Input: How to diagnose Urine Blockage in Newborns ?

Output:
Defects of the urinary tract may be diagnosed before or after the baby is born.

Diagnosis before Birth

Tests during pregnancy can help determine if the baby is developing normally in the womb.

- Ultrasound. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. A prenatal ultrasound can show internal organs within the baby. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by     - a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaging, or    - an obstetriciana doctor who delivers babies

The images can show enlarged kidneys, ureters, or bladders in babies.

- Amniocentesis. Amniocentesis is a procedure in which amniotic fluid is removed from the mothers womb for testing. The procedure can be performed in the health care providers office, and local anesthetic may be used. The health care provider inserts a thin needle through the abdomen into the uterus to obtain a small amount of amniotic fluid. Cells from the fluid are grown in a lab and then analyzed. The health care provider usually uses ultrasound to find the exact location of the baby. The test can show whether the baby has certain birth defects and how well the babys lungs are developing.  - Chorionic villus sampling (CVS). CVS is the removal of a small piece of tissue from the placenta for testing. The procedure can be performed in the health care providers office; anesthesia is not needed. The health care provider uses ultrasound to guide a thin tube or needle through the vagina or abdomen into the placenta. Cells are removed from the placenta and then analyzed. The test can show whether the baby has certain genetic defects.

Most healthy women do not need all of these tests. Ultrasound exams during pregnancy are routine. Amniocentesis and CVS are recommended only when a risk of genetic problems exists because of family history or a problem is detected during an ultrasound. Amniocentesis and CVS carry a slight risk of harming the baby and mother or ending the pregnancy in miscarriage, so the risks should be carefully considered.

Diagnosis after Birth

Different imaging techniques can be used in infants and children to determine the cause of urine blockage.

- Ultrasound. Ultrasound can be used to view the childs urinary tract. For infants, the image is clearer than could be achieved while the baby was in the womb.  - Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG). VCUG is an x-ray image of the bladder and urethra taken while the bladder is full and during urination, also called voiding. The procedure is performed in an outpatient center or hospital by an x-ray technician supervised by a radiologist, who then interprets the images. While anesthesia is not needed, sedation may be used for some children. The bladder and urethra are filled with a special dye, called contrast medium, to make the structures clearly visible on the x-ray images. The x-ray machine captures images of the contrast medium while the bladder is full and when the child urinates. The test can show reflux or blockage of the bladder due to an obstruction, such as PUV.  - Radionuclide scan. A radionuclide scan is an imaging technique that detects small amounts of radiation after a person is injected with radioactive chemicals. The dose of the radioactive chemicals is small; therefore, the risk of causing damage to cells is low. Radionuclide scans are performed in an outpatient center or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist. Anesthesia is not needed. Special cameras and computers are used to create images of the radioactive chemicals as they pass through the kidneys. Radioactive chemicals injected into the blood can provide information about kidney function. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Urine Blockage in Newborns ?

Output:
Treatment for urine blockage depends on the cause and severity of the blockage. Hydronephrosis discovered before the baby is born rarely requires immediate action, especially if it is only on one side. The condition often goes away without any treatment before or after birth. The health care provider should keep track of the condition with frequent ultrasounds.

Surgery

If the urine blockage threatens the life of the unborn baby, a fetal surgeon may recommend surgery to insert a shunt or correct the problem causing the blockage. A shunt is a small tube that can be inserted into the babys bladder to release urine into the amniotic sac. The procedure is similar to amniocentesis, in that a needle is inserted through the mothers abdomen. Ultrasound guides placement of the shunt, which is attached to the end of the needle. Alternatively, an endoscopea small, flexible tube with a lightcan be used to place a shunt or to repair the problem causing the blockage. Fetal surgery carries many risks, so it is performed only in special circumstances, such as when the amniotic fluid is absent and the babys lungs are not developing or when the kidneys are severely damaged.

If the urinary defect does not correct itself after the child is born, and the child continues to have urine blockage, surgery may be needed to remove the obstruction and restore urine flow. The decision to operate depends on the degree of blockage. After surgery, a small tube, called a stent, may be placed in the ureter or urethra to keep it open temporarily while healing occurs.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are bacteria-fighting medications. A child with possible urine blockage or VUR may be given antibiotics to prevent UTIs from developing until the urinary defect corrects itself or is corrected with surgery.

Intermittent Catheterization

Intermittent catheterization may be used for a child with urinary retention due to a nerve disease. The parent or guardian, and later the child, is taught to drain the bladder by inserting a thin tube, called a catheter, through the urethra to the bladder. Emptying the bladder in this way helps to decrease kidney damage, urine leakage, and UTIs. </s>


Input: What to do for Urine Blockage in Newborns ?

Output: Researchers have not found that a mothers eating, diet, and nutrition play a role in causing or preventing urine blockage in newborns. </s>


Input: What to do for Urine Blockage in Newborns ?

Output: - Many types of defects in the urinary tract can cause urine blockage:     - vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)    - ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction    - bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), such as posterior urethral valves (PUV)    - ureterocele    - Some babies are born with genetic conditions that affect several different systems in the body, including the urinary tract:     - prune belly syndrome (PBS)    - esophageal atresia (EA)    - congenital heart defects    - Urine blockage can also be caused by spina bifida and other birth defects that affect the spinal cord.  - Before leaving the hospital, a baby with urine blockage may urinate only small amounts or may not urinate at all. As part of the routine newborn exam, the health care provider may feel an enlarged kidney or find a closed urethra, which may indicate urine blockage. Sometimes urine blockage is not apparent until a child develops symptoms of a urinary tract infection (UTI).  - When a defect in the urinary tract blocks the flow of urine, the urine backs up and causes the ureters to swell, called hydroureter, and hydronephrosis.  - Defects of the urinary tract may be discovered before or after the baby is born.  - Prenatal tests include ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling (CVS).  - Different imaging techniques, including ultrasound, voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), and radionuclide scan, can be used in infants and children to determine the cause of urine blockage.  - Treatment for urine blockage depends on the cause and severity of the blockage. Hydronephrosis discovered before the baby is born rarely requires immediate action, especially if it is only on one side. Treatments for more serious conditions include     - surgery    - antibiotics    - intermittent catheterization </s>


Input: What is (are) Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
Gas is air in the digestive tractthe large, muscular tube that extends from the mouth to the anus, where the movement of muscles, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. Gas leaves the body when people burp through the mouth or pass gas through the anus.

Gas is primarily composed of carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and sometimes methane. Flatus, gas passed through the anus, may also contain small amounts of gasses that contain sulfur. Flatus that contains more sulfur gasses has more odor.

Everyone has gas. However, many people think they burp or pass gas too often and that they have too much gas. Having too much gas is rare. </s>


Input: What causes Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
Gas in the digestive tract is usually caused by swallowing air and by the breakdown of certain foods in the large intestine by bacteria.

Everyone swallows a small amount of air when eating and drinking. The amount of air swallowed increases when people

- eat or drink too fast  - smoke  - chew gum  - suck on hard candy  - drink carbonated or fizzy drinks  - wear loose-fitting dentures

Burping allows some gas to leave the stomach. The remaining gas moves into the small intestine, where it is partially absorbed. A small amount travels into the large intestine for release through the anus.

The stomach and small intestine do not fully digest some carbohydratessugars, starches, and fiber found in many foods. This undigested food passes through the small intestine to the large intestine. Once there, undigested carbohydrates are broken down by bacteria in the large intestine, which release hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the process. Other types of bacteria in the large intestine take in hydrogen gas and create methane gas or hydrogen sulfide, the most common sulfur gas in flatus.

Studies have detected methane in the breath of 30 to 62 percent of healthy adults.1 A larger percentage of adults may produce methane in the intestines, but the levels may be too low to be detected. Research suggests that people with conditions that cause constipation are more likely to produce detectable amounts of methane.1 More research is needed to find out the reasons for differences in methane production and to explore the relationship between methane and other health problems.

Some of the gas produced in the intestines is absorbed by the bloodstream and carried to the lungs, where it is released in the breath.

Normally, few bacteria live in the small intestine. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is an increase in the number of bacteria or a change in the type of bacteria in the small intestine. These bacteria can produce excess gas and may also cause diarrhea and weight loss. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is usually related to diseases or disorders that damage the digestive system or affect how it works, such as Crohns diseasean inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation, or swelling, and irritation of any part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tractor diabetes. </s>


Input: What causes Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
Most foods that contain carbohydrates can cause gas. In contrast, fats and proteins cause little gas. Foods that produce gas in one person may not cause gas in someone else, depending on how well individuals digest carbohydrates and the type of bacteria present in the intestines.

Some foods that may cause gas include

- beans  - vegetables such as broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, brussels sprouts, onions, mushrooms, artichokes, and asparagus  - fruits such as pears, apples, and peaches  - whole grains such as whole wheat and bran  - sodas; fruit drinks, especially apple juice and pear juice; and other drinks that contain high-fructose corn syrup, a sweetener made from corn  - milk and milk products such as cheese, ice cream, and yogurt  - packaged foodssuch as bread, cereal, and salad dressingthat contain small amounts of lactose, a sugar found in milk and foods made with milk  - sugar-free candies and gums that contain sugar alcohols such as sorbitol, mannitol, and xylitol </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
The most common symptoms of gas are burping, passing gas, bloating, and abdominal pain or discomfort. However, not everyone experiences these symptoms.

Burping. Burping, or belching, once in a while, especially during and after meals, is normal. However, people who burp frequently may be swallowing too much air and releasing it before the air enters the stomach.

