text: nepenthes rajah nepenthes rajah / / is an insectivorous pitcher plant species of the nepenthaceae family . it is endemic to mount kinabalu and neighbouring mount tambuyukon in sabah , malaysian borneo . nepenthes rajah grows exclusively on serpentine substrates , particularly in areas of seeping ground water where the soil is loose and permanently moist . the species has an altitudinal range of 1500 to 2650 m a.s.l. and is thus considered a highland or sub - alpine plant . due to its localised distribution , n. rajah is classified as an endangered species by the iucn and listed on cites appendix i. the species was collected by hugh low on mount kinabalu in 1858 , and described the following year by joseph dalton hooker , who named it after james brooke , the first white rajah of sarawak . hooker called it " one of the most striking vegetable productions hither - to discovered " . since being introduced into cultivation in 1881 , nepenthes rajah has always been a much sought - after species . for a long time , the plant was seldom seen in private collections due to its rarity , price , and specialised growing requirements . however , recent advances in tissue culture technology have resulted in prices falling dramatically , and n. rajah is now relatively widespread in cultivation . nepenthes rajah is most famous for the giant urn - shaped traps it produces , which can grow up to 41 cm high and 20 cm wide . these are capable of holding 3 . 5 litres of water and in excess of 2 . 5 litres of digestive fluid , making them probably the largest in the genus by volume . another morphological feature of n. rajah is the peltate leaf attachment of the lamina and tendril , which is present in only a few other species . the plant is known to occasionally trap vertebrates and even small mammals , with drowned rats having been observed in the pitcher - shaped traps . it is one of only two nepenthes species documented as having caught mammalian prey in the wild , the other being n. rafflesiana . n. rajah is also known to occasionally trap small vertebrates such as frogs , lizards and even birds , although these cases probably involve sick animals and certainly do not represent the norm . insects , and particularly ants , comprise the staple prey in both aerial and terrestrial pitchers . although nepenthes rajah is most famous for trapping and digesting animals , its pitchers are also host to a large number of other organisms , which are thought to form a mutually beneficial ( symbiotic ) association with the plant . many of these animals are so specialised that they cannot survive anywhere else , and are referred to as . n. rajah has two such mosquito taxa named after it : culex rajah and toxorhynchites rajah . another key feature of n. rajah is the relative ease with which it is able to hybridise in the wild . hybrids between it and all other nepenthes species on mount kinabalu have been recorded . however , due to the slow - growing nature of n. rajah , few hybrids involving the species have been artificially produced yet . etymology joseph dalton hooker described nepenthes rajah in 1859 , naming it in honour of sir james brooke , the first white rajah of sarawak . in the past , the latin name was written as nepenthes rajah , since it derives from a proper noun . however , this capitalisation is considered incorrect today . ' rajah brooke 's pitcher plant ' is an accurate , but seldom - used common name . n. rajah is also sometimes called the ' giant malaysian pitcher plant ' or simply ' giant pitcher plant ' , although the binomial name remains by far the most popular way of referring to this species . the specific epithet rajah means " king " in malay and this , coupled with the impressive size of its pitchers , has meant that n. rajah is often referred to as the " king of nepenthes " . plant characteristics nepenthes rajah , like virtually all species in the genus , is a scrambling vine . the stem usually grows along the ground , but will attempt to climb whenever it comes into contact with an object that can support it . the stem is relatively thick ( ≤ 30 mm ) and may reach up to 6 m in length , although it rarely exceeds 3 m . n. rajah does not produce runners as some other species in the genus , but older plants are known to form basal offshoots . this is especially common in plants from tissue culture , where numerous offshoots may form at a young age . leaves leaves are produced at regular intervals along the stem . they are connected to the stem by sheathed structures known as petioles . a long , narrow tendril emanates from the end of each leaf . at the tip of the tendril is a small bud which , when physiologically activated , develops into a functioning trap . hence , the pitchers are modified leaves and not specialised flowers as is often believed . the green structure most similar to a normal leaf is specifically known as the lamina or leaf blade . the leaves of n. rajah are very distinctive and reach a large size . they are leathery in texture with a wavy outer margin . the leaves are characteristically peltate , whereby the tendril joins the lamina on the underside , before the apex . this characteristic is more pronounced in n. rajah than in any other nepenthes species , with the exception of n. . however , it is not unique to these two taxa , as mature plants of many nepenthes species display slightly peltate leaves . the tendrils are inserted ≤ 5 cm below the leaf apex and reach a length of approximately 50 cm . three to five longitudinal veins run along each side of the lamina and ( branching ) veins run towards the margin . the lamina is oblong to lanceolate - shaped , ≤ 80 cm long and ≤ 15 cm wide . pitchers all nepenthes pitchers share several basic characteristics . traps consist of the main pitcher cup , which is covered by an operculum or lid that prevents rainwater from entering the pitcher and displacing or diluting its contents . a reflexed ring of hardened tissue , known as the peristome , surrounds the entrance to the pitcher ( only the aerial pitchers of n. inermis lack a peristome ) . a pair of fringed wings run down the front of lower traps and these presumably serve to guide terrestrial insects into the pitchers ' mouth . accordingly , the wings are greatly reduced or completely lacking in aerial pitchers , for which flying insects constitute the majority of prey items . nepenthes rajah , like most species in the genus , produces two distinct types of traps . " lower " or " terrestrial " pitchers are the most common . these are very large , richly coloured , and ovoid in shape . in lower pitchers , the tendril attachment occurs at the front of the pitcher cup relative to the peristome and wings . exceptional specimens may be more than 40 cm in length and hold 3 . 5 litres of water and in excess of 2 . 