One The information below is condensed from two of William Saint Clair Tisdall's studies are included in works on the Jewish Sources of the Qur'an: * ''The Origins Original Sources of The the Qur'an: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book'' edited by [[Ibn Warraq]]. Chapter III include is a section on comprehensive, 287 page book published in 1905* ''Influence The Sources of Sabian and Jewish Ideas and PracticesIslam''is Tisdall's earlier book (from 1900) on the same topic. It contains already most of the important material, but being only a third in size (about 100 pages) is not as thoroughly documented as the later edition (it also has a few minor mistakes that have been corrected in the later edition), but this is the version that has been reprinted many times, probably because it is much quicker to read.
While this work is dated and strongly reflects 19th century prejudices, much of the information is still valid, and deserves to be updated with more recent research.
===Persian or Syrian Aramaic words===
:See [[Islamic Terms borrowed from Judaism]]
A few other Jewish matters. - In the Qur'an are a number of Chaldaean and Syrian words which the Islamic tradition has been unable rightly to explain, as
And so the Companions of the Prophet hearing this explanation of the word Qav, and not understanding what was meant, fancied it must be a mountain, or succession of great mountains, surrounding the world and making it dark.
===Haman was Pharaoh's viceroy===
Thus, for-instance, the Qur'am says that Haman was Pharaoh's wazir, which is also said by the Jewish midrash.<ref>Cf. Tisdall's "The Book" of the "People of the Book"</ref>
==Conclusion==
==Second Revision==
When Muhammad appeared as a prophet, although the Arabs had many religious ideas and practices in which they were agreed, they possessed no volume which could pretend to contain a Divine revelation, and to which Muhammad could appeal when he claimed to be commissioned to lead them back to the purer faith of their fathers. Yet in Arabia there dwelt certain communities which possessed what they regarded as inspired books, and it was natural that Muhammad and his followers should therefore feel no little interest in and respect for the ideas and rites of these different religious sects. The title "People of the Book," given more especially perhaps to the Jews, but also to the Christians, in the Qur'an is an evidence of this. The four communities who then possessed book-religions in Arabia were the Jews, the Christians, the Magians or Zoroastrians, and the Sabians. These are all mentioned together in Surah XXII., Al [[Hajj]], 17. We shall see that each of these exercised a considerable influence over nascent Islam, but that of the Sabians was by no means the slightest. Hence we begin by stating what is known of these sectaries, who are mentioned again in Surah II., Al Baqarah, 59.
Our knowledge of the Sabians is slight, but sufficient for our purpose. An early Arabic writer, Abu 'Isa'l Maghribi, is quoted by Abu'l Fida as giving the following account of them. "The Syrians are the most ancient of nations, and Adam and his sons spoke their language. Their religious community is that of the Sabians, and they relate that they received their religion from Seth and Idris (Enoch). They have a book which they ascribe to Seth, and they style it 'The Book of Seth.' In it good ethical precepts are recorded, such as enjoin truth-speaking and courage and giving protection to the stranger and such like: and evil practices are mentioned and command given to abstain from them. The Sabians had certain religious rites, among which are seven fixed times of prayer, ''five of which correspond with that of the Muslims''. The sixth is the prayer at dawn, and the seventh a prayer, the time for which is at the end of the sixth hour of the night. Their prayer, like that of Muslims, is one which requires real earnestness and that the worshiper should not let his attention wander to anything else when offering it. They prayed over the dead without either bowing down or prostration, and fasted thirty days; and if the month of the new moon were a short one, then they kept the fast for twenty-nine days. In connexion with their fast they observed the festivals of ''Fitr''" (breaking the fast at the end of the month) "and ''Hilal''" (new moon), "in such a way that the festival of ''Fitr'' occurred when the sun entered Aries. And they used to fast from the fourth quarter of the night until the setting of the disk of the sun. And they had festivals at the time of the descending of the five planets to the mansions of their dignity. The five planets are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. And they used to honour the House of Mecca" (the Ka'bah)<ref>Abu'l Fida, ''At Tawarikhu'l Qadimah'' (''Hist. Ante-Islamica''), p. 148.</ref>.