Some people who burp frequently may have an upper GI disorder, such as gastroesophageal reflux diseasea chronic condition in which stomach contents flow back up into the esophagus. People may believe that swallowing air and releasing it will relieve the discomfort, and they may intentionally or unintentionally develop a habit of burping to relieve discomfort.

Passing gas. Passing gas around 13 to 21 times a day is normal.2 Flatulence is excessive gas in the stomach or intestine that can cause bloating and flatus. Flatulence may be the result of problems digesting certain carbohydrates.

Bloating. Bloating is a feeling of fullness and swelling in the abdomen, the area between the chest and hips. Problems digesting carbohydrates may cause increased gas and bloating. However, bloating is not always caused by too much gas. Bloating may result from diseases that affect how gas moves through the intestines, such as rapid gastric emptying, or from diseases that cause intestinal obstruction, such as colon cancer. People who have had many operations, internal hernias, or bands of internal scar tissue called adhesions may experience bloating.

Disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) can affect how gas moves through the intestines or increase pain sensitivity in the intestines. IBS is a functional GI disorder, meaning that the symptoms are caused by changes in how the digestive tract works. The most common symptoms of IBS are abdominal pain or discomfort, often reported as cramping, along with diarrhea, constipation, or both. IBS may give a sensation of bloating because of increased sensitivity to normal amounts of gas.

Eating a lot of fatty food can delay stomach emptying and cause bloating and discomfort, but not necessarily too much gas.

Abdominal pain and discomfort. People may feel abdominal pain or discomfort when gas does not move through the intestines normally. People with IBS may be more sensitive to gas and feel pain when gas is present in the intestines. </s>


Input: What causes Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
People can try to find the cause of gas on their own by keeping a diary of what they eat and drink and how often they burp, pass gas, or have other symptoms. A diary may help identify specific foods that cause gas.

A health care provider should be consulted if

- symptoms of gas are bothersome  - symptoms change suddenly  - new symptoms occur, especially in people older than age 40  - gas is accompanied by other symptoms, such as constipation, diarrhea, or weight loss

The health care provider will ask about dietary habits and symptoms and may ask a person to keep a food diary. Careful review of diet and the amount of burping or gas passed may help relate specific foods to symptoms and determine the severity of the problem. Recording gas symptoms can help determine whether the problem is too much gas in the intestines or increased sensitivity to normal amounts of gas.

If milk or milk products are causing gas, the health care provider may perform blood or breath tests to check for lactose intolerance, the inability or insufficient ability to digest lactose. Lactose intolerance is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme lactase, which is needed to digest lactose. The health care provider may suggest avoiding milk products for a short time to see if symptoms improve.

The health care provider may perform a physical exam and order other types of diagnostic tests, depending on a persons symptoms. These tests can rule out serious health problems that may cause gas or symptoms similar to those of gas. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
Gas can be treated by reducing swallowed air, making dietary changes, or taking over-the-counter or prescription medications. People who think they have too much gas can try to treat gas on their own before seeing a health care provider. Health care providers can provide advice about reducing gas and prescribe medications that may help.

Reducing swallowed air. Swallowing less air may help reduce gas, especially for people who burp frequently. A health care provider may suggest eating more slowly, avoiding gum and hard candies, or checking with a dentist to make sure dentures fit correctly.

Making dietary changes. People may be able to reduce gas by eating less of the foods that cause gas. However, many healthy foods may cause gas, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and milk products. The amount of gas caused by certain foods varies from person to person. Effective dietary changes depend on learning through trial and error which foods cause a person to have gas and how much of the offending foods one can handle.

While fat does not cause gas, limiting high-fat foods can help reduce bloating and discomfort. Less fat in the diet helps the stomach empty faster, allowing gases to move more quickly into the small intestine.

Taking over-the-counter medications. Some over-the-counter medications can help reduce gas or the symptoms associated with gas:

- Alpha-galactosidase (Beano), an over-the-counter digestive aid, contains the sugar-digesting enzyme that the body lacks to digest the sugar in beans and many vegetables. The enzyme comes in liquid and tablet form. Five drops are added per serving or one tablet is swallowed just before eating to break down the gas-producing sugars. Beano has no effect on gas caused by lactose or fiber.  - Simethicone (Gas-X, Mylanta Gas) can relieve bloating and abdominal pain or discomfort caused by gas.  - Lactase tablets or drops can help people with lactose intolerance digest milk and milk products to reduce gas. Lactase tablets are taken just before eating foods that contain lactose; lactase drops can be added to liquid milk products. Lactose-free and lactose-reduced milk and milk products are available at most grocery stores.

Taking prescription medications. Health care providers may prescribe medications to help reduce symptoms, especially for people with small intestinal bacterial overgrowth or IBS. More information about IBS is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Irritable Bowel Syndrome fact sheet. </s>


Input: What to do for Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output:
Peoples eating habits and diet affect the amount of gas they have. For example, eating and drinking too fast may increase the amount of air swallowed, and foods that contain carbohydrates may cause some people to have more gas.

Tracking eating habits and symptoms can help identify the foods that cause more gas. Avoiding or eating less of these foods may help reduce gas symptoms. </s>


Input: What to do for Gas in the Digestive Tract ?

Output: - Gas is air in the digestive tract.  - Everyone has gas. However, many people think they pass gas too often and that they have too much gas. Having too much gas is rare.  - Gas in the digestive tract is usually caused by swallowing air and by the breakdown of certain foods in the large intestine by bacteria.  - Most foods that contain carbohydrates can cause gas. In contrast, fats and proteins cause little gas.  - Foods that produce gas in one person may not cause gas for someone else.  - The most common symptoms of gas are burping, passing gas, bloating, and abdominal pain or discomfort.  - Gas can be treated by reducing swallowed air, making dietary changes, or taking over-the-counter or prescription medications. </s>


Input: What is (are) Proctitis ?

Output: Proctitis is inflammation of the lining of the rectum, the lower end of the large intestine leading to the anus. The large intestine and anus are part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The movement of muscles in the GI tract, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. With proctitis, inflammation of the rectal liningcalled the rectal mucosais uncomfortable and sometimes painful. The condition may lead to bleeding or mucous discharge from the rectum, among other symptoms. </s>


Input: What is (are) Proctitis ?

Output: Proctitis is inflammation of the lining of the rectum, the lower end of the large intestine leading to the anus. The large intestine and anus are part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The movement of muscles in the GI tract, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. With proctitis, inflammation of the rectal liningcalled the rectal mucosais uncomfortable and sometimes painful. The condition may lead to bleeding or mucous discharge from the rectum, among other symptoms. </s>


Input: What causes Proctitis ?

Output:
Proctitis has many causes, including acute, or sudden and short-term, and chronic, or long-lasting, conditions. Among the causes are the following:

- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). STDs that can be passed when a person is receiving anal sex are a common cause of proctitis. Common STD infections that can cause proctitis include gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, and herpes. Herpes-induced proctitis may be particularly severe in people who are also infected with the HIV virus.  - Non-STD infections. Infections that are not sexually transmitted also can cause proctitis. Salmonella and Shigella are examples of foodborne bacteria that can cause proctitis. Streptococcal proctitis sometimes occurs in children who have strep throat.  - Anorectal trauma. Proctitis can be caused by trauma to the anorectal areawhich includes the rectum and anusfrom anal sex or the insertion of objects or harmful substances into the rectum, including the chemicals in some enemas.  - Ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease. Two forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)ulcerative colitis and Crohns diseasecan cause proctitis. Ulcerative colitis causes irritation and ulcers, also called sores, in the inner lining of the colonpart of the large intestineand rectum. Crohns disease usually causes irritation in the lower small intestinealso called the ileumor the colon, but it can affect any part of the GI tract.  - Radiation therapy. People who have had radiation therapy that targets the pelvic area also may develop proctitis. Examples of those at risk are people with rectal, ovarian, or prostate cancer who have received radiation treatment directed to those areas. Symptoms of radiation proctitis, most commonly rectal bleeding, will typically occur within 6 weeks after beginning radiation therapy or more than 9 months after its completion.  - Antibiotics. Use of antibiotics may be associated with proctitis in some people. While meant to kill infectioncausing bacteria, antibiotics can also kill nonharmful, or commensal, bacteria in the GI tract. The loss of commensal bacteria can then allow other harmful bacteria known as Clostridium difficile to cause an infection in the colon and rectum. </s>


Input: What causes Proctitis ?

Output:
Proctitis has many causes, including acute, or sudden and short-term, and chronic, or long-lasting, conditions. Among the causes are the following:

- Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). STDs that can be passed when a person is receiving anal sex are a common cause of proctitis. Common STD infections that can cause proctitis include gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, and herpes. Herpes-induced proctitis may be particularly severe in people who are also infected with the HIV virus.  - Non-STD infections. Infections that are not sexually transmitted also can cause proctitis. Salmonella and Shigella are examples of foodborne bacteria that can cause proctitis. Streptococcal proctitis sometimes occurs in children who have strep throat.  - Anorectal trauma. Proctitis can be caused by trauma to the anorectal areawhich includes the rectum and anusfrom anal sex or the insertion of objects or harmful substances into the rectum, including the chemicals in some enemas.  - Ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease. Two forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)ulcerative colitis and Crohns diseasecan cause proctitis. Ulcerative colitis causes irritation and ulcers, also called sores, in the inner lining of the colonpart of the large intestineand rectum. Crohns disease usually causes irritation in the lower small intestinealso called the ileumor the colon, but it can affect any part of the GI tract.  - Radiation therapy. People who have had radiation therapy that targets the pelvic area also may develop proctitis. Examples of those at risk are people with rectal, ovarian, or prostate cancer who have received radiation treatment directed to those areas. Symptoms of radiation proctitis, most commonly rectal bleeding, will typically occur within 6 weeks after beginning radiation therapy or more than 9 months after its completion.  - Antibiotics. Use of antibiotics may be associated with proctitis in some people. While meant to kill infectioncausing bacteria, antibiotics can also kill nonharmful, or commensal, bacteria in the GI tract. The loss of commensal bacteria can then allow other harmful bacteria known as Clostridium difficile to cause an infection in the colon and rectum. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Proctitis ?