5 litres of digestive fluid , although most do not exceed 200 ml . the largest recorded pitcher of n. rajah , measuring 41 cm , was found on march 26 , 2011 , during a trip to mesilau organised by the sabah society . the trap was discovered next to a steep of the mesilau nature trail and was measured by alex lamb , son of anthea phillipps and anthony lamb , who were also on the trip . it was collected for preservation at mesilau headquarters . another trap measuring 40 cm was spotted on the same day . the previous record for a n. rajah pitcher was 38 cm . the lower pitchers of n. rajah are probably the largest in the genus by volume , rivaled only by those of n. , n. truncata and the giant form of n. rafflesiana . these traps rest on the ground and are often reclined , leaning against surrounding objects for support . they are usually red to purple on the outside , whilst the inside surfaces are lime green to purple . this contrasts with all other parts of the plant , which are yellow - green . the lower pitchers of n. rajah are unmistakable and for this reason it is easy to distinguish it from all other bornean nepenthes species . mature plants may also produce " upper " or " aerial " pitchers , which are much smaller , funnel - shaped , and usually less colourful than the lowers . the tendril attachment in upper pitchers is normally present at the rear of the pitcher cup . true upper pitchers are seldom seen , as the stems of n. rajah rarely attain lengths greater than a few metres before dying off and being replaced by off - shoots from the main rootstock . upper and lower pitchers differ significantly in morphology , as they are specialised for attracting and capturing different prey . pitchers that do not fall directly into either category are simply known as " intermediate " pitchers . the peristome of n. rajah has a highly distinctive scalloped edge and is greatly expanded , forming an attractive red lip around the trap 's mouth . a series of raised protrusions , known as ribs , intersect the peristome , ending in short , sharp teeth that line its inner margin . the inner portion of the peristome accounts for around 80 % of its total cross - sectional surface length in this species . two fringed wings run from the tendril attachment to the lower edge of the peristome . the huge , vaulted lid of n. rajah , the largest in the genus , is another distinguishing characteristic of this species . it is ovate to oblong in shape and has a distinct keel running down the middle , with two prominent lateral veins . the spur at the back of the lid is approximately 20 mm long and unbranched . nepenthes rajah is noted for having very large nectar - secreting glands covering its pitchers . these are quite different from those of any other nepenthes and are easily recognisable . the inner surface of the pitcher , in particular , is wholly glandular , with 300 to 800 glands / cm ² . flowers nepenthes rajah seems to flower at any time of the year . flowers are produced in large numbers on inflorescences that arise from the apex of the main stem . n. rajah produces a very large inflorescence that can be 80 cm , and sometimes even 120 cm tall . the individual flowers of n. rajah are produced on partial peduncles ( twin stalks ) and so the inflorescence is called a raceme ( as opposed to a panicle for multi - flowered bunches ) . the flowers are reported to give off a strong sugary smell and are brownish - yellow in colour . are elliptic to oblong and ≤ 8 mm long . like all nepenthes species , n. rajah is dioecious , which means that individual plants produce flowers of a single sex . fruits are orange - brown and 10 to 20 mm long ( see image ) . a study of 300 pollen samples taken from a herbarium specimen ( , collected at an altitude of 1930 – 2320 m ) found the mean pollen diameter to be 34 . 7 μm ( se 0 . 3 ; cv 7 . 0 % ) . other characteristics the root system of n. rajah is notably extensive , although it is relatively shallow as in most nepenthes species . all parts of the plant are covered in long , white hairs when young , but mature plants are virtually glabrous ( lacking hair ) . this covering of hair is known as the indumentum . the colour of herbarium specimens is dark - brown in varying hues ( see image ) . little variation has been observed within natural populations of nepenthes rajah and , consequently , no forms or varieties have been described . furthermore , n. rajah has no true nomenclatural synonyms , unlike many other nepenthes species , which exhibit greater variability . carnivory see also : pitfall traps nepenthes rajah is a carnivorous plant of the pitfall trap variety . it is famous for occasionally trapping vertebrates , even small mammals . there exist at least two records of drowned rats found in n. rajah pitchers . the first observation dates from 1862 and was made by spenser st. john , who accompanied hugh low on two ascents of mount kinabalu . in 1988 , anthea phillipps and anthony lamb confirmed the plausibility of this record when they managed to observe drowned rats in a large pitcher of n. rajah . in 2011 , the discovery of a drowned mountain treeshrew ( tupaia montana ) in a n. rajah pitcher was reported . nepenthes rajah is also known to occasionally trap other small vertebrates , including frogs , lizards and even birds , although these cases probably involve sick animals , or those seeking shelter or water in the pitcher , and certainly do not represent the norm . insects , and particularly ants , comprise the majority of prey in both aerial and terrestrial pitchers . other arthropods , such as centipedes , also fall prey to n. rajah . nepenthes rafflesiana is one of the few other nepenthes species reliably documented as having caught mammalian prey in its natural habitat . in brunei , frogs , geckos and skinks have been found in the pitchers of this species . the remains of mice have also been reported . on september 29 , 2006 , at the jardin botanique de lyon in france , a cultivated n. truncata was photographed containing the decomposing corpse of a mouse . mutualism with mammals nepenthes rajah has evolved a mutualistic relationship with mountain treeshrews ( tupaia montana ) in order to collect their droppings . the inside of the reflexed lid exudes a sweet nectar . the distance from the pitcher mouth to the exudate is the same as the average body length of the mountain treeshrew . these proportions also hold true for n. lowii and n. macrophylla . as it feeds , the treeshrew defecates , apparently as a method of marking its feeding territory . it is thought that in exchange for providing nectar , the faeces provide n. rajah with the majority of the nitrogen it requires . in n. lowii , n. macrophylla and n. rajah , the colour of the lower lid surface corresponds to visual sensitivity maxima of the mountain treeshrew in the green and