We now turn to the Jews from whom Muhammad borrowed so very much that his religion might almost be described as a heretical form of later Judaism. In Muhammad's time the Jews were not only very numerous but also very powerful in various parts of Arabia. No doubt many of them had settled in that country at different times, when fleeing from the various conquerors — Nebuchadnezzar, the successors of Alexander the Great, Pompey. Titus, Hadrian, and others — who had overrun and desolated Palestine. They were especially numerous in the neighbourhood of Medina, which city they at one time held by the sword. In Muhammad's time the three large Jewish tribes called Banu Quraidhah, Banu Nadhir, and Banu Qainuqa', settled in the neighbourhood of Medina, were so powerful that Muhammad, not long after his arrival there in A.D. 622, made an offensive and defensive alliance with them. Other Jewish settlements were to be found in the neighbourhood of Khaibar and the Wadi u'l Qura' and on the shores of the Gulf of 'Aqabah. The fact that the Jews possessed inspired books and were undoubtedly descended from Abraham, whom the Quraish and other tribes claimed as their ancestor also, gave the Israelites great weight and influence. Native legends would naturally therefore undergo a process of assimilation with the history and traditions of the Jews. By<ref>Sir W. Muir, ''Life of Mahomet'', 3rd ed., Introd., pp. xcii, xciii.</ref> a summary adjustment, the story of Palestine became the story of the Hijaz. The precincts of the Ka'bah were hallowed as the scene of Hagar's distress, and the sacred well Zamzam as the source of her relief. The pilgrims hastened to and fro between [[Safa and Marwa ]] in memory of her hurried steps in search of water. It was Abraham and Ishmael who built the temple, imbedded in it the Black Stone, and established for all Arabia the pilgrimage to 'Arafat. In imitation of him it was that stones were flung by the pilgrims as if at Satan, and sacrifices offered at Mina in remembrance of the vicarious sacrifice by Abraham. And so, although the indigenous rites may have been little, if at all, altered by the adoption of Israelitish legends, they came to be received in a totally different light, and to be connected in Arab imagination with something of the sanctity of Abraham the Friend of God<ref>Surah IV., An Nisa, 124.</ref> ... It was upon this common ground Muhammad took his stand, and proclaimed to his people a new and a spiritual system, in accents to which the whole Peninsula could respond. The rites of the Ka'bah were retained, but, stripped of all idolatrous tendency, they still hang, a strange unmeaning shroud, around the living theism of Islam.
"Familiarity with the Abrahamic races also introduced the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and the resurrection from the dead; but these were held with many fantastic ideas of Arabian growth. Revenge pictured the murdered soul as a bird chirping for retribution against the murderer; and a camel was sometimes left to starve at the grave of his master, that he might be ready at the resurrection again to carry him. A vast variety of Biblical language was also in common use, or at least sufficiently in use to be commonly understood. Faith, Repentance, Heaven and Hell, the Devil and his Angels, the heavenly Angels, Gabriel the Messenger of God, are specimens acquired from some Jewish source, either current or ready for adoption. Similarly familiar were the stories of the Fall of Man, the Flood, the destruction of the Cities of the Plain, &c. — so that there was an extensive substratum of crude ideas bordering upon the spiritual, ready to the hand of Muhammad."
Early Arabian writers inform us that when Muhammad appeared the Jews were expecting the advent of the Messiah, and used frequently to threaten their enemies with the vengeance which the coming Prophet would take upon them. This no doubt had its influence in leading some among the Arabs, especially the Banu Khazraj of Medina (as Ibn Ishaq says), to accept Muhammad as the Prophet whose advent was predicted.
