكويت. في عام 1909 قام الشيخ مبارك الصباح سابع حكام الكويت بدعوة بعض الأطباء العاملين في الإرسالية العربية للكنيسة الإصلاحية بالبصرة، لإنشاء مستشفى في الكويت، والتي كانت تفتقر إلى الخدمات الصحيَّة وإلى متخصصين مؤهلين يمكنهم تقديم الخدمة الطبية بالأساليب الحديثة.<br><br>افتتحت «الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية» البروتستانتيّة في الكويت مكتبة لبيع الكتاب المقدس وعمل فيها يعقوب الشماسّ الذي قدم من تركيا، ولكن حاكم الكويت آنذاك الشيخ مبارك الصباح أمرهم بإغلاق المكتبة ومغادرة البلاد. واستمرت المعارضة الرسمية للنشاط التبشيري في الكويت حتى عام 1910، عندما طلب مبارك أثناء زيارته لمدينة البُصرة العراقيَّة من الدكتور أ. بنيت المجيء إلى الكويت لمعالجة ابنته، وبسبب نجاح الطبيب في مهمته طلب منه مبارك البقاء في الكويت وممارسة الطب فيها. وفي عام 1914 تأسس المستشفى الأمريكي في الكويت من قِبل الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية ليصبح أول صرح طبي في البلاد، وتبرع الشيخ مبارك بقطعة أرض بجوار تلك التي اشترتها الكنيسة، ما وفر مساحة كافية لإقامة المباني المطلوبة. وفي عام 1939 بدأت الإرسالية الأمريكية العربية بتوسيع المستشفى فبنت مستشفى مخصص للنساء حسب التقاليد الكويتيَّة، وفي عام 1954 تم هدم واعادة بناء مستشفى الرجال الذي أخذ شكله الحالي وفي عام 1967 أغلق المستشفى.<br><br>عام 1926 جاء القس الأميركي جريت ديونج، والذي بدأ في عهده بناء الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في عام 1931. كانت ماري بروينس أليسون من أوائل النساء الأمريكيات اللواتي تدربن على الطب في الولايات المتحدة للعمل كطبيبة مبشرة في شبه الجزيرة العربية. أثناء دراستها في كلية الطب في فيلادلفيا تعلمت اللغة العربية. في عام 1934 ذهبت إلى الشرق الأوسط للعمل كطبيبة مبشرة. في عملها الذي استمر لمدة أربعين عاما عملت في المقام الأول في الكويت وكذلك في الهند وقطر والبحرين وسلطنة عمان. خلال إقامتها في الكويت عالجت النساء الغنيات والفقيرات على حد سواء. ووصلت ماري بروينس أليسون إلى مدينة الكويت في عام 1934. في البداية درست اللغة العربية في الصباح ثم عملت في المهمة. تم بناء المستشفى عند خليج الكويت من قبل مبارك الصباح الذي دعا البعثة العربية لإدارة مستشفى في المدينة. وبسبب القيود الثقافية تعاملت أليسون مع النساء عموماً. كان مرضاها من جميع الطبقات الاجتماعية، من أغنى امرأة كانت أول مريضة لها لأفقر النساء الكويتيات التي تعود أصولهن إلى إيران. كان على أليسون أن تحضر أولاً إلى الوجهاء أو النساء الأرستقراطيات التي فرضت عليهم رسوما إضافية للراحة. ومن المعايير الثقافية للمرأة أن تضع أطفالها في بيتها أو في منزل أمهاتهن ولا يلتمسن العناية الطبية المهنية ما لم تكن هناك مشكلة. هذا يعني أنه عندما تعاملت أليسون مع الولادات كان من المرجح أن تكون بسبب مضاعفات ما قبل الولادة. لعلاج هذه الحالات الدكتور أليسون غالبا ما تحتاج إلى مغادرة المستشفى لإجراء الزيارات المنزلية. توفيت بعض النساء بسبب مضاعفات في منازلهن. مع مرور الوقت ذهبت المزيد من النساء الحوامل إلى المستشفى للحصول على الرعاية قبل وأثناء الولادة.<br><br>في عقد 1920 قدمت إلى الكويت عائلات مسيحية من جنوب شرق تركيا هرباً من الإبادة الجماعية للأرمن والإبادة الجماعية للسريان، وفي أواخر عقد 1930 و1940 هاجرت إلى الكويت عائلات مسيحية من العراق وفلسطين. وبعد صدور قانون الجنسية الكويتية عام 1959 أعطت الحكومة الكويتية لمن انطبقت عليه شروط الجنسية الكويتية منهم من دون تمييز عن المسلمين، ليشكلوا لاحقاً طائفة صغيرة من المواطنين المسيحيين الكويتيين. ومع مجيء الطفرة المالية للكويت، واكتشاف النفط، توافد العمال الأجانب إلى مدينة الأحمدي النفطية جنوب البلاد، وكان عدداً من الموظفين من المسيحيين الأميركيين والبريطانيين والهنود والعرب، وبنت شركة نفط الكويت كنيستين مسيحيتين في الأحمدي، إحداهما كاثوليكية، والأخرى بروتستانتية، بين عام 1946 وعام 1983.<br><br>الاستقلال <br><br>بين عام 1946 وعام 1982، شهدت الكويت فترة ازدهار مدفوعة بالنفط وأجواءها الليبرالية. في الخطاب الشعبي، يُشار إلى السنوات ما بين عام 1946 وعام 1982 باسم «العصر الذهبي للكويت». وفي عام 1950، بدأ برنامج عمل عام كبير لتمكين الكويتيين من التمتع بمستوى معيشي حديث. وبحلول عام 1952، أصبحت البلاد أكبر مصدر للنفط في منطقة الخليج العربي. اجتذب هذا النمو الهائل العديد من العمال الأجانب، خاصةً من فلسطين والهند ومصر. وفي عام 1954 نمى وكثر عدد المسيحيين العرب الموجودين في الكويت فعملوا على انتخاب مجلس للكنيسة وفي 1959 أصبح لدى مجلس الكنيسة العرب رؤية بعد زيادة العدد وتمت دعوة أول راعي عربي للكنيسة وهو القس يوسف عبد النور والذي استمر في رعاية الكنيسة حتى عام 1980.