blue , making the lid underside stand out against adjacent parts of the pitcher . of the three species , n. rajah shows the tightest ' fit ' , particularly in the green waveband . in 2011 , it was reported that n. rajah has a similar mutualistic relationship with the summit rat ( rattus ) . whereas the mountain treeshrew visits pitchers during daylight hours , the summit rat is primarily active at night ; this may be an example of resource partitioning . daily scat deposition rates were found to be similar for both mammalian species . other interactions with animals pitcher infauna although nepenthes are most famous for trapping and digesting animals , their pitchers also play host to a large number of other organisms ( known as infauna ) . these include fly and midge larvae , spiders ( most notably the crab spider ) , mites , ants , and even a species of crab , . the most common and conspicuous predators found in pitchers are mosquito larvae , which consume large numbers of other larvae during their development . many of these animals are so specialised that they cannot survive anywhere else , and are referred to as . the complex relationships between these various organisms are not yet fully understood . the question of whether infaunal animals " steal " food from their hosts , or whether they are involved in a mutually beneficial ( symbiotic ) association has yet to be investigated experimentally and is the source of considerable debate . clarke suggests that mutualism is a " likely situation " , whereby " the infauna receives domicile , protection and food from the plant , while in return , the infauna helps to break down the prey , increase the rate of digestion and keep bacterial numbers low " . species specific as the size and shape of nepenthes pitchers vary greatly between species , but little within a given taxon , it is not surprising that many infaunal organisms are specially adapted to life in only the traps of particular species . n. rajah is no exception , and in fact has two mosquito taxa named after it . culex ( ) rajah and toxorhynchites ( toxorhynchites ) rajah were described by tsukamoto in 1989 , based on larvae collected in pitchers of n. rajah on mount kinabalu three years earlier . the two species were found to live in association with larvae of culex ( ) , ( ) and an undescribed taxon , ( ) sp . no. 2 . concerning c. rajah , tsukamoto noted that the " body surface of most larvae are covered in - like protozoa " . at present , nothing is known of this species with regards to its adult biology , habitat , or medical importance as a vector of diseases . the same is true for t. rajah ; nothing is known of its biology except that adults are not . another species , culex shebbearei , has also been recorded as an infaunal organism of n. rajah in the past . the original 1931 record by f. w. edwards is based on a collection by h. m. pendlebury in 1929 from a plant growing on mount kinabalu . however , tsukamoto notes that in light of new information on these species , " it seems more likely to conclude that the species [ c. rajah ] is a new species which has been as c. shebbearei for a long time , rather than to think that both c. shebbearei and c. rajah n. sp. are living in pitchers of nepenthes rajah on mt . kinabalu " . pests not all interactions between nepenthes and fauna are beneficial to the plant . nepenthes rajah is sometimes attacked by insects which feed on its leaves and damage substantial portions of the lamina . also , monkeys and tarsiers are known to occasionally rip pitchers open to feed on their contents . history and popularity see also : timeline of nepenthes rajah and its natural hybrids due to its size , unusual morphology and striking colouration , n. rajah has always been a very popular and highly sought - after insectivorous plant . however , despite its popularity amongst pitcher plant enthusiasts , n. rajah remains a little - known species outside the field of carnivorous plants . due to its specialised growing requirements , it is not a suitable candidate for a houseplant and , as such , is only cultivated by a relatively small number of hobbyists and professional growers worldwide . this being the case , n. rajah is nonetheless probably the most famous of all pitcher plants . its reputation for producing some of the most magnificent pitchers in the genus dates back to the late 19th century . nepenthes rajah was first collected by hugh low on mount kinabalu in 1858 . it was described the following year by joseph dalton hooker , who named it after james brooke , the first white rajah of sarawak . the description was published in the transactions of the linnean society of london : nepenthes rajah , h. f . ( , 4 - , low ) . 2 - , - , ( cum l - 2 - ) ore , folio , lato , - , totum . — ( tab . lxxii . ) hab . — borneo , north coast , on kina balu , alt . 5 , 000 feet ( low ) . this wonderful plant is certainly one of the most striking vegetable productions hitherto discovered , and , in this respect , is worthy of taking place side by side with the rafflesia . it hence bears the title of my friend rajah brooke , of whose services , in its native place , it may be commemorative among botanists . . . . i have only two specimens of leaves and pitchers , both quite similar , but one twice as large as the other . of these , the leaf of the larger is 18 inches long , exclusive of the petioles , which is as thick as the thumb and 7 – 8 broad , very and glabrous , with indistinct nerves . the stipes of the pitcher is given off below the apex of the leaf , is 20 inches long , and as thick as the finger . the broad ampullaceous pitcher is 6 inches in diameter , and 12 long : it has two fimbriated wings in front , is covered with long rusty hairs above , is wholly studded with glands within , and the broad annulus is everted , and 1 – 1 ½ inch in diameter . operculum shortly stipitate , 10 inches long and 8 broad . the inflorescence is hardly in proportion . male raceme , 30 inches long , of which 20 are occupied by the flowers ; upper part and flowers clothed with short rusty pubescence . peduncles slender , simple or bifid . fruiting raceme stout . peduncles 1 ½ inches long , often bifid . capsule , ¾ inch long , ⅓ broad , rather turgid , densely covered with rusty tomentum . spenser st. john wrote the following account of his encounter with n. rajah on mount kinabalu in life in the forests of the far east published in 1862 : another steep climb of 800 feet brought us to the spur , to the spot where the ground was covered with the magnificent pitcher - plants , of which we had come in search . this one has been called the nepenthes rajah , and is a plant about four feet in length , with broad leaves stretching on every side , having the great pitchers resting on the ground in a circle about it . their shape and size