Muhammad declared that he was Divinely commissioned not to found a new religion but to recall men to the "Faith of Abraham." It was natural for him, therefore, to endeavour to gain the Jews over to his side. This he attempted to do at Medina, and for some time it seemed as if he had a fair prospect of success. One step which he took at this time shows very clearly this purpose. He adopted Jerusalem as the ''Qiblah'' of his Faith — that is to say, he directed his followers to imitate the Jewish practice by turning their faces towards Jerusalem when praying. At a later period, when he had broken with the Jews and found it more useful to conciliate the Arabs, he adopted Mecca<ref>In Nov., A.D. 623: Surah II., Al Baqarah, 136-40</ref> as the ''Qiblah'', and this it has ever since continued to be amongst Muslims. But soon after his arrival in Medina, observing the Jews engaged in the observances of the Day of Atonement, he enjoined upon his own followers the same observance, ''adopting even the same name'' (in Arabic '''Ashura'') by which it was known among the Jews<ref>When at a later period the month of Ramadan was appointed instead as a month of fasting. Muhammad did not forbid that observance of the ''Ashura'' on the ''tenth'' day of ''Muharram'' (Cf. Lev. xxiii. 27)</ref>. The sacrifices offered on this occasion were doubtless intended to supersede those which the heathen Arabs used to offer in the Valley of Mina during the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was not until April, A.D. 624, after his quarrel with the Jews, that Muhammad instituted the '''Idu'd Duha'' which festival is supposed to commemorate Abraham's sacrifice of ''Ishmael'' (as the Muslims assert). Even thus we perceive the influence of Judaism on Islam. This festival is still observed by the Muslims. Muhammad initiated the Jewish practice in offering two<ref>Sir W. Muir, op. cit., p. 188</ref> sacrifices on the day of the '''Id'', inasmuch as he slew two kids, one for his people and the other for himself, though he reversed the Jewish order in accordance with which the High Priest on the Day of Atonement offers first for<ref> Lev. xvi; Heb. vii. 27</ref> himself and then for the nation at large. In these matters we see Jewish influence at work both in Muhammad's adoption of their rites when he wished to gain the Jews, and in his altering them when no longer hoping to do so. In the latter case he generally reverted more or less to the customs of the heathen Arabs. On the Muhammadan theory of the Divine authority of the Qur'an, this phenomenon is absolutely inexplicable. It is to the period shortly before, and especially to that which immediately followed, the Hijrah, according to Tradition (in this respect no doubt reliable), that most of those verses of the Qur'an belong, in which it is asserted that the Qur'an is in accord<ref> Cf. e.g. Surah XXIX., Al 'Ankabut, 45; Surah II., Al Baqarah, 130; &c</ref> with the teaching of the Prophets of Israel, and that this constitutes a decisive proof that it is from God. At that time Muhammad introduced into the Surahs which he delivered a particularly large measure of Jewish legends, as the perusal of the later Meccan and earlier Medinan Surahs will show. He soon, however, found that the Jews were not prepared to believe in him, though it might suit their purpose to pretend for a time to be favourably impressed and likely to admit his claim. A rupture was bound to come sooner or later, since no true Israelite could really believe that either the Messiah (which Muhammad did not claim to be, for he accepted that as the title of Jesus) or any other great Prophet was predicted as about to arise from among the descendants of Ishmael. We know how the quarrel did come, and how, finding persuasion useless, Muhammad finally turned upon the Jews with the irresistible logic of the sword, and either slaughtered them or expelled them from the country. But before that time he had borrowed very extensively from them. Even if we do not grant, with some writers, that the doctrine of the Unity of God was derived by Islam from Jewish teaching, there can he no doubt that Muhammad's maintenance of that doctrine received great support from what he learnt from the Israelites. We proceed to show that very much of the Qur'an is directly derived from Jewish books, not so much from the Old Testament Scriptures as from the Talmud and other post-Biblical writings. Although the Arabian Jews doubtless possessed copies of their Holy Books, they were not distinguished for learning, and then as now for the most part, they practically gave greater heed to their Rabbinical traditions than to the Word of God. It is not surprising therefore to find little real knowledge of the Old Testament in the Qur'an, though, as we shall see, it contains a great deal of Jewish legend. It is impossible to quote all the passages that prove this, but we shall now adduce a few out of many<ref>Most of the instances here cited are taken from Rabbi Abraham Geiger's book ''Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?</ref>''.
===The Story Of Cain and Abel===
"Azar, Abraham's father," he says<ref>''Historia Ante-Islamica'' (ed. Fleischer, Leipzig, 1831). Abu'l Fida was born in A.H. 672</ref>, "used to make idols, and he used to give them to Abraham that he might sell them. Abraham, however, used to say, 'Who will buy what will injure him and will not benefit him?' Afterwards, when God Most High commanded Abraham to summon his people to Monotheism, he invited his father; however, he refused. And he invited his people. Accordingly, when the matter got abroad concerning him and reached Nimrod, son of Gush, who was king of that country, ... Nimrod accordingly took Abraham, the Friend [of God], and threw him into a great fire. Then the fire became cool and safe unto him, and Abraham came forth from the fire after some days. Then certain men of his people believed on him."
