text: joseph johnson ( publisher ) joseph johnson ( 15 november 1738 – 20 december 1809 ) was an influential 18th - century london bookseller and publisher . his publications covered a wide variety of genres and a broad spectrum of opinions on important issues . johnson is best known for publishing the works of radical thinkers such as mary wollstonecraft , william godwin , thomas malthus , and joel barlow , feminist economist priscilla wakefield , as well as religious dissenters such as joseph priestley , anna laetitia barbauld , gilbert wakefield , and george walker . in the 1760s , johnson established his publishing business , which focused primarily on religious works . he also became friends with priestley and the artist henry fuseli — two relationships that lasted his entire life and brought him much business . in the 1770s and 1780s , johnson expanded his business , publishing important works in medicine and children 's literature as well as the popular poetry of william cowper and erasmus darwin . throughout his career , johnson helped shape the thought of his era not only through his publications , but also through his support of innovative writers and thinkers . he fostered the open discussion of new ideas , particularly at his famous weekly dinners , the regular attendees of which became known as the " johnson circle " . in the 1790s , johnson aligned himself with the supporters of the french revolution , and published an increasing number of political pamphlets in addition to a prominent journal , the analytical review , which offered british reformers a voice in the public sphere . in 1799 , he was indicted on charges of seditious libel for publishing a pamphlet by the unitarian minister gilbert wakefield . after spending six months in prison , albeit under relatively comfortable conditions , johnson published fewer political works . in the last decade of his career , johnson did not seek out many new writers ; however , he remained successful by publishing the collected works of authors such as william shakespeare . johnson 's friend john aikin eulogized him as " the father of the " . he has also been called " the most important publisher in england from 1770 until 1810 " for his appreciation and promotion of young writers , his emphasis on publishing inexpensive works directed at a growing middle - class readership , and his cultivation and advocacy of women writers at a time when they were viewed with skepticism . early life johnson was the second son of rebecca turner johnson and john johnson , a baptist yeoman who lived in everton , liverpool . religious dissent marked johnson from the beginning of his life , as two of his mother 's relatives were prominent baptist ministers and his father was a deacon . liverpool , at the time of johnson 's youth , was fast becoming a bustling urban centre and was one of the most important commercial ports in england . these two characteristics of his home — dissent and commercialism — remained central elements in johnson 's character throughout his life . at the age of fifteen , johnson was apprenticed to george keith , a london bookseller who specialized in publishing religious tracts such as reflections on the modern but unchristian practice of . as gerald tyson , johnson 's major modern biographer , explains , it was unusual for the younger son of a family living in relative obscurity to move to london and to become a bookseller . scholars have speculated that johnson was indentured to keith because the bookseller was associated with liverpool baptists . keith and johnson published several works together later in their careers , which suggests that the two remained on friendly terms after johnson started his own business . 1760s : beginnings in publishing upon completing his apprenticeship in 1761 , johnson opened his own business , but he struggled to establish himself , moving his shop several times within one year . two of his early publications were a kind of day planner : the complete pocket - book ; or , gentleman and tradesman 's daily journal for the year of our lord , 1763 and the ladies new and pocket memorandum book . such were popular and johnson outsold his rivals by publishing his both earlier and cheaper . johnson continued to sell these profitable books until the end of the 1790s , but as a religious dissenter , he was primarily interested in publishing books that would improve society . therefore , religious texts dominated his book list , although he also published works relating to liverpool ( his home town ) and medicine . however , as a publisher johnson attended to more than the selling and distributing of books , as scholar leslie chard explains : besides the actual selling of books to the public , the bookseller saw to their publication , arrangements with printers , with advertisers , with other booksellers in the city , the provinces , and even foreign countries , in short to their distribution . he also sold , incongruously but typically , patent medicine . but what probably most occupied his time was the welfare of his authors : at the most he fed and housed them , but at the least he served as banker , postal clerk and packager , literary agent and editor , social chairman , and psychiatrist . as johnson became successful and his reputation grew , other publishers began including him in — syndicates that spread the risk of publishing a costly or inflammatory book among several firms . formative friendships in his late twenties , johnson formed two friendships that were to shape the rest of his life . the first was with the painter and writer henry fuseli , who was described as " quick witted and pugnacious " . fuseli 's early 19th - century biographer writes that when fuseli met johnson in 1764 , johnson " had already acquired the character which he retained during life , — that of a man of great integrity , and encourager of literary men as far as his means extended , and an excellent judge of their productions " . fuseli became and remained johnson 's closest friend . the second and possibly more consequential friendship was with joseph priestley , the renowned natural philosopher and unitarian theologian . this friendship led johnson to discard the baptist faith of his youth and to adopt unitarianism , as well as to pursue forms of political dissent . johnson 's success as a publisher can be explained in large part through his association with priestley , as priestley published dozens of books with him and introduced him to many other dissenting writers . through priestley 's recommendation , johnson was able to issue the works of many dissenters , especially those from warrington academy : the poet , essayist , and children 's author anna laetitia barbauld ; her brother , the physician and writer , john aikin ; the naturalist johann reinhold forster ; the unitarian minister and controversialist gilbert wakefield ; the moralist william enfield ; and the political economist thomas malthus . tyson writes that " the relationship between the academy and the bookseller was mutually very useful . not only did many of the tutors send occasional