are remarkable . i will give the measurement of one , to indicate the form : the length along the back nearly fourteen inches ; from the base to the top of the column in front , five inches ; and its lid a foot long by fourteen inches broad , and of an oval shape . its mouth was surrounded by a plaited pile , which near the column was two inches broad , lessening in its narrowest part to three - quarters of an inch . the plaited pile of the mouth was also undulating in broad waves . near the stem the pitcher is four inches deep , so that the mouth is situated upon it in a triangular manner . the colour of an old chalice is a deep purple , but that of the others is generally mauve outside , very dark indeed in the lower part , though lighter towards the rim ; the inside is of the same colour , but has a kind of glazed and shiny appearance . the lid is mauve in the centre , shading to green at the edges . the stems of the female flowers we found always a foot shorter than those of the male , and the former were far less numerous than the latter . it is indeed one of the most astonishing productions of nature . [ ... ] the pitchers , as i have before observed , rest on the ground in a circle , and the young plants have cups of the same form as those of the old ones . while the men were cooking their rice , we sat before the tent enjoying our chocolate and observing one of our followers carrying water in a splendid specimen of the nepenthes rajah , desired him to bring it to us , and found that it held exactly four pint bottles . it was 19 inches in circumference . we afterwards saw others apparently much larger , and mr. low , while wandering in search of flowers , came upon one in which was a drowned rat . nepenthes rajah was first collected for the veitch nurseries by frederick william burbidge in 1878 , during his second trip to borneo . shortly after being introduced into cultivation in 1881 , n. rajah proved very popular among wealthy victorian horticulturalists and became a much sought - after species . a note in the gardeners ' chronicle of 1881 mentions the veitch plant as follows : " n. rajah at present is only a young rajah , what it will become was lately illustrated in our columns ... " . a year later , young n. rajah plants were displayed at the royal horticultural society 's annual show for the first time . the specimen exhibited at the show by the veitch nurseries , the first of this species to be cultivated in europe , won a first class certificate . in veitch 's catalogue for 1889 , n. rajah was priced at £ per plant . during this time , interest in nepenthes had reached its peak . the garden reported that nepenthes were being propagated by the thousands to keep up with european demand . however , dwindling interest in nepenthes at the turn of the century saw the demise of the veitch nurseries and consequently the loss of several species and hybrids in cultivation , including n. and n. rajah . by 1905 , the final n. rajah specimens from the veitch nurseries were gone , as the cultural requirements of the plants proved too difficult to reproduce . the last surviving n. rajah in cultivation at this time was located at the national botanic gardens at glasnevin in ireland , however this soon perished also . it would be many years before n. rajah was reintroduced into cultivation . recent popularity in recent years there has been renewed interest in nepenthes worldwide . much of the plants ' current popularity can probably be attributed to shigeo kurata , whose book nepenthes of mount kinabalu ( 1976 ) , which featured the best colour photography of nepenthes to date , did much to bring attention to these unusual plants . not surprisingly , n. rajah is a relatively well known plant in malaysia , especially its native sabah . the species is often used to promote sabah , and specifically kinabalu national park , as a tourist destination , and features prominently on postcards from the region . nepenthes rajah has appeared on the covers of several popular nepenthes publications , including nepenthes of mount kinabalu ( kurata , 1976 ) and nepenthes of borneo ( clarke , 1997 ) , both published in kota kinabalu , malaysia . on april 6 , 1996 , malaysia issued a series of four postage stamps depicting some of its more famous nepenthes species . two 30 ¢ stamps , featuring n. and n. sanguinea , as well as two 50 ¢ stamps , depicting n. lowii and n. rajah , were released . the n. rajah stamp has been assigned a unique identification number in two popular stamp numbering systems : scott # 580 and # 600 . curiously , the peltate leaf attachment that is so characteristic of this species is not shown . nepenthes rajah was featured in the first episode of kingdom of plants 3d , a natural history documentary series presented by david attenborough . classification nepenthes rajah is not generally considered to be closely related to any other species , due to its unusual pitcher and leaf morphology . however , several attempts have been made to deduce natural groupings within the nepenthes genus , which have grouped n. rajah with other species thought to share certain traits with it . the nepenthes were first split up in 1873 , when hooker published his monograph on the genus , titled " nepenthaceae " . hooker distinguished n. from all other taxa based on its seeds , which lack the appendages typical of most nepenthes . he placed it in the monotypic subgenus . all other species were subsumed in the second subgenus , eunepenthes . a second attempt to establish a natural subdivision within the genus was made in 1895 by günther beck von und in " die gattung nepenthes " . beck kept the two subgenera created by hooker , but divided eunepenthes into three subgroups : , and . nepenthes rajah formed part of the ( latin : pl. of : not frosted ) . nepenthes taxonomy was once again revised in 1908 by john muirhead macfarlane in his own monograph , " nepenthaceae " . oddly , macfarlane did not name the groups he distinguished . his revision is not generally considered to be a natural division of the genus . in 1928 , b. h. danser published his seminal monograph , " the nepenthaceae of the netherlands indies " , in which he divided nepenthes into six clades , based on observations of herbarium material . the clades were : the , , , regiae , insignes and . danser placed n. rajah in the regiae ( latin : pl. of : royal ) . the regiae clade as proposed by danser is shown in the table to the right . most of the species in this clade are large plants with leaves , an indumentum of coarse reddish - brown hairs , raceme - like inflorescence , and funnel - shaped ( ) upper pitchers . all bear a characteristic appendage on the lower surface of the lid near the apex . with the exception of n. lowii , the regiae all have a mostly flattened or expanded peristome . the majority of