Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 737, the warlord Marwan II (the future caliph) unexpectedly attacked with 150.000 soldiers into Kasaar via Derbent and Darjali.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The military forces recaptured Semender, the capital of the Cassaars, and made it as far as Al-Baida, where a tent camp of the Khan of the Kasars was located.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khan fled from there to the farthest parts of his kingdom.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Arabs advanced after them farther north than ever to the “Slavic River”, which was apparently the Don or Volga [11].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The army of the Cassaars had been beaten and the Khan wanted to make peace with the Arabs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In order to retain his crown he agreed to convert to Islam, but this was apparently only nominal consent from him. [12].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Casars retained their independence and the Arabs left the North Caucasus.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Soon after this, divisions flared up again in the Arab Caliphate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Power was taken by the Abbasid dynasty, which did not want to expand northwards.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In this way, the Khanate of Kasars halted the Arab advance into Europe, as well as aiding in the survival of the Byzantine Empire.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the late 7th century, after 20 years of peace, the Cassaars conducted two more war expeditions to the Caucasus: in 762—764 and 799.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the 780s they helped the Kingdom of Abkhazia and Emperor Leon II gain independence from Byzantium [13].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

After these events, the Cassaars no longer interfered in Caucasus affairs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Living under the constant threat of the Arabs on the southern borders of the Casaar forced the Kasars to move to the interior parts of their kingdom along the Don, where Alans tribes were already inhabited, as well as along the Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the lower reaches of the Volga, Itil, the new capital of the Cassaars, was established, which in a short time became a considerable market town.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Dagestan and the old capital Semender were left as the southern outlying region of the Khanate of Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

As a result of these events, bolgars and clay trees also appeared on the Middle Volga and along the Kama River, where 8th-century Volga Bolgaria arose.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The move of the capital further north also apparently meant closer interaction with the East Slavs, whom they were scrambling to tax.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

(there is no further details on this).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Relations with the Byzantine Empire in the 8th century The alliance of the Two Empires was confirmed in 732 when Constantine V), the future emperor of Byzantium, took as his wife Khan of Bihar's daughter, Princess Tzitzak, who was rechristened Irina.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 787, the Cassaars raised a rebellion among the Crimean Goths and put in prison the local bishop, John of the Goths. [14].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cassaars ruled Crimea until the mid-8th century and in the Taman region as well as the Kerts Strait until the dissolution of the Khanate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The conversion to the Jewish faith, as well as the rise of the Bulanid dynasty from the 740s to the beginning of the 8th century, things most important to the history of the Kasar Khanate were the large Jewish community that lived there, who were also inhabited by the Casars' home territories in Dagestan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Around the year 740, one of the warlords of the cassairs, Bulan converted to the Jewish faith [15].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently, converting to Judaism strengthened his clan's position as the position of the leading Pagan dynasty deteriorated with the decline of the spoils of war and the end of the traditional policy of conquest.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the early 8th century, Emperor Obadia, a descendant of Bulan, became the second most important person after the Khan, actually centralizing power for himself.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It began dual rule in Kasaar, [16], where nominally the country was ruled by the old ruler line of the Khan and the real power lay with the Bulanid emperor family.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently, such an administration came about as a compromise after mutual disagreements.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some of the cassaars, known as the Cavaars, rose in revolt against the ruling dynasty and, after the failure of the revolt, switched to the Hungarians' side.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Obadia's son Ezekiah and grandson Manasseiah had time to rule for a very short period of time, allowing them to hand over the crown to Obadia's brother Hanukkah, whose descendants ruled Casaar until its destruction [17].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khanate of the Kasars in the 8th century After the above events, the Kasaaria did not continue their policy of conquest any longer, but instead they focused on the transit of international trade.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

On the other hand, their foreign policy situation was not very good because a new trek began in the 8th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

New nomadic peoples from the east crossed the Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The first nation to cross the Volga were the Hungarians.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the 830s, the Hungarians conquered the northern parts of the Black Sea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Unclear is what happened, but the Hungarians recognized the supremacy of the Casaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Lebedia, the leader of the Hungarians, was forced by the Khan of the Casars to marry the noblemaid of the cassairs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Afterwards, the Hungarians took part in war expeditions organised by the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 889, the Hungarians (as well as 3 ethnic groups of the Kasars, the Cavaars) were forced to migrate to Pannonia when the Petsenegs were pressured forward by the Oguzi and, in turn, by the Kipchaks.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cassaars lost the steppes north of the Black Sea in that connection.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It is known that the kings of the Casaars made war expeditions against the Petsenegs and Oguzes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[18] The end of the 8th century is known for the end of the time of peace and stability of the Casaars on the steppes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A new adversary emerged for the Kasars with the rise of Kievan Russia.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