Output:
Tenesmusan uncomfortable and frequent urge to have a bowel movementis one of the most common symptoms of proctitis. Other symptoms may include

- bloody bowel movements  - rectal bleeding  - a feeling of rectal fullness  - anal or rectal pain  - crampy abdominal pain  - rectal discharge of mucus or pus  - diarrhea or frequent passage of loose or liquid stools </s>


Input: How to diagnose Proctitis ?

Output:
To diagnose proctitis, a health care provider will take a complete medical history and do a physical exam. The health care provider will ask the patient about symptoms, current and past medical conditions, family history, and sexual behavior that increases the risk of STD-induced proctitis. The physical exam will include an assessment of the patients vital signs, an abdominal exam, and a rectal exam.

Based on the patients physical exam, symptoms, and other medical information, the doctor will decide which lab tests and diagnostic tests are needed. Lab tests may include blood tests such as a complete blood count to evaluate for blood loss or infection, stool tests to isolate and identify bacteria that may cause disease, and an STD screening. The doctor also may use one of the following diagnostic tests:

- Rectal culture. A cotton swab is inserted into the rectum to obtain a sample that can be used in tests that isolate and identify organisms that may cause disease.  - Anoscopy. This test allows examination of the anal canal and lower rectum by opening the anus using a special instrument called an anoscope.  - Flexible sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy. These tests are used to help diagnose Crohns disease. The tests are similar, but colonoscopy is used to view the entire colon and rectum, while flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to view just the lower colon and rectum. For both tests, a health care provider will provide written bowel prep instructions to follow at home before the test. The person may be asked to follow a clear liquid diet for 1 to 3 days before the test. A laxative may be required the night before the test. One or more enemas may be required the night before and about 2 hours before the test. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Proctitis ?

Output:
Treatment of proctitis depends on its cause. The goal of treatment is to reduce inflammation, control symptoms, and eliminate infection, if it is present. Only a doctor can determine the cause of proctitis and the best course of treatment. With proper medical attention, proctitis can be successfully treated.

Proctitis from Infection

If lab tests confirm that an STD or non-STD infection is present, medication is prescribed based on the type of infection found. Antibiotics are prescribed to kill bacteria; antiviral medications are prescribed to treat viruses. Although some STD viruses cannot be eliminated, antivirals can control their symptoms.

Proctitis from Other Causes

If antibiotic use triggered proctitis, the doctor may prescribe a different antibiotic designed to destroy the harmful bacteria that have developed in the intestines.

If proctitis is caused by anorectal trauma, the activity causing the inflammation should be stopped. Healing usually occurs in 4 to 6 weeks. The doctor may recommend over-the-counter medications such as antidiarrheals and those used for pain relief, such as aspirin and ibuprofen.

Treatment of radiation proctitis is based on symptoms. Radiation proctitis causing only mild symptoms such as occasional bleeding or tenesmus may heal without treatment. For people with persistent or severe bleeding, thermal therapy may be used to stop bleeding and inflammation. Thermal therapy is done during flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy and targets the rectal lining with a heat probe, electric current, or laser. Argon plasma coagulation is the most common thermal therapy used to control bleeding in radiation proctitis. In many cases, several treatments are required. Obstruction that results from a stricturea narrowing of the rectumcaused by radiation proctitis may be treated with stool softeners in mild cases. In people with narrower strictures, dilation to enlarge the narrow area may be required. Sucralfate, 5-aminosalicylic acidknown as 5-ASAor corticosteroid enemas can also be used to ease pain and reduce inflammation from radiation proctitis, although their effectiveness is limited.

When a chronic IBD such as ulcerative colitis or Crohns disease causes proctitis, treatment aims to reduce inflammation, control symptoms, and induce and maintain remissiona period when the person is symptom-free. Treatment depends on the extent and severity of the disease.

Anti-inflammation medications. Mild proctitis can often be effectively treated with topical mesalamine, either suppositories or enemas.

Some people with IBD and proctitis cannot tolerateor may have an incomplete response torectal therapy with 5-ASA suppositories or enemas. For these people, the doctor may prescribe oral medications alone or in combination with rectal therapy. Oral medications commonly used for proctitis contain salicylate. These include sulfasalazine- or mesalamine-containing medications, such as Asacol, Dipentum, or Pentasa. Possible side effects of oral administration of sulfasalazine- or mesalaminecontaining medications include nausea, vomiting, heartburn, diarrhea, and headache. Improvement in symptoms, including a decrease in bleeding, can occur within a few days, although complete healing requires 4 to 6 weeks of therapy.

Cortisone or steroids. These medications, also called corticosteroids, are effective at reducing inflammation. Prednisone and budesonide are generic names of two medications in this group. Corticosteroids for proctitis may be taken in pill, suppository, or enema form. When symptoms are at their worst, corticosteroids are usually prescribed in a large dose. The dosage is then gradually lowered once symptoms are controlled. Corticosteroids can cause serious side effects, including greater susceptibility to infection and osteoporosis, or weakening of the bones.

Immune system suppressors. Medications that suppress the immune systemcalled immunosuppressive medicationsare also used to treat proctitis. The most commonly prescribed medication is 6-mercaptopurine or a related medication, azathioprine. Immunosuppressive medications work by blocking the immune reaction that contributes to inflammation. These medications may cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea and may lower a persons resistance to infection. Some patients are treated with a combination of corticosteroids and immunosuppressive medications. Some studies suggest that immunosuppressive medications may enhance the effectiveness of corticosteroids.

Infliximab (Remicade). Researchers have found that high levels of a protein produced by the immune system, called tumor necrosis factor (TNF), are present in people with Crohns disease. Infliximab is the first of a group of medications that bind to TNF substances to block the bodys inflammation response. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the medication for the treatment of moderate to severe Crohns disease that does not respond to standard therapiesmesalamine substances, corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medicationsand for the treatment of open, draining fistulas. The medication is also given to people who have Crohns disease with proctitis. Some studies suggest that infliximab may enhance the effectiveness of immunosuppressive medications.

Bacterial infection can occur with flare-ups of ulcerative colitis or Crohns disease. Antibiotics may also be used to treat flare-ups in people with IBD and proctitis.

More information about the treatment of IBD is provided in the NIDDK health topics, Ulcerative Colitis and Crohns Disease. </s>


Input: What to do for Proctitis ?

Output:
Drinking plenty of fluids is important when diarrhea or frequent passage of loose or liquid stools occurs.

Avoiding caffeine and foods that are greasy, high in fiber, or sweet may lessen diarrhea symptoms. Some people also have problems digesting lactosethe sugar found in milk and milk productsduring or after a bout of diarrhea. Yogurt, which has less lactose than milk, is often better tolerated. Yogurt with active, live bacterial cultures may even help people recover from diarrhea more quickly.

If diarrhea symptoms improve, soft, bland foods can be added to the diet, including bananas, plain rice, boiled potatoes, toast, crackers, cooked carrots, and baked chicken without the skin or fat. If the diarrhea stops, a normal diet may be resumed if tolerated. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Proctitis ?

Output:
Proctitis that is not treated or does not respond to treatment may lead to complications, including

- severe bleeding and anemiaa condition in which red blood cells are fewer or smaller than normal, which means less oxygen is carried to the bodys cells  - abscessespainful, swollen, pus-filled areas caused by infection  - ulcers on the intestinal lining  - fistulasabnormal connections between two parts inside the body </s>


Input: How to prevent Proctitis ?

Output:
People who receive anal sex can avoid getting STD-related proctitis by having their partner use a condom. If anorectal trauma caused proctitis, stopping the activity that triggered inflammation often will stop the inflammation and prevent recurrence.

Other causes of proctitis cannot always be prevented. However, their symptoms can be treated by a doctor. </s>


Input: What to do for Proctitis ?

Output: - Proctitis is inflammation of the lining of the rectum, the lower end of the large intestine leading to the anus.  - Common causes of proctitis are sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), non-STD infections, anorectal trauma, ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease, radiation therapy, and antibiotic use.  - Treatment of proctitis depends on its cause; the goal of treatment is to reduce inflammation, control symptoms, and eliminate infection, if present.  - With proper medical attention, proctitis can be successfully treated.  - If infection is present with proctitis, antibiotics can be used to kill bacteria and antiviral medications can treat viral infections.  - People who receive anal sex can avoid getting STD-related proctitis by having their partner use a condom.  - If anorectal trauma caused proctitis, stopping the activity that triggered inflammation often will stop the inflammation and prevent recurrence.  - Some causes of proctitis cannot always be prevented, but their symptoms can be treated by a doctor. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Prevent diabetes problems: Keep your eyes healthy ?

Output:
Often, no symptoms appear during the early stages of diabetes retina problems. As retina problems worsen, your symptoms might include

- blurry or double vision  - rings, flashing lights, or blank spots in your vision  - dark or floating spots in your vision  - pain or pressure in one or both of your eyes  - trouble seeing things out of the corners of your eyes </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Prevent diabetes problems: Keep your eyes healthy ?