manuscripts for publication , but also former pupils often sought him out in later years to issue their works . " by printing the works of priestley and other of the warrington tutors , johnson also made himself known to an even larger network of dissenting intellectuals , including those in the lunar society , which expanded his business further . priestley , in turn , trusted johnson enough to handle the logistics of his induction into the royal society . partnerships in july 1765 , johnson moved his business to the more visible 8 paternoster row and formed a partnership with b. davenport , of whom little is known aside from his association with johnson . chard postulates that they were attracted by mutual beliefs because the firm of johnson and davenport published even more religious works , including many that were " rigidly calvinistic " . however , in the summer of 1767 , davenport and johnson parted ways ; scholars have speculated that this rupture occurred because johnson 's religious views were becoming more unorthodox . newly independent , with a solid reputation , johnson did not need to struggle to establish himself as he had early in his career . within a year , he published nine first editions himself as well as thirty - two works in partnership with other booksellers . he was also a part of " the select circle of that gathered at the chapter coffee house " , which was the centre of social and commercial life for publishers and booksellers in 18th - century london . major publishing ventures had started at the chapter and important writers " clubbed " there . in 1768 johnson went into partnership with john payne ( johnson was probably the senior partner ) ; the following year they published 50 titles . under johnson and payne , the firm published a wider array of works than under johnson and davenport . although johnson looked to his business interests , he did not publish works only to enrich himself . projects that encouraged free discussion appealed to johnson ; for example , he helped priestley publish the theological repository , a financial failure that nevertheless fostered open debate of theological questions . although the journal lost johnson money in the 1770s , he was willing to begin publishing it again in 1785 because he endorsed its values . the late 1760s was a time of growing radicalism in britain , and although johnson did not participate actively in the events , he facilitated the speech of those who did , e.g. , by publishing works on the disputed election of john wilkes and the agitation in the american colonies . despite his growing interest in politics , johnson ( with payne ) still published primarily religious works and the occasional travel narrative . as tyson writes , " in the first decade of his career johnson 's significance as a bookseller derived from a desire to provide dissent ( religious and political ) a forum " . fire johnson was on the verge of real success when his shop was ravaged by fire on 9 january 1770 . as one london newspaper reported it : yesterday morning , between six and seven o 'clock a fire broke out at messrs. johnson and payne 's , booksellers , in paternoster row , which consumed that house , mr. cock 's , printer , and mr. upton 's , an auctioneer ... in which last mentioned house was kept the whole stock of bibles , common prayers , etc. belonging to the proprietors of the oxford press ... it was a considerable time before the engines could be brought to play to any purpose , on account their being clogged by ice and snow . the several families were all in bed when the fire was first discovered , and mr. johnson had but just time to alarm his partner and the rest of the family , and they escaped , saving only some of their books of account , the whole stock in trade and furniture being destroyed . at the time fuseli had been living with johnson and he also lost all of his possessions , including the first printing of his remarks on the writings and conduct of j. j. rousseau . johnson and payne subsequently dissolved their partnership . it was an amicable separation , and johnson even published some of payne 's works in later years . 1770s : establishment by august 1770 , just seven months after fire had destroyed his shop and goods , johnson had re - established himself at 72 st. paul 's churchyard — the largest shop on a street of booksellers — where he was to remain for the rest of his life . how johnson managed this feat is unclear ; he later cryptically told a friend that " his friends came about him , and set him up again " . an early 19th - century biography states that " mr. johnson was now so well known , and had been so highly respected , that on this unfortunate occasion , his friends with one accord met , and contributed to enable him to begin business again " . chard speculates that priestley assisted him since they were such close friends . religious publications and advocacy of unitarianism immediately upon reopening his business , johnson started publishing theological and political works by priestley and other dissenters . starting in the 1770s , johnson published more specifically unitarian works , as well as texts advocating religious toleration ; he also became personally involved in the unitarian cause . he served as a conduit for information between dissenters across the country and supplied provincial publishers with religious publications , thereby enabling dissenters to spread their beliefs easily . johnson participated in efforts to repeal the test and corporation acts , which restricted the civil rights of dissenters . in one six - year period of the 1770s , johnson was responsible for publishing nearly one - third of the unitarian works on the issue . he continued his support in 1787 , 1789 , and 1790 , when dissenters introduced repeal bills in parliament , and he published much of the pro - repeal literature written by priestley and others . johnson was also instrumental in theophilus lindsey 's founding of the first unitarian chapel in london . with some difficulty , as unitarians were feared at that time and their beliefs held illegal until the doctrine of the trinity act 1813 , johnson obtained the building for essex street chapel and , with the help of barrister john lee , who later became attorney - general , its licence . to capitalize on the opening of the new chapel in addition to helping out his friends , johnson published lindsey 's inaugural sermon , which sold out in four days . johnson continued to attend and participate actively in this congregation throughout his life . lindsey and the church 's other minister , john disney , became two of johnson 's most active writers . in the 1780s , johnson continued to advocate unitarianism and published a series of controversial writings by priestley arguing for its legitimacy . these writings did not make johnson much money , but they agreed with his philosophy of open debate and religious toleration . johnson also became the publisher for the society for promoting the knowledge of the scriptures , a unitarian group determined to release new worship materials and