More detailed information has been left in the twilight of history about the so-called Rus Khanate, first mentioned in 839.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The princes of Kiev apparently also used the title of Khan, which in the 8th century meant that they were equal to the rulers of the Cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The appearance of Varjagi warrior troops from Scandinavia in Eastern Europe in the 8th century began to reduce the domination of the Kasars over Slavic tribes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

With their help, the Cossaars got rid of the Polyans in (864), the Severjaans (884) and the Radimiches (885) [19].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

To meet the challenges of the new enemy, the Cassaars requested help from their ally Byzantium in building a chain of fortifications along the northwestern frontier of their empire.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Around the year 834, the Khan and the Bek turned to the Byzantine emperor Theophilos for Byzantium assistance in the construction of the Sarkel fortress [20].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The fortress is located on the left bank of the Don.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It became the main base of the cassacks in that area.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In addition to Sarkel, according to archaeological finds, other fortifications of the same type were built along the Don [21].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The 850s were the last battles between the Cassaars and the Arabs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A rebellion had broken out in the Caucasian underlands of the Caliphate, which was sent to suppress the Arab warlord Buga al-Kabir, himself originally a cassar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cassaars received a request for assistance from mountain sanarians who lived in Kakheti. [22].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Buga conducted a war expedition against the Alans and the Cassaars and received spoils of war from them, but was then called out of Georgia because the Caliph feared he would join his people's armies [23].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Thereafter, relations between Casaar and Byzantium warmed up again.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 861, a Byzantine delegation arrived in Casaar, headed by Constantine the Philosopher [24].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the late 8th century to the beginning of the 9th century, the Khanate of Cassaars was greatly weakened, but was still a considerable kingdom due to its well-trained army and skilful diplomacy.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The rulers skillfully created between three grandees: Byzantine, Kievan Rus and nomadic peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the end of the 8th century, an alliance was assembled against the Casaar under Byzantium as his assistants: the Petsenegs, the Black Bulgars, and a few nomadic tribes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They were beaten in battles by the Cassaars along with the Alans. [25].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Under the succeeding emperor Aaron, Byzantium managed to break the Casars-Alans alliance.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Thereafter, the Cassaars fought the Alans with the help of another nomadic leader.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Alans Emperor was honourably imprisoned.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

He gave his daughter as a wife to Joseph, the son of the Emperor of the Casaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The destruction of the Khanate of the Cassaars in the 9th century Rusien threatens the Cassaars seek to counter by guiding them for a time on raiding expeditions to the Caucasus.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 913 or 914, the Cassaars let a fleet of Rosies on a raiding expedition to the Caspian Sea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

When the Rus army returned from there, they were attacked by the cassairs and struck them. [26].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 939, one of the Rus warlords, Helg, or perhaps Prince Oleg the Wise, attacked, on Byzantine orders, the town of Samkerts of the Cassaars in the Crimea, on the Taman Peninsula.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[27] The Rus were struck by the army of the Cassaars under the command of the warlord Pesakh, after which the Cassaars plundered Byzantine cities in the Crimea. [28].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cassaars then forced the Russ to turn their arms against Byzantium in the Rusien—Byzantine War of 941—944.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Russ also conducted a war expedition against Berda of the Caucasus in 943 or 944.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Not only did they plunder there, but at one time the Rus tried to conquer those territories, but failed to do so. [29].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

For the Kasars, the situation on their southern border took a turn for the worse when independent emirates appeared instead of the Arab Caliphate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

By the early 9th century, the southern part of the Caspian Sea was already under the control of the unified Saman


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The new state became an active spreader of Islam.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They were converted to the faith of Islam in Central Asia by the Oguzi and Karluks and then the Volga Bolgarians.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The casar was thereafter surrounded by Islamic lands in the south and east, causing concern even among the large Muslim population of the Bek court.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 901, 909 and 916, the Cassaars organised several war expeditions with their Dagestani allies against Derbent. [30].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Relations with the Muslim world remained amicable right up until the dissolution of the Khanate as well as thereafter while serving as a vassal of the Samanids [31].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In Nagorno-Dagestan, the state of Sarir became stronger.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Its inhabitants were Christians.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Their ruler was named “Khan of the Mountains” by the Arabs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Saririans also organized war expeditions against Kasaar. [32].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Under the rule of the Kasars tried to get rid of the ever-growing Volga Bolgaria as well.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Its ruler converted to Islam with the hope of getting help from those of the same faith.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 922, the legation of the Caliph of Baghdad arrived with Ibn Fadlan, who told of his experiences along the Volga. [33].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Before the destruction of the Khanate of Kasaar, the Kasars managed to reach contacts with the Caliphate of Cordoba.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Hasdai ibn Šaprut, the minister of Cordoba, and Joseph, the emperor of the Cassaars, engaged in correspondence.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From letters written by Joseph from around 961 it is apparent that he did not think the situation was worrying, but was still in his opinion still in his ruler's territory stretching from Horezma to Don (from the Caspian Sea to the Don).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A decisive role in the destruction of the Khanate of Kasaar was played by the rise of Kievan Russia.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 964, Grand Duke Svyatoslav managed to unleash even the last Slavic tribe, the Vyatits, from under the rule of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the following year, 965, he struck down the army of the cassairs under the command of the Khan and conquered Sarkel, which was named Belaja Veža (=White Rook) by the Russians.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently, the Rusis managed to conquer also (Tmutarakan).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the same year 965 or according to other sources, 968/969, the Rusis together with the Oguzi conquered Itil and Semender. [34].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The surrender of these cities is counted as the end of the independent Khanate of Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Rus apparently stayed for a while in the lower reaches of the Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The inhabitants of Itil and the court fled to the Caspian Islands and Mangyslak.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

