Input: what research (or clinical trials) is being done for Adult Acute Myeloid Leukemia ?

Output:
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
				                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Targeted therapy     Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. Monoclonal antibody therapy is one type of targeted therapy being studied in the treatment of adult AML.    Monoclonal antibody therapy is a cancer treatment that uses antibodies made in the laboratory from a single type of immune system cell. These antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells.

				                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
				                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

				                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
				                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials. </s>


Input: How to prevent Oral Cavity and Oropharyngeal Cancer ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer.    - The following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:         - Tobacco use     - Alcohol use     - Tobacco and alcohol use     - Betel quid or gutka chewing     - Personal history of head and neck cancer        - The following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer:         - HPV infection        - The following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:         - Quitting smoking        - It is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.    - Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.    -  New ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials.

                    Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer.
                    Avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers. Risk factors include smoking, being overweight, and not getting enough exercise. Increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers. Talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer.    Oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are two different diseases, but they have some risk factors in common.

                    The following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:
                    Tobacco use    Using tobacco is the most common cause of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer. The risk of these cancers is about 5 to 10 times higher for current smokers than for people who have never smoked.    The use of all types of tobacco, including cigarettes, pipes, cigars, and smokeless tobacco (snuff and chewing tobacco) can cause cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. For cigarette smokers, the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day.       Alcohol use    Using alcohol is also an important risk factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer.    The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about twice as high in people who have 3 to 4 alcoholic drinks per day and 5 times higher in people who have 5 or more alcoholic drinks per day compared with those who don't drink alcohol.       Tobacco and alcohol use    The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is 2 to 3 times higher in people who use both tobacco and alcohol than it is in people who use only tobacco or only alcohol. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about 35 times higher in people who smoke 2 or more packs of cigarettes per day and have more than 4 alcoholic drinks per day than it is in people who have never smoked cigarettes or consumed alcohol.        Betel quid or gutka chewing    Chewing betel quid or gutka (betel quid mixed with tobacco) has been shown to increase the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer. Betel quid contains areca nut, which is a cancer-causing substance. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with how long and how often betel quid or gutka are chewed. The risk for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is higher when chewing gutka than when chewing betel quid alone. Betel quid and gutka chewing is common in many countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia, including China and India.        Personal history of head and neck cancer    A personal history of head and neck cancer increases the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer.

                    The following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer:
                    HPV infection    Being infected with certain types of HPV, especially HPV type 16, increases the risk of oropharyngeal cancer. HPV infection is spread mainly through sexual contact.     The risk of oropharyngeal cancer is about 15 times higher in people who have oral HPV 16 infection compared with people who do not have oral HPV 16 infection.

                    The following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:
                    Quitting smoking    Studies have shown that when people stop smoking cigarettes, their risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer decreases by one half (50%) within 5 years. Within 20 years of quitting, their risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is the same as for a person who never smoked cigarettes.

                    It is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.
                    It has not been proven that stopping alcohol use will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.    Getting an HPV vaccination greatly lessens the risk of oral HPV infection. It is not yet known whether getting an HPV vaccination at any age will decrease the risk of oropharyngeal cancer from HPV infection.

                    Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.
                    Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of certain types of cancer. Some cancer prevention trials are done with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer. Other prevention trials are done with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer. Other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer.    The purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer. These may include eating fruits and vegetables, exercising, quitting smoking, or taking certain medicines, vitamins, minerals, or food supplements.

                    New ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
                    Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials can be found in the Clinical Trials section of the NCI website. Check NCI's list of cancer clinical trials for oral cavity cancer prevention trials and oropharyngeal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients. </s>


Input: Who is at risk for Oral Cavity and Oropharyngeal Cancer? ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer.    - The following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:         - Tobacco use     - Alcohol use     - Tobacco and alcohol use     - Betel quid or gutka chewing     - Personal history of head and neck cancer        - The following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer:         - HPV infection        - The following is a protective factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:         - Quitting smoking        - It is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.    - Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.    -  New ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials.

                    Avoiding risk factors and increasing protective factors may help prevent cancer.
                    Avoiding cancer risk factors may help prevent certain cancers. Risk factors include smoking, being overweight, and not getting enough exercise. Increasing protective factors such as quitting smoking and exercising may also help prevent some cancers. Talk to your doctor or other health care professional about how you might lower your risk of cancer.    Oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are two different diseases, but they have some risk factors in common.

                    The following are risk factors for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer:
                    Tobacco use    Using tobacco is the most common cause of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer. The risk of these cancers is about 5 to 10 times higher for current smokers than for people who have never smoked.    The use of all types of tobacco, including cigarettes, pipes, cigars, and smokeless tobacco (snuff and chewing tobacco) can cause cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. For cigarette smokers, the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked per day.       Alcohol use    Using alcohol is also an important risk factor for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer.    The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with the number of alcoholic drinks consumed per day. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about twice as high in people who have 3 to 4 alcoholic drinks per day and 5 times higher in people who have 5 or more alcoholic drinks per day compared with those who don't drink alcohol.       Tobacco and alcohol use    The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is 2 to 3 times higher in people who use both tobacco and alcohol than it is in people who use only tobacco or only alcohol. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is about 35 times higher in people who smoke 2 or more packs of cigarettes per day and have more than 4 alcoholic drinks per day than it is in people who have never smoked cigarettes or consumed alcohol.        Betel quid or gutka chewing    Chewing betel quid or gutka (betel quid mixed with tobacco) has been shown to increase the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer. Betel quid contains areca nut, which is a cancer-causing substance. The risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer increases with how long and how often betel quid or gutka are chewed. The risk for oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer is higher when chewing gutka than when chewing betel quid alone. Betel quid and gutka chewing is common in many countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia, including China and India.        Personal history of head and neck cancer    A personal history of head and neck cancer increases the risk of oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer.

                    The following is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer:
                    HPV infection    Being infected with certain types of HPV, especially HPV type 16, increases the risk of oropharyngeal cancer. HPV infection is spread mainly through sexual contact.     The risk of oropharyngeal cancer is about 15 times higher in people who have oral HPV 16 infection compared with people who do not have oral HPV 16 infection.

                    It is not clear whether avoiding certain risk factors will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.
                    It has not been proven that stopping alcohol use will decrease the risk of oral cavity cancer or oropharyngeal cancer.    Getting an HPV vaccination greatly lessens the risk of oral HPV infection. It is not yet known whether getting an HPV vaccination at any age will decrease the risk of oropharyngeal cancer from HPV infection. </s>


Input: what research (or clinical trials) is being done for Oral Cavity and Oropharyngeal Cancer ?

Output:
Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to prevent cancer.
                    Cancer prevention clinical trials are used to study ways to lower the risk of certain types of cancer. Some cancer prevention trials are done with healthy people who have not had cancer but who have an increased risk for cancer. Other prevention trials are done with people who have had cancer and are trying to prevent another cancer of the same type or to lower their chance of developing a new type of cancer. Other trials are done with healthy volunteers who are not known to have any risk factors for cancer.    The purpose of some cancer prevention clinical trials is to find out whether actions people take can prevent cancer. These may include eating fruits and vegetables, exercising, quitting smoking, or taking certain medicines, vitamins, minerals, or food supplements.