species comprising regiae are endemic to borneo . based on current understanding of the genus , regiae appears to reflect the relationships of its members quite well , although the same cannot be said for the other clades . despite this , danser 's classification was undoubtedly a great improvement on previous attempts . the taxonomical work of danser ( 1928 ) was revised by hermann harms in 1936 . harms divided nepenthes into three subgenera : anurosperma ( 1873 ) , eunepenthes ( 1873 ) and mesonepenthes harms ( 1936 ) ( latin : meso : middle ; " middle " nepenthes ) . the nepenthes species found in the subgenera anurosperma and mesonepenthes differ from those in the , where danser had placed them . harms included n. rajah in the subgenus eunepenthes together with the great majority of other nepenthes ; anurosperma was a monotypic subgenus , while mesonepenthes contained only three species . he also created an additional clade , the ( after n. ) . in his 1976 book , nepenthes of mount kinabalu , shigeo kurata presented detailed photographs of lid nectar glands and the digestive glands of the trap interior . he divided the latter into the " lower " , " upper " and " middle " parts . biochemical analysis more recently , biochemical analysis has been used as a means to determine cladistical relationships between nepenthes species . in 1975 , david e. et al. first suggested a link between chemical properties and certain morphological groupings , based on the theory that morphologically similar plants produce chemical constituents with similar therapeutic effects . in 2002 , screening and analytical chromatography were used to study the presence of phenolic compounds and in several naturally - occurring hybrids and their putative parental species ( including n. rajah ) from sabah and sarawak . the research was based on leaf material from nine dry herbarium specimens . eight spots containing phenolic acids , flavonols , flavones , and ' unknown flavonoid ' 1 and 3 were identified from chromatographic profiles . the distributions of these in the hybrid n. × alisaputrana and its putative parental species n. rajah and n. burbidgeae are shown in the table to the left . a specimen of n. × alisaputrana grown from tissue culture ( in vitro ) was also tested . phenolic and acids were undetected in n. rajah , while concentrations of were found to be very weak . chromatographic patterns of the n. × alisaputrana samples studied showed complementation of its putative parental species . was found to be absent from all studied taxa . this agrees with the findings of previous authors ( r. m. som in 1988 ; m. jay and p. in 1972 ) and suggests that the absence of a widely distributed compound like among the nepenthes examined might provide " additional diagnostic information for these six species " . several proteins and nucleotides of n. rajah have been either partially or completely sequenced . these are as follows : translocated trna - lys ( trnk ) pseudogene ( ) trnk gene & maturase k ( matk ) gene ( ) trnk gene & maturase k ( matk ) gene ( ) maturase k ( ) maturase k ( ) related species in 1998 , a striking new species of nepenthes was discovered in the philippines by andreas . temporarily dubbed n. sp . palawan 1 , it bears a close resemblance to n. rajah in terms of pitcher and leaf morphology . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] in 2007 , the species was described by and joachim as n. . ecology kinabalu nepenthes rajah has a very localised distribution , being restricted to mount kinabalu and neighbouring mount tambuyukon , both located in kinabalu national park , sabah , malaysian borneo . mount kinabalu is a massive granitic dome structure that is geologically young and formed from the intrusion and uplift of a granitic batholith . at . 2 m , it is by far the tallest mountain on the island of borneo and one of the highest peaks in southeast asia . the lower slopes of the mountain are mainly composed of sandstone and shale , transformed from marine sand and mud about 35 million years ago . ultramafic ( serpentine ) rock was uplifted with the core of the batholith and forms a collar around the mountain . it is on these ultramafic soils that the flora of mount kinabalu exhibits the greatest levels of endemicity and many of the area 's rarest species can be found here . substrate nepenthes rajah seems to grow exclusively on serpentine soils containing high concentrations of nickel and chromium , which are toxic to many plant species . its tolerance of these , therefore , means that it can grow in an ecological niche where it faces less competition for space and nutrients . the root systems of n. × alisaputrana and n. villosa are also known to be resistant to the heavy metals present in serpentine substrates . these soils are also rich in magnesium and are slightly alkaline as a result . they often form a relatively thin layer over a base of ultramafic rock and are thus known as ultramafic soils . soils are thought to cover approximately 16 % of kinabalu national park . these soils have high levels of endemicity in many taxonomic groups , not least the nepenthes . four species in the genus , including n. rajah , can only be found within the boundaries of the park . nepenthes rajah usually grows in open , grassy clearings on old land slips and flat ridge tops , particularly in areas of seeping ground water , where the soil is loose and permanently moist . although these sites can receive very high rainfall , excess water drains away quickly , preventing the soil from becoming waterlogged . n. rajah can often be found growing in grassy undergrowth , especially among sedges . climate nepenthes rajah has an altitudinal distribution of 1500 – 2650 m a.s.l. and is thus considered an ( ultra ) highland or upper montane plant . in the upper limit of its range , night - time temperatures may approach freezing and day - time maximums rarely exceed 25 ℃ . due to the night - time temperature drop , relative air humidity increases significantly , rising from 65 – 75 % to over 95 % . vegetation at this height is very stunted and slow - growing due to the extreme environmental conditions that prevail . plants are often subjected to fierce winds and driving rain , as well as exposure to intense direct sunlight . the relatively open vegetation of the upper montane forest also experiences greater fluctuations in temperature and humidity compared with lower altitudes . these changes are largely governed by the extent of cloud cover . in the absence of clouds , temperatures rise rapidly , humidity drops , and light levels may be very high . when cloud cover returns , temperatures and light levels fall , while humidity levels increase . average annual precipitation in this region is around 3000 mm . conservation status endangered species nepenthes rajah is classified