<br><br>في يونيو 1961، نالت الكويت استقلالها بانتهاء الحماية البريطانية وأصبح الشيخ عبد الله السالم الصباح أميرًا على الكويت. في عام 1964 تمت رسامة أول شيخيين كويتيين وهما يعقوب شماس وسليمان سمعان شماس بحضور ممثلي سنودس النيل الإنجيلي في مصر والسنودس الإنجيلي الوطني في سوريا ولبنان وهاتان اعلى هيئتين مسيحيتين اقليميتين في منطقة الشرق الأوسط، وفي عام 1972 تمت رسامة شيخ كويتي ثالث وهو حبيب يعقوب شماس، وفي عام 1992 تم انتخاب ورسامة المهندس نبيل إسكندر وعمانويل غريب. في عام 1999 انتخب أول قس خليجي معاصر وهو عمانويل غريب ورُسم قسًا ونصب راعيًا للكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنيَّة، والتي كانت تسمى بالسابق كنيسة المسيح في الكويت وتغير إسمها إلى الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنيَّة في الكويت في عام 1966 لوجود الكويتيين المسيحيين. في عام 1982، عدل البرلمان الكويتي الدستور لمنع غير المسلمين من التجنس والحصول على الجنسية الكويتية.<br><br>تمتع المسيحيين في الكويت بالحرية الدينية حتى قبل الغزو العراقي للكويت في عام 1990، وقدرت أعداد المسيحيين الأرمن قبل الغزو العراقي بحوالي 15,000 نسمة. خلال الغزو العراقي للكويت اضطرت بعض العائلات المسيحية الكويتية إلى الفرار من الكويت بسبب تعرضها للإستهداف من قِبل الجيش العراقي، في بقيت عدد من العائلات المسيحية الكويتية الأخرى. خلال ترحيل الفلسطينيين من الكويت خلال حرب الخليج الثانية وبعدها، كان من ضمن 200 ألف فلسطيني الذين غادروا الكويت لأسباب مختلفة، عدد من العائلات المسيحية من أصول فلسطينية. يوجد في الكويت أكثر من 300 مواطن غير مسلم، معظمهم من المسيحيين. كانت هناك عدة مقترحات لتعديل قانون الجنسية للسماح لغير المسلمين بأن يصبحوا مواطنين، لكن في عام 2019 أوضحت الحكومة أن سياستها هي الإبقاء على «النص الحالي». في عام 2020 وبسبب انتشار جائحة فيروس كورونا في الكويت أعلن مجلس الوزراء الكويتي إغلاق دور العبادة المسيحية ومنع التجمعات خلال الاحتفال بأعياد الميلاد.<br><br>المجتمعات المسيحية<br><br>الوافدون <br>حالياً معظم المسيحيين في الكويت هم من المغتربين القادمين من الهند والفلبين وسريلانكا ولبنان وأمريكا الجنوبية وأمريكا الشمالية ومختلف الدول الأوروبيَّة، ويتوزع المسيحيين الوافدين في الكويت على الكنائس الكاثوليكية والأرثوذكسية والبروتستانتية. في يونيو من عام 2018 قدرت قدرت الهيئة العامة للمعلومات المدنية الكويتية أعداد الوافدين المسيحيين بحوالي 832,185 نسمة، أي حوالي 18.2% من مجمل سكان الكويت، وحوالي 26.2% من مجمل الوافدين في البلاد.<br><br>مسيحيو الكويت <br><br>يقطن في الكويت أقليّة مسيحيّة محليّة من المواطنين مُشكلّة من الفئات ذات الدخل المرتفع وحملة الشهادات الجامعيَّة، والتي يغلب عليها الطابع التجاري، ويتراوح عدد المواطنين المسيحيين في الكويت وفقاً لتقديرات غير رسميَّة بين 264 إلى 400 شخص تقريبًا يحملون الجنسية الكويتية، وبحسب تقديرات يونيو عام 2018 الرسميَّة يُشكل المواطنين المسيحيين حوالي 0.02% من مجمل المواطنين في الكويت أي حوالي 290 شخص. وهم ينحدرون من عائلات حصلت على الجنسية الكويتية بعد صدور قانون الجنسية عام 1959. ويعود انخفاض أعداد الكويتيين المسيحيين بسبب الهجرة خارج الكويت، على الرغم من ازدياد أعدادهم في السنوات الأخيرة بسبب عودة بعض الكويتيين المسيحيين إلى الكويت. وينتمي معظم المسيحيين في الكويت إلى 12 أسرة كبيرة، أبرزهما أسرة شماس (أصلها من تركيا) وشحيبر (أصلها من فلسطين)، والتي كان لها دور محوري في تطوير قطاعي الأمن والصحة في الكويت، ويُعتبر عموانيل غريب وهو قس كويتي وراعي الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في الكويت أول قس خليجي في العالم.<br><br>ينقسم المسيحيين الكويتيين إلى مجموعتين؛ الأولى ينحدر أفرادها من جنوب شرق تركيا والعراق؛ ويمثلون هؤلاء قرابة ثمانيَّة عائلات منها أسرة نعمان، وغريب، والموسى، ومنصور، وشمّاس، جرجيس وبشارة. ويتبعون الطوائف المسيحية الثلاثة، الكاثوليكية والأرثوذكسية الشرقية والإنجيليَّة، وقد عاشوا منذ أكثر من مائة سنة، وقد تم استيعابهم في المجتمع الكويتي، ويتحدثون العربية باللهجة الكويتية.<br>أمَّا المجموعة الثانية فتعود أصولها إلى عائلات قدمت إلى الكويت في الفترة الأخيرة من عام 1950، ومعظمهم من الفلسطينيين الذين خرجوا من فلسطين بعد عام 1948، فضلًا عن وجود عدد قليل من العائلات التي تعود أصولها إلى لبنان وسوريا. هذه المجموعة الأخيرة لا تزال لهجتها وثقافتها أقرب إلى الثقافة الشامية من الكويتيَّة، بالإضافة إلى احتفاظها بالمأكولات الشاميَّة. وذلك على عكس المجموعة الأولى التي تبنّت الثقافة الكويتيّة بشكل كليّ. وعلى الرغم من وجود مجموعة صغيرة من المواطنين المسيحيين، لكن لدى الكويت قانون صُدر في عام 1981 يمنع منح الجنسية لغير المسلمين. ومع ذلك، فإن المواطنين الذكور من المسيحيين الحاصلين على الجنسية الكويتية قبل عام 1980 يحق لهم نقل جنسيتهم لأطفالهم.<br><br>تقليدياً ينتمي المواطنون الأرثوذكس الشرقيون في الكويت إلى سلطة بطريركية أنطاكية وسائر المشرق للروم الأرثوذكس، ونظمت الأبرشية الأرثوذكسية الشرقية في الكويت في عام 1969 من قبل الأسقف قسطنطين باباستيفانو لمتروبوليت بغداد والكويت (1969-2014)، والذي قام بزيارة الكويت في العديد من المناسبات. ومنذ عام 2014 خلفه المطران غطاس حازم متروبوليت بغداد والكويت، ويبقى كرسيه الرسمي في بغداد، لكن المقر الإداري لأبرشية الكويت الأرثوذكسية يقع في الكويت. حالياً، تُدار الرعايا الأرثوذكسية الشرقية في الكويت من قبل الكاهن أفريم تومي وفيليمون الصيفي.