                    New ways to prevent oral cavity cancer and oropharyngeal cancer are being studied in clinical trials.
                    Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. Information about clinical trials can be found in the Clinical Trials section of the NCI website. Check NCI's list of cancer clinical trials for oral cavity cancer prevention trials and oropharyngeal cancer prevention trials that are now accepting patients. </s>


Input: What is (are) Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - Childhood astrocytoma is a disease in which benign (noncancer) or malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the brain.     - Astrocytomas may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).    - The central nervous system controls many important body functions.    - The cause of most childhood brain tumors is not known.     - The signs and symptoms of astrocytomas are not the same in every child.     - Tests that examine the brain and spinal cord are used to detect (find) childhood astrocytomas.     - Childhood astrocytomas are usually diagnosed and removed in surgery.    - Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

                    Childhood astrocytoma is a disease in which benign (noncancer) or malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the brain.
                    Astrocytomas are tumors that start in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes. An astrocyte is a type of glial cell. Glial cells hold nerve cells in place, bring food and oxygen to them, and help protect them from disease, such as infection. Gliomas are tumors that form from glial cells. An astrocytoma is a type of glioma.   Astrocytoma is the most common type of glioma diagnosed in children. It can form anywhere in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).    This summary is about the treatment of tumors that begin in astrocytes in the brain (primary brain tumors). Metastatic brain tumors are formed by cancer cells that begin in other parts of the body and spread to the brain. Treatment of metastatic brain tumors is not discussed here.    Brain tumors can occur in both children and adults. However, treatment for children may be different than treatment for adults. See the following PDQ summaries for more information about other types of brain tumors in children and adults:          -  Childhood Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors Treatment Overview     -  Adult Central Nervous System Tumors Treatment

                    Astrocytomas may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).
                    Benign brain tumors grow and press on nearby areas of the brain. They rarely spread into other tissues. Malignant brain tumors are likely to grow quickly and spread into other brain tissue. When a tumor grows into or presses on an area of the brain, it may stop that part of the brain from working the way it should. Both benign and malignant brain tumors can cause signs and symptoms and almost all need treatment.

                    The central nervous system controls many important body functions.
                    Astrocytomas are most common in these parts of the central nervous system (CNS):         -   Cerebrum : The largest part of the brain, at the top of the head. The cerebrum controls thinking, learning, problem-solving, speech, emotions, reading, writing, and voluntary movement.     -   Cerebellum : The lower, back part of the brain (near the middle of the back of the head). The cerebellum controls movement, balance, and posture.    -   Brain stem : The part that connects the brain to the spinal cord, in the lowest part of the brain (just above the back of the neck). The brain stem controls breathing, heart rate, and the nerves and muscles used in seeing, hearing, walking, talking, and eating.     -   Hypothalamus : The area in the middle of the base of the brain. It controls body temperature, hunger, and thirst.    -  Visual pathway: The group of nerves that connect the eye with the brain.    -  Spinal cord: The column of nerve tissue that runs from the brain stem down the center of the back. It is covered by three thin layers of tissue called membranes. The spinal cord and membranes are surrounded by the vertebrae (back bones). Spinal cord nerves carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body, such as a message from the brain to cause muscles to move or a message from the skin to the brain to feel touch. </s>


Input: What causes Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output: The cause of most childhood brain tumors is not known. </s>


Input: Who is at risk for Childhood Astrocytomas? ?

Output: Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesnt mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your child's doctor if you think your child may be at risk. Possible risk factors for astrocytoma include:          - Past radiation therapy to the brain.    - Having certain genetic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) or tuberous sclerosis. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output: The signs and symptoms of astrocytomas are not the same in every child. Signs and symptoms depend on the following:          - Where the tumor forms in the brain or spinal cord.    - The size of the tumor.    - How fast the tumor grows.    - The child's age and development.        Some tumors do not cause signs or symptoms. Signs and symptoms may be caused by childhood astrocytomas or by other conditions. Check with your child's doctor if your child has any of the following:         - Morning headache or headache that goes away after vomiting.    -  Nausea and vomiting.    - Vision, hearing, and speech problems.     - Loss of balance and trouble walking.     - Worsening handwriting or slow speech.    - Weakness or change in feeling on one side of the body.    - Unusual sleepiness.    - More or less energy than usual.    - Change in personality or behavior.    -  Seizures.    - Weight loss or weight gain for no known reason.     - Increase in the size of the head (in infants). </s>


Input: How to diagnose Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output:
Tests that examine the brain and spinal cord are used to detect (find) childhood astrocytomas. The following tests and procedures may be used:         -   Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health. This includes checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.     -   Neurological exam : A series of questions and tests to check the brain, spinal cord, and nerve function. The exam checks a persons mental status, coordination, and ability to walk normally, and how well the muscles, senses, and reflexes work. This may also be called a neuro exam or a neurologic exam.     -  Visual field exam: An exam to check a persons field of vision (the total area in which objects can be seen). This test measures both central vision (how much a person can see when looking straight ahead) and peripheral vision (how much a person can see in all other directions while staring straight ahead). The eyes are tested one at a time. The eye not being tested is covered.    -   MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) with gadolinium : A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of the brain and spinal cord. A substance called gadolinium is injected into a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). Sometimes magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is done during the same MRI scan to look at the chemical makeup of the brain tissue.
                    Childhood astrocytomas are usually diagnosed and removed in surgery. If doctors think there may be an astrocytoma, a biopsy may be done to remove a sample of tissue. For tumors in the brain, a part of the skull is removed and a needle is used to remove tissue. Sometimes, the needle is guided by a computer. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. If cancer cells are found, the doctor may remove as much tumor as safely possible during the same surgery. Because it can be hard to tell the difference between types of brain tumors, you may want to have your child's tissue sample checked by a pathologist who has experience in diagnosing brain tumors.     The following test may be done on the tissue that was removed:         -   Immunohistochemistry : A test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens in a sample of tissue. The antibody is usually linked to a radioactive substance or a dye that causes the tissue to light up under a microscope. This type of test may be used to tell the difference between different types of cancer. An MIB-1 test is a type of immunohistochemistry that checks tumor tissue for an antigen called MIB-1. This may show how fast a tumor is growing.        Sometimes tumors form in a place that makes them hard to remove. If removing the tumor may cause severe physical, emotional, or learning problems, a biopsy is done and more treatment is given after the biopsy.   Children who have NF1 may form a low-grade astrocytoma in the area of the brain that controls vision and may not need a biopsy. If the tumor does not continue to grow or symptoms do not occur, surgery to remove the tumor may not be needed. </s>


Input: What is the outlook for Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output: Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:         - Whether the tumor is a low-grade or high-grade astrocytoma.    - Where the tumor has formed in the CNS and if it has spread to nearby tissue or to other parts of the body.    - How fast the tumor is growing.    - The child's age.    - Whether cancer cells remain after surgery.    - Whether there are changes in certain genes.    - Whether the child has NF1 or tuberous sclerosis.    - Whether the child has diencephalic syndrome (a condition which slows physical growth).    - Whether the child has intracranial hypertension (cerebrospinal fluid pressure within the skull is high) at the time of diagnosis.    - Whether the astrocytoma has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).        For recurrent astrocytoma, prognosis and treatment depend on how much time passed between the time treatment ended and the time the astrocytoma recurred. </s>


Input: What are the stages of Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - The grade of the tumor is used to plan cancer treatment.          - Low-grade astrocytomas     - High-grade astrocytomas        - An MRI is done after surgery.