This is the shortest Arabic account we have. We proceed to translate the most important part of the narrative given in the '''Araisu'l Majalis''. There we read that Abraham was brought up in a cave without any knowledge of the true God. One night he came forth and beheld the glory of the stars, and was so impressed that he resolved to acknowledge them as his gods. The account then proceeds as follows, incorporating as many as possible of the passages of the Qur'an which deal with the subject:—
"''When therefore the night overshadowed him he saw a star. He said, 'This is my Lord.' Then when it set, he said, 'I love not those that set.' Then when he saw the moon rising, he said, 'This is my Lord.' And when it set, he said, 'Verily if my Lord guide me not I shall assuredly be of the people who go astray.' Then when he saw the sun rising, he said, 'This is my Lord, this is greater,''' for he saw that its light was grander. ''When therefore it set, he said, 'O my people! verily I am guiltless of the polytheism which you hold, verily I turn my face to him who hath formed the heavens and the earth, as a [[حنيفا|Hanif]]''<ref>This term will be explained in Chapter vi</ref>, ''and I am not one of the polytheists<ref>''The italicized passages are from Surah VI., Al An'am, 76-9</ref>.' They say his father used to make idols. When therefore, he associated Abraham with himself, he began to make the idols and to give them over to Abraham to sell. Abraham (Peace be upon him!) therefore goes off with them and cries aloud, 'Who will buy what injures and does not benefit?' Hence no one purchases from him. When therefore they proved unsaleable to him, he took them to a river. Then he smote them on the head and said to them, 'Drink, my bad bargain!' in mockery of his people and of their false religion and ignorance, to such an extent that his reviling and mocking them became notorious among his people and the inhabitants of his town. Therefore his people disputed with him in regard to his religion. Then he said to them, '''Do ye dispute with me about God? and He hath guided me,' &c. ... And that was Our reasoning which We brought to Abraham against his people: We raise (many) steps whomsoever We will; verily thy Lord is all-wise and all-knowing<ref>''Surah VI., Al An'am, 80-3</ref>. So that he vanquished and overcame them. Then verily Abraham invited his father Azar to embrace his religion. Accordingly he said, '''O my father, why dost thou worship that which heareth not nor seeth nor doth profit thee at all?<ref>''Surah XIX., Maryam, 43</ref>' &c. Then his father refused assent to that to which Abraham invited him. Thereupon verily Abraham proclaimed aloud to his people his abjuration of their worship, and declared his own religion. He said therefore, '''Have ye then seen that which ye worship, ye and your fathers the ancients? for verily they are hostile to me, except the Lord of the worlds.<ref>''Surah XXVI., Ash Shu'ara, 75-7</ref>' They said, 'Whom then dost thou worship?' He said, 'The Lord of the worlds.' They said, 'Thou meanest Nimrod.' Then said he, 'No! Him who has created me, and who therefore guideth me,' &c. That matter accordingly was spread abroad until it reached the tyrant Nimrod. Then he called him and said to him, 'O Abraham, hast thou seen thy God, who hath sent thee, and to whose worship thou dost invite men, and whose power thou recordest and on account thereof dost magnify Him above all other? What is He?' ''Abraham said, 'My Lord is He who preserveth alive and causeth to die.''' Nimrod said, '''I preserve alive and cause to die.''' Abraham said, 'How dost thou preserve alive and cause to die?' He said, 'I take two men to whom death is due in my jurisdiction, then I slay one of them, thus I have caused him to die; next I pardon the other and let him go, thus I have preserved him alive.' Accordingly Abraham said unto him thereupon, '''Verily God bringeth the sun from the East, do thou therefore bring it from the West<ref>''Surah II., Al Baqarah, 26</ref>' Thereupon Nimrod was confounded and gave him no answer."