Output:
You can help your diabetes retina problems by controlling your

- blood glucose  - blood pressure  - cholesterol and triglycerides, or types of blood fat

If your retinopathy still does not improve, then you may need other treatments. You will need to see an ophthalmologist who can decide whether you need one of these treatments:

- Medicines. Your doctor treats macular edema with injections of medicines into the eye. These medicines block a protein in the body that causes abnormal blood vessel growth and fluid leakage. Reducing the fluid leakage often allows the retina to return to normal thickness. The ophthalmologist will numb your eye and then insert a tiny needle to deliver the medicine.  - Laser treatment. Your doctor can also treat macular edema with focal laser treatment. In one visit, the ophthalmologist will numb your eye and place many small laser burns in the areas leaking fluid near the macula. These burns slow the leakage of fluid and reduce the amount of fluid in your retina.  Sometimes your doctor also treats diabetic retinopathy with scatter laser treatment. In two or more visits, the ophthalmologist will numb your eye and place thousands of laser burns around the new, weak blood vessels away from the macula, causing them to shrink.  Laser treatment can greatly reduce your chances of blindness from retina damage. However, laser treatment often cannot restore vision that has already been lost.  Treatment with medicines or lasers can be performed in your ophthalmologists office.  - Vitrectomy. If the bleeding in your eye is severe, you may need to go to the hospital for a surgery called a vitrectomy. Your ophthalmologist will numb your eye or give you general anesthesia to help you fall asleep. The ophthalmologist will make a tiny cut in your eye and remove the vitreous gel that is clouded with blood. The ophthalmologist replaces the vitreous gel with a salt solution. </s>


Input: What is (are) Gastroparesis ?

Output: Gastroparesis, also called delayed gastric emptying, is a disorder that slows or stops the movement of food from the stomach to the small intestine. Normally, the muscles of the stomach, which are controlled by the vagus nerve, contract to break up food and move it through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The movement of muscles in the GI tract, along with the release of hormones and enzymes, allows for the digestion of food. Gastroparesis can occur when the vagus nerve is damaged by illness or injury and the stomach muscles stop working normally. Food then moves slowly from the stomach to the small intestine or stops moving altogether. </s>


Input: What causes Gastroparesis ?

Output: Most people diagnosed with gastroparesis have idiopathic gastroparesis, which means a health care provider cannot identify the cause, even with medical tests. Diabetes is the most common known cause of gastroparesis. People with diabetes have high levels of blood glucose, also called blood sugar. Over time, high blood glucose levels can damage the vagus nerve. Other identifiable causes of gastroparesis include intestinal surgery and nervous system diseases such as Parkinsons disease or multiple sclerosis. For reasons that are still unclear, gastroparesis is more commonly found in women than in men. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Gastroparesis ?

Output:
The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are nausea, a feeling of fullness after eating only a small amount of food, and vomiting undigested foodsometimes several hours after a meal. Other symptoms of gastroparesis include

- gastroesophageal reflux (GER), also called acid reflux or acid regurgitationa condition in which stomach contents flow back up into the esophagus, the organ that connects the mouth to the stomach  - pain in the stomach area  - abdominal bloating  - lack of appetite

Symptoms may be aggravated by eating greasy or rich foods, large quantities of foods with fibersuch as raw fruits and vegetablesor drinking beverages high in fat or carbonation. Symptoms may be mild or severe, and they can occur frequently in some people and less often in others. The symptoms of gastroparesis may also vary in intensity over time in the same individual. Sometimes gastroparesis is difficult to diagnose because people experience a range of symptoms similar to those of other diseases. </s>


Input: How to diagnose Gastroparesis ?

Output:
Gastroparesis is diagnosed through a physical exam, medical history, blood tests, tests to rule out blockage or structural problems in the GI tract, and gastric emptying tests. Tests may also identify a nutritional disorder or underlying disease. To rule out any blockage or other structural problems, the health care provider may perform one or more of the following tests:

- Upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy. This procedure involves using an endoscopea small, flexible tube with a lightto see the upper GI tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, and duodenumthe first part of the small intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologista doctor who specializes in digestive diseases. The endoscope is carefully fed down the esophagus and into the stomach and duodenum. A small camera mounted on the endoscope transmits a video image to a monitor, allowing close examination of the intestinal lining. A person may receive a liquid anesthetic that is gargled or sprayed on the back of the throat. An intravenous (IV) needle is placed in a vein in the arm if general anesthesia is given. The test may show blockage or large bezoarssolid collections of food, mucus, vegetable fiber, hair, or other material that cannot be digested in the stomachthat are sometimes softened, dissolved, or broken up during an upper GI endoscopy.  - Upper GI series. An upper GI series may be done to look at the small intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or outpatient center by an x-ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaging. Anesthesia is not needed. No eating or drinking is allowed for 8 hours before the procedure, if possible. If the person has diabetes, a health care provider may give different instructions about fasting before the test. During the procedure, the person will stand or sit in front of an x-ray machine and drink barium, a chalky liquid. Barium coats the small intestine, making signs of gastroparesis show up more clearly on x rays. Gastroparesis is likely if the x ray shows food in the stomach after fasting. A person may experience bloating and nausea for a short time after the test. For several days afterward, barium liquid in the GI tract causes stools to be white or light colored. A health care provider will give the person specific instructions about eating and drinking after the test.  - Ultrasound. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist; anesthesia is not needed. The images can show whether gallbladder disease and pancreatitis could be the cause of a persons digestive symptoms, rather than gastroparesis.  - Gastric emptying scintigraphy. The test involves eating a bland mealsuch as eggs or an egg substitutethat contains a small amount of radioactive material. The test is performed in a radiology center or hospital by a specially trained technician and interpreted by a radiologist; anesthesia is not needed. An external camera scans the abdomen to show where the radioactive material is located. The radiologist is then able to measure the rate of gastric emptying at 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours after the meal. If more than 10 percent of the meal is still in the stomach at 4 hours, the diagnosis of gastroparesis is confirmed.  - SmartPill. The SmartPill is a small electronic device in capsule form. The SmartPill test is available at specialized outpatient centers. The images are interpreted by a radiologist. The device is swallowed and moves through the entire digestive tract, sending information to a cell-phone-sized receiver worn around the persons waist or neck. The recorded information provides a detailed record of how quickly food travels through each part of the digestive tract.  - Gastric emptying breath test. With this test, the person eats a special test meal that includes a natural material with a special type of carbon in it. Then, breath samples are taken over a period of several hours to measure the amount of the material in the exhaled breath. The results allow the health care provider to calculate how fast the stomach is emptying. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Gastroparesis ?

Output: Treatment of gastroparesis depends on the severity of the persons symptoms. In most cases, treatment does not cure gastroparesis, which is usually a chronic, or long-lasting, condition. Gastroparesis is also a relapsing conditionthe symptoms can come and go for periods of time. Treatment helps people manage the condition so they can be as comfortable and active as possible. </s>


Input: What to do for Gastroparesis ?

Output:
Changing eating habits can sometimes help control the severity of gastroparesis symptoms. A health care provider may suggest eating six small meals a day instead of three large ones. If less food enters the stomach each time a person eats, the stomach may not become overly full, allowing it to empty more easily. Chewing food well, drinking noncarbonated liquids with a meal, and walking or sitting for 2 hours after a mealinstead of lying downmay assist with gastric emptying.

A health care provider may also recommend avoiding high-fat and fibrous foods. Fat naturally slows digestion and some raw vegetables and fruits are more difficult to digest than other foods. Some foods, such as oranges and broccoli, contain fibrous parts that do not digest well. People with gastroparesis should minimize their intake of large portions of these foods because the undigested parts may remain in the stomach too long. Sometimes, the undigested parts form bezoars.

When a person has severe symptoms, a liquid or pured diet may be prescribed. As liquids tend to empty more quickly from the stomach, some people may find a pured diet helps improve symptoms. Pured fresh or cooked fruits and vegetables can be incorporated into shakes and soups. A health care provider may recommend a dietitian to help a person plan meals that minimize symptoms and ensure all nutritional needs are met.

When the most extreme cases of gastroparesis lead to severe nausea, vomiting, and dehydration, urgent care may be required at a medical facility where IV fluids can be given.

Medications

Several prescription medications are available to treat gastroparesis. A combination of medications may be used to find the most effective treatment.

Metoclopramide (Reglan). This medication stimulates stomach muscle contractions to help with gastric emptying. Metoclopramide also helps reduce nausea and vomiting. The medication is taken 20 to 30 minutes before meals and at bedtime. Possible side effects of metoclopramide include fatigue, sleepiness, and depression. Currently, this is the only medication approved by the FDA for treatment of gastroparesis. However, the FDA has placed a black box warning on this medication because of rare reports of it causing an irreversible neurologic side effect called tardive dyskinesiaa disorder that affects movement.

Erythromycin. This antibiotic, prescribed at low doses, may improve gastric emptying. Like metaclopramide, erythromycin works by increasing the contractions that move food through the stomach. Possible side effects of erythromycin include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps.

Other medications. Other medications may be used to treat symptoms and problems related to gastroparesis. For example, medications known as antiemetics are used to help control nausea and vomiting.