                    The grade of the tumor is used to plan cancer treatment.
                    Staging is the process used to find out how much cancer there is and if cancer has spread. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.    There is no standard staging system for childhood astrocytoma. Treatment is based on the following:          - Whether the tumor is low grade or high grade.    - Whether the tumor is newly diagnosed or recurrent (has come back after treatment).        The grade of the tumor describes how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow and spread.   The following grades are used:     Low-grade astrocytomas    Low-grade astrocytomas are slow-growing and rarely spread to other parts of the brain and spinal cord or other parts of the body. There are many types of low-grade astrocytomas. Low-grade astrocytomas can be either:            - Grade I tumors pilocytic astrocytoma, subependymal giant cell tumor, or angiocentric glioma.     - Grade II tumors diffuse astrocytoma, pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, or choroid glioma of the third ventricle.            Children who have neurofibromatosis type 1 may have more than one low-grade tumor in the brain. Children who have tuberous sclerosis have an increased risk of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma.       High-grade astrocytomas     High-grade astrocytomas are fast-growing and often spread within the brain and spinal cord. There are several types of high-grade astrocytomas. High grade astrocytomas can be either:            - Grade III tumors anaplastic astrocytoma or anaplastic pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma.      - Grade IV tumors glioblastoma or diffuse midline glioma.             Childhood astrocytomas usually do not spread to other parts of the body.

                    An MRI is done after surgery.
                    An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) is done in the first few days after surgery. This is to find out how much tumor, if any, remains after surgery and to plan further treatment. </s>


Input: what research (or clinical trials) is being done for Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output:
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Other drug therapy     Lenalidomide is a type of angiogenesis inhibitor. It prevents the growth of new blood vessels that are needed by a tumor to grow.

                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Childhood Astrocytomas ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - There are different types of treatment for patients with childhood astrocytoma.    - Children with astrocytomas should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood brain tumors.     - Childhood brain tumors may cause signs or symptoms that begin before the cancer is diagnosed and continue for months or years.     - Some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended.     - Six types of treatment are used:         - Surgery     - Observation     - Radiation therapy     - Chemotherapy     - High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant     - Targeted therapy        -  New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.          - Other drug therapy        - If fluid builds up around the brain and spinal cord, a cerebrospinal fluid diversion procedure may be done.    - Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.    - Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.    - Follow-up tests may be needed.

                    There are different types of treatment for patients with childhood astrocytoma.
                    Different types of treatment are available for children with astrocytomas. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment.    Because cancer in children is rare, taking part in a clinical trial should be considered. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

                    Children with astrocytomas should have their treatment planned by a team of health care providers who are experts in treating childhood brain tumors.
                    Treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist works with other healthcare providers who are experts in treating children with brain tumors and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:         -  Pediatrician.    -  Pediatric neurosurgeon.     -  Neurologist.    -  Neuropathologist.     -  Neuroradiologist.     -  Rehabilitation specialist.     -  Radiation oncologist.     -  Endocrinologist.     -  Psychologist.

                    Childhood brain tumors may cause signs or symptoms that begin before the cancer is diagnosed and continue for months or years.
                    Signs or symptoms caused by the tumor may begin before diagnosis. These signs or symptoms may continue for months or years. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about signs or symptoms caused by the tumor that may continue after treatment.

                    Some cancer treatments cause side effects months or years after treatment has ended.
                    Side effects from cancer treatment that begin during or after treatment and continue for months or years are called late effects. Late effects of cancer treatment may include the following:         - Physical problems.     - Changes in mood, feelings, thinking, learning, or memory.     -  Second cancers (new types of cancer).         Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about the effects cancer treatment can have on your child. (See the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for more information.)

                    Six types of treatment are used:
                    Surgery     Surgery is used to diagnose and treat childhood astrocytoma, as discussed in the General Information section of this summary. If cancer cells remain after surgery, further treatment depends on:             - Where the remaining cancer cells are.     - The grade of the tumor.     - The age of the child.           Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that remain. Treatment given after the surgery, to lower the risk that the cancer will come back, is called adjuvant therapy.       Observation     Observation is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change. Observation may be used:            - If the patient has no symptoms, such as patients with neurofibromatosis type1.     - If the tumor is small and is found when a different health problem is being diagnosed or treated.     - After the tumor is removed by surgery until signs or symptoms appear or change.              Radiation therapy     Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy:            -  External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Certain ways of giving radiation therapy can help keep radiation from damaging nearby healthy tissue. These types of radiation therapy include the following:                  -  Conformal radiation therapy: Conformal radiation therapy is a type of external radiation therapy that uses a computer to make a 3-dimensional (3-D) picture of the tumor and shapes the radiation beams to fit the tumor.       -  Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): IMRT is a type of 3-dimensional (3-D) external radiation therapy that uses a computer to make pictures of the size and shape of the tumor. Thin beams of radiation of different intensities (strengths) are aimed at the tumor from many angles.       -  Stereotactic radiation therapy: Stereotactic radiation therapy is a type of external radiation therapy. A rigid head frame is attached to the skull to keep the head still during the radiation treatment. A machine aims radiation directly at the tumor. The total dose of radiation is divided into several smaller doses given over several days. This procedure is also called stereotactic external-beam radiation therapy and stereotaxic radiation therapy.       -  Proton beam radiation therapy: Proton-beam therapy is a type of high-energy, external radiation therapy. A radiation therapy machine aims streams of protons (tiny, invisible, positively-charged particles) at the cancer cells to kill them.                -  Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.           The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type of tumor and where the tumor formed in the brain or spinal cord. External radiation therapy is used to treat childhood astrocytomas.     Radiation therapy to the brain can affect growth and development, especially in young children. For children younger than 3 years, chemotherapy may be given instead, to delay or reduce the need for radiation therapy.       Chemotherapy     Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). Combination chemotherapy is the use of more than one anticancer drug.     The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type of tumor and where the tumor formed in the brain or spinal cord. Systemic combination chemotherapy is used in the treatment of children with astrocytoma. High-dose chemotherapy may be used in the treatment of children with newly diagnosed high-grade astrocytoma.       High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant     High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a way of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood -forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These reinfused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.    For high-grade astrocytoma that has come back after treatment, high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is used if there is only a small amount of tumor.       Targeted therapy     Targeted therapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells.    There are different types of targeted therapy:            -  Monoclonal antibody therapy uses antibodies made in the laboratory, from a single type of immune system cell, to stop cancer cells. These antibodies can identify substances on cancer cells or normal substances that may help cancer cells grow. The antibodies attach to the substances and kill the cancer cells, block their growth, or keep them from spreading. Monoclonal antibodies are given by infusion into a vein. They may be used alone or to carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to cancer cells. There are different types of monoclonal antibody therapy:                  -  Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor therapy: Cancer cells make a substance called VEGF, which causes new blood vessels to form (angiogenesis) and helps the cancer grow. VEGF inhibitors block VEGF and stop new blood vessels from forming. This may kill cancer cells because they need new blood vessels to grow. Bevacizumab is a VEGF inhibitor and angiogenesis inhibitor being used to treat childhood astrocytoma.       -  Immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: PD-1 is a protein on the surface of T cells that helps keep the bodys immune responses in check. When PD-1 attaches to another protein called PDL-1 on a cancer cell, it stops the T cell from killing the cancer cell. PD-1 inhibitors attach to PDL-1 and allow the T cells to kill cancer cells. PD-1 inhibitors are being studied to treat high-grade astrocytoma that has recurred.                -  Protein kinase inhibitors work in different ways. There are several kinds of protein kinase inhibitors.                  -  mTOR inhibitors stop cells from dividing and may prevent the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow. Everolimus and sirolimus are mTOR inhibitors used to treat childhood subependymal giant cell astrocytomas. mTOR inhibitors also are being studied to treat low-grade astrocytoma that has recurred.       -  BRAF inhibitors block proteins needed for cell growth and may kill cancer cells. The BRAF inhibitor dabrafenib is being studied to treat low-grade astrocytoma that has recurred. Vemurafenib and dabrafenib have been used to treat high-grade astrocytomas that have recurred but more study is needed to know how well they work in children.       - MEK inhibitors block proteins needed for cell growth and may kill cancer cells. MEK inhibitors such as selumetinib are being studied to treat low-grade astrocytoma that has recurred.                       See Drugs Approved for Brain Tumors for more information.