as endangered ( en – b1 + 2e ) on the iucn red list of threatened species . it is also listed on schedule i , part ii of the wildlife conservation enactment ( ) 1997 and cites appendix i , which prohibits international trade in plants collected from the wild . however , due to its popularity among collectors , many plants have been removed from the wild illegally , even though the species ' distribution lies entirely within the bounds of kinabalu park . this led to some populations being severely depleted by over - collection in the 1970s and eventually resulted in the species ' inclusion in cites appendix i in 1981 . together with n. , it is one of only two species in the genus to feature on this list ; all other nepenthes species are covered by appendix ii . this being the case , however , the short - term future of n. rajah seems to be relatively secure and it would perhaps be more accurately classified as vulnerable ( vu ) or , taking into account protected populations in national parks , lower risk conservation dependent ( lr ( cd ) ) . this agrees with the conservation status of n. rajah according to the world conservation monitoring centre ( ) , under which it is also considered vulnerable . furthermore , the species was originally treated as vulnerable ( v ) by the iucn prior to the introduction of the 1994 threat categories . although n. rajah has a restricted distribution and is often quoted as a plant in peril , it is not rare in the areas where it does grow and most populations are now off - limits to visitors and lie in remote parts of kinabalu national park . furthermore , n. rajah has a distinctive leaf shape making it difficult to illegally ship abroad even if the pitchers are removed , as an informed customs official should be able to identify it . the recent advent of artificial tissue culture , or more specifically in vitro , technology in europe and the united states has meant that plants can be produced in large numbers and sold at relatively low prices ( ~ us $ 20 – $ 30 in the case of n. rajah ) . in vitro propagation refers to production of whole plants from cell cultures derived from explants ( generally seeds ) . this technology has , to a large extent , removed the incentive for collectors to travel to sabah to collect the plant illegally , and demand for wild - collected plants has fallen considerably in recent years . rob cantley , a prominent conservationist and artificial propagator of nepenthes plants , assesses the current status of plants in the wild as follows : this species grows in at least 2 distinct sub - populations , both of which are well protected by sabah national parks authority . one of the populations grows in an area public access to which is strictly prohibited without permit . however , there has been a decline in population of mature individuals in the better known and less patrolled site . this is largely due to damage to habitat and plants by careless visitors rather than organised collection of plants . nepenthes rajah has become common in cultivation in recent years as a result of the availability of inexpensive clones from tissue culture . i believe that these days commercial collection of this species from the wild is negligible . this being the case , however , it appears that the genetic variability of cultivated n. rajah plants is very small , as all commercially available tissue - cultured plants are thought to belong to just four clones originating from the royal botanic gardens , kew in london , england . however , illegal collection is not the only threat facing plants in the wild . the el niño climatic phenomenon of 1997 / 98 had a catastrophic effect on the nepenthes species on mount kinabalu . the dry period that followed severely depleted some natural populations . forest fires broke out in 9 locations in kinabalu park , covering a total area of 25 square kilometres and generating large amounts of smog . during the el niño period , many plants were temporarily transferred to the park nursery to save at least some individuals . these were later replanted in the " nepenthes garden " in mesilau ( see below ) . in spite of this , n. rajah was one of the less affected species and relatively few plants perished as a result . since then , has established a nursery close to the mesilau lodge at the base of kinabalu park to protect the endangered species of that area , including n. rajah . restricted distribution the newly opened mesilau nature resort , which lies near the golf course behind the village of kundasang , is now the only place where regular visitors can hope to see this species in its natural habitat . here , several dozen n. rajah plants grow near the top of a steep landslide . both young and mature plants are present , some with sizable pitchers that may occasionally exceed 40 cm in height ( see image ) . daily guided tours are organised to the " nepenthes garden " where these plants are located . the " nepenthes rajah nature trail " is subject to a fee and operates daily from 9 : 00 am to 4 : 00 pm . almost all other natural populations of this species occur in remote parts of kinabalu national park , which are off - limits to tourists . visitors to the park can also see n. rajah on display in the nursery adjoining the " mountain garden " at kinabalu park headquarters . other known localities of wild n. rajah populations include the plateau , mesilau east river near mesilau cave , the upper river , and the eastern slope of mount tambuyukon . on pig hill , n. rajah grows at 1950 – 2320 m and is sympatric with n. burbidgeae , n. , and the natural hybrid n. × alisaputrana . natural hybrids nepenthes rajah is known to hybridise with several other species with which it is sympatric . it seems to flower at any time of year and for this reason it hybridises relatively easily . charles clarke also notes that " n. rajah , more than any other species , appears to have been successful in having its pollen transported over considerable distances . consequently , a number of putative n. rajah hybrids exist without the parent plant growing nearby " . however , it appears that the limit as to how far pollen can be transported is approximately 10 km . hybrids between n. rajah and all other nepenthes species on mount kinabalu have been recorded . due to the slow - growing nature of n. rajah , few hybrids involving it have been artificially produced yet . at present , the following natural hybrids are known : n. burbidgeae × n. rajah [ n. × alisaputrana & wilcock ( 1992 ) ] n. × n. rajah n. fusca × n. rajah n. lowii × n. rajah n. × n. rajah n. rajah × n. stenophylla n. rajah × n. n. rajah × n. villosa [ n. × kinabaluensis ( 1976 ) ] the " mountain garden " of kinabalu national park contains a number of well - grown nepenthes , including the rare hybrid n. rajah × n. stenophylla . this