<br><br>الكويت هي إحدى دول مجلس التعاون الخليجي إلى جانب البحرين وقطر وسلطنة عمان التي لديها سكان محليين مسيحيين. وفقًا لدراسة المؤمنون في المسيح من خلفية مسلمة: إحصاء عالمي وهي دراسة أجريت من قبل جامعة سانت ماري الأمريكيّة في تكساس سنة 2015 وجدت أن عدد المسلمين في الكويت المتحولين للديانة المسيحية يبلغ حوالي 350 شخص.<br><br>أعلام مسيحيو الكويت <br><br> عمانويل غريب: قس كويتي وراعي الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في الكويت، وهو من أصول تركية نزحت إلى الكويت، وعائلة أبيه من أصول آشورية، تعود أصولها إلى قرية كربوران بمحافظة ماردين الواقعة في جنوب شرق تركيا حيث ولد ونشأ والده والذي نزح إلى الكويت خلال مذابح سيفو في الدولة العثمانية. أما أمه فتنتمي إلى طائفة السريان الأرثوذكس وتعود أصولها إلى مدينة الموصل. ويمثل الأقلية المسيحية في الكويت، ويعتبر أول قس خليجي معاصر يشغل هذا المنصب، كما أنه أول قس معاصر يرتدي زي الكنيسة إضافة إلى الكوفية خلال أداء الطقوس الدينية، لكنه يرتدي الزي الوطني الكويتي في الأحوال العادية. تم انتخاب عمانويل غريب للكنيسة الإنجيلية عام 1992، ورسم قساً ونُصب راعياً للكنيسة عام 1999 ويعتبر القس عمانويل أول مسيحي كويتي تتم رسامته لرعاية الكنيسة الانجيلية الوطنية في الكويت.<br> باسمة سليمان شماس: مذيعة سابقة في تلفزيون الكويت.<br> سعيد يعقوب شماس: شغل منصب سفير الكويت في نيويورك عام 1963، وروسيا (الإتحاد السوفيتي آنذاك) عام 1967، وفرنسا عام 1969 وكينيا عام 1972.<br> إبراهيم دبدوب: مصرفي ساهم بتطوير القطاع المصرفي من خلال تحويل بنك الكويت الوطني إلى بنك رائد في المنطقة.<br> هاني شحيبر: طبيب في جراحة القلب، وهو من أبرز أطباء الجراحة في الكويت.<br> سهيل شحيبر: شغل منصب سفير الكويت في سويسرا.<br> خليل شحيبر: عمل وكيلاً مساعداً في وزارة الداخلية وسلك الشرطة.<br><br>الأوضاع الاجتماعية <br>وفقاً لتقرير اللجنة الأمريكية للحريات الدينية الدولية لعام 2019 استمر الأفراد في مواجهة ضغوط مجتمعية ضد التحول عن الإسلام؛ وقال بعض المواطنين الذين تحولوا عن دينهم خارج البلاد إن عائلاتهم ضايقتهم بسبب تركهم للإسلام. ويُشير التقرير إلى مواصلة الفنادق والمتاجر والشركات الاحتفال بالعطلات غير الإسلامية، مثل عيد الميلاد وعيد القيامة وديوالي، كما وواصلت وسائل الإعلام نشر معلومات حول الاحتفالات بالأعياد الدينية، بما في ذلك مواد عن الأهمية الدينية لعيد الميلاد. خلال موسم عيد الميلاد، زُينت أشجار عيد الميلاد والأضواء في المتاجر ومراكز التسوق والمنازل، وعزفت موسيقى عيد الميلاد في الأماكن العامة، بما في ذلك الأغاني ذات الكلمات المسيحية. بالمقابل أشار التقرير إلى تعبير بعض رجال الدين المسلمين في الكويت عن رفضهم على وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي للاحتفال بالأعياد غير الإسلامية، ودعوا إلى مزيد من الإجراءات الحكومية لتقييد التعبير العلني عن هذه الأعياد. في عام 2019 تضمنت التغطية الإعلامية أخبارًا عن الأحداث والاحتفالات التي أقامتها مختلف الطوائف المسيحية في البلاد، مثل قداس عيد الميلاد واحتفالات الذكرى السنوية لتدشين كنيسة التي حضرها مسؤولون حكوميون رفيعو المستوى.<br><br>الكنائس المسيحية المُسجلة رسمياً والمرخصة في الدولة هي: الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في الكويت، والكنيسة الرومانية الكاثوليكية، وكنيسة الروم الملكيين الكاثوليك، والكنيسة القبطية الأرثوذكسية، والكنيسة الرسولية الأرمنية، والكنيسة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية والأنجليكانية. في أبريل عام 2019 اعترفت الحكومة رسميًا في كنيسة يسوع المسيح لقديسي الأيام الأخيرة (المورمون). ولا تعترف الحكومة بأي ديانات غير إبراهيمية، وتشمل المجموعات الدينية غير المعترف بها الهندوس والسيخ والدروز ومسلمي البهرة والبهائيين.<br><br>في استطلاع رأي حول الشباب العربي، أجرته شركة أبحاث عامة في دبي عام 2020 لشباب عرب تتراوح أعمارهم بين 18 و 24 عامًا من 17 دولة إقليمية، ذكر 23% من شباب البلاد الكويت أنَّ الدين مهم لهوياتهم، وهي من بين أدنى المعدلات في الشرق الأوسط. وأفاد استطلاع منفصل، نُشر في يناير عام 2020 من قِبل معهد واشنطن لسياسة الشرق الأدنى، وأن حوالي 49% من المستطلعين الكويتيين وافقوا على سؤال أنه «يجب علينا إظهار المزيد من الاحترام للمسيحيين في العالم، وتحسين علاقاتنا معهم»، بالمقابل وافق 2% من المستطلعين الكويتيين على سؤال أنه «علينا إظهار المزيد من الاحترام ليهود العالم، وتحسين علاقاتنا معهم»، وكانت المواقف تجاه كل من اليهود والمسيحيين مماثلة لنتائج الدول الخمس الأخرى التي شملها الاستطلاع.