Botulinum Toxin

Botulinum toxin is a nerve blocking agent also known as Botox. After passing an endoscope into the stomach, a health care provider injects the Botox into the pylorus, the opening from the stomach into the duodenum. Botox is supposed to help keep the pylorus open for longer periods of time and improve symptoms of gastroparesis. Although some initial research trials showed modest improvement in gastroparesis symptoms and the rate of gastric emptying following the injections, other studies have failed to show the same degree of effectiveness of the Botox injections.1

Gastric Electrical Stimulation

This treatment alternative may be effective for some people whose nausea and vomiting do not improve with dietary changes or medications. A gastric neurostimulator is a surgically implanted battery-operated device that sends mild electrical pulses to the stomach muscles to help control nausea and vomiting. The procedure may be performed at a hospital or outpatient center by a gastroenterologist. General anesthesia may be required. The gastroenterologist makes several tiny incisions in the abdomen and inserts a laparoscopea thin tube with a tiny video camera attached. The camera sends a magnified image from inside the stomach to a video monitor, giving the gastroenterologist a close-up view of the tissues. Once implanted, the settings on the battery-operated device can be adjusted to determine the settings that best control symptoms.

Jejunostomy

If medications and dietary changes dont work, and the person is losing weight or requires frequent hospitalization for dehydration, a health care provider may recommend surgically placing a feeding tube through the abdominal wall directly into a part of the small intestine called the jejunum. The surgical procedure is known as a jejunostomy. The procedure is performed by a surgeon at a hospital or outpatient center. Anesthesia is needed. The feeding tube bypasses the stomach and delivers a special liquid food with nutrients directly into the jejunum. The jejunostomy is used only when gastroparesis is extremely severe.

Parenteral Nutrition

When gastroparesis is so severe that dietary measures and other treatments are not helping, a health care provider may recommend parenteral nutritionan IV liquid food mixture supplied through a special tube in the chest. The procedure is performed by a surgeon at a hospital or outpatient center; anesthesia is needed. The surgeon inserts a thin, flexible tube called a catheter into a chest vein, with the catheter opening outside the skin. A bag containing liquid nutrients is attached to the catheter, and the nutrients are transported through the catheter into the chest vein and into the bloodstream. This approach is a less preferable alternative to a jejunostomy and is usually a temporary treatment to get through a difficult period of gastroparesis. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Gastroparesis ?

Output:
An elevated blood glucose level directly interferes with normal stomach emptying, so good blood glucose control in people with diabetes is important. However, gastroparesis can make blood glucose control difficult. When food that has been delayed in the stomach finally enters the small intestine and is absorbed, blood glucose levels rise. Gastric emptying is unpredictable with gastroparesis, causing a persons blood glucose levels to be erratic and difficult to control.

The primary treatment goals for gastroparesis related to diabetes are to improve gastric emptying and regain control of blood glucose levels. In addition to the dietary changes and treatments already described, a health care provider will likely adjust the persons insulin regimen.

To better control blood glucose, people with diabetes and gastroparesis may need to

- take insulin more often or change the type of insulin they take  - take insulin after meals, instead of before  - check blood glucose levels frequently after eating and administer insulin when necessary

A health care provider will give specific instructions for taking insulin based on the individuals needs and the severity of gastroparesis.

In some cases, the dietitian may suggest eating several liquid or pured meals a day until gastroparesis symptoms improve and blood glucose levels are more stable. </s>


Input: What is (are) Gastroparesis ?

Output:
The problems of gastroparesis can include

- severe dehydration due to persistent vomiting  - gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which is GER that occurs more than twice a week for a few weeks; GERD can lead to esophagitis irritation of the esophagus  - bezoars, which can cause nausea, vomiting, obstruction, or interfere with absorption of some medications in pill form  - difficulty managing blood glucose levels in people with diabetes  - malnutrition due to poor absorption of nutrients or a low calorie intake  - decreased quality of life, including work absences due to severe symptoms </s>


Input: What to do for Gastroparesis ?

Output: - Gastroparesis, also called delayed gastric emptying, is a disorder that slows or stops the movement of food from the stomach to the small intestine.  - Gastroparesis can occur when the vagus nerve is damaged by illness or injury and the stomach muscles stop working normally. Food then moves slowly from the stomach to the small intestine or stops moving altogether.  - Most people diagnosed with gastroparesis have idiopathic gastroparesis, which means a health care provider cannot identify the cause, even with medical tests.  - Diabetes is the most common known cause of gastroparesis. People with diabetes have high levels of blood glucose, also called blood sugar. Over time, high blood glucose levels can damage the vagus nerve.  - The most common symptoms of gastroparesis are nausea, a feeling of fullness after eating only a small amount of food, and vomiting undigested food sometimes several hours after a meal. Other common symptoms include gastroesophageal reflux (GER), pain in the stomach area, abdominal bloating, and lack of appetite.  - Gastroparesis is diagnosed through a physical exam, medical history, blood tests, tests to rule out blockage or structural problems in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and gastric emptying tests.  - Changing eating habits can sometimes help control the severity of gastroparesis symptoms. A health care provider may suggest eating six small meals a day instead of three large ones. When a person has severe symptoms, a liquid or pured diet may be prescribed.  - Treatment of gastroparesis may include medications, botulinum toxin, gastric electrical stimulation, jejunostomy, and parenteral nutrition.  - For people with gastroparesis and diabetes, a health care provider will likely adjust the persons insulin regimen. </s>


Input: What is (are) Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output: Abdominal adhesions are bands of  fibrous tissue that can form between abdominal tissues and organs. Normally, internal tissues and organs have slippery surfaces, preventing them from sticking together as the body moves. However, abdominal adhesions cause tissues and organs in the abdominal cavity to stick together. </s>


Input: What is (are) Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output: The abdominal cavity is the internal area of the body between the chest and hips that contains the lower part of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The esophagus carries food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach, which slowly pumps them into the small and large intestines. Abdominal adhesions can kink, twist, or pull the small and large intestines out of place, causing an intestinal obstruction. Intestinal obstruction, also called a bowel obstruction, results in the partial or complete blockage of movement of food or stool through the intestines. </s>


Input: What causes Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
Abdominal surgery is the most frequent cause of abdominal adhesions. Surgery-related causes include

- cuts involving internal organs   - handling of internal organs  - drying out of internal organs and tissues  - contact of internal tissues with foreign materials, such as gauze, surgical gloves, and stitches  - blood or blood clots that were not rinsed away during surgery

Abdominal adhesions can also result from inflammation not related to surgery, including

- appendix rupture  - radiation treatment  - gynecological infections  - abdominal infections

Rarely, abdominal adhesions form without apparent cause. </s>


Input: Who is at risk for Abdominal Adhesions? ?

Output: Of patients who undergo abdominal surgery, 93 percent develop abdominal adhesions.1 Surgery in the lower abdomen and pelvis, including bowel and gynecological operations, carries an even greater chance of abdominal adhesions. Abdominal adhesions can become larger and tighter as time passes, sometimes causing problems years after surgery. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output: In most cases, abdominal adhesions do not cause symptoms. When symptoms are present, chronic abdominal pain is the most common. </s>


Input: What are the complications of Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
Abdominal adhesions can cause intestinal obstruction and female infertilitythe inability to become pregnant after a year of trying.

Abdominal adhesions can lead to female infertility by preventing fertilized eggs from reaching the uterus, where fetal development takes place. Women with abdominal adhesions in or around their fallopian tubes have an increased chance of ectopic pregnancya fertilized egg growing outside the uterus. Abdominal adhesions inside the uterus may result in repeated miscarriagesa pregnancy failure before 20 weeks.

Seek Help for Emergency Symptoms   A complete intestinal obstruction is life threatening and requires immediate medical attention and often surgery. Symptoms of an intestinal obstruction include   - severe abdominal pain or cramping   - nausea   - vomiting   - bloating    - loud bowel sounds   - abdominal swelling   - the inability to have a bowel movement or pass gas   - constipationa condition in which a person has fewer than three bowel movements a week; the bowel movements may be painful     A person with these symptoms should seek medical attention immediately. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
A complete intestinal obstruction is life threatening and requires immediate medical attention and often surgery. Symptoms of an intestinal obstruction include

- severe abdominal pain or cramping  - nausea  - vomiting  - bloating   - loud bowel sounds  - abdominal swelling  - the inability to have a bowel movement or pass gas  - constipationa condition in which a person has fewer than three bowel movements a week; the bowel movements may be painful

A person with these symptoms should seek medical attention immediately. </s>


Input: How to diagnose Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
Abdominal adhesions cannot be detected by tests or seen through imaging techniques such as x rays or ultrasound. Most abdominal adhesions are found during surgery performed to examine the abdomen. However, abdominal x rays, a lower gastrointestinal (GI) series, and computerized tomography (CT) scans can diagnose intestinal obstructions.

- Abdominal x rays use a small amount of radiation to create an image that is recorded on  film or a computer. An x ray is performed at a hospital or an outpatient center by an x-ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imaging. An x ray does not require anesthesia. The person will lie on a table or stand during the x ray. The x-ray machine is positioned over the abdominal area. The person will hold his or her breath as the picture is taken so that the picture will not be blurry. The person may be asked to change position for additional pictures.   - A lower GI series is an x-ray exam that is used to look at the large intestine. The test is performed at a hospital or an outpatient center by an x-ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist. Anesthesia is not needed. The health care provider may provide written bowel prep instructions to follow at home before the test. The person may be asked to follow a clear liquid diet for 1 to 3 days before the procedure. A laxative or an enema may be used before the test. A laxative is medication that loosens stool and increases bowel movements. An enema involves fl ushing water or laxative into the rectum using a special squirt bottle.  For the test, the person will lie on a table while the radiologist inserts a flexible tube into the persons anus. The large intestine is fi lled with barium, making signs of underlying problems show up more clearly on x rays.   - CT scans use a combination of x rays and computer technology to create images. The procedure is performed at a hospital or an outpatient center by an x-ray technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist. Anesthesia is not needed. A CT scan may include the injection of a special dye, called contrast medium. The person will lie on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped device where the x rays are taken. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
Abdominal adhesions that do not cause symptoms generally do not require treatment. Surgery is the only way to treat abdominal adhesions that cause pain, intestinal obstruction, or fertility problems. More surgery, however, carries the risk of additional abdominal adhesions. People should speak with their health care provider about the best way to treat their abdominal adhesions.