plant has leaves resembling those of n. stenophylla , but the lid and wings are typical of n. rajah . the peristome is strongly influenced by n. stenophylla and bristles are present at the border of the lid , a unique characteristic of this hybrid . it occurs at an altitude of 1500 – 2600 m . a single example of n. lowii × n. rajah grows along the mesilau nature trail . two hybrids of n. rajah have been formally described and given specific names : n. × alisaputrana and n. × kinabaluensis . both are listed on cites appendix ii and the latter is also considered endangered ( en ( d ) ) under current iucn criteria . nepenthes × alisaputrana nepenthes × alisaputrana ( originally published as " nepenthes × " ) is named in honour of datuk ali , director of sabah parks . it is only known from a few remote localities within kinabalu national park where is grows in stunted , open vegetation over serpentine soils at around 2000 m above sea level , often amongst populations of n. burbidgeae . this plant is notable for combining the best characters of both parent species , not least the size of its pitchers , which rival those of n. rajah in volume ( ≤ 35 cm high , ≤ 20 cm wide ) . the other hybrids involving n. rajah do not exhibit such impressive proportions . the pitchers of n. × alisaputrana can be distinguished from those of n. burbidgeae by a broader peristome , larger lid and simply by their sheer size . the hybrid differs from its other parent , n. rajah , by its lid structure , indumentum of short , brown hairs , narrower and more cylindrical peristome , and pitcher colour , which is usually yellow - green with red or brown . for this reason , phillipps and lamb ( 1996 ) gave it the common name leopard pitcher - plant , though this is rarely used . the peristome is green to dark red and striped with purple bands . leaves are often slightly peltate . the plant climbs well and aerial pitchers are frequently produced . n. × alisaputrana more closely resembles n. rajah than n. burbidgeae , but it is difficult to confuse this plant with either . however , this mistake has previously been made on at least one occasion ; a pitcher illustrated in insect eating plants & how to grow them ( slack , 1986 ) as being n. rajah was in fact n. burbidgeae × n. rajah . nepenthes × kinabaluensis nepenthes × kinabaluensis is another impressive plant . the pitchers get large also , but do not compare to those of n. rajah or n. × alisaputrana . it is a well - known natural hybrid of what many consider to be the two most spectacular nepenthes species of borneo : n. rajah and n. villosa . nepenthes × kinabaluensis is only found on mount kinabalu ( hence the name ) and nearby mount tambuyukon , where the two parent species are occur sympatrically . more specifically , plants are known from a footpath near paka cave and several places along an route on a south - east ridge , which lies on the west side of the upper river . the only accessible location from which this hybrid is known is the kinabalu summit trail , between - and the helipad , where it grows at about 2900 m in a clearing dominated by dacrydium and leptospermum trees . nepenthes × kinabaluensis has an altitudinal distribution of to 3030 m . it grows in open areas in cloud forest . this hybrid can be distinguished from n. rajah by the presence of raised ribs that line the inner edge of the peristome and end with elongated teeth . these are more prominent than those found in n. rajah and are clue as to the hybrid 's parentage ( n. villosa has highly developed peristome ribs ) . the peristome is coarse and expanded at the margin ( but not scalloped like that of n. rajah ) , the lid or and almost flat . in general , pitchers are larger than those of n. villosa and the tendril joins the apex about 1 – 2 cm below the leaf tip , a feature which is characteristic of n. rajah . in older plants , the tendril can be almost woody . nepenthes × kinabaluensis has an indumentum of villous hairs covering the pitchers and leaf margins , which is approximately intermediate between the parents . lower pitchers have two fringed wings , whereas the upper pitchers usually lack these . the colour of the pitcher varies from yellow to scarlet . nepenthes × kinabaluensis seems to produce upper pitchers more readily than either of its parents . in all respects n. × kinabaluensis is intermediate between the two parent species and it is easy to distinguish from all other nepenthes of borneo . however , it has been confused once before , when the hybrid was labelled as n. rajah in letts guide to carnivorous plants of the world ( cheers , 1992 ) . nepenthes × kinabaluensis was first collected near by lilian gibbs in 1910 and later mentioned by macfarlane as " nepenthes sp . " in 1914 . although macfarlane did not formally name the plant , he noted that " [ a ] ll available morphological details suggest that this is a hybrid between n. villosa and n. rajah " . the name n. × kinabaluensis was first published in shigeo kurata 's 1976 book , nepenthes of mount kinabalu , but was a nomen nudum at the time as it lacked an adequate description and information on the type specimen . the name was subsequently published validly by kurata in 1984 . hybrid or species ? nepenthes × alisaputrana and n. × kinabaluensis are often fertile and thus may breed among themselves . clive a. stace writes that we may speak of " stabilised hybrids when they have developed a distributional , morphological or genetic set of characters which is no longer strictly related to that of its parents , ... if the hybrid has become an independent , recognisable , self - producing unit , it is de facto a separate species " . nepenthes and n. are two examples of species that have a putative hybrid origin . nepenthes × alisaputrana and n. × kinabaluensis are sufficiently stabilised that a species status has been discussed . indeed , n. kinabaluensis was described as a species by adam & wilcock in 1996 . due to their dioecious nature , a hybrid involving a pair of nepenthes species can represent one of two possible crosses , depending on which species was the female and which was the male . when the cross is known , the female ( or pod ) parent is usually referred to first , followed by the male ( or pollen ) parent . this is an important distinction , as the hybrid will usually display different morphological features according to the type of cross ; the pod parent is thought to be dominant in most cases and hybrid offspring usually resemble it more than the pollen parent . most wild plants of n. × kinabaluensis , for example , show a greater affinity to n. rajah than n. villosa and are thus thought to represent the cross n. rajah × n. villosa . however , specimens have been found that seem to be more similar to n. villosa , suggesting that they might be the reverse cross ( see [ 4 ] ) . the same is true for other hybrids involving n. rajah . cultivation see also : nepenthes cultivation nepenthes rajah has always been considered to be one of the more difficult nepenthes species to cultivate . however , in recent years , it has become apparent that the plant may not be deserving of its reputation . environmental factors nepenthes rajah is a montane species or " highlander " , growing at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 2650 m . as such , it requires warm days , with temperatures ranging ( ideally ) from approximately 25 to 30 ℃ , and cool nights , with temperatures of about 10 to 15 ℃ . here , it is important to note that the temperatures themselves are not vital ( when kept within reasonable limits ) , but rather the temperature drop itself ; n. rajah needs considerably cooler nights , with a drop of 10 ℃ or more being preferable . failure to observe this requirement will almost certainly doom the plant in the long term or , at best , limit it to being a small , unimpressive specimen . in addition , like all nepenthes , this plant needs a fairly humid environment to grow well . values in the region of 75 % r.h. are generally considered optimal , with increased humidity at night ( ~ 90 % r.h. ) . however , n. rajah does tolerate fluctuations in humidity , especially when young , provided that the air does not become too dry ( below 50 % r.h. ) . humidity can be easily controlled using an ultrasonic in conjunction with a . in its natural habitat , n. rajah grows in open areas , where it is exposed to direct sunlight – it therefore needs to be provided with a significant amount of light in cultivation as well . to meet this need , many growers have used metal halide lamps in the 500 – 1000 watt range , with considerable success . the plant should be situated a fair distance from the light source , 1 to 2 m is recommended . depending on location , growers can utilise natural sunlight as a source of illumination . however , this is only recommended for those living in equatorial regions , where light intensity is sufficient to satisfy the needs of the plant . a photoperiod of 12 hours is comparable to that experienced in nature , since borneo lies on the equator . and watering pure long - fibre sphagnum moss is an excellent potting medium , though combinations involving any of the following – peat , perlite , vermiculite , sand , lava rock , pumice , osmunda fibre , orchid bark and horticultural charcoal – may be used with equal success . the potting medium should be well - drained and not too compacted . moss is useful for moisture retention near the roots . the mix should be thoroughly soaked in water prior to potting the plant . it has been noted that n. rajah produces a very extensive root system ( for a nepenthes ) and , for this reason , it is recommended that a wide pot be used to allow for proper development of the root system . this also eliminates the need for frequent re - potting , which can lead to transplant shock and the eventual death of the plant . purified water should be used for watering purposes , although ' hard water ' is tolerated . this is done to minimise the build - up of minerals and chemicals in the soil . water purity greater than 100 of total dissolved solids is often quoted as ideal . a reverse osmosis unit can be used to filter the water or , alternatively , bottled distilled water can be purchased . watering should be done regularly . however , plants should not be allowed to sit in water , as this may lead to root rot . feeding and fertilising nepenthes rajah is a carnivorous plant and , as such , supplements nutrients gained from the soil with captured prey ( especially insects ) to alleviate deficiencies in important elements such as nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium . just as in nature , a cultivated plant 's ' diet ' may include insects and other prey items , although this is not necessary for successful cultivation . crickets are recommended for their size and low cost . these can be purchased online or at specialist pet stores . they can simply be dropped into the pitchers by hand or placed inside using metal tongs or similar , whether dead or alive . from trials carried out by a commercial nepenthes nursery , it appears that micronutrient solutions have " a beneficial effect on plants of improved leaf colouration , with no deleterious effects " as far as can be seen . however , more research is required to verify these results . actual fertilisers ( containing ) were , on the other hand , found to " cause damage to plants , promote pathogens and have no observable benefits " . hence , the use of chemical fertilisers is usually not advised . nepenthes rajah is a slow growing nepenthes . under optimal conditions , n. rajah can reach flowering size within 10 years of seed germination . common misconceptions nepenthes rajah has been a well known and highly sought after species for over a century and , as a result , there are many stories woven around this plant . one such example is the famous legend that n. rajah grows exclusively in the spray zones of waterfalls , on ultramafic soils . although the latter is true , n. rajah is certainly not found solely in the spray zones of waterfalls and this statement seems to have little basis in fact . it is likely this misconception was popularised by shigeo kurata 's 1976 book nepenthes of mount kinabalu , in which he states that " n. rajah is rather fond of wet places like swamps or the surroundings of a waterfall " . this being the case , certain n. rajah plants do in fact grow in the vicinity of waterfalls ( as noted by h. steiner , 2002 ) " providing quite a humid microclimate " , which may indeed be the source of this particular misconception . another myth surrounding this species is that it occasionally catches small monkeys and other large animals in its pitchers . such tales have persisted for a very long time , but can probably be explained as rodents being mistaken for other species . it is interesting to note that one common name for nepenthes plants is ' monkey cups ' . the name refers to the fact that monkeys have been observed drinking rainwater from these plants . timeline general focus : rajah brooke 's pitcher plant die - : nepenthes rajah ( german ) images photographs of n. rajah in its natural habitat images of n. rajah in natural habitat and tissue culture borneo : nepenthes rajah cultivation n. rajah cultivation notes further cultivation notes colorado carnivorous plant society : nepenthes rajah growth of plant in cultivation over several years large plants in cultivation other the international plant names index : nepenthes rajah nepenthes rajah entry from danser 's monograph iucn red list of threatened species : nepenthes rajah video about nepenthes rajah from the private life of plants