<br><br>كنائس الكويت <br><br>بُنِيَتْ أول كنيسة في الكويت في عام 1931 بمجمع الإرسالية الأميركية، وأطلق عليها اسم «الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية»، بعدما كانت تعرف بكنيسة المسيح، وأصبحت عضواً في مجلس كنائس الشرق الأوسط، وفي عام 1999 تم تنصيب القس عمانويل غريب راعياً للكنيسة كأول قس كويتي، تبع ذلك بناء كنيسة في مدينة الأحمدي عام 1948، وسُمّيت «سيدة شبه الجزيرة العربية». وتملك الكويت العديد من الكنائس الكاثوليكية في أراضيها منها كنيسة العائلة المقدسة التي تأسست عام 1961 تحتوي الكنيسة على تمثال سيدة الجزيرة العربيّة، وهي نسخة طبق الأصل لتمثال من عام 1949 موجود في كنيسة سيدة الجزيرة العربيّة الكاثوليكية في الأحمدي. والتي تعتبر مركز أبرشية العائلة المقدسة في مدينة الكويت. وتضم الكنيسة الرومانية الكاثوليكية أيضًا أبرشية القديسة تريزيا في السالمية، وأبرشية القديس دانيال كمبوني في جليب الشيوخ وأبرشية سيدة الجزيرة العربيّة في الأحمدي. منذ عام 2012 أقام الرهبان الساليزيان مدرسة تُدّرس في اللغة الإنجليزية.<br><br>يقول الكاهن بيجول، راعي الكنيسة القبطية، انه جرت مراسلات بين البابا كيرلس السادس والأمير الشيخ صباح السالم الصباح حول بناء كنيسة للأقباط في الكويت، وهذا ما تم فعلياً. فقد اتخذوا مكاناً لها خلف فندق الشيراتون وانتقلت حديثاً إلى شارع بيروت في منطقة حولي. أما الأرمن المسيحيون فيعود تواجدهم في الكويت إلى عام 1958 ويبلغ تعدادهم حوالي 6 آلاف أرمني، لديهم كنيسة ومدرسة، مضى على إنشائها أكثر من 50 عاماً أي منذ الاستقلال، تقريباً.<br><br>تأسست النيابة الرسولية لشمال شبه الجزيرة العربية عام 1953 في الكويت، وفي أغسطس 2012، تقرر نقل مقر النيابة من الكويت إلى البحرين بسبب أن البحرين هي الأقرب إلى المملكة العربية السعودية، حيث أنَّ معظم أعضاء النيابة يعيشون فيها. وهناك سبب آخر للنقل هو أن البحرين لديها سياسة تأشيرات أكثر تساهلاً.<br><br>معرض الصور<br><br>المراجع<br><br>انظر أيضًا <br> الكنيسة الإنجيلية الوطنية في الكويت.<br> المسيحية في شبه الجزيرة العربية.<br> النيابة الرسولية لشمال شبه الجزيرة العربية.<br> عمانويل غريب.<br><br>مواقع خارجية <br><br> تقرير بي سي سي: مسيحيو الكويت: هل حصلوا على حقوقهم؟<br> فيلم وثائقي: كويتيون مسيحيون عن المسيحية بالكويت<br><br>مسيحية شرقية</code>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | <code>إقليم البحرين أو الخُط هي منطقة تاريخية كانت تقع في شرق شبه الجزيرة العربية. امتدت من جنوب البصرة على طول ساحل الخليج العربي وقد شملت دولة الكويت والأحساء والقطيف ودولة قطر بالإضافة إلى أوال (مملكة البحرين حالياً). <br><br>كانت المنطقة مركزاً للمسيحية النسطورية حتى قدوم الإسلام في عام 629م وفي بداية القرن 7 كان إقليم البحرين من أول المناطق التي أعتنق سكانها الإسلام في شبه الجزيرة العربية، بالرغم من بعدها عن المدينة المنورة.<br>في عام 899م أحتلها القرامطة، وهم طائفة إسماعيلية. في تلك الفترة سبب القرامطة في العديد من المشاكل الداخلية في العالم الإسلامي، حيث في عام 930م أخذوا الحجر الأسود من مكة المكرمة إلى القطيف حيث تواجدوا. في عام 976م هزم القرامطة على يد الدولة العباسية.<br>وحتى القرن 16 كانت «البحرين» تشير إلى منطقة أكبر من شرق شبه الجزيرة العربية، وقد سكنها عدة قبائل من العرب، من بينها بني عبد القيس وبكر بن وائل وتميم. في عام 1521م، أحتلت الإمبراطورية البرتغالية أوال والمنطقة المجاورة لها وقد جعلت اسم «البحرين» يشير إلى الجزر الحالية الواقعة في الخليج العربي.<br><br>تاريخ<br><br>قبل الإسلام <br>التحضّر في هذه المنطقة قديم جداً ويعود إلى العصور الحجرية ويعود على الأقل إلى حضارة دلمون التي ازدهرت فيما بين 1200 و 1600 قبل الميلاد، والتي كان مركزها في جزر البحرين وتركت هناك آثاراً كثيرة. <br>ورد في النقوش الأكادية ان الملك منشتسو (2306-2292) ق.م قد غزا بحرا الساحل الشرقي للخليج العربي ولما وصلت سفنه الساحل تجمع ملوك المدن الذين بلغ عددهم 32 ملكا وقرروا محاربته غير انه انتصر عليهم وسلمت تلك المدن له، ويظهر من نقش على تمثال نرام سين ان سلطانه وصل حتى مجان (عُمان) وان اهلها اقاموا ثورة ضده لكنه هزمهم ومجان كانت معروفة في زمن الأكديين حيث ذكروا انها تنتج النحاس والفضة وذكر نص الملك شلجي (2047-1999) ق.م ان هناك صناعة للسفن في مجان. كما تعود بعض أقدم النقوش باللغة العربية إلى هذه المنطقة وهي النقوش الحسائية، والتي تمثّل مرحلة قديمة من اللغة العربية كانت تستخدم فيها حرف «الهاء» كأداة تعريف متشابهة مع اللغات السامية الأخرى كالعبرية.<br><br>وترد القطيف الحالية باسم «كاتيوس» في الخرائط الرومانية، كما عرفها العرب باسم «الخط». أما واحة الأحساء، فعرفت حينها باسم احساء بني سعد. كانت في المنطقة اسقفيات للمسيحية النسطورية منها هجر والخط ودارين وسماهيج وبيت قطراية (قطر) وظلت تلك الديانات منتشرة في المنطقة حتى ظهور الإسلام في عام 629.