The story goes on to inform us that the custom of the tribe to which Abraham belonged was to hold a great festival once every year, during which everyone for a time went out of the city. (This may contain a confused reference to the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles, for the ''forte'' of the Qur'an is undoubtedly the number of its anachronisms, and Muhammadan tales regarding the patriarchs and prophets are in general distinguished by the same characteristic.) Before leaving the city, we are told, the citizens "had made some food ready. Accordingly they placed it before the gods, and said, 'When it shall be time for us to return, we shall return, and the gods will have blessed our food and we shall eat.' When therefore Abraham<ref>He had remained at home on the plea of being ill, Surah XXXVII., As Saffat, 87.</ref> beheld the idols and the food which was before them, he said unto them in mockery, '''Will ye not eat?''' And when they did not answer him, he said, '''What is the matter with you? will ye not speak?' Then he turned upon them, striking a blow with his right hand<ref>''Ibid. vv. 89-91</ref>, and he began to dash them in pieces with an axe which he held in his hand, until there remained none but the biggest idol, on the neck of which he hung the axe. Then he went out. Such then is the statement of the Honoured and Glorified One: '''So he broke them into pieces, except the largest of them, that perchance they might come back to it''' (and find what it had done<ref>Surah XXI., Al Anbiya, 59; and Jalalain's Commentary</ref>). When therefore the people came from their festival to the house of their gods, and saw them in that condition, ''they said, 'Who hath done this to our gods? verily he is one of the unjust.' They said, 'We heard a youth who is called Abraham make mention of them.'' It is he, we think, that hath done this.' Then that matter reached Nimrod the tyrant and the nobles of his people. They said therefore, '''Bring him then to the eyes of men, that perchance they may bear witness'' against him that it is he that hath done this.' And they disliked to arrest him without poof. ... When therefore they had brought him forward, they said unto him, '''Hast thou done this unto our gods, O Abraham?''' Abraham said, '''On the contrary, the biggest of them did it:'' he was angry at your worshipping these little idols along with him, since he is bigger than them, therefore he dashed them in pieces. ''Do ye then inquire of them, if they can speak.''' The prophet — may God bless and preserve him! — hath said, 'Abraham told only three lies, all of them on behalf of God Most High: when he said, ''"I am sick,"'' and when he said, ''"On the contrary, this the biggest of them did it,"'' and when to the king who purposed to take Sarah, he said, ''"She it my sister."'''
"Solomon did not disbelieve, but the Devils disbelieved. And they teach men sorcery and what had been sent down unto the two angels in Babel, Harut and Marut. And they teach not anyone until they both say, 'Verily we are Rebellion, therefore do not thou disbelieve.'"
In the '''Araisu'l Majalis'' we find the following story, told on the authority of Tradition, in explanation of this verse. "The Commentators say that, when the angels saw the vile deeds of the sons of men that ascended up to heaven in the time of the Prophet Idris, they rebuked them for that and repudiated them and said, 'These are those whom Thou hast made Vicegerents upon earth and whom Thou hast chosen, yet they offend against Thee.' Therefore God Most High said, 'If I had sent you down to the Earth and had instilled into you what I have instilled into them, ye would have done as they have done.' They said, 'God forbid! O our Lord, it were unfitting for us to offend against Thee.' God Most High said, 'Choose ye out two angels of the best of you: I shall send them both down to the Earth.' Accordingly they chose Harut and Marut, who were among the best and most devout of the angels. Al Kalbi says, 'God Most High said, "Choose ye out three of you;" so they chose 'Azz, who is Harut, and 'Azabi who is Marut, and 'Azrail. And indeed he changed the names of those two when they became involved in guilt, as God changed the name of Iblis, for his name was 'Azazil. Then God Most High instilled into them the desire which He had instilled into the sons of men, and sent them down to the Earth; and He commanded them to judge justly between men, and He prohibited them from polytheism and from unjustly slaying and from unchastity and from drinking wine. As for 'Azrail, when desire fell into his heart, verily he asked pardon of his Lord and begged that He would take him up to heaven. Therefore He pardoned him and took him up. And he worshipped for forty years; then he raised his head; and after that he did not cease to hang down his head through feeling shame before God Most High. But as for the other two, verily they remained as they were. They used to judge among men during the day, and when it was evening they repeated the Great Name of God Most High and ascended up to heaven. Qatadah says that a month had not passed ere they fell into temptation, and that because one day Zuhrah, who was one of the most beautiful of women, brought a law-suit to them. 'Ali says she was of the people of Fars and was queen in her own country. When therefore they saw her, she captivated the hearts of both of them. Hence they asked her for herself. She refused and went away. Then on the next day she returned, and they did as before. She said, 'No, unless ye both worship what I worship and pray to this idol and commit murder and drink wine.' They both said, 'We cannot possibly do these things, for God has prohibited us from doing them.' Accordingly she went away. Then on the third day she returned, and with her a cup of wine, and she showed herself favourable unto them. Accordingly they asked her for herself. Then she refused and proposed to them what she had said the previous day. Then they said, 'To worship any but God is a fearful thing, and to murder is a fearful thing, and the easiest of the three is to drink wine.' Accordingly they drank the wine: then they became intoxicated and fell upon the woman. ... A man saw them, and they slew him. Kalbi bin Anas says that they worshipped the idol. Then God transformed Zuhrah into a star. 'Ali and Sadi and Kalbi say that she said, 'Ye will not obtain me until ye teach me that by means of which ye ascend to heaven.' Therefore they said, 'We ascend by means of the greatest name of God.' Then she said, Ye will not therefore obtain me until ye teach it to me.' One of them said to his companion, 'Teach it to her.' He said, 'Verily I fear God.' Then said the other, 'Where then is the mercy of God Most High?' Then they taught it to her. Accordingly she uttered it and ascended to heaven, and God Most High transformed her into a star."