                    New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Other drug therapy     Lenalidomide is a type of angiogenesis inhibitor. It prevents the growth of new blood vessels that are needed by a tumor to grow.

                    If fluid builds up around the brain and spinal cord, a cerebrospinal fluid diversion procedure may be done.
                    Cerebrospinal fluid diversion is a method used to drain fluid that has built up around the brain and spinal cord. A shunt (long, thin tube) is placed in a ventricle (fluid-filled space) of the brain and threaded under the skin to another part of the body, usually the abdomen. The shunt carries extra fluid away from the brain so it may be absorbed elsewhere in the body.

                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials.

                    Follow-up tests may be needed.
                    Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. (See the General Information section for a list of tests.) Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.   Regular MRIs will continue to be done after treatment has ended. The results of the MRI can show if your child's condition has changed or if the astrocytoma has recurred (come back). If the results of the MRI show a mass in the brain, a biopsy may be done to find out if it is made up of dead tumor cells or if new cancer cells are growing.

							            Treatment Options for Childhood Astrocytomas

							                    Newly Diagnosed Childhood Low-Grade Astrocytomas
							                    When the tumor is first diagnosed, treatment for childhood low-grade astrocytoma depends on where the tumor is, and is usually surgery. An MRI is done after surgery to see if there is tumor remaining.    If the tumor was completely removed by surgery, more treatment may not be needed and the child is closely watched to see if signs or symptoms appear or change. This is called observation.    If there is tumor remaining after surgery, treatment may include the following:         - Observation.    - A second surgery to remove the tumor.    -  Radiation therapy, which may include conformal radiation therapy, intensity-modulated radiation therapy, proton beam radiation therapy, or stereotactic radiation therapy, when the tumor begins to grow again.    -  Combination chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy.        In some cases, observation is used for children who have a visual pathway glioma. In other cases, treatment may include surgery to remove the tumor, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy. A goal of treatment is to save as much vision as possible. The effect of tumor growth on the child's vision will be closely followed during treatment.    Children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) may not need treatment unless the tumor grows or signs or symptoms, such as vision problems, appear. When the tumor grows or signs or symptoms appear, treatment may include surgery to remove the tumor, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy.   Children with tuberous sclerosis may develop benign (not cancer) tumors in the brain called subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGAs). Targeted therapy with everolimus or sirolimus may be used instead of surgery, to shrink the tumors.   Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood low-grade untreated astrocytoma or other tumor of glial origin. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your child's doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

							                    Recurrent Childhood Low-Grade Astrocytomas
							                    When low-grade astrocytoma recurs after treatment, it usually comes back where the tumor first formed. Before more cancer treatment is given, imaging tests, biopsy, or surgery are done to find out if there is cancer and how much there is.   Treatment of recurrent childhood low-grade astrocytoma may include the following:         - A second surgery to remove the tumor, if surgery was the only treatment given when the tumor was first diagnosed.    -  Radiation therapy to the tumor only, if radiation therapy was not used when the tumor was first diagnosed. Conformal radiation therapy may be given.    -  Chemotherapy, if the tumor recurred where it cannot be removed by surgery or the patient had radiation therapy when the tumor was first diagnosed.    -  Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody (bevacizumab) with or without chemotherapy.    - A clinical trial of targeted therapy with a BRAF inhibitor (dabrafenib), an mTOR inhibitor (everolimus), or a MEK inhibitor (selumetinib).    - A clinical trial of lenalidomide.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent childhood astrocytoma or other tumor of glial origin. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your child's doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

							                    Newly Diagnosed Childhood High-Grade Astrocytomas
							                    Treatment of childhood high-grade astrocytoma may include the following:         -  Surgery to remove the tumor, followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.    - A clinical trial of a new treatment.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with childhood high-grade untreated astrocytoma or other tumor of glial origin. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your child's doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

							                    Recurrent Childhood High-Grade Astrocytomas
							                    When high-grade astrocytoma recurs after treatment, it usually comes back where the tumor first formed. Before more cancer treatment is given, imaging tests, biopsy, or surgery are done to find out if there is cancer and how much there is.    Treatment of recurrent childhood high-grade astrocytoma may include the following:         - Surgery to remove the tumor.    -  High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant.    -  Targeted therapy with a BRAF inhibitor (vemurafenib or dabrafenib).    - A clinical trial of targeted therapy with an immune checkpoint inhibitor.    - A clinical trial of a new treatment.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with recurrent childhood astrocytoma or other tumor of glial origin. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your child's doctor about clinical trials that may be right for your child. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website. </s>


Input: What is (are) Prostate Cancer ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - Prostate cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the prostate.    - Signs of prostate cancer include a weak flow of urine or frequent urination.     - Tests that examine the prostate and blood are used to detect (find) and diagnose prostate cancer.    - Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

                    Prostate cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the prostate.
                    The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. It lies just below the bladder (the organ that collects and empties urine) and in front of the rectum (the lower part of the intestine). It is about the size of a walnut and surrounds part of the urethra (the tube that empties urine from the bladder). The prostate gland makes fluid that is part of the semen.      Prostate cancer is most common in older men. In the U.S., about 1 out of 5 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer. </s>


Input: What are the symptoms of Prostate Cancer ?