<br><br>تنوخ <br>تشكلت تنوخ من اتحاد قبلي شمل أكبر القبائل العربية، ضمت:قضاعة، وقبيص، وإياد، وتميم، والأزد، وجماعة من العماليق، وبقية من القبائل العربية النجدية والتهامية، واتفق زعماء هذه القبائل على تمليك زعيمهم مالك بن فهم والمناداة به ملكاً على المنطقة المحصورة بين نجد غرباً والخليج العربي شرقاً وحدود عُمان جنوباً، وحدود البصرة شمالاً، وقد سميت هذه المنطقة الجغرافية الشاسعة البحرين.<br><br>ويخالط الغموض قصة هجرة العرب إلى العراق، وقصة الحلف التنوخي، وقيام الممالك العربية في العراق وسوريا، ألا ان مؤرخي العرب كافة أتفقوا على أن القبائل العربية تحالفت باسم تنوخ وحكموا إقليم البحرين وتطلعوا إلى العراق ودخلوه، وكان أول ملك عربي منهم هو مالك بن فهم الذي مات في العراق ودفن فيه، وتولى الحكم بعده أخوه عمرو بن فهم، فلما مات عمر تولى الملك جذيمة الأبرش.<br><br>وفي عهد الملك جذيمة الأبرش استقر الملك للعرب وتطورت أساليب إدارة الحكم وشؤون المُلك، ووصفه المؤرخون بأنه ملك عظيم ضم إليه شمل العرب وأسس لهم أركان دولة كبيرة وغزا بجيوشه الممالك المتاخمة لدولته الممتدة.<br><br>العصر الإسلامي<br><br>صدر الإسلام <br>يروى أن رسول الله محمد خير بين الهجرة إلى المدينة أو البحرين، وفي بداية الدعوة الإسلامية كان إقليم البحرين من أول المناطق التي اعتنق سكانها الإسلام في الجزيرة العربية، بالرغم من بعدها عن المدينة المنورة. بني في ذلك العهد مسجد جواثا الذي صليت فيه ثاني جمعة في الإسلام، ويعد من أقدم المساجد في التاريخ وبعض آثاره قائمة في العصر الحالي، ويروى أن النبي محمد زار الأحساء والقطيف كانت القبيلة الأبرز في المنطقة آنذاك هي عبد القيس من  بزعامة الجارود بن المعلى العبدي، وعليه سمّيت بلدة الجارودية الموجودة في نواحي القطيف إلى اليوم، وقد دخلت القبيلة بقيادته في الإسلام سلماً حسب ما ترويه المصادر الإسلامية. وكان من قبائل المنطقة الأخرى عشائر من بني تميم ومن بكر بن وائل.<br><br>كانت البحرين إحدى مسارح حروب الردة بعد وفاة النبي محمد مباشرة عام 633 م، إذ قاتل فيها المسلمون بقيادة العلاء بن الحضرمي المرتدين من بني تميم وغيرهم، إلا أن قبيلة عبد القيس كانت قد بقيت في مجملها على الإسلام.<br><br>بقيت البحرين كسائر مناطق الجزيرة العربية موالية لعلي بن أبي طالب أثناء الحرب التي خاضها مع معاوية بن أبي سفيان في خلافته، ولكن في العصر الأموي استولى على المنطقة طائفة النجدات من الخوارج، وكان مركزهم في  (شرق نجد)، إلا أن دولة النجدات سقطت سريعاً عام 692 م. بعد ذلك نصب الأمويون ومن بعدهم العباسيون ولاتهم على المنطقة. قال ياقوت الحموي في كتابه معجم البلدان وصفاً للبحرين البَحْرَيْن: هكذا يتلفظ بها في حال الرفع والنصب والجر، ولم يسمع على لفظ المرفوع من أحد منهم، إلّا أن الزمخشري قد حكى أنه بلفظ التثنية فيقولون هذه البحران وانتهينا إلى البحرين، ولم يبلغني من جهة أخرى، وقال صاحب الزيج: البحرين في الإقليم الثاني، وطولها أربع وسبعون درجة وعشرون دقيقة من المغرب، وعرضها أربع وعشرون درجة وخمس وأربعون دقيقة، وقال قوم: هي من الإقليم الثالث وعرضها أربع وثلاثون درجة، وهو اسم جامع لبلاد على ساحل بحر الهند بين البصرة وعمان، قيل هي قصبة هجر، وقيل: هجر قصبة البحرين وقد عدّها قوم من اليمن وجعلها آخرون قصبة برأسها. وفيها عيون ومياه وبلاد واسعة، وربما عدّ بعضهم اليمامة من أعمالها والصحيح أن اليمامة عمل برأسه في وسط الطريق بين مكة والبحرين. روى ابن عباس: البحرين من أعمال العراق وحدّه من عمان ناحية جرّفار، واليمامة على جبالها وربما ضمّت اليمامة إلى المدينة وربما أفردت، هذا كان في أيام بني أميّة، فلما ولي بنو العباس صيّروا عمان والبحرين واليمامة عملا واحدا، قاله ابن الفقيه، وقال أبو عبيدة: بين البحرين واليمامة مسيرة عشرة أيام وبين هجر مدينة البحرين والبصرة مسيرة خمسة عشر يوما على الإبل، وبينها وبين عمان مسيرة شهر، قال: والبحرين هي الخطّ والقطيف والآرة وهجر وبينونة والزارة وجواثا والسابور ودارين والغابة، قال: وقصبة هجر الصّفا والمشقّر..<br><br>ولاة البحرين في صدر الإسلام<br><br>ولاة رسول الله<br> العلاء بن الحضرمي<br> أبان بن سعيد بن العاص<br><br>المنذرى بن ساوى التميمي<br><br>ولاة عمر بن الخطاب<br> العلاء بن الحضرمي مرة أخرى (ت 21 هـ)<br> قدامة بن مظعون<br> ابو هريرة<br> عثمان بن أبي العاص<br><br>ولاة عثمان بن عفان<br> مروان بن الحكم<br> عبد الله بن سوار العبدي<br> ولاة علي بن ابي طالب<br> عمر بن أبي سلمة المخزومي<br> نعمان بن عجلان الزرقي<br><br>حكم الخلافة الأموية <br>كان إقليم البحرين من المناطق التي تحزبت لعلي بن أبي طالب في حرب صفين والجمل، ومنهم عدد من المقربين لعلي بن أبي طالب، ولما آل الأمر إلى بني امية سعوا إلى الانفصال فقاموا بعدد من الثورات:<br> تمرد بنو محارب في البحرين على حكم بني أمية سنة 78 ه، وقد طلب والي البحرين النجدة من الحجاج في العراق آنذاك لكن جيشه كان مشغولاً بمحاربة الأزارقة الخوارج، فأمر عامله في اليمامة بأن يمد والي البحرين بالرجال للقضاء على هذه الثورة.