Complete intestinal obstructions usually require immediate surgery to clear the blockage. Most partial intestinal obstructions can be managed without surgery. </s>


Input: How to prevent Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output:
Abdominal adhesions are diffi cult to prevent; however, certain surgical techniques can minimize abdominal adhesions.

Laparoscopic surgery decreases the potential for abdominal adhesions because several tiny incisions are made in the lower abdomen instead of one large incision. The surgeon inserts a laparoscopea thin tube with a tiny video camera attachedinto one of the small incisions. The camera sends a magnified image from inside the body to a video monitor. Patients will usually receive general anesthesia during this surgery.

If laparoscopic surgery is not possible and a large abdominal incision is required, at the end of surgery a special fi lmlike material can be inserted between organs or between the organs and the abdominal incision. The fi lmlike material, which looks similar to wax paper and is absorbed by the body in about a week, hydrates organs to help prevent abdominal adhesions.

Other steps taken during surgery to reduce abdominal adhesions include

- using starch- and latex-free gloves  - handling tissues and organs gently  - shortening surgery time   - using moistened drapes and swabs  - occasionally applying saline solution </s>


Input: What to do for Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output: Researchers have not found that eating, diet, and nutrition play a role in causing or preventing abdominal adhesions. A person with a partial intestinal obstruction may relieve symptoms with a liquid or low- fiber diet, which is more easily broken down into smaller particles by the digestive system. </s>


Input: What to do for Abdominal Adhesions ?

Output: - Abdominal adhesions are bands of fibrous tissue that can form between abdominal tissues and organs. Abdominal adhesions cause tissues and organs in the abdominal cavity to stick together.  - Abdominal surgery is the most frequent cause of abdominal adhesions. Of patients who undergo abdominal surgery, 93 percent develop abdominal adhesions.  - In most cases, abdominal adhesions do not cause symptoms. When symptoms are present, chronic abdominal pain is the most common.  - A complete intestinal obstruction is life threatening and requires immediate medical attention and often surgery.  - Abdominal adhesions cannot be detected by tests or seen through imaging techniques such as x rays or ultrasound. However, abdominal x rays, a lower gastrointestinal (GI) series, and computerized tomography (CT) scans can diagnose intestinal obstructions.  - Surgery is the only way to treat abdominal adhesions that cause pain, intestinal obstruction, or fertility problems. </s>


Input: What is (are) 4 Steps to Manage Your Diabetes for Life ?

Output:
What is diabetes?

There are three main types of diabetes:

- Type 1 diabetes  Your body does not make insulin. This is a problem because you need insulin to take the sugar (glucose) from the foods you eat and turn it into energy for your body. You need to take insulin every day to live.   - Type 2 diabetes  Your body does not make or use insulin well. You may need to take pills or insulin to help control your diabetes. Type 2 is the most common type of diabetes.   - Gestational (jest-TAY-shun-al) diabetes  Some women get this kind of diabetes when they are pregnant. Most of the time, it goes away after the baby is born. But even if it goes away, these women and their children have a greater chance of getting diabetes later in life.

You are the most important member of your health care team.

You are the one who manages your diabetes day by day. Talk to your doctor about how you can best care for your diabetes to stay healthy. Some others who can help are:

- dentist    - diabetes doctor    - diabetes educator    - dietitian    - eye doctor    - foot doctor     - friends and family    - mental health counselor    - nurse    - nurse practitioner    - pharmacist    - social worker

How to learn more about diabetes.

- Take classes to learn more about living with diabetes. To find a class, check with your health care team, hospital, or area health clinic. You can also search online.   - Join a support group  in-person or online  to get peer support with managing your diabetes.   - Read about diabetes online. Go to National Diabetes Education Program.

Take diabetes seriously.

You may have heard people say they have a touch of diabetes or that their sugar is a little high. These words suggest that diabetes is not a serious disease. That is not correct. Diabetes is serious, but you can learn to manage it.

People with diabetes need to make healthy food choices, stay at a healthy weight, move more every day, and take their medicine even when they feel good. Its a lot to do. Its not easy, but its worth it!

Why take care of your diabetes?

Taking care of yourself and your diabetes can help you feel good today and in the future. When your blood sugar (glucose) is close to normal, you are likely to:

- have more energy   - be less tired and thirsty   - need to pass urine less often   - heal better   - have fewer skin or bladder infections

You will also have less chance of having health problems caused by diabetes such as:

- heart attack or stroke   - eye problems that can lead to trouble seeing or going blind   - pain, tingling, or numbness in your hands and feet, also called nerve damage   - kidney problems that can cause your kidneys to stop working   - teeth and gum problems

Actions you can take

-  Ask your health care team what type of diabetes you have.  -  Learn where you can go for support.  -  Learn how caring for your diabetes helps you feel good today and in the future. </s>


Input: What is (are) Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Diabetes is a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes. People with diabetes have high blood glucose, also called high blood sugar or hyperglycemia.

Diabetes is a disorder of metabolismthe way the body uses digested food for energy. The digestive tract breaks down carbohydratessugars and starches found in many foodsinto glucose, a form of sugar that enters the bloodstream. With the help of the hormone insulin, cells throughout the body absorb glucose and use it for energy. Diabetes develops when the body doesnt make enough insulin or is not able to use insulin effectively, or both.

Insulin is made in the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. The pancreas contains clusters of cells called islets. Beta cells within the islets make insulin and release it into the blood.

If beta cells dont produce enough insulin, or the body doesnt respond to the insulin that is present, glucose builds up in the blood instead of being absorbed by cells in the body, leading to prediabetes or diabetes. Prediabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels or A1C levelswhich reflect average blood glucose levelsare higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes. In diabetes, the bodys cells are starved of energy despite high blood glucose levels.

Over time, high blood glucose damages nerves and blood vessels, leading to complications such as heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, blindness, dental disease, and amputations. Other complications of diabetes may include increased susceptibility to other diseases, loss of mobility with aging, depression, and pregnancy problems. No one is certain what starts the processes that cause diabetes, but scientists believe genes and environmental factors interact to cause diabetes in most cases.

The two main types of diabetes are type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. A third type, gestational diabetes, develops only during pregnancy. Other types of diabetes are caused by defects in specific genes, diseases of the pancreas, certain drugs or chemicals, infections, and other conditions. Some people show signs of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. </s>


Input: What causes Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Type 1 diabetes is caused by a lack of insulin due to the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. In type 1 diabetesan autoimmune diseasethe bodys immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells. Normally, the immune system protects the body from infection by identifying and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful foreign substances. But in autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks the bodys own cells. In type 1 diabetes, beta cell destruction may take place over several years, but symptoms of the disease usually develop over a short period of time.

Type 1 diabetes typically occurs in children and young adults, though it can appear at any age. In the past, type 1 diabetes was called juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) may be a slowly developing kind of type 1 diabetes. Diagnosis usually occurs after age 30. In LADA, as in type 1 diabetes, the bodys immune system destroys the beta cells. At the time of diagnosis, people with LADA may still produce their own insulin, but eventually most will need insulin shots or an insulin pump to control blood glucose levels.

Genetic Susceptibility

Heredity plays an important part in determining who is likely to develop type 1 diabetes. Genes are passed down from biological parent to child. Genes carry instructions for making proteins that are needed for the bodys cells to function. Many genes, as well as interactions among genes, are thought to influence susceptibility to and protection from type 1 diabetes. The key genes may vary in different population groups. Variations in genes that affect more than 1 percent of a population group are called gene variants.

Certain gene variants that carry instructions for making proteins called human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) on white blood cells are linked to the risk of developing type 1 diabetes. The proteins produced by HLA genes help determine whether the immune system recognizes a cell as part of the body or as foreign material. Some combinations of HLA gene variants predict that a person will be at higher risk for type 1 diabetes, while other combinations are protective or have no effect on risk.

While HLA genes are the major risk genes for type 1 diabetes, many additional risk genes or gene regions have been found. Not only can these genes help identify people at risk for type 1 diabetes, but they also provide important clues to help scientists better understand how the disease develops and identify potential targets for therapy and prevention.

Genetic testing can show what types of HLA genes a person carries and can reveal other genes linked to diabetes. However, most genetic testing is done in a research setting and is not yet available to individuals. Scientists are studying how the results of genetic testing can be used to improve type 1 diabetes prevention or treatment.

Autoimmune Destruction of Beta Cells

In type 1 diabetes, white blood cells called T cells attack and destroy beta cells. The process begins well before diabetes symptoms appear and continues after diagnosis. Often, type 1 diabetes is not diagnosed until most beta cells have already been destroyed. At this point, a person needs daily insulin treatment to survive. Finding ways to modify or stop this autoimmune process and preserve beta cell function is a major focus of current scientific research.

Recent research suggests insulin itself may be a key trigger of the immune attack on beta cells. The immune systems of people who are susceptible to developing type 1 diabetes respond to insulin as if it were a foreign substance, or antigen. To combat antigens, the body makes proteins called antibodies. Antibodies to insulin and other proteins produced by beta cells are found in people with type 1 diabetes. Researchers test for these antibodies to help identify people at increased risk of developing the disease. Testing the types and levels of antibodies in the blood can help determine whether a person has type 1 diabetes, LADA, or another type of diabetes.

