value over the asset’s fair value. Fair value is generally calculated by applying an appropriate discount rate to the undiscounted cash flow projections to arrive at net present value. In addition, in all cases of an impairment review, we reevaluate the remaining useful life of the asset and modify it, as appropriate.

• For indefinite-lived intangible assets, such as brands, each year and whenever impairment indicators are present, we calculate the fair value of the asset and record an impairment loss for the excess of book value over fair value, if any. Fair value is generally measured as the net present value of projected cash flows. In addition, in all cases of an impairment review, we reevaluate the remaining useful life of the asset and determine whether continuing to characterize the asset as indefinite-lived is appropriate.

• For Goodwill, which includes amounts related to our Pharmaceutical and Animal Health segments each year and whenever impairment indicators are present, we calculate the fair value of each business segment and calculate the implied fair value of goodwill by subtracting the fair value of all the identifiable net assets other than goodwill and record an impairment loss for the excess of book value of goodwill over the implied fair value, if any.

• For other long-lived assets, such as property, plant and equipment, we apply procedures similar to those for finite-lived intangible assets to determine if an asset is impaired. Long-term investments and loans are subject to periodic impairment reviews and whenever impairment indicators are present. For these assets, fair value is typically determined by observable market quotes or the expected present value of future cash flows. When necessary, we record charges for impairments of long-lived assets for the amount by which the fair value is less than the carrying value of these assets.

• For non-current deferred tax assets, we provide a valuation allowance when we believe that the assets are not probable of

recovery based on an assessment of estimated future taxable income that incorporates ongoing, prudent, feasible tax- planning strategies.

The value of intangible assets is determined primarily using the “income method,” which starts with a forecast of all the expected future net cash flows (see the “Our Strategic Initiatives— Strategy and Recent Transactions: Acquisitions, Licensing and Collaborations,” section of this Financial Review above). Accordingly, the potential for impairment for these intangible assets may exist if actual revenues are significantly less than those initially forecasted or actual expenses are significantly more than those initially forecasted. Some of the more significant estimates and assumptions inherent in the intangible asset impairment estimation process include: the amount and timing of projected future cash flows; the discount rate selected to measure the risks inherent in the future cash flows; and the assessment of the asset’s life cycle and the competitive trends impacting the asset, including consideration of any technical, legal, regulatory, or economic barriers to entry as well as expected changes in standards of practice for