Zuhrah is the Arabic name of the planet Venus. The number of authorities quoted for the various forms of this story is a sufficient proof how generally it is accepted among Muslims as having been handed down by Tradition from the lips of their Prophet. There are several points in the tale which would of themselves indicate its Jewish origin, even had we no further proof. One of these is the idea that any one who knows the special name of God — the "Incommunicable Name" as the Jews call it — can thereby do great things. It is well known, for example, that certain Jewish writers of olden times explained our Lord's miracles by asserting that He performed them by pronouncing this Name, the ''Tetragrammaton''. Again, the angel 'Azrail bears not an Arabic but a Hebrew name.
"His disciples asked Rab Joseph, 'What is 'Azael?' He said to them, 'When the generation (that lived at the time) of the Flood arose and offered up vain worship (i.e. worship to idols), the Holy One, Blessed be He! was wroth. At once there arose two angels, Shemhazai and 'Azael, and said in His presence, "O Lord of the World! did we not say in Thy presence, when thou didst create Thy world, 'What is man that Thou art mindful of him?'" (Ps. viii. 4). He said to them, "And as for the world, what will become of it?" They said to Him, "O Lord of the World, we shall rule over it." He said to them "It is manifest and known unto Me that, if ye were dominant in the Earth, evil desire would reign in you, and ye would be more stubborn than the sons of men." They said to Him, "Give us permission, and we shall dwell with the creatures, and Thou shalt see how we shall sanctify Thy name." He said to them, "Go down and dwell with them." At once Shemhazai saw a damsel, whose name was Esther. He fixed his eyes upon her: he said, "Be complaisant to me." She said to him, "I shall not hearken unto thee until thou teach me the peculiar Name [of God], by means of which thou ascendest to the sky at the hour that thou repeatest it." He taught it to her. Then she repeated it: then too she ascended to the sky and was not humbled. The Holy One, Blessed be He! said, "Since she hath separated herself from transgression, go ye and place her among the seven stars, that ye may be pure with regard to her for ever." And she was placed in the Pleiades. They instantly degraded themselves with the daughters of men, who were beautiful, and they could not satisfy their desire. They arose and took wives and begat sons, Hiwwa and Hia. And 'Azael was master of varieties of ornaments and kinds of adornments of women, which render men prone to the thought of transgression.'"
To what is said in this last sentence we shall recur again later<ref>Vide pp. 107, 108</ref>. It should be noticed that the '''Azael'' of the Midrash is the '''Azrail'' of the Muhammadan legend.
It is impossible for any one to compare the Muhammadan with the Jewish legend without perceiving that the former is derived from the latter, not exactly word for word, but as it was related orally. There are, however, some interesting points in the Muhammadan form of the fable which require attention before we investigate the question, "Where did the Jews themselves learn the story?"
In Surah VII., Al A'raf, 170, we read, "And when We raised up the mountain above them as if it were a covering, and they fancied that it was falling upon them, [We said], 'Take ye with fortitude what We have brought you, and remember ye what is in it; perchance ye may be pious.'" Jalalain and other Muhammadan commentators explain this verse by informing us that God raised up the mountain (Sinai) from its foundation and held it over the heads of the children of Israel in the wilderness, threatening to let it fall on them and crush them if they did not accept the commandments contained in the Law of Moses. These they had previously refused to obey, because of their severity. But on hearing this threat the Israelites received the law. God then uttered the rest of the speech contained in the verse quoted above. The same legend is referred to in Surah II., Al Baqarah, 60, 87.
Its origin is found in the Jewish tractate '''Abodah Zarah'' (cap. ii. § 2), where we are told that on that occasion (so God is represented as saying to the Israelites), "I covered you over with the mountain like a lid." So also in ''Sabbath'' (fol. 88, 1) we read, "These words teach us that the Holy One, blessed be He, inverted the mountain above them like a pot, and said unto them, 'If ye receive the law, well: but if not, there shall your grave be.'"