commentaries on the bible . ( see british and foreign unitarian association # publishing . ) although johnson is known for publishing unitarian works , particularly those of priestley , he also published the works of other dissenters , anglicans , and jews . the common thread uniting his disparate religious publications was religious toleration . for example , he published the reverend george gregory 's 1787 english translation of bishop robert lowth 's seminal book on hebrew poetry , de sacra . gregory published several other works with johnson , such as essays historical and moral ( 1785 ) and sermons with thoughts on the composition and delivery of a sermon ( 1787 ) . gregory exemplified the type of author that johnson preferred to work with : industrious and liberal - minded , but not bent on self - glorification . yet , as helen braithwaite writes in her study of johnson , his " enlightened pluralistic approach was also seen by its opponents as inherently permissive , opening the door to all forms of unhealthy questioning and scepticism , and at odds with the stable virtues of established religion and authority " . american revolution partially as a result of his association with british dissenters , johnson became involved in publishing tracts and sermons in defence of the american revolutionaries . he began with priestley 's address to protestant dissenters of all denominations , on the approaching election of members of parliament ( 1774 ) , which urged dissenters to vote for candidates that guaranteed the american colonists their freedom . johnson continued his series of anti - government , pro - american pamphlets by publishing fast day sermons by joshua toulmin , george walker , ebenezer radcliff , and newcome cappe . braithwaite describes these as " well - articulated critiques of government " that " were not only unusual but potentially subversive and disruptive " , and she concludes that johnson 's decision to publish so much of this material indicates that he supported the political position it espoused . moreover , johnson published what braithwaite calls " probably the most influential english defence of the colonists " , richard price 's observations on the nature of civil liberty ( 1776 ) . over 60 , 000 copies were sold in a year . in 1780 johnson also issued the first collected political works of benjamin franklin in england , a political risk as the american colonies were in rebellion by that time . johnson did not usually reprint colonial texts — his ties to the revolution were primarily through dissenters . thus , the works published by johnson emphasized both colonial independence and the rights for which dissenters were fighting — " the right to petition for redress of grievance , the maintenance and protection of equal civil rights , and the inalienable right to liberty of conscience " . informative texts after 1770 , johnson began to publish a wider array of books , particularly scientific and medical texts . one of the most important was john hunter 's a natural history of the human teeth , part i ( 1771 ) , which " elevated dentistry to the level of surgery " . johnson also supported doctors when they questioned the efficacy of cures , such as with john millar in his observations on antimony ( 1774 ) , which claimed that dr james 's fever powder was ineffective . this was a risky publication for johnson , because this patent medicine was quite popular and his fellow bookseller john newbery had made his fortune from selling it . in 1777 johnson published the remarkable laws respecting women , as they regard their natural rights , which is an explication , for the layperson , of exactly what its title suggests . as tyson comments , " the ultimate value of this book lies in its arming women with the knowledge of their legal rights in situations where they had traditionally been vulnerable because of ignorance " . johnson published laws respecting women anonymously , but it is sometimes credited to elizabeth chudleigh bristol , known for her bigamous marriage to the 2nd duke of kingston - upon - hull after having previously privately married augustus john hervey , afterwards 3rd earl of bristol . this publication foreshadowed johnson 's efforts to promote works about women 's issues — such as a vindication of the rights of woman ( 1792 ) — and his support of women writers . revolution in children 's literature johnson also contributed significantly to children 's literature . his publication of barbauld 's lessons for children ( 1778 – 79 ) spawned a revolution in the newly emerging genre . its plain style , mother - child dialogues , and conversational tone inspired a generation of authors , such as sarah trimmer . johnson encouraged other women to write in this genre , such as charlotte smith , but his recommendation always came with a caveat of how difficult it was to write well for children . for example , he wrote to smith , " perhaps you cannot employ your time and extraordinary talents more usefully for the public & your self [ sic ] , than in composing books for children and young people , but i am very sensible it is [ sic ] difficult to acquire that simplicity of style which is their great recommendation " . he also advised william godwin and his second wife , mary jane clairmont , on the publication of their juvenile library ( started in 1805 ) . not only did johnson encourage the writing of british children 's literature , but he also helped sponsor the translation and publication of popular french works such as arnaud 's l 'ami des ( 1782 – 83 ) . in addition to books for children , johnson published schoolbooks and textbooks for , such as john hewlett 's introduction to spelling and reading ( 1786 ) , william nicholson 's introduction to natural philosophy ( 1782 ) , and his friend john bonnycastle 's an introduction to and practical mathematics ( 1782 ) . johnson also published books on education and childrearing , such as wollstonecraft 's first book , thoughts on the education of daughters ( 1787 ) . by the end of the 1770s , johnson had become an established publisher . writers — particularly dissenters — sought him out , and his home started to become the centre of a radical and stimulating intellectual milieu . because he was willing to publish multiple opinions on issues , he was respected as a publisher by writers from across the political spectrum . johnson published many unitarian works , but he also issued works criticizing them ; although he was an abolitionist , he also published works arguing in favour of the slave trade ; he supported inoculation , but he also published works critical of the practice . 