<br> حركة الريان النكري في الخط -القطيف-، وقد تمكن من الأمر وطرد والي البحرين، لكن الحجاج قام بارسال جيش سنة 80 هـ من 12000 مقاتل بقيادة يزيد بن أبي كبشة ودخلوا الزارة وقتلوا الريان وصلبوه مع مجموعة من اصحابه. وظل مصلوباً حتى قام داوود بن محرز -وكلهم من عبد القيس- في جماعة واستولى على القطيف وأنزل جثة الريان ومن معه وامر بدفنهم، ثم قُضي عليه أيضاً بجيش من الأمويين.<br> في 78 هـ توجه من البحرين إلى البصرة أبو معبد الشني وتمركز على مقربة منها وأخذ يهاجم البصرة حتى تصدى له صاحب شرطتها الحكم بن أيوب وقضى عليه.<br> في 86 هـ انطلاقا من البحرين حتى البصرة ثار داوود بن النعمان وأيضاً قضى عليه الحكم بن أيوب بعد مقاومة عنيفة.<br> ثورة مسعود بن أبي زينب المحاربي في البحرين كانت بعد وفاة عبد الملك بن مروان سنة 86 هـ، فطرد عامل الأمويين وسيطر على البحرين وقضي عليه عندما حاول السيطرة على اليمامة. وبعده ثار أخوه سعيد وأخضع البحرين لسيطرته لكن سرعان ما سقط نتيجة اختلاف داخلي مع أحد معاونيه.<br><br>حكم الخلافة العباسية <br>استولى القائد العسكري عقبة بن سليم على بلاد البحرين لصالح أبو جعفر المنصور، حنق أهل البحرين على أعمال بني العباس ضد العلويين مما جعل الأوضاع في قلاقل مستمرة:<br> ثورة سليمان بن حكيم العبدي في البحرين كانت على حكم بني العباس عام 151 هـ وقد استطاع أبو جعفر المنصور إخمادها بإرسال جيش بقيادة عقبة بن سلمة والي البصرة وقد تمكن من قتل سليمان بن حكيم.<br> ثورة سيف بن بكير العبدي على الدولة العباسية كانت عام 190 هـ، وقد تمكن من السيطرة على هجر. فأرسل الرشيد جيشاً بقيادة محمد بن يزيد بن مزيد، وبعد قتال عنيف استطاع قتل سيف بن بكير.<br> في 249 هـ ناصر أكثر أهل الأحساء صاحب ثورة الزنج في أول الأمر وهو (علي بن محمد بن أحمد بن علي بن عيسى بن زيد بن علي بن الحسين بل علي بن أبي طالب)، وقيل هو من عبد القيس حتى كانت قاعدة الثورة والتي يجبى إليه فيها الخراج، ثم انقسم الناس في ما بين مؤيد ومعارض له فقد تبين للناس سعيه للسلطان وتنازله عن الثورة للإصلاح والإنصاف فتقاتل الفريقان في «وقعة الردم» التي خرج بسببها إلى البصرة، على انه وبقي معه قلة من المناصرين من الأحساء منهم يحي بن أبي ثعلب وكان تاجرًا من أهل هجر ومحمد بن سلم القصاب الهجري، وبريش القريعي، وعلى الضراب، وحسين الصيدناني ومحمد بن يزيد الدارمي وسليمان بن جامع ويحيى بن محمد بن الأزرق البحراني قائد الجند، والذي بمقتله انتهت تلك الثورة.<br><br>الدولة القرمطية <br>في عام 899 قامت دولة القرامطة، وهم شيعة طائفة إسماعيلية، كانوا يدينون بالتبعية الاسمية للخلافة الفاطمية حتى اصطدموا بها في آخر المطاف. دمّر القرامطة مدينة هجر وأسسوا لأنفسهم عاصمة سميت بالأحساء على مسافة قليلة منها، وأقاموا نظاماً ذا سمات شيوعية وأسقطوا معظم فروض الإسلام في مناطق نفوذهم. ونشر القرامطة وحلفاؤهم من القبائل البدوية من بني عامر بن صعصعة في تلك الفترة الذعر في أنحاء الدولة العباسية، فدمّروا الكوفة كما اجتاحوا الحجاز في عام 930 وأخذوا الحجر الأسود من مكة إلى عاصمتهم ، فبقي هناك قرابة العشرين عام حتى أعادوه إلى مكة بعد توسّط الخليفة الفاطمي حاكم مصر آنذاك. وفي عام 976 انهزم القرامطة على يد الدولة العباسية، كما اصطدموا بالفاطميين.<br><br>الدولة العيونية <br>قامت الدولة العيونية (1076-1252) بعد تغلبها على دولة القرامطة بمساعدت السلاجقة، ولكن لم ينته أمرهم في البحرين إلا على يد أسرة من بني عبد القيس في القرن الحادي عشر.<br><br>الدولة العصفورية <br>قامت الدولة العصفورية (1252-1330) بعد تغلبها على الدولة العيونية، ويرجع نسب العصفوريون إلى بني عقيل.<br><br>الدولة الجروانية <br>تولى الحكم في المنطقة آل جروان الشيعة في ما بين (1330-1383). وفي هذه الفترة مر الرحالة ابن بطوطة في المنطقة فوصف مدينتي الأحساء والقطيف بأنهما مدينتان مزدهرتان، وأن غالبية أهل مدينة القطيف والأحساء من الشيعة، دون أن يذكر على أي مذاهب الشيعة كانوا. وهناك مصادر تصف الجراونة بأنهم من بقايا القرامطة، وذهب بعض المؤرخين مثل جوان كول إلى أنهم كانوا على المذهب الإسماعيلي، إلا أن التشيع الإثني عشري كان غالبا في تلك المنطقة على أية حال. وقد كانت المدن الساحلية وجزر أوال تدفع خراجاً لحكام هرمز العرب في جنوب إيران في هذه الفترة.<br><br>الدولة الجبرية <br>ثم حكمت أسرة من بادية  يقال لهم آل جبر من بني عقيل بن عامر فأسسوا الدولة الجبرية (1383-1524) على أنقاض الدولة الجروانية. وقد كان أبرز حكامها أجود بن زامل الذي امتد نفوذه من شمال  جنوباً وحتى ما يعرف حالياً بالكويت شمالاً، كما بسط نفوذه على شرق نجد. وقد صار أجود من أشهر ملوك زمانه وعمل على تعزيز المذهب المالكي السني في الأحساء.<br><br>حكم الخلافة العثمانية: الفترة الأولى <br>وتوفي أجود بن زامل عام 1507 وسقطت الدولة الجبرية بعد ذلك بسنوات على إثر الصراع مع البرتغاليين في جزر البحرين وفي عمان، بالإضافة إلى الصراع مع قبيلة المنتفق حليفة الدولة العثمانية، فأصبحت المنطقة ولاية عثمانية في أواسط القرن السادس عشر. وفي هذه الفترة انحسر مسمى «البحرين» عن المنطقة ليشمل فقط جزر البحرين (أوال قديماً)، وأصبحت المنطقة تسمى مجازاً بمنطقة الأحساء أو بالأحساء والقطيف، نسبة إلى أكبر الحواضر فيها. أما جزر البحرين فسقطت في هذه الفترة تحت حكم البرتغاليين الذين انتزعوها من الجبريين عام 1514 م وأوكلوا إدارتها إلى الهرمزيين، ثم استولى  الصفويون عليها عام 1602 م، قبل أن يتمكن من أمرها آل خليفة من العتوب الذين قدموا إليها من الهدار جنوب نجد، وذلك في عام 1783 م.