Perhaps it is hardly necessary to say that there is nothing like this fable to be found in the Pentateuch. It has originated in the mistake of a Jewish commentator, who has misunderstood the words of the Bible. In Exod. xxxii. 19 we are informed that when Moses descended the mountain with the two tables of stone in his hands, he saw that the Israelites were worshipping the golden calf which they had made. Angry at the shameful sight, he threw down the stone tablets from his hands and broke them ''beneath the mount''." Chapter xix. 17 tells us that while God was giving Moses the Law the people stood "at the nether part of (or ''beneath'') the mountain." In each case the phrase means "at the foot of the mountain." But the wonder-loving and credulous Jews of later times chose to misunderstand the phrase, and the legend of the elevation the mountain was invented to explain the words "''beneath'' the mount." The tale of the holding up of the mountain above men's heads is, however marvellously similar to a Hindu legend, related in the Sanskrit Sastras. It is said that Krishna, wishing to protect the people of Gokula, his native city from a severe rain-storm, dragged up from its stony base a mountain named Govardhana, which is styled the biggest of all mountains, and for the space of seven days and nights suspended it on the tips his fingers over their heads like an umbrella! We cannot suppose that the Jews borrowed this story from the Hindus, but it is evident that Muhammad derived the tale referred to in the Qur'an from Jewish sources, while the Jews were led to accept or invent the story through taking literally<ref>That we may understand this better, we have only to consider the amount of error introduced into the Christian Church by a similar expression "This is My body."</ref> and in an unnatural sense the Hebrew phrase "beneath the mount."
To complete the proof that the legend about the Preserved Tablet upon which the Qur'an is said to have been written is derived from a Jewish source, it remains only to state that in the ''Pirqey Aboth'', cap. v. § 6, it is said that the two Tablets of the Law were created, along with nine other things, at the time of the creation of the world, and at sunset before the first Sabbath began.
It is well known that the fabulous Mount Qaf plays an important part in Muhammadan legend. Surah L. is called Qaf and begins with this letter. Hence its name is supposed to refer to the name of the mountain in question. The commentator 'Abbasi accepts this explanation and quotes tradition handed down through Ibn 'Abbas in support of it. Ibn 'Abbas says, "Qaf is a green mountain surrounding the earth, and the greenness of the sky is from it: by it God swears<ref>Jalalain's note on the passage says: "God knows best what He meant by ''Qaf''."</ref>." So in the '''Araisu'l Majalis<ref>''pp. 7, 8</ref> it more fully explained in these words, "God Most High created a great mountain of green emerald. The greenness of the sky is on account of it. It is called Mount Qaf, and it girds it all" (the whole earth), "and it is that by which God swears, for He said, 'Qaf'<ref>Surah L., 1</ref>. By the Glorious Qur'an.'" In the ''Qisasu'l Anbiya'' it is narrated that one day 'Abdu'llah ibn Salam inquired of Muhammad which was the highest mountain-peak on the earth. Muhammad said, "Mount Qaf." In answer to the further inquiry of what this mountain is composed, Muhammad replied, "Of green emerald, and the greenness of the sky is on account of that." The inquirer, having expressed his belief that the "Prophet of God" in this matter spoke truly, then said, "What is the height of Mount Qaf?" Muhammad replied, "It is 500 years' journey in height." 'Abdu'llah asked, "How far is it around it?" "It is 2,000 years' journey." We need not enter into all the other circumstances told us in connexion with this wonderful range of mountains of which Muslim legends are so full.
If we inquire as to the origin of the myth of the existence of such a range of mountains, the answer is supplied by a reference to ''Hagigah'' xi. § 1. There, in explanation of the somewhat rare Hebrew word "''Tohu''" in Gen. i. 2, it is thus written: "''Tohu'' is the green line which surrounds the whole, entire world, and from which darkness proceeds." The Hebrew word which we here render ''line'' is ''Qav''. Muhammad and his disciples, hearing this Hebrew word ''Qav'' and not knowing that it meant "line," thought that without doubt that which was thus said to surround the whole world, and from which darkness came forth, must be a great chain of mountains named ''Qav'' or ''Qaf'' It is hardly necessary to say that geographers have explored the whole world without — as yet — discovering the range of mountains<ref>Cf. Avestic Mt. Berez (Kanga's ''Avestic Dict.'', s. v.)</ref> described in Muhammadan tradition!