1780s : success during the 1780s , johnson achieved success : he did well financially and his firm published more books with other firms . although johnson had begun his career as a relatively cautious publisher of religious and scientific tracts , he was now able to take more risks and he encouraged friends to recommend works to him , creating a network of informal reviewers . yet johnson 's business was never large ; he usually had only one assistant and never took on an apprentice . only in the last years of his life did two relatives assist him . literature once johnson 's financial situation had become secure , he began to publish literary authors , most famously the poet william cowper . johnson issued cowper 's poems ( 1782 ) and the task ( 1784 ) at his own expense ( a generous action at a time when authors were often forced to take on the risk of publication ) , and was rewarded with handsome sales of both volumes . johnson published many of cowper 's works , including the anonymous satire anti - ( 1780 ) , which mocked the work of cowper 's own cousin , the rev. martin madan , who had advocated polygamy as a solution for prostitution . johnson even edited and critiqued cowper 's poetry in manuscript , " much to the advantage of the poems " according to cowper . in 1791 , johnson published cowper 's translations of the homeric epics ( extensively edited and corrected by fuseli ) and three years after cowper 's death in 1800 , johnson published a biography of the poet by william hayley . johnson never published much " creative literature " ; chard attributes this to " a lingering calvinistic hostility to ' imaginative ' literature " . most of the literary works johnson published were religious or didactic . some of his most popular productions in this vein were anthologies ; the most famous is probably william enfield 's the speaker ( 1774 ) , which went through multiple editions and spawned many imitations , such as wollstonecraft 's the female speaker . medical and scientific publications johnson continued his interest in publishing practical medical texts in the 1780s and 1790s ; during the 1780s , he brought out some of his most significant works in this area . according to johnson 's friend , the physician john aikin , he intentionally established one of his first shops on " the track of the medical students resorting to the hospitals in the borough " , where they would be sure to see his wares , which helped to establish him in medical publishing . johnson published the works of the scientist - dissenters he met through priestley and barbauld , such as thomas beddoes and thomas young . he issued the children 's book on birds produced by the industrialist samuel galton and the lunar society 's translation of linnaeus 's system of vegetables ( 1783 ) . he also published works by james edward smith , " the botanist who brought the linnaean system to england " . in 1784 , johnson issued john haygarth 's an inquiry how to prevent small - pox , which furthered the understanding and treatment of smallpox . johnson published several subsequent works by haygarth that promoted inoculation ( and later vaccination ) for the healthy , as well as quarantining for the sick . he also published the work of james earle , a prominent surgeon , whose significant book on lithotomy was illustrated by william blake , and matthew baillie 's morbid anatomy ( 1793 ) , " the first text of pathology devoted to that science exclusively by systematic arrangement and design " . not only did johnson publish the majority of priestley 's theological works , but he also published his scientific works , such as experiments and observations on different kinds of air ( 1774 – 77 ) in which priestley announced his discovery of oxygen . johnson also published the works of carl wilhelm scheele and antoine lavoisier , both of whom made their own claims of having discovered oxygen . when lavoisier began to publish works in france on the " new chemistry " that he had developed ( which included today 's modern notions of element and compound ) , johnson had these translated and printed immediately , despite his association with priestley who argued strenuously against lavoisier 's new system . johnson was the first to publish an english edition of lavoisier 's early writings on chemistry and he kept up with the ongoing debate . these works did well for johnson and increased his visibility among men of science . johnson circle and dinners with time , johnson 's home became a nexus for radical thinkers , who appreciated his open - mindedness , generous spirit , and humanitarianism . although usually separated by geography , such thinkers would meet and debate with one another at johnson 's house in london , often over dinner . this network not only brought authors into contact with each other , it also brought new writers to johnson 's business . for example , priestley introduced john newton to johnson , newton brought john hewlett , and hewlett invited mary wollstonecraft , who in turn attracted mary hays who brought william godwin . with this broad network of acquaintances and reputation for free - thinking publications , johnson became the favourite publisher of a generation of writers and thinkers . by bringing inventive , thoughtful people together , he " stood at the very heart of british intellectual life " for over twenty years . importantly , johnson 's circle was not made up entirely of either liberals or radicals . chard emphasizes that it " was held together less by political liberalism than by a common interest in ideas , free enquiry , and creative expression in various fields " . as tyson notes , although " johnson 's circle " is usually used in the singular , there were at least two such " circles " . the first was made up of a group of london associates : fuseli , gregory , bonnycastle , and geddes . the second consisted of johnson 's writers from farther afield , such as priestley , thomas henry , thomas percival , barbauld , aikin , and enfield . later , more radicals would join , including wollstonecraft , wakefield , john horne tooke , and thomas christie . johnson 's dinners became legendary and it appears , from evidence collected from diaries , that a large number of people attended each one . although there were few regulars , except perhaps for johnson 's close london friends ( fuseli , bonnycastle and , later , godwin ) , the large number of luminaries , such as thomas paine , who attended attests to the reputation of these dinners . the enjoyment and intellectual stimulation that these dinners provided is evidenced by the numerous references to them in diaries and letters . barbauld wrote to her brother in 1784 that " our evenings , particularly at johnson 's , were so truly social and lively , that we protracted them sometimes till — but i am not telling tales . " at one dinner in 1791 , godwin records that the conversation focused on " monarch , tooke , [ samuel ] johnson , voltaire , pursuits , and religion " [ emphasis godwin 's ] . although the conversation was stimulating , johnson apparently only served his guests simple meals , such as boiled cod , veal , vegetables , and rice pudding . many of the people that met at these dinners became fast friends , as did fuseli and bonnycastle ; godwin and wollstonecraft eventually married . friendship with mary wollstonecraft the friendship between johnson and mary wollstonecraft was pivotal in both of their lives , and illustrates the active role that johnson played in developing writing talent . in 1787 , wollstonecraft was in financial straits : she had just been dismissed from a governess position in ireland and had moved back to london . she had resolved to be an author in an era that afforded few professional opportunities to women . after unitarian schoolteacher john hewlett suggested to wollstonecraft that she submit her writings to johnson , an enduring and mutually supportive relationship blossomed between johnson and wollstonecraft . he dealt with her creditors , secured lodgings for her , and advanced payment on her first book , thoughts on the education of daughters ( 1787 ) , and her first novel , mary : a fiction ( 1788 ) . johnson included wollstonecraft in the exalted company of his weekly soirées , where she met famous personages , such as thomas paine and her future husband , william godwin . wollstonecraft , who is believed to have written some 200 articles for his periodical , the analytical review , regarded johnson as a true friend . after a disagreement , she sent him the following note the next morning : you made me very low - spirited last night , by your manner of talking — you are my only friend — the only person i am intimate with . — i never had a father , or a brother — you have been both to me , ever since i knew you — yet i have sometimes been very petulant . — i have been thinking of those instances of ill - humour and quickness , and they appeared like crimes . yours sincerely , mary . johnson offered wollstonecraft work as a translator , prompting her to learn french and german . more importantly , johnson provided encouragement at crucial moments during the writing of her seminal political treatises a vindication of the rights of men ( 1790 ) and a vindication of the rights of woman ( 1792 ) . 1790s : years of radicalism as radicalism took hold in britain in the 1790s , johnson became increasingly involved in its causes : he was a member of the society for constitutional information , which was attempting to reform parliament ; he published works defending dissenters after the religiously motivated birmingham riots in 1791 ; and he testified on behalf of those arrested during the 1794 treason trials . johnson published works championing the rights of slaves , jews , women , prisoners , dissenters , chimney sweeps , abused animals , university students forbidden from marrying , victims of press gangs , and those unjustly accused of violating the game laws . political literature became johnson 's mainstay in the 1790s : he published 118 works , which amounted to 57 % of his total political output . as chard notes , " hardly a year went by without at least one anti - war and one anti - slave trade publication from johnson " . in particular , johnson published abolitionist works , such as minister and former slave - ship captain john newton 's thoughts upon the african slave trade ( 1788 ) , barbauld 's epistle to william wilberforce ( 1791 ) , and captain john gabriel stedman 's narrative , of a five years ' expedition , against the negroes of surinam ( 1796 ) ( with illustrations by blake ) . most importantly he helped organize the publication of the interesting narrative of the life of olaudah equiano ( 1789 ) , the autobiography of former slave olaudah equiano . later in the decade , johnson focused on works about the french revolution , concentrating on those from france itself , but he also published commentary from america by thomas jefferson and james monroe . johnson 's determination to publish political and revolutionary works , however , fractured his circles : dissenters were alienated from anglicans during efforts to repeal the test and corporation acts and moderates split from radicals during the french revolution . johnson lost customers , friends , and writers , including the children 's author sarah trimmer . braithwaite speculates that johnson also lost business due to his willingness to put out works that promoted the " challenging new historicist versions of the scriptures " , such as those by alexander geddes . scholars are , however , careful to note that except for benjamin franklin 's works and joel barlow 's pamphlets , johnson did not print anything truly revolutionary . he refused to publish paine 's rights of man and william blake 's the french revolution , for example . it is almost impossible to determine johnson 's own personal political beliefs from the historical record . marilyn gaull argues that " if johnson were radical , indeed if he had any political affiliation ... it was accidental " . gaull describes johnson 's " liberalism " as that " of [ a ] generous , open , fair - minded , unbiased defender of causes lost and won " . his real contribution , she contends , was " as a disseminator of contemporary knowledge , especially science , medicine , and pedagogical practice " and as an advocate for a popular style . he encouraged all of his writers to use " plain syntax and colloquial diction " so that " self - educated readers " could understand his publications . johnson 's association with writers such as godwin has previously been used to emphasize his radicalism , but braithwaite points out that godwin only became a part of johnson 's circle late in the 1790s ; johnson 's closest friends — priestley , fuseli , and bonnycastle — were much more politically moderate . johnson was not a populist or democratic bookseller : he catered to the self - educating middle class . revolution controversy in 1790 , with the publication of his reflections on the revolution in france , philosopher and statesman edmund burke launched the first volley of a vicious pamphlet war in what became known as the revolution controversy . because he had supported the american revolution , friends and enemies alike expected him to support the french revolution . his book , which decries the french revolution , therefore came as a shock to nearly everyone . priced at an expensive five shillings , it still sold over 10 , 000 copies in a few weeks . reformers , particularly dissenters , felt compelled to reply . johnson 's periodical , the analytical review , published a summary and review of burke 's work within a couple of weeks of its publication . two weeks later , wollstonecraft responded to burke with her vindication of the rights of men . in issuing one of the first and cheapest replies to burke ( vindication cost only one shilling ) , johnson put himself at some risk . thomas cooper , who had also written a response to burke , was later informed by the attorney general that " although there was no exception to be taken to his pamphlet when in the hands of the upper classes , yet the government would not allow it to appear at a price which would insure its circulation among the people " . many others soon joined in the fray and johnson remained at the centre of the maelstrom . by braithwaite 's count , johnson published or sold roughly a quarter of the works responding to burke within the following year . the most notable of all of these responses was thomas paine 's rights of man . johnson originally agreed to publish the controversial work , but he backed out later for unknown reasons and j. s. jordan distributed it ( and was subsequently tried and imprisoned for its publication ) . braithwaite speculates that johnson did not agree with paine 's radical republican statements and was more interested in promoting the rights of dissenters outlined in the other works he published . after the initial risk was taken by jordan , however , johnson published paine 's work in an expensive edition , which was unlikely to be challenged at law . yet , when paine was himself later arrested , johnson helped raise funds to bail him out and hid him from the authorities . a contemporary satire suggested that johnson saved paine from imprisonment : the time may come when j — n 's aid may fail ; nor clubs combin 'd preserve thee from a jail . alarmed at the popular appeal of paine 's rights of man , the king issued a proclamation against seditious writings in may 1792 . booksellers and printers bore the brunt of this law , the effects of which came to a head in the 1794 treason trials . johnson testified , publicly distancing himself from paine and barlow , despite the fact that the defendants were received sympathetically by the juries . poetry during the 1790s alone , johnson published 103 volumes of poetry — 37 % of his entire output in the genre . the bestselling poetical works of cowper and erasmus darwin enriched johnson 's firm . darwin 's innovative the botanic garden ( 1791 ) was particularly successful : johnson paid him 1 , 000 guineas before it was ever released and bought the copyright from him for £ 800 , a staggeringly large sum . the poem contains three " interludes " in the form of dialogues between a poet and his bookseller . the bookseller asks the poet what tyson calls " leading questions " in order to elucidate the poet 's theory of poetry . tyson comments " that although the flat questions of the practical - minded bookseller may be meant to parody johnson 's manner , most likely darwin did not have him or any other particular bookseller in mind " . after the success of the botanic garden , johnson published darwin 's work on evolution , zoonomia ( 1794 – 96 ) ; his treatise a plan on the conduct of female education ( 1797 ) ; ; or , the philosophy of agriculture and gardening ( 1800 ) ; and his poem the temple of nature ( 1803 ) . according to braithwaite , the temple of nature was zoonomia in verse and " horrified reviewers with its warring , factious , overly materialistic view of the universe " . johnson continued to publish the poetic works of aikin and barbauld as well as those of george dyer , joseph fawcett , james , joel barlow , ann batten and edward williams . most of the poets that johnson promoted and published are not remembered today . however , in 1793 , johnson published william wordsworth 's an evening walk and descriptive sketches ; he remained wordsworth 's publisher until a disagreement separated them in 1799 . johnson also put out samuel taylor coleridge 's fears of solitude ( 1798 ) . they were apparently close enough friends for coleridge to leave his books at johnson 's shop when he toured europe . johnson had a working relationship with illustrator william blake for nearly twenty years : johnson commissioned around 100 engravings from blake — more than any other publisher — including the second edition of wollstonecraft 's original stories from real life ( 1791 ) and darwin 's botanic garden . johnson may also have had some connection with blake as a writer , judging from galley proofs of his french revolution ( 1791 ) . yet , in an island in the moon , blake represents johnson as " a bookseller without aesthetic values whose repetitive questions reveal his ignorance " . translations as part of his endeavour to expose the public to more foreign - language works , johnson facilitated the translation of educational texts , serious fiction , and philosophy ( he was less interested in translating popular novels ) . in particular , he promoted the translation of the works of persecuted french girondins , such as condorcet 's outlines of an historical view of the progress of the human mind ( 1795 ) and madame roland 's an appeal to impartial posterity ( 1795 ) , which he had released in english within weeks of its debut in france . his publication of a translation of volney 's deistic les , ou sur les des empires ( 1791 ) quickly became a bestseller . johnson also had some of the most prominent french children 's literature translated , such as the works of madame de genlis . johnson 's most significant contribution in this area was his promotion of german - language literature . fuseli encouraged him to publish translations of important new german authors , such as goethe and schiller . johnson was one of the few british publishers arranging for the translation of german moral philosophy in the 1790s , and his most important translated publication was arguably johann herder 's zur philosophie der geschichte der ( 1776 ) , which introduced many of the historical and anthropological methods of thought already present on the continent to britons . instead of attempting to faithfully reproduce texts , almost all of johnson 's translators followed the 18th - century practice of freely adapting their texts , for example by substituting " british " counterparts of " german " examples . analytical review and other periodicals johnson 's first periodicals , gospel magazine ( 1766 – ? ) , the universal museum and complete magazine ( 1765 – 1770 ) , and the monthly record of literature ( 1767 ) , like many 18th - century journals , lasted only a short while , but his later attempts were much more successful . in 1783 , he financed the first quarterly medical periodical in london , the london medical journal , founded by samuel simmons , a prominent physician . explaining the journal 's goals , simmons wrote that it would provide " an account of new medical books and useful discoveries in physic , and at the same time be a repository for original essays " . the journal lasted until 1790 when it was replaced by another johnson - simmons venture , medical facts and observations , which ran until 1797 . in 1788 , johnson and thomas christie , a unitarian , liberal , and classicist , founded the analytical review . it was a gadfly publication , which offered readers a summary and analysis of the flood of new publications issuing from the presses at the end of the 18th century and provided a forum for radical political and religious ideas . although it aimed at impartiality , its articles were often critical of the pitt administration and supportive of the french revolutionaries . tyson calls it " the most outspoken journal of its day " , but chard argues that it was " never particularly strident and certainly not radical " . it was also instrumental in promoting scientific , philosophical , and literary foreign - language publications , particularly those in german and french . compared to johnson 's earlier periodicals , which were generally " marginal sectarian efforts " , the analytical review was quite popular . at 1 , 500 copies per issue , it did not have the circulation of the gentleman 's magazine , which averaged around 