<br>في عام 1555 م /963 هـ ارسل السلطان العثماني جيشاً إلى الأحساء بقيادة محمد باشا وبعد الاستيلاء عليها بنى مسجداً في قلعة الكوت (حي الكوت القديم حالياٌ) يعرف الآن بمسجد الدبس، وانتهت فترة السيادة العثمانية بعد 117 عام أي في عام 1080 هـ بعد أن استغل بني خالد ضعف الدولة العثمانية وطردهم من الأحساء وكان اخر ولاتها حينذاك عمر باشا. وسيطر بنو خالد على الأحساء وتولى عليها خالد براك بن عريعر وسمى نفسه ملك الأحساء وذلك عام 1080 هـ/1669 م. واستمر حكم الخوالد على الأحساء والقطيف حتى عام 1271 هـ/1854 م الذي سيطرت في الدولة العثمانية على الأحساء مرة ثانية.<br><br>دولة بني خالد <br>انضوى بعد ذلك العديد من قبائل البادية حول الأحساء والقطيف، تحت لواء قبيلة ، الذين تمكنوا بقيادة براك بن غرير من هزيمة المنتفق وطرد الحاميات العثمانية من الهفوف، التي صارت المدينة الكبرى في واحة الأحساء، عام 1670. وبسط الخوالد حكمهم على الأحساء والقطيف وبواديهما وعلى شبه جزيرة قطر (و لكن ليس على جزر البحرين)، وقسم آل غرير تلك المناطق بين عشائر بني خالد المختلفة، وبسطوا نفوذهم حتى مشارف البصرة شمالاً، فبنوا حصناً على الساحل هناك باسم «الكوت» أصبح نواة لما يعرف الآن بالكويت. وحاول الخوالد مد نفوذهم إلى إقليم  شرق نجد، وصار لهم العديد من الحلفاء هناك، كآل معمر حكام بلدة العيينة، إلا أن دولتهم وقعت تحت وطأة الاقتتال الداخلي على الحكم وسقطت على يد الدولة السعودية الأولى الناشئة في الدرعية عام 1793 م.<br><br>حكم الخلافة العثمانية: الفترة الثانية <br>و على إثر سقوط الدولة السعودية على يد والي مصر من قبل العثمانيين، محمد علي باشا، عام 1818 م، أعاد العثمانيون بسط نفوذهم على الأحساء والقطيف، ونصبوا بني خالد حكاماً على المنطقة من قبلهم، ولكن الخوالد لم يكونوا بالقوة التي كانوا عليها في السابق، وتعقّدت الأمور بدخول قبائل بدوية جديدة قادمة من جنوب الجزيرة كالعجمان والهواجر وآل مرة إلى المنطقة، واستعاد السعوديون نفوذهم على المنطقة بقيادة  مع ضعف النفوذ العثماني. لكن الحكم السعودي لم يدم طويلاً، إذ سقطت الدولة السعودية الثانية في الرياض على يد آل رشيد، حكام ، الذين آثروا المهادنة مع العثمانيين ولم يحاولوا مد نفوذهم إلى الأحساء والقطيف، فعادت المنطقة إلى الحكم العثماني المباشر من جديد، وأصبحت المنطقة تابعة لولاية البصرة العثمانية.<br><br>أما جزر البحرين، فدخلت في حماية الامبراطورية البريطانية في هذه الفترة حتى استقلالها عام 1971 (انظر بحرين وتاريخ البحرين).<br><br>المملكة العربية السعودية <br>في عام 1913 م استولى عبد العزيز بن عبد الرحمن آل سعود، مؤسس المملكة العربية السعودية الحديثة، على المنطقة وطرد القوات العثمانية منها، فأصبحت جزءً من دولته الناشئة، ولا زالت المنطقة تحت الحكم السعودي إلى اليوم حيث تشكل جزءاً من المنطقة الشرقية، إحدى مناطق المملكة الإدارية الثلاث عشرة (انظر شرقية (منطقة)).<br><br>الآثار <br> موقع الراكة الأثري (القرن السابع الميلادي)<br> موقع المردومة (القرن الهجري الأول)<br> موقع الدفي (الثاني قبل الميلاد)<br> موقع العقير (الفترة العباسية)<br> موقع ثاج<br> موقع الزارة<br><br>انظر أيضا <br> البحرين<br> <br> القطيف<br> المنطقة الشرقية<br> عبد القيس<br> القرامطة<br> العيونيون<br> الدولة الجبرية<br> <br> الدولة العصفورية<br><br>مصادر<br><br>مراجع <br> محمد بن خليفة النبهاني. التحفة النبهانية في إمارات الجزيرة العربية. مطبعة الآداب. بغداد 1332 هـ / 1915 م<br> رنتز، «بحرين»، دائرة المعارف الإسلامية (لغة إنجليزية)، Rentz, G. "al- Baḥrayn." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman، Th. Bianquis، C.E. Bosworth، E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 25 May 2007 <br> دي ميليو، «بنو خالد»، دائرة المعارف الإسلامية (لغة إنجليزية)، Meglio, R. Di. "banū Ḵh̲ālid." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman، Th. Bianquis، C.E. Bosworth، E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online.. 25 May 2007 <br> جوان كول، «امبراطوريات تجارية متنافسة والتشيّع الإمامي في شرق الجزيرة العربية، 1300-1800»، المجلة الدولية لدراسات الشرق الأوسط، المجلد 19، رقم 2، مايو 1987، ص 177-203، عن طريق موقع JSTOR <177:REOTAI>2.0.CO;2-X<br><br>المنطقة الشرقية<br>تاريخ الشرق الأوسط<br>بحرين<br>دول مقترحة<br>مناطق تاريخية<br>مناطق مقسمة</code> |
* Loss: [<code>TripletLoss</code>](https://sbert.net/docs/package_reference/sentence_transformer/losses.html#tripletloss) with these parameters:
  ```json
  {
      "distance_metric": "TripletDistanceMetric.EUCLIDEAN",
      "triplet_margin": 5
  }
  ```