But even if, for the sake of argument, we admit that reading and writing were arts unknown to Muhammad, that admission does not in the slightest degree invalidate the proof that he borrowed extensively from Jewish and other sources. Even if he could read Arabic, it is hardly likely that he was a student of Aramaic, Hebrew, and other languages. The parallels which we have drawn between certain passages in the Qur'an and those resembling them in various Jewish writings are close enough to show the ultimate source of much of the Qur'an. But in no single case are the verses of the Qur'an ''translated'' from any such source. The many errors that occur in the Qur'an show that Muhammad received his information orally, and probably from men who had no great amount of book-learning themselves. This obviates the second assumption of the Muslims. It was doubtless for many obvious reasons impossible for Muhammad to consult a large number of Aramaic, Zoroastrian, and Greek books; but it was by no means impossible for him to learn from Jewish<ref>In fact, in Surah X., Yunus, 94, Muhammad is bidden to ''ask'' the People of the Book for information to clear up his doubts</ref>, Persian, and Christian friends and disciples the tales, fables, and traditions which were then current. His enemies brought against him in his own time the charge of having been assisted by such persons in the composition of the Qur'an, as we learn both from the Qur'an itself and from the admissions of Ibn Hisham and of the commentators. Among others thus mentioned as helping in the composition of the book is the Jew spoken of in Surah XLVI., Al Ahqaf, 9, as a "witness" to the agreement between the Qur'an and the Jewish Scriptures. The commentators 'Abbasi and Jalalain in their notes on this passage tell us that this was Abdu'llah ibn Salam, who, if we may believe the Raudatu'l Ahbab, was a Jewish priest or Rabbi before he became a Muslim. In Surah XXV., Al Furqan, 5, 6, we are told that Muhammad's enemies said, "Others have helped him with it," and stated that he had merely written down certain "Tales of the Ancients," which were dictated to him by his accomplices morning and evening. 'Abbasi states that the persons thus referred to were Jabr, a Christian slave, Yasar (also called Abu Fuqaihah), and a certain Abu Takbihah, a Greek. In Surah XVI., An Nahl, 105, in answer to the accusation, "Surely a human being teacheth him," Muhammad offers the inadequate reply that the language of the man who is hinted at was foreign, whereas the Qur'an itself was composed in plain Arabic. This answer does not attempt to refute the obvious meaning of the charge, which was that (not the style of the language used but) the stories told in the Qur'an had thus been imparted to Muhammad. 'Abbasi says that a Christian named Cain was referred to, while Jalalain's Commentary again mentions Jabr and Yasar. Others suggest Salman, the well-known Persian disciple of Muhammad, others Suhaib, others a monk named Addas. We may also note the fact that 'Uthman and especially Waraqah, cousins of Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife, were acquainted with the Christianity<ref>See the quotation from Ibn Ishaq, pp. 264, 265 below</ref> and the Judaism of the time, and that these men exercised no slight influence over Muhammad during his early years as a prophet, and perhaps before. Zaid, his adopted son, was a Syrian, according to Ibn Hisham, and must therefore have at first professed Christianity. We shall see that other persons were among Muhammad's friends, from whom he might easily have obtained information regarding the Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian faiths. The passages borrowed from such sources are, however, so disguised in form that it is quite possible that those from whom Muhammad made his inquiries may not have recognized the imposture, but may have really fancied that these passages were revealed, as they professed to be, to confirm the truth of the respective creeds, at least so far. If so, Muhammad adroitly employed the information he obtained from these men in such a manner as to deceive them, though he could not deceive his enemies. Hence, despairing of silencing the latter, he finally turned upon them with the sword.
==See AlsoNoahide Muslims==[[Image:Noahide Islam.jpg|right]]Some followers of Islam, who also believe in the truth of the teachings concerning Noahide Law, believe that if it could be shown that Islamic teachings have been based in part on earlier Jewish teachings this could be proof of their contention that Islam was indeed the faith of Adam and a reaffirmation and renewal of the Covenant of Nuh. ==External links==*[http://web.archive.org/web/20080516185655/http://answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/Sources0/p011-012.htm Jewish Sources of the Qur'an]*[http://web.archive.org/web/20061012111723/http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Tisdall/Sources/chap3chapt3.htm Influence of Sabian and Jewish ideas and practices.]
[[Category:Judaism Religion]]
[[Category:Noahide Islamic Religion]]
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