4 , 550 , but it was influential despite its more limited readership . its conservative counterpart and nemesis was the anti - jacobin review , established specifically to counteract the effects of the analytical and other radical media outlets . the analytical was suspended at the end of 1798 following the deaths of christie and wollstonecraft in 1796 and 1797 respectively , and the retirement of other contributing editors . in 1796 johnson joined in a venture to start the monthly magazine . founded by his neighbour richard phillips and edited by his friend john aikin , it was associated with dissenting interests and was responsible for importing much german philosophical thought into england . according to marilyn butler , it " combined many of the best features of the periodicals of the century . it was a miscellany , but more intellectual and much more bookish than the [ gentleman 's magazine ] ; hospitable to readers , it nevertheless high - mindedly projected an ideal of liberal , middle - class intellectuality that anticipates both the innovative writing and projected readership " of blackwood 's and fraser 's . changing political winds with the beginning of the violence of the reign of terror ( 1793 – 94 ) , those in britain who had initially supported the french revolution began to rethink their position and the government became increasingly concerned about the possibility of a british revolution akin to that of the french . the ardour of radicalism that had prevailed in the early 1790s dissipated . booksellers were arrested and tried for seditious libel , and many of johnson 's authors either stopped writing or became more conservative . only a few , like paine , veered further left . after being forced to testify at the trial of paine and thomas hardy , johnson published fewer incendiary works , among them joel barlow 's advice to the privileged orders ( 1792 ) . braithwaite describes it as " without doubt the most extreme that joseph johnson ever published ( taking him immoderately close to what he later , jokingly , described as a ' hanging ' offence ) " . however , once it became clear that barlow , like paine , was becoming radicalized , johnson refused to publish any more of his works . in 1794 johnson even considered emigrating to america with priestley to escape the increasing pressure he felt from conservatives and the government . 1798 : trial and imprisonment following the publication of paine 's provocative rights of man in 1791 , a sedition law was passed in britain and , in 1798 , johnson and several others were put on trial for selling gilbert wakefield 's a reply to some parts of the bishop llandaff 's address to the people of great britain , a unitarian work attacking the privileged position of the wealthy . the indictment against johnson , written on a six - foot parchment roll , read in part : the said attorney general of our said lord the king ... giveth the court here further to understand and be informed that joseph johnson late of london bookseller being a malicious , seditious , and ill - disposed person and being greatly disaffected to our said sovereign lord the king ... wickedly maliciously and seditiously did publish and cause to be published a certain scandalous malicious and seditious libel . braithwaite explains , " an english jury , in effect , was being asked to consider whether joseph johnson 's intentions as a bookseller were really as dangerous and radical as those of thomas paine " . an issue of the analytical review was even offered as evidence against johnson . despite having retained thomas erskine as his lawyer , who had successfully defended hardy and horne tooke at the 1794 treason trials , and character references from george fordyce , aikin , and hewlett , johnson was fined £ 50 and sentenced to six months imprisonment at king 's bench prison in february 1799 . braithwaite speculates : if the conduct of the attorney - general and the anti - jacobin are to serve as any kind of barometer of government opinion , then other scores were clearly being settled and it was not merely for [ johnson 's ] involvement in the sale of wakefield 's pamphlet but his tenure ... as a stubbornly independent - minded publisher in st paul 's churchyard , prominently serving the irreligious and unconstitutional interests of ' rational ' dissent and dangerously sympathetic to the ideas of foreigners ( most visibly through the pages of the analytical ) that joseph johnson was ultimately being brought to book . johnson 's friends accused erskine of using the trial as a political platform and not thinking of the best interests of his client . johnson 's imprisonment was not harsh ; being relatively wealthy , johnson rented a home for himself within the prison , where he continued to hold his weekly soirées . although johnson still believed in the free exchange of ideas and was not embittered by his stay in prison , his publishing habits changed dramatically . after he was released , johnson published very few political works and none were controversial . other booksellers followed suit , and johnson 's friend , unitarian minister theophilus lindsey , wrote that " johnson 's fate deters them all " . johnson lost authors after the trial and experienced a noticeable decline in business . furthermore , he gained fewer new authors , his stalwarts like priestley began to complain that he was not attending to their business , and he was forced to cease publishing the analytical review . 1800s : declining years and death as publishing began to change its form in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , large publishing houses pushed out small , independent booksellers . johnson did not attempt to form or join one of these new firms . in the late 1790s and early 19th century , johnson 's business declined , particularly as his relatives , john miles and roland hunter , began to take over the daily operations ; miles was uninterested in the business , and hunter did not have johnson 's commercial sense or his ability to choose successful manuscripts . in january 1806 , johnson 's premises were wracked by a second fire , destroying the building and all of his stock . although not as active in routine business , johnson still took an interest in political events . for example , he spearheaded the efforts of the booksellers of london and westminster to appeal a new copyright law in 1808 . moreover , although johnson did not publish controversial political works after his imprisonment , he still undertook important publishing ventures . for example , he administered the publication of a forty - five volume work entitled the british , edited by alexander chalmers ; the complete works of samuel johnson ; and a ten - volume set of shakespeare . johnson published in more during the last decade of his life than at any other time . he also occasionally published important new authors , such as the political economist thomas malthus , whose essay on the principle of population ( 1798 ) sparked a long debate between idealists and pragmatists . his emphasis on educational books continued or even increased