### Training Hyperparameters
#### Non-Default Hyperparameters

- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 32
- `per_device_eval_batch_size`: 32
- `num_train_epochs`: 10
- `multi_dataset_batch_sampler`: round_robin

#### All Hyperparameters
<details><summary>Click to expand</summary>

- `overwrite_output_dir`: False
- `do_predict`: False
- `eval_strategy`: no
- `prediction_loss_only`: True
- `per_device_train_batch_size`: 32
- `per_device_eval_batch_size`: 32
- `per_gpu_train_batch_size`: None
- `per_gpu_eval_batch_size`: None
- `gradient_accumulation_steps`: 1
- `eval_accumulation_steps`: None
- `torch_empty_cache_steps`: None
- `learning_rate`: 5e-05
- `weight_decay`: 0.0
- `adam_beta1`: 0.9
- `adam_beta2`: 0.999
- `adam_epsilon`: 1e-08
- `max_grad_norm`: 1
- `num_train_epochs`: 10
- `max_steps`: -1
- `lr_scheduler_type`: linear
- `lr_scheduler_kwargs`: {}
- `warmup_ratio`: 0.0
- `warmup_steps`: 0
- `log_level`: passive
- `log_level_replica`: warning
- `log_on_each_node`: True
- `logging_nan_inf_filter`: True
- `save_safetensors`: True
- `save_on_each_node`: False
- `save_only_model`: False
- `restore_callback_states_from_checkpoint`: False
- `no_cuda`: False
- `use_cpu`: False
- `use_mps_device`: False
- `seed`: 42
- `data_seed`: None
- `jit_mode_eval`: False
- `use_ipex`: False
- `bf16`: False
- `fp16`: False
- `fp16_opt_level`: O1
- `half_precision_backend`: auto
- `bf16_full_eval`: False
- `fp16_full_eval`: False
- `tf32`: None
- `local_rank`: 0
- `ddp_backend`: None
- `tpu_num_cores`: None
- `tpu_metrics_debug`: False
- `debug`: []
- `dataloader_drop_last`: False
- `dataloader_num_workers`: 0
- `dataloader_prefetch_factor`: None
- `past_index`: -1
- `disable_tqdm`: False
- `remove_unused_columns`: True
- `label_names`: None
- `load_best_model_at_end`: False
- `ignore_data_skip`: False
- `fsdp`: []
- `fsdp_min_num_params`: 0
- `fsdp_config`: {'min_num_params': 0, 'xla': False, 'xla_fsdp_v2': False, 'xla_fsdp_grad_ckpt': False}
- `fsdp_transformer_layer_cls_to_wrap`: None
- `accelerator_config`: {'split_batches': False, 'dispatch_batches': None, 'even_batches': True, 'use_seedable_sampler': True, 'non_blocking': False, 'gradient_accumulation_kwargs': None}
- `deepspeed`: None
- `label_smoothing_factor`: 0.0
- `optim`: adamw_torch
- `optim_args`: None
- `adafactor`: False
- `group_by_length`: False
- `length_column_name`: length
- `ddp_find_unused_parameters`: None
- `ddp_bucket_cap_mb`: None
- `ddp_broadcast_buffers`: False
- `dataloader_pin_memory`: True
- `dataloader_persistent_workers`: False
- `skip_memory_metrics`: True
- `use_legacy_prediction_loop`: False
- `push_to_hub`: False
- `resume_from_checkpoint`: None
- `hub_model_id`: None
- `hub_strategy`: every_save
- `hub_private_repo`: False
- `hub_always_push`: False
- `gradient_checkpointing`: False
- `gradient_checkpointing_kwargs`: None
- `include_inputs_for_metrics`: False
- `eval_do_concat_batches`: True
- `fp16_backend`: auto
- `push_to_hub_model_id`: None
- `push_to_hub_organization`: None
- `mp_parameters`: 
- `auto_find_batch_size`: False
- `full_determinism`: False
- `torchdynamo`: None
- `ray_scope`: last
- `ddp_timeout`: 1800
- `torch_compile`: False
- `torch_compile_backend`: None
- `torch_compile_mode`: None
- `dispatch_batches`: None
- `split_batches`: None
- `include_tokens_per_second`: False
- `include_num_input_tokens_seen`: False
- `neftune_noise_alpha`: None
- `optim_target_modules`: None
- `batch_eval_metrics`: False
- `eval_on_start`: False
- `eval_use_gather_object`: False
- `batch_sampler`: batch_sampler
- `multi_dataset_batch_sampler`: round_robin

</details>

### Training Logs
| Epoch  | Step | Training Loss |
|:------:|:----:|:-------------:|
| 0.7310 | 500  | 4.0811        |
| 1.4620 | 1000 | 2.913         |
| 2.1930 | 1500 | 2.4054        |
| 2.9240 | 2000 | 1.9957        |
| 3.6550 | 2500 | 1.6322        |
| 4.3860 | 3000 | 1.3726        |
| 5.1170 | 3500 | 1.1151        |
| 5.8480 | 4000 | 0.9456        |
| 6.5789 | 4500 | 0.796         |
| 7.3099 | 5000 | 0.693         |
| 8.0409 | 5500 | 0.5843        |
| 8.7719 | 6000 | 0.5416        |
| 9.5029 | 6500 | 0.4952        |


### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- Sentence Transformers: 3.2.1
- Transformers: 4.44.2
- PyTorch: 2.5.0+cu121
- Accelerate: 0.34.2
- Datasets: 3.0.2
- Tokenizers: 0.19.1

## Citation

### BibTeX

#### Sentence Transformers
```bibtex
@inproceedings{reimers-2019-sentence-bert,
    title = "Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks",
    author = "Reimers, Nils and Gurevych, Iryna",
    booktitle = "Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing",
    month = "11",
    year = "2019",
    publisher = "Association for Computational Linguistics",
    url = "https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.10084",
}
```

#### TripletLoss
```bibtex
@misc{hermans2017defense,
    title={In Defense of the Triplet Loss for Person Re-Identification},
    author={Alexander Hermans and Lucas Beyer and Bastian Leibe},
    year={2017},
    eprint={1703.07737},
    archivePrefix={arXiv},
    primaryClass={cs.CV}
}
```

<!--
## Glossary

*Clearly define terms in order to be accessible across audiences.*
-->

<!--
## Model Card Authors

*Lists the people who create the model card, providing recognition and accountability for the detailed work that goes into its construction.*
-->

<!--
## Model Card Contact

*Provides a way for people who have updates to the Model Card, suggestions, or questions, to contact the Model Card authors.*
-->