Output: Signs of prostate cancer include a weak flow of urine or frequent urination. These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by prostate cancer or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:         - Weak or interrupted ("stop-and-go") flow of urine.    - Sudden urge to urinate.    - Frequent urination (especially at night).    - Trouble starting the flow of urine.    - Trouble emptying the bladder completely.    - Pain or burning while urinating.    -  Blood in the urine or semen.    - A pain in the back, hips, or pelvis that doesn't go away.    - Shortness of breath, feeling very tired, fast heartbeat, dizziness, or pale skin caused by anemia.        Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. As men age, the prostate may get bigger and block the urethra or bladder. This may cause trouble urinating or sexual problems. The condition is called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and although it is not cancer, surgery may be needed. The symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia or of other problems in the prostate may be like symptoms of prostate cancer. </s>


Input: How to diagnose Prostate Cancer ?

Output: Tests that examine the prostate and blood are used to detect (find) and diagnose prostate cancer. The following tests and procedures may be used:         -   Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.    -   Digital rectal exam (DRE): An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum and feels the prostate through the rectal wall for lumps or abnormal areas.     -   Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test : A test that measures the level of PSA in the blood. PSA is a substance made by the prostate that may be found in an increased amount in the blood of men who have prostate cancer. PSA levels may also be high in men who have an infection or inflammation of the prostate or BPH (an enlarged, but noncancerous, prostate).    -   Transrectal ultrasound : A procedure in which a probe that is about the size of a finger is inserted into the rectum to check the prostate. The probe is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Transrectal ultrasound may be used during a biopsy procedure.    -  Transrectal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): A procedure that uses a strong magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. A probe that gives off radio waves is inserted into the rectum near the prostate. This helps the MRI machine make clearer pictures of the prostate and nearby tissue. A transrectal MRI is done to find out if the cancer has spread outside the prostate into nearby tissues. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).    -  Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist. The pathologist will check the tissue sample to see if there are cancer cells and find out the Gleason score. The Gleason score ranges from 2-10 and describes how likely it is that a tumor will spread. The lower the number, the less likely the tumor is to spread.  A transrectal biopsy is used to diagnose prostate cancer. A transrectal biopsy is the removal of tissue from the prostate by inserting a thin needle through the rectum and into the prostate. This procedure is usually done using transrectal ultrasound to help guide where samples of tissue are taken from. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. </s>


Input: What is the outlook for Prostate Cancer ?

Output: Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:         - The stage of the cancer (level of PSA, Gleason score, grade of the tumor, how much of the prostate is affected by the cancer, and whether the cancer has spread to other places in the body).    - The patients age.    - Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).        Treatment options also may depend on the following:         - Whether the patient has other health problems.    - The expected side effects of treatment.    - Past treatment for prostate cancer.    - The wishes of the patient.        Most men diagnosed with prostate cancer do not die of it. </s>


Input: What are the stages of Prostate Cancer ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - After prostate cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the prostate or to other parts of the body.     - There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.    - Cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body.    - The following stages are used for prostate cancer:         - Stage I     - Stage II     - Stage III     - Stage IV

                    After prostate cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the prostate or to other parts of the body.
                    The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the prostate or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment. The results of the tests used to diagnose prostate cancer are often also used to stage the disease. (See the General Information section.) In prostate cancer, staging tests may not be done unless the patient has symptoms or signs that the cancer has spread, such as bone pain, a high PSA level, or a high Gleason score.   The following tests and procedures also may be used in the staging process:         -   Bone scan : A procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, in the bone. A very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.     -   MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).    -   CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.    -   Pelvic lymphadenectomy : A surgical procedure to remove the lymph nodes in the pelvis. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells.    -   Seminal vesicle biopsy : The removal of fluid from the seminal vesicles (glands that make semen) using a needle. A pathologist views the fluid under a microscope to look for cancer cells.    -   ProstaScint scan : A procedure to check for cancer that has spread from the prostate to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes. A very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material attaches to prostate cancer cells and is detected by a scanner. The radioactive material shows up as a bright spot on the picture in areas where there are a lot of prostate cancer cells.        The stage of the cancer is based on the results of the staging and diagnostic tests, including the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test and the Gleason score. The tissue samples removed during the biopsy are used to find out the Gleason score. The Gleason score ranges from 2-10 and describes how different the cancer cells look from normal cells and how likely it is that the tumor will spread. The lower the number, the less likely the tumor is to spread.

                    There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
                    Cancer can spread through tissue, the lymph system, and the blood:         - Tissue. The cancer spreads from where it began by growing into nearby areas.     - Lymph system. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the lymph system. The cancer travels through the lymph vessels to other parts of the body.     - Blood. The cancer spreads from where it began by getting into the blood. The cancer travels through the blood vessels to other parts of the body.

                    Cancer may spread from where it began to other parts of the body.
                    When cancer spreads to another part of the body, it is called metastasis. Cancer cells break away from where they began (the primary tumor) and travel through the lymph system or blood.         - Lymph system. The cancer gets into the lymph system, travels through the lymph vessels, and forms a tumor (metastatic tumor) in another part of the body.    - Blood. The cancer gets into the blood, travels through the blood vessels, and forms a tumor (metastatic tumor) in another part of the body.        The metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads to the bone, the cancer cells in the bone are actually prostate cancer cells. The disease is metastatic prostate cancer, not bone cancer.    Denosumab, a monoclonal antibody, may be used to prevent bone metastases.

                    The following stages are used for prostate cancer:
                    Stage I    In stage I, cancer is found in the prostate only. The cancer:             - is found by needle biopsy (done for a high PSA level) or in a small amount of tissue during surgery for other reasons (such as benign prostatic hyperplasia). The PSA level is lower than 10 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or     - is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level is lower than 10 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or     - cannot be felt during a digital rectal exam and cannot be seen in imaging tests. Cancer is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level and the Gleason score are not known.               Stage II    In stage II, cancer is more advanced than in stage I, but has not spread outside the prostate. Stage II is divided into stages IIA and IIB.    In stage IIA, cancer:            -  is found by needle biopsy (done for a high PSA level) or in a small amount of tissue during surgery for other reasons (such as benign prostatic hyperplasia). The PSA level is lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 7; or     -  is found by needle biopsy (done for a high PSA level) or in a small amount of tissue during surgery for other reasons (such as benign prostatic hyperplasia). The PSA level is at least 10 but lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or     - is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level is at least 10 but lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 6 or lower; or     - is found in one-half or less of one lobe of the prostate. The PSA level is lower than 20 and the Gleason score is 7; or     - is found in more than one-half of one lobe of the prostate.            In stage IIB, cancer:            - is found in opposite sides of the prostate. The PSA can be any level and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10; or     - cannot be felt during a digital rectal exam and cannot be seen in imaging tests. The PSA level is 20 or higher and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10; or     - cannot be felt during a digital rectal exam and cannot be seen in imaging tests. The PSA can be any level and the Gleason score is 8 or higher.              Stage III    In stage III, cancer has spread beyond the outer layer of the prostate and may have spread to the seminal vesicles. The PSA can be any level and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10.       Stage IV    In stage IV, the PSA can be any level and the Gleason score can range from 2 to 10. Also, cancer:            - has spread beyond the seminal vesicles to nearby tissue or organs, such as the rectum, bladder, or pelvic wall; or      - may have spread to the seminal vesicles or to nearby tissue or organs, such as the rectum, bladder, or pelvic wall. Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes; or     - has spread to distant parts of the body, which may include lymph nodes or bones. Prostate cancer often spreads to the bones. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Prostate Cancer ?

