 Gendarmes were withdrawn from Kabylie, and the Berber language (Tamazight) was made a "national language" in the 2002 Algerian Constitution (but not an "official" language, on par with Arabic, until 2016).The traditional Berber political parties, Saïd Sadi's Liberal Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD) and Hocine Aït Ahmed's Socialist Front of Socialist Forces (FFS), were partly marginalized by the radical grass-roots activism and violent forms of protest.Instead, new movements rose to the fore in Kabyle politics