Environmental Factors

Environmental factors, such as foods, viruses, and toxins, may play a role in the development of type 1 diabetes, but the exact nature of their role has not been determined. Some theories suggest that environmental factors trigger the autoimmune destruction of beta cells in people with a genetic susceptibility to diabetes. Other theories suggest that environmental factors play an ongoing role in diabetes, even after diagnosis.

Viruses and infections. A virus cannot cause diabetes on its own, but people are sometimes diagnosed with type 1 diabetes during or after a viral infection, suggesting a link between the two. Also, the onset of type 1 diabetes occurs more frequently during the winter when viral infections are more common. Viruses possibly associated with type 1 diabetes include coxsackievirus B, cytomegalovirus, adenovirus, rubella, and mumps. Scientists have described several ways these viruses may damage or destroy beta cells or possibly trigger an autoimmune response in susceptible people. For example, anti-islet antibodies have been found in patients with congenital rubella syndrome, and cytomegalovirus has been associated with significant beta cell damage and acute pancreatitisinflammation of the pancreas. Scientists are trying to identify a virus that can cause type 1 diabetes so that a vaccine might be developed to prevent the disease.

Infant feeding practices. Some studies have suggested that dietary factors may raise or lower the risk of developing type 1 diabetes. For example, breastfed infants and infants receiving vitamin D supplements may have a reduced risk of developing type 1 diabetes, while early exposure to cows milk and cereal proteins may increase risk. More research is needed to clarify how infant nutrition affects the risk for type 1 diabetes.

Read more in the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions (CDCs) publication  National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2014 at  www.cdc.gov for information about research studies related to type 1 diabetes. </s>


Input: What causes Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Type 2 diabetesthe most common form of diabetesis caused by a combination of factors, including insulin resistance, a condition in which the bodys muscle, fat, and liver cells do not use insulin effectively. Type 2 diabetes develops when the body can no longer produce enough insulin to compensate for the impaired ability to use insulin. Symptoms of type 2 diabetes may develop gradually and can be subtle; some people with type 2 diabetes remain undiagnosed for years.

Type 2 diabetes develops most often in middle-aged and older people who are also overweight or obese. The disease, once rare in youth, is becoming more common in overweight and obese children and adolescents. Scientists think genetic susceptibility and environmental factors are the most likely triggers of type 2 diabetes.

Genetic Susceptibility

Genes play a significant part in susceptibility to type 2 diabetes. Having certain genes or combinations of genes may increase or decrease a persons risk for developing the disease. The role of genes is suggested by the high rate of type 2 diabetes in families and identical twins and wide variations in diabetes prevalence by ethnicity. Type 2 diabetes occurs more frequently in African Americans, Alaska Natives, American Indians, Hispanics/Latinos, and some Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islander Americans than it does in non-Hispanic whites.

Recent studies have combined genetic data from large numbers of people, accelerating the pace of gene discovery. Though scientists have now identified many gene variants that increase susceptibility to type 2 diabetes, the majority have yet to be discovered. The known genes appear to affect insulin production rather than insulin resistance. Researchers are working to identify additional gene variants and to learn how they interact with one another and with environmental factors to cause diabetes.

Studies have shown that variants of the TCF7L2 gene increase susceptibility to type 2 diabetes. For people who inherit two copies of the variants, the risk of developing type 2 diabetes is about 80 percent higher than for those who do not carry the gene variant.1 However, even in those with the variant, diet and physical activity leading to weight loss help delay diabetes, according to the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), a major clinical trial involving people at high risk.

Genes can also increase the risk of diabetes by increasing a persons tendency to become overweight or obese. One theory, known as the thrifty gene hypothesis, suggests certain genes increase the efficiency of metabolism to extract energy from food and store the energy for later use. This survival trait was advantageous for populations whose food supplies were scarce or unpredictable and could help keep people alive during famine. In modern times, however, when high-calorie foods are plentiful, such a trait can promote obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Obesity and Physical Inactivity

Physical inactivity and obesity are strongly associated with the development of type 2 diabetes. People who are genetically susceptible to type 2 diabetes are more vulnerable when these risk factors are present.

An imbalance between caloric intake and physical activity can lead to obesity, which causes insulin resistance and is common in people with type 2 diabetes. Central obesity, in which a person has excess abdominal fat, is a major risk factor not only for insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes but also for heart and blood vessel disease, also called cardiovascular disease (CVD). This excess belly fat produces hormones and other substances that can cause harmful, chronic effects in the body such as damage to blood vessels.

The DPP and other studies show that millions of people can lower their risk for type 2 diabetes by making lifestyle changes and losing weight. The DPP proved that people with prediabetesat high risk of developing type 2 diabetescould sharply lower their risk by losing weight through regular physical activity and a diet low in fat and calories. In 2009, a follow-up study of DPP participantsthe Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study (DPPOS)showed that the benefits of weight loss lasted for at least 10 years after the original study began.2

Read more about the DPP, funded under National Institutes of Health (NIH) clinical trial number NCT00004992, and the DPPOS, funded under NIH clinical trial number NCT00038727 in  Diabetes Prevention Program.

Insulin Resistance

Insulin resistance is a common condition in people who are overweight or obese, have excess abdominal fat, and are not physically active. Muscle, fat, and liver cells stop responding properly to insulin, forcing the pancreas to compensate by producing extra insulin. As long as beta cells are able to produce enough insulin, blood glucose levels stay in the normal range. But when insulin production falters because of beta cell dysfunction, glucose levels rise, leading to prediabetes or diabetes.

Abnormal Glucose Production by the Liver

In some people with diabetes, an abnormal increase in glucose production by the liver also contributes to high blood glucose levels. Normally, the pancreas releases the hormone glucagon when blood glucose and insulin levels are low. Glucagon stimulates the liver to produce glucose and release it into the bloodstream. But when blood glucose and insulin levels are high after a meal, glucagon levels drop, and the liver stores excess glucose for later, when it is needed. For reasons not completely understood, in many people with diabetes, glucagon levels stay higher than needed. High glucagon levels cause the liver to produce unneeded glucose, which contributes to high blood glucose levels. Metformin, the most commonly used drug to treat type 2 diabetes, reduces glucose production by the liver.

The Roles of Insulin and Glucagon in Normal Blood Glucose Regulation

A healthy persons body keeps blood glucose levels in a normal range through several complex mechanisms. Insulin and glucagon, two hormones made in the pancreas, help regulate blood glucose levels:

- Insulin, made by beta cells, lowers elevated blood glucose levels.  - Glucagon, made by alpha cells, raises low blood glucose levels.

- Insulin helps muscle, fat, and liver cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream, lowering blood glucose levels.  - Insulin stimulates the liver and muscle tissue to store excess glucose. The stored form of glucose is called glycogen.  - Insulin also lowers blood glucose levels by reducing glucose production in the liver.

- Glucagon signals the liver and muscle tissue to break down glycogen into glucose, which enters the bloodstream and raises blood glucose levels.  - If the body needs more glucose, glucagon stimulates the liver to make glucose from amino acids.

Metabolic Syndrome

Metabolic syndrome, also called insulin resistance syndrome, refers to a group of conditions common in people with insulin resistance, including

- higher than normal blood glucose levels  - increased waist size due to excess abdominal fat  - high blood pressure  - abnormal levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood

Cell Signaling and Regulation

Cells communicate through a complex network of molecular signaling pathways. For example, on cell surfaces, insulin receptor molecules capture, or bind, insulin molecules circulating in the bloodstream. This interaction between insulin and its receptor prompts the biochemical signals that enable the cells to absorb glucose from the blood and use it for energy.

Problems in cell signaling systems can set off a chain reaction that leads to diabetes or other diseases. Many studies have focused on how insulin signals cells to communicate and regulate action. Researchers have identified proteins and pathways that transmit the insulin signal and have mapped interactions between insulin and body tissues, including the way insulin helps the liver control blood glucose levels. Researchers have also found that key signals also come from fat cells, which produce substances that cause inflammation and insulin resistance.

This work holds the key to combating insulin resistance and diabetes. As scientists learn more about cell signaling systems involved in glucose regulation, they will have more opportunities to develop effective treatments.

Beta Cell Dysfunction

Scientists think beta cell dysfunction is a key contributor to type 2 diabetes. Beta cell impairment can cause inadequate or abnormal patterns of insulin release. Also, beta cells may be damaged by high blood glucose itself, a condition called glucose toxicity.

Scientists have not determined the causes of beta cell dysfunction in most cases. Single gene defects lead to specific forms of diabetes called maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY). The genes involved regulate insulin production in the beta cells. Although these forms of diabetes are rare, they provide clues as to how beta cell function may be affected by key regulatory factors. Other gene variants are involved in determining the number and function of beta cells. But these variants account for only a small percentage of type 2 diabetes cases. Malnutrition early in life is also being investigated as a cause of beta cell dysfunction. The metabolic environment of the developing fetus may also create a predisposition for diabetes later in life.

Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes

People who develop type 2 diabetes are more likely to have the following characteristics:

- age 45 or older  - overweight or obese  - physically inactive  - parent or sibling with diabetes  - family background that is African American, Alaska Native, American Indian, Asian American, Hispanic/Latino, or Pacific Islander American  - history of giving birth to a baby weighing more than 9 pounds  - history of gestational diabetes  - high blood pressure140/90 or aboveor being treated for high blood pressure  - high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or good, cholesterol below 35 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL), or a triglyceride level above 250 mg/dL  - polycystic ovary syndrome, also called PCOS  - prediabetesan A1C level of 5.7 to 6.4 percent; a fasting plasma glucose test result of 100125 mg/dL, called impaired fasting glucose; or a 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test result of 140199, called impaired glucose tolerance  - acanthosis nigricans, a condition associated with insulin resistance, characterized by a dark, velvety rash around the neck or armpits  - history of CVD

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends that testing to detect prediabetes and type 2 diabetes be considered in adults who are overweight or obese and have one or more additional risk factors for diabetes. In adults without these risk factors, testing should begin at age 45. </s>


Input: What causes Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Insulin Resistance and Beta Cell Dysfunction

Hormones produced by the placenta and other pregnancy-related factors contribute to insulin resistance, which occurs in all women during late pregnancy. Insulin resistance increases the amount of insulin needed to control blood glucose levels. If the pancreas cant produce enough insulin due to beta cell dysfunction, gestational diabetes occurs.

As with type 2 diabetes, excess weight is linked to gestational diabetes. Overweight or obese women are at particularly high risk for gestational diabetes because they start pregnancy with a higher need for insulin due to insulin resistance. Excessive weight gain during pregnancy may also increase risk.

Family History

Having a family history of diabetes is also a risk factor for gestational diabetes, suggesting that genes play a role in its development. Genetics may also explain why the disorder occurs more frequently in African Americans, American Indians, and Hispanics/Latinos. Many gene variants or combinations of variants may increase a womans risk for developing gestational diabetes. Studies have found several gene variants associated with gestational diabetes, but these variants account for only a small fraction of women with gestational diabetes.

Future Risk of Type 2 Diabetes

Because a womans hormones usually return to normal levels soon after giving birth, gestational diabetes disappears in most women after delivery. However, women who have gestational diabetes are more likely to develop gestational diabetes with future pregnancies and develop type 2 diabetes.3 Women with gestational diabetes should be tested for persistent diabetes 6 to 12 weeks after delivery and at least every 3 years thereafter.

Also, exposure to high glucose levels during gestation increases a childs risk for becoming overweight or obese and for developing type 2 diabetes later on. The result may be a cycle of diabetes affecting multiple generations in a family. For both mother and child, maintaining a healthy body weight and being physically active may help prevent type 2 diabetes. </s>


Input: What causes Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Other types of diabetes have a variety of possible causes.

Genetic Mutations Affecting Beta Cells, Insulin, and Insulin Action

Some relatively uncommon forms of diabetes known as monogenic diabetes are caused by mutations, or changes, in a single gene. These mutations are usually inherited, but sometimes the gene mutation occurs spontaneously. Most of these gene mutations cause diabetes by reducing beta cells ability to produce insulin.

The most common types of monogenic diabetes are neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) and MODY. NDM occurs in the first 6 months of life. MODY is usually found during adolescence or early adulthood but sometimes is not diagnosed until later in life. More information about NDM and MODY is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Monogenic Forms of Diabetes.

Other rare genetic mutations can cause diabetes by damaging the quality of insulin the body produces or by causing abnormalities in insulin receptors.

Other Genetic Diseases

Diabetes occurs in people with Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner syndrome at higher rates than the general population. Scientists are investigating whether genes that may predispose people to genetic syndromes also predispose them to diabetes.

The genetic disorders cystic fibrosis and hemochromatosis are linked to diabetes. Cystic fibrosis produces abnormally thick mucus, which blocks the pancreas. The risk of diabetes increases with age in people with cystic fibrosis. Hemochromatosis causes the body to store too much iron. If the disorder is not treated, iron can build up in and damage the pancreas and other organs.

Damage to or Removal of the Pancreas

Pancreatitis, cancer, and trauma can all harm the pancreatic beta cells or impair insulin production, thus causing diabetes. If the damaged pancreas is removed, diabetes will occur due to the loss of the beta cells.

Endocrine Diseases

Endocrine diseases affect organs that produce hormones. Cushings syndrome and acromegaly are examples of hormonal disorders that can cause prediabetes and diabetes by inducing insulin resistance. Cushings syndrome is marked by excessive production of cortisolsometimes called the stress hormone. Acromegaly occurs when the body produces too much growth hormone. Glucagonoma, a rare tumor of the pancreas, can also cause diabetes. The tumor causes the body to produce too much glucagon. Hyperthyroidism, a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, can also cause elevated blood glucose levels.

Autoimmune Disorders

Rare disorders characterized by antibodies that disrupt insulin action can lead to diabetes. This kind of diabetes is often associated with other autoimmune disorders such as lupus erythematosus. Another rare autoimmune disorder called stiff-man syndrome is associated with antibodies that attack the beta cells, similar to type 1 diabetes.

Medications and Chemical Toxins

Some medications, such as nicotinic acid and certain types of diuretics, anti-seizure drugs, psychiatric drugs, and drugs to treat human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can impair beta cells or disrupt insulin action. Pentamidine, a drug prescribed to treat a type of pneumonia, can increase the risk of pancreatitis, beta cell damage, and diabetes. Also, glucocorticoidssteroid hormones that are chemically similar to naturally produced cortisolmay impair insulin action. Glucocorticoids are used to treat inflammatory illnesses such as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, lupus, and ulcerative colitis.

Many chemical toxins can damage or destroy beta cells in animals, but only a few have been linked to diabetes in humans. For example, dioxina contaminant of the herbicide Agent Orange, used during the Vietnam Warmay be linked to the development of type 2 diabetes. In 2000, based on a report from the Institute of Medicine, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) added diabetes to the list of conditions for which Vietnam veterans are eligible for disability compensation. Also, a chemical in a rat poison no longer in use has been shown to cause diabetes if ingested. Some studies suggest a high intake of nitrogen-containing chemicals such as nitrates and nitrites might increase the risk of diabetes. Arsenic has also been studied for possible links to diabetes.

Lipodystrophy

Lipodystrophy is a condition in which fat tissue is lost or redistributed in the body. The condition is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. </s>


Input: What causes Causes of Diabetes ?

Output:
Other types of diabetes have a variety of possible causes.

Genetic Mutations Affecting Beta Cells, Insulin, and Insulin Action

Some relatively uncommon forms of diabetes known as monogenic diabetes are caused by mutations, or changes, in a single gene. These mutations are usually inherited, but sometimes the gene mutation occurs spontaneously. Most of these gene mutations cause diabetes by reducing beta cells ability to produce insulin.

The most common types of monogenic diabetes are neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) and MODY. NDM occurs in the first 6 months of life. MODY is usually found during adolescence or early adulthood but sometimes is not diagnosed until later in life. More information about NDM and MODY is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Monogenic Forms of Diabetes.

Other rare genetic mutations can cause diabetes by damaging the quality of insulin the body produces or by causing abnormalities in insulin receptors.

Other Genetic Diseases

Diabetes occurs in people with Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner syndrome at higher rates than the general population. Scientists are investigating whether genes that may predispose people to genetic syndromes also predispose them to diabetes.

The genetic disorders cystic fibrosis and hemochromatosis are linked to diabetes. Cystic fibrosis produces abnormally thick mucus, which blocks the pancreas. The risk of diabetes increases with age in people with cystic fibrosis. Hemochromatosis causes the body to store too much iron. If the disorder is not treated, iron can build up in and damage the pancreas and other organs.

Damage to or Removal of the Pancreas

Pancreatitis, cancer, and trauma can all harm the pancreatic beta cells or impair insulin production, thus causing diabetes. If the damaged pancreas is removed, diabetes will occur due to the loss of the beta cells.

Endocrine Diseases

Endocrine diseases affect organs that produce hormones. Cushings syndrome and acromegaly are examples of hormonal disorders that can cause prediabetes and diabetes by inducing insulin resistance. Cushings syndrome is marked by excessive production of cortisolsometimes called the stress hormone. Acromegaly occurs when the body produces too much growth hormone. Glucagonoma, a rare tumor of the pancreas, can also cause diabetes. The tumor causes the body to produce too much glucagon. Hyperthyroidism, a disorder that occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, can also cause elevated blood glucose levels.

Autoimmune Disorders

Rare disorders characterized by antibodies that disrupt insulin action can lead to diabetes. This kind of diabetes is often associated with other autoimmune disorders such as lupus erythematosus. Another rare autoimmune disorder called stiff-man syndrome is associated with antibodies that attack the beta cells, similar to type 1 diabetes.

Medications and Chemical Toxins

Some medications, such as nicotinic acid and certain types of diuretics, anti-seizure drugs, psychiatric drugs, and drugs to treat human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can impair beta cells or disrupt insulin action. Pentamidine, a drug prescribed to treat a type of pneumonia, can increase the risk of pancreatitis, beta cell damage, and diabetes. Also, glucocorticoidssteroid hormones that are chemically similar to naturally produced cortisolmay impair insulin action. Glucocorticoids are used to treat inflammatory illnesses such as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, lupus, and ulcerative colitis.

Many chemical toxins can damage or destroy beta cells in animals, but only a few have been linked to diabetes in humans. For example, dioxina contaminant of the herbicide Agent Orange, used during the Vietnam Warmay be linked to the development of type 2 diabetes. In 2000, based on a report from the Institute of Medicine, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) added diabetes to the list of conditions for which Vietnam veterans are eligible for disability compensation. Also, a chemical in a rat poison no longer in use has been shown to cause diabetes if ingested. Some studies suggest a high intake of nitrogen-containing chemicals such as nitrates and nitrites might increase the risk of diabetes. Arsenic has also been studied for possible links to diabetes.

Lipodystrophy

Lipodystrophy is a condition in which fat tissue is lost or redistributed in the body. The condition is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. </s>