Output:
Key Points
                    - There are different types of treatment for patients with prostate cancer.     - Seven types of standard treatment are used:         - Watchful waiting or active surveillance     - Surgery      - Radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy      - Hormone therapy     - Chemotherapy     - Biologic therapy     - Bisphosphonate therapy        - There are treatments for bone pain caused by bone metastases or hormone therapy.     - New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.         - Cryosurgery     - High-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy     - Proton beam radiation therapy        - Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.    - Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.    - Follow-up tests may be needed.

                    There are different types of treatment for patients with prostate cancer.
                    Different types of treatment are available for patients with prostate cancer. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

                    Seven types of standard treatment are used:
                    Watchful waiting or active surveillance     Watchful waiting and active surveillance are treatments used for older men who do not have signs or symptoms or have other medical conditions and for men whose prostate cancer is found during a screening test.    Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patients condition without giving any treatment until signs or symptoms appear or change. Treatment is given to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.    Active surveillance is closely following a patient's condition without giving any treatment unless there are changes in test results. It is used to find early signs that the condition is getting worse. In active surveillance, patients are given certain exams and tests, including digital rectal exam, PSA test, transrectal ultrasound, and transrectal needle biopsy, to check if the cancer is growing. When the cancer begins to grow, treatment is given to cure the cancer.    Other terms that are used to describe not giving treatment to cure prostate cancer right after diagnosis are observation, watch and wait, and expectant management.       Surgery     Patients in good health whose tumor is in the prostate gland only may be treated with surgery to remove the tumor. The following types of surgery are used:             -  Radical prostatectomy: A surgical procedure to remove the prostate, surrounding tissue, and seminal vesicles. There are two types of radical prostatectomy:                   -  Retropubic prostatectomy: A surgical procedure to remove the prostate through an incision (cut) in the abdominal wall. Removal of nearby lymph nodes may be done at the same time.       -  Perineal prostatectomy: A surgical procedure to remove the prostate through an incision (cut) made in the perineum (area between the scrotum and anus). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed through a separate incision in the abdomen.                -  Pelvic lymphadenectomy: A surgical procedure to remove the lymph nodes in the pelvis. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. If the lymph nodes contain cancer, the doctor will not remove the prostate and may recommend other treatment.     -  Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP): A surgical procedure to remove tissue from the prostate using a resectoscope (a thin, lighted tube with a cutting tool) inserted through the urethra. This procedure is done to treat benign prostatic hypertrophy and it is sometimes done to relieve symptoms caused by a tumor before other cancer treatment is given. TURP may also be done in men whose tumor is in the prostate only and who cannot have a radical prostatectomy.           In some cases, nerve-sparing surgery can be done. This type of surgery may save the nerves that control erection. However, men with large tumors or tumors that are very close to the nerves may not be able to have this surgery.     Possible problems after prostate cancer surgery include the following:            -  Impotence.     - Leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum.      - Shortening of the penis (1 to 2 centimeters). The exact reason for this is not known.     - Inguinal hernia (bulging of fat or part of the small intestine through weak muscles into the groin). Inguinal hernia may occur more often in men treated with radical prostatectomy than in men who have some other types of prostate surgery, radiation therapy, or prostate biopsy alone. It is most likely to occur within the first 2 years after radical prostatectomy.              Radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy     Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are different types of radiation therapy:             -  External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Conformal radiation is a type of external radiation therapy that uses a computer to make a 3-dimensional (3-D) picture of the tumor and shapes the radiation beams to fit the tumor. This allows a high dose of radiation to reach the tumor and causes less damage to nearby healthy tissue.  Hypofractionated radiation therapy may be given because it has a more convenient treatment schedule. Hypofractionated radiation therapy is radiation treatment in which a larger than usual total dose of radiation is given once a day over a shorter period of time (fewer days) compared to standard radiation therapy. Hypofractionated radiation therapy may have worse side effects than standard radiation therapy, depending on the schedules used.     -  Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. In early-stage prostate cancer, the radioactive seeds are placed in the prostate using needles that are inserted through the skin between the scrotum and rectum. The placement of the radioactive seeds in the prostate is guided by images from transrectal ultrasound or computed tomography (CT). The needles are removed after the radioactive seeds are placed in the prostate.     -  Radiopharmaceutical therapy uses a radioactive substance to treat cancer. Radiopharmaceutical therapy includes the following:                  -  Alpha emitter radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bone. A radioactive substance called radium-223 is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radium-223 collects in areas of bone with cancer and kills the cancer cells.                      The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated. External radiation therapy, internal radiation therapy, and radiopharmaceutical therapy are used to treat prostate cancer.    Men treated with radiation therapy for prostate cancer have an increased risk of having bladder and/or gastrointestinal cancer.    Radiation therapy can cause impotence and urinary problems.       Hormone therapy     Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing. Hormones are substances made by glands in the body and circulated in the bloodstream. In prostate cancer, male sex hormones can cause prostate cancer to grow. Drugs, surgery, or other hormones are used to reduce the amount of male hormones or block them from working.     Hormone therapy for prostate cancer may include the following:            -  Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists can stop the testicles from making testosterone. Examples are leuprolide, goserelin, and buserelin.     -  Antiandrogens can block the action of androgens (hormones that promote male sex characteristics), such as testosterone. Examples are flutamide, bicalutamide, enzalutamide, and nilutamide.     - Drugs that can prevent the adrenal glands from making androgens include ketoconazole and aminoglutethimide.     -  Orchiectomy is a surgical procedure to remove one or both testicles, the main source of male hormones, such as testosterone, to decrease the amount of hormone being made.      -  Estrogens (hormones that promote female sex characteristics) can prevent the testicles from making testosterone. However, estrogens are seldom used today in the treatment of prostate cancer because of the risk of serious side effects.            Hot flashes, impaired sexual function, loss of desire for sex, and weakened bones may occur in men treated with hormone therapy. Other side effects include diarrhea, nausea, and itching.    See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.       Chemotherapy     Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.    See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.       Biologic therapy     Biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patients immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the bodys natural defenses against cancer. Sipuleucel-T is a type of biologic therapy used to treat prostate cancer that has metastasized (spread to other parts of the body).    See Drugs Approved for Prostate Cancer for more information.       Bisphosphonate therapy     Bisphosphonate drugs, such as clodronate or zoledronate, reduce bone disease when cancer has spread to the bone. Men who are treated with antiandrogen therapy or orchiectomy are at an increased risk of bone loss. In these men, bisphosphonate drugs lessen the risk of bone fracture (breaks). The use of bisphosphonate drugs to prevent or slow the growth of bone metastases is being studied in clinical trials.