as his interest in publishing contentious political works diminished . he also continued to support his friends , as with godwin , who needed financial rescue after his play , , cost him £ 800 . johnson 's authors became increasingly frustrated with him towards the end of his life , wakefield calling him " heedless , insipid , [ and ] inactive " and lindsey describing him as " a worthy and most honest man , but [ sic ] neglectful often to his own detriment " . priestley , by then in pennsylvania , eventually broke off his forty - year relationship with the publisher , when his book orders were delayed several years and johnson failed to communicate with him regarding the publication of his works . most of the authors who became upset with johnson were those writing religious or literary works , the riskiest publishing ventures . death afflicted by a " chronic respiratory disease " for many years , johnson died at his home and office on 20 december 1809 , at the age of 71 . the exact nature of his malady is unclear , but his great - nephew miles wrote to maria edgeworth that johnson was incapacitated with " spasms " and " asthma " near the end of his life . never having married , he bequeathed his business concerns to his great - nephews , hunter and miles ( hunter took over the business , but could not retain johnson 's impressive author list and floundered due to his lack of business " acumen " ) . johnson 's remaining £ 60 , 000 fortune was shared among friends and family : for example , he willed a £ 200 annuity to fanny imlay , daughter of mary wollstonecraft , and £ 100 to one of joseph priestley 's sons . johnson was buried at fulham , where he had rented a country home since 1804 , under an epitaph by his life - long friend henry fuseli : beneficent without ostentation , ever ready to produce merit and to relieve distress ; unassuming in prosperity , not appalled by misfortune ; to his own , indulgent to the wants of others ; resigned and cheerful under the torture and malady which he saw gradually destroy his life . according to chard , johnson 's obituaries , both those written by his friends and those not , " consistently stress his generosity and his principles " , particularly his integrity . william godwin 's obituary of 21 december 1809 in the morning chronicle was particularly eloquent , calling johnson an " ornament to his profession " and praising his modesty , his warm heart , and the integrity and clarity of his mind . legacy johnson published more books in more fields than any other publisher of his time : " virtually every giant of the second half of the eighteenth century in medicine , science , religion , philosophy , political thought , education , and poetry published at least one work with johnson " . johnson 's publications helped to " demystify medicine " for the public and were integral to the scientific revolution . his periodical , the analytical review , can be seen as a precursor to the new statesman . by the end of his career , johnson had acquired a majority or monopoly share in the ownership of the works of : shakespeare , milton , alexander pope , joseph addison , richard steele , samuel johnson , and all of the major novelists of the period ( except samuel richardson ) . johnson was known for fostering the development of new writers without worrying about maximizing profits , and for printing works on principle , even if he knew they would make little money . his risky publication of joel barlow 's advice to the privileged orders ( 1792 ) , for example , sold 600 copies and barely broke even . he was also instrumental in the creation of the female professional writer , a role that began opening to women only at the end of the 18th century in britain . by nurturing the writings of anna laetitia barbauld , charlotte smith , mary hays , mary wollstonecraft , and maria edgeworth , he gave women the opportunity to demonstrate that they could be both successful and significant authors . additionally , he published works promoting women 's equality , such as hays 's an appeal to the men of great britain ( 1798 ) , which called for an end to the tyrannical rule of men over women ; johnson 's analytical review reviewed the work extensively and approvingly . johnson was remarkably adept at recognizing new writing talent and making innovative works appealing to the public . more importantly , he functioned as a catalyst for experimentation by bringing disparate authors together . while johnson promoted his authors , he retreated into the background himself . his friend john aikin explained that he had " a decided aversion to all sorts of puffing and parade " ; johnson 's unassuming character has left historians and literary critics sparse material from which to reconstruct his life . for 200 years , it was assumed that all of johnson 's business records and correspondence had been destroyed , but in the early 1990s , one of his " letter books " was discovered in an old desk . it contained copies of letters written to business associates as well as friends from 1795 to 1809 . his letters to other publishers discuss " paper , printing , engraving costs , delivery dates , breaches of copyright , binding charges and accounts " whereas his letters to friends include missives to priestley , maria edgeworth , erasmus darwin , charlotte smith , and others . this material has allowed scholars to theorize more concretely about johnson 's life and work . johnson 's publications were rarely luxury goods : he priced his merchandise competitively , but always within the reach of the middle class , the audience he most wanted to serve . one way that he reduced costs was by printing texts in the provinces and then importing them to london ; many of priestley 's works , for example , were printed locally in birmingham . johnson did not take great care with the printing of many of his books ; they are full of errors and poorly bound . but as they were often printed extremely quickly to respond to a particular event , this was expected by his contemporaries . before johnson 's generation of booksellers , publishers were not highly respected ; johnson 's sterling reputation helped publishing to become a more reputable business . his advocacy of cheap books , his desire to foster extensive provincial and foreign connections are all a part of why johnson has been called " the most important publisher in england from 1770 until 1810 " . publishing statistics according to chard , in the 48 years of his career , johnson published around 2 , 700 imprints , averaging 56 per year . about half of these were pamphlets ( e.g. sermons , religious tracts , political leaflets ) and many were reprints ; therefore he averaged around 20 to 30 new books per year . about 25 % of his publications were of anonymous authors ; these were usually political or religious works . he published more religious works than any other genre ( 1 , 067 titles ) . johnson made roughly 750 copies for each print run , although many of his political and religious works would have been printed in editions of 250 , as their topics were often ephemeral .