                    There are treatments for bone pain caused by bone metastases or hormone therapy.
                    Prostate cancer that has spread to the bone and certain types of hormone therapy can weaken bones and lead to bone pain. Treatments for bone pain include the following:          - Pain medicine.    - External radiation therapy.    -  Strontium-89 (a radioisotope).    -  Targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody, such as denosumab.    - Bisphosphonate therapy.    -  Corticosteroids.         See the PDQ summary on Pain for more information.

                    New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Cryosurgery     Cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells. Ultrasound is used to find the area that will be treated. This type of treatment is also called cryotherapy.    Cryosurgery can cause impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum.       High-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy     High-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy is a treatment that uses ultrasound (high-energy sound waves) to destroy cancer cells. To treat prostate cancer, an endorectal probe is used to make the sound waves.       Proton beam radiation therapy     Proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high-energy, external radiation therapy that targets tumors with streams of protons (small, positively charged particles). This type of radiation therapy is being studied in the treatment of prostate cancer.

                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials.

                    Follow-up tests may be needed.
                    Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests.   Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.

		            Treatment Options by Stage

		                    Stage I Prostate Cancer
		                    Standard treatment of stage I prostate cancer may include the following:         -  Watchful waiting.    -  Active surveillance. If the cancer begins to grow, hormone therapy may be given.    -  Radical prostatectomy, usually with pelvic lymphadenectomy. Radiation therapy may be given after surgery.     -  External radiation therapy. Hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy.    -  Internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds.    - A clinical trial of high-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy.    - A clinical trial of cryosurgery.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage I prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

		                    Stage II Prostate Cancer
		                    Standard treatment of stage II prostate cancer may include the following:         -  Watchful waiting.    -  Active surveillance. If the cancer begins to grow, hormone therapy may be given.    -  Radical prostatectomy, usually with pelvic lymphadenectomy. Radiation therapy may be given after surgery.     -  External radiation therapy. Hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy.    -  Internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds.    - A clinical trial of cryosurgery.    - A clinical trial of high-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy.    - A clinical trial of proton beam radiation therapy.    - Clinical trials of new types of treatment, such as hormone therapy followed by radical prostatectomy.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage II prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

		                    Stage III Prostate Cancer
		                    Standard treatment of stage III prostate cancer may include the following:         -  External radiation therapy. Hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy.    - Hormone therapy.    -  Radical prostatectomy. Radiation therapy may be given after surgery.    -  Watchful waiting.    -  Active surveillance. If the cancer begins to grow, hormone therapy may be given.        Treatment to control cancer that is in the prostate and lessen urinary symptoms may include the following:         - External radiation therapy.    -  Internal radiation therapy with radioactive seeds.    - Hormone therapy.    -  Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP).    - A clinical trial of new types of radiation therapy.    - A clinical trial of cryosurgery.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage III prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

		                    Stage IV Prostate Cancer
		                    Standard treatment of stage IV prostate cancer may include the following:         -  Hormone therapy.    - Hormone therapy combined with chemotherapy.    -  Bisphosphonate therapy.    -  External radiation therapy. Hormone therapy may be given after radiation therapy.    -  Alpha emitter radiation therapy.    -  Watchful waiting.    -  Active surveillance. If the cancer begins to grow, hormone therapy may be given.    - A clinical trial of radical prostatectomy with orchiectomy.        Treatment to control cancer that is in the prostate and lessen urinary symptoms may include the following:         -  Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP).    - Radiation therapy.        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with stage IV prostate cancer. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website. </s>


Input: what research (or clinical trials) is being done for Prostate Cancer ?

Output:
New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Cryosurgery     Cryosurgery is a treatment that uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells. Ultrasound is used to find the area that will be treated. This type of treatment is also called cryotherapy.    Cryosurgery can cause impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum.       High-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy     High-intensityfocused ultrasound therapy is a treatment that uses ultrasound (high-energy sound waves) to destroy cancer cells. To treat prostate cancer, an endorectal probe is used to make the sound waves.       Proton beam radiation therapy     Proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high-energy, external radiation therapy that targets tumors with streams of protons (small, positively charged particles). This type of radiation therapy is being studied in the treatment of prostate cancer.

                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials. </s>


Input: What is (are) Knee Replacement ?

Output: There are many different types and designs of artificial knees. Most consist of three components: -  the femoral component, which is the part that attaches to the thigh bone  - the tibial component, the part that attaches to the shin bone   - the patellar component, the knee cap. the femoral component, which is the part that attaches to the thigh bone the tibial component, the part that attaches to the shin bone the patellar component, the knee cap. Total and Partial Knee Replacement Knee replacement may be either total or partial/unicompartmental. In total knee replacement, as the name suggests, the entire knee joint is replaced. You will likely need a total knee replacement if you have damage to several parts of your knee. In partial/unicompartmental knee replacement, the surgeon replaces just the damaged part of the knee. You may be able to have a partial knee replacement if only one section of your knee is damaged. However, when one part is replaced, there is a chance that another part will develop arthritis, requiring further surgery. Cemented and Uncemented Joint Components Joint components may also be attached to your own bone in different ways. Most are cemented with a special joint glue into your existing bone; others rely on a process called biologic fixation to hold them in place. This means that the parts are made with a porous surface, and over time your own bone grows into the joint surface to secure them. In some cases, surgeons use a combination of cemented and uncemented parts. This is referred to as a hybrid implant. Minimally Invasive Surgery While some knee replacement surgery requires an 8- to 12-inch incision in the front of the knee, surgeons at many medical centers are now performing what is called minimally invasive surgery using incisions of 3 to 5 inches or even smaller. Because the incision is smaller, there may be less pain and a shorter recovery time. If you think you might be interested in minimally invasive surgery, speak with your surgeon. </s>


Input: What are the complications of Knee Replacement ?

Output: While new technology and advances in surgical techniques have greatly reduced the risks involved with knee replacements, there are still some risks you should be aware of. Two of the most common possible problems are blood clots and infection. Preventing Blood Clots Blood clots can occur in the veins of your legs after knee replacement surgery. To reduce the risk of clots, your doctor may have you elevate your leg periodically and prescribe special exercises, support hose, or blood thinners. Preventing Infections Infection can occur when bacteria enter the bloodstream from skin or urinary tract infections. To reduce the risk of infection, your doctors may prescribe antibiotics for you to take prior to your surgery and for a short time afterward. Other Complications Other complications, such as new or ongoing pain, stiffness, fracture, bleeding, or injury to the blood vessels can occur. Serious medical complications, such as heart attack or stroke, are very rare. Warning Signs To Watch For To minimize the risk of complications, it is important to recognize signs of potential problems early and contact your doctor. For example, tenderness, redness, and swelling of your calf or swelling of your thigh, ankle, calf, or foot could be warning signs of a possible blood clot. Warning signs of infection include fever or chills, tenderness and swelling of the wound, and drainage from the wound. You should call your doctor if you experience any of these symptoms. It is important to get instructions from your doctor before leaving the hospital and follow them carefully once you get home. Doing so will give you the greatest chance of a successful surgery. </s>


Input: What is the outlook for Knee Replacement ?

Output: Recovery from knee replacement extends long after you leave the hospital. Preparing for recovery requires learning what to expect in the days and weeks following surgery. It requires understanding what you will and wont be able to do  and when. It also means arranging for social support and arranging your house to make everyday tasks easier and to help speed your recovery. Find Someone To Stay with You Because you will not be able to drive for several weeks after surgery, you will need someone to take you home from the hospital and be on hand to run errands or take you to appointments until you can drive yourself. If you live with someone, you should have them plan to stay home with you or at least stay close by, in case you need help. If you dont live with a family member or have one close by, a friend or neighbor may be able to help. Other options include staying in an extended-care facility during your recovery or hiring someone to come to your home and help you. Your hospital social worker should be able to help you make arrangements. Prepare Your Home for Your Recovery To prepare your home for your recovery, stock up on needed items before you leave for the hospital. Make sure you have plenty of non-perishable foods on hand. Prepare meals and freeze them to put in the microwave when you need an easy meal. In the first weeks after surgery, you should avoid going up and down stairs. If your bedroom is on the second floor of your home, consider moving to a downstairs bedroom temporarily or sleeping on the sofa. Set Up a Recovery Station Set up a recovery station at home. Place a sturdy chair where you plan to spend most of your time sitting during the first weeks after surgery. The chair should be 18 to 20 inches high and should have two arms and a firm seat and back. Place a foot stool in front of the chair so you can elevate your legs, and place items you will need such as the television remote control, telephone, medicine, and tissues where you can reach them easily from the chair. Place items you use every day at arms level to avoid reaching up or bending down. Ask your doctor or physical therapist about devices and tips that may make daily activities easier once you get home. Devices you may find helpful include long-handled reachers to retrieve items placed on high shelves or dropped on the floor, aprons with pockets that allow you to carry items while leaving your hands free for crutches, shower benches that let you sit while you shower, and dressing sticks to help you get dressed without bending your new knee excessively. Safeguard Against Falls Because a fall can damage your new knee, making your home a safe place is crucial. Before your surgery, look for and correct hazards, including cluttered floors, loose electrical cords, unsecured rugs, and dark hallways. Bathrooms are likely places to fall, so particular attention is needed there. A raised toilet seat can make it easier to get up and down. Grab bars in the tub can keep you steady. Textured shapes on the shower floor can minimize slipping. Gradually Increase Activity It is also important to exercise to get stronger while avoiding any activities that can damage or dislocate your new joint. Activity should include a graduated walking program (where you slowly increase the time, distance, and pace that you walk) and specific exercises several times a day to prevent scarring, restore movement, and stabilize and strengthen your new knee. Remember Follow-ups Your surgeon will let you know about follow-up visits. Even after you have healed from surgery, you will need to see your surgeon periodically for examinations and x-rays to detect any potential problems with your knee. By preparing for surgery and recovery and following your doctor's advice, you can get the greatest benefits from your new knee with the least risk of complications for many years to come. </s>


Input: What is (are) Knee Replacement ?

Output: The main reason to have knee replacement surgery is to ease pain and disability caused by arthritis or other joint problems, while preserving movement. Less commonly, it is used to correct some kinds of knee deformity. </s>


Input: What are the treatments for Knee Replacement ?

Output: Treatments your doctor will likely recommend before knee replacement include - exercises to strengthen the muscles around the knee and improve flexibility  - weight loss, if needed, to reduce the load the knee must bear   - walking aids such as canes to reduce stress on the joint   - shoe inserts to improve the knees alignment  - medicines to relieve pain.  exercises to strengthen the muscles around the knee and improve flexibility weight loss, if needed, to reduce the load the knee must bear walking aids such as canes to reduce stress on the joint shoe inserts to improve the knees alignment medicines to relieve pain. </s>


Input: What is (are) Knee Replacement ?

Output: Knee replacement may be either total or partial/unicompartmental. In total knee replacement, as the name suggests, the entire knee joint is replaced. You will likely need a total knee replacement if you have damage to several parts of your knee. In partial/unicompartmental knee replacement, the surgeon replaces just the damaged part of the knee. You may be able to have a partial knee replacement if only one section of your knee is damaged. However, when one part is replaced, there is a chance that another part will develop arthritis, requiring further surgery. </s>


Input: What is (are) Knee Replacement ?

Output: A physical therapist will teach you exercises to help your recovery. You can expect some pain, discomfort, and stiffness as you begin therapy, but to get the best results from your new knee, it is important to do all of the exercises your physical therapist recommends. </s>


Input: What are the complications of Knee Replacement ?

Output: Two of the most common possible problems are blood clots and infection. Other complications, such as new or ongoing pain, stiffness, fracture, bleeding, or injury to the blood vessels can occur. Serious medical complications, such as heart attack or stroke, are very rare. </s>


Input: What are the complications of Knee Replacement ?

Output: To reduce the risk of clots, your doctor may have you elevate your leg periodically and prescribe special exercises, support hose, or blood thinners. To reduce the risk of infection, your doctor may prescribe antibiotics for you to take prior to your surgery and for a short time afterward. </s>


Input: Who is at risk for Knee Replacement? ?

Output: Because a fall can damage your new knee, making your home a safe place is crucial. Before your surgery, look for and correct hazards, including cluttered floors, loose electrical cords, unsecured rugs, and dark hallways. A raised toilet seat can make it easier to get up and down. Grab bars in the tub can keep you steady. </s>


Input: What is (are) Knee Replacement ?

Output: You can learn more about knee replacement from the following resources. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS)   Information Clearinghouse  National Institutes of Health  1 AMS Circle  Bethesda, MD 20892-3675  Phone: 301-495-4484  Toll Free: 877-22-NIAMS (226-4267)  TTY: 301-565-2966  Fax: 301-718-6366  Email: NIAMSinfo@mail.nih.gov  Website:  http://www.niams.nih.gov American Physical Therapy Association  Website: http://www.apta.org  Arthritis Foundation  Website:  http://www.arthritis.org The Knee Society  Website:  http://www.kneesociety.org  MedlinePlus  Website: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/kneereplacement.html </s>


Input: What is (are) Low Vision ?

Output: Everyday Tasks Are Challenging  Low vision means that even with regular glasses, contact lenses, medicine, or surgery, people find everyday tasks difficult to do. Reading the mail, shopping, cooking, seeing the TV, and writing can seem challenging. Millions of Americans lose some of their vision every year. Irreversible vision loss is most common among people over age 65. (Watch the video to learn more about low vision. To enlarge the video, click the brackets in the lower right-hand corner. To reduce the video, press the Escape (Esc) button on your keyboard.) Not a Normal Part of Aging Losing vision is not just part of getting older. Some normal changes occur as we get older. However, these changes usually don't lead to low vision. </s>