After the Rusie left there in the 980s, the ruler of the Cassaars received help from Horezma and returned to his capital Itil.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

As a thank you for their help most of the Cassaars converted to Islam and later after new assistance the Emperor of the Cassaars also converted to Islam [35].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 985, Grand Duke Vladimir the Great conducted a new war expedition to Kasaar and imposed taxes on them. [36].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 986, Nestor's chronicle mentions an embassy of Kasar Jews as having come to Vladimir to convert him to Judaism [37].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Last Mentions 10th—13th centuries The later history of Casaar is less well known and is mentioned fragmentarily in connection with other kingdoms.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

According to some sources, Itil would have been already in ruins in the 10th century. [38].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Volga Kasar was definitively destroyed apparently in the mid-10th century as a result of an invasion by the Kipchak nomadic people.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the 12th century, Saxony emerged in the lower reaches of the Volga in the lower reaches of the Volga, whose inhabitants were also mentioned, but the majority of the population were Oguzi. [39].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There is almost nothing mentioned in the history of Dagestan about the cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 1064, 3000 casar families migrated to the south of the Caucasus. [40].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Don casars in Sarkel and the Black Sea came under the control of the Russian Principality of Tmutarakan, which existed until the mid-12th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The military forces of the Cassaars accompanied Mstislav Černigovite during his fight at Listvene against his brother Yaroslav in 1024.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

For the last time in Ancient Russian chronicles, the casars are mentioned in 1079 and 1083 when they captured Prince Oleg of Černigov and gave him to Byzantium.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Something fragmentary in the data is the migration of casar Jews to Central Europe, where they assimilated with local Ashkenasi Jews.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The version often idolised in popular literature is their legacy to European Jews, which has not been proven.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

With the destruction of the Khanate of the Casaars, the steppes of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea fell into the possession of various nomadic peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Control of the Volga arm passed to Bolgaria of the Volga and the North Caucasus again to Alania.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

These territories were not reunited until under the Golden Orda.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

State Structure Originally Kasaars was a typical nomadic community.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Political traditions and titles they received from the Turkish Khanate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the head of the kingdom was a Khan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Nominally, he had all the military and administrative power, but did not have the means to implement them.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The status of the Khans depended largely on their ability to acquire the spoils of war and their ability to properly distribute it among the nobles [41].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Another important factor was the legitimacy of their power.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Khan's rule was considered to have come from heaven.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khan was the supreme person in the pagan cult who presided over their worship and possessed supernatural powers in the eyes of the citizens.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Only a member of the royal family was allowed to become Khan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The system of succession of power was apparently inherited from the Turks, where power passed from the older brother to the younger. [42].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some sources assume that the casars were led by the Turkic genus Ašin [43].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

By the middle of the 8th century, the lineage of khans had grown so large that one of the members of the genus was a bazaar merchant. [44].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Belief in the divine abilities of the ruler was so great that even in the face of misfortune, the kingdom was blamed on the ruler.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

His life was highly regulated and full of various prohibitions.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the takeover ceremony he was strangled with a silk belt and in a semi-conscious state he had to say how many years he was going to rule.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

After that period of reign, he was killed.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

If he told too long a reign, then in any case he was killed at the age of 40, because it was believed that at that age no later than the divine power would abandon him. [45].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Before the Jewish period, the dynasty of the Khans very tightly controlled the army and was therefore able to avoid religious offerings as well.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The situation changed after another cassar clan converting to Judaism gained real power for themselves.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Their leader took the name “bek” for himself.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the Yiddish language, he was referred to by the title meleh, meaning emperor.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Arabs referred to him as malik meaning ruler or caliph (direct translation was deputy). [46].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently during the new Jewish dynasty power was strictly passed only from father to son. [47].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Under the new system, the khan was given more religious duties and secular affairs were handled by the bek.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In it, the bek supplied various ritual actions to the Khan, which, however, were not allowed to be degrading in value.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

When Bek came to Khan, he knelt and held a burning branch in his hand.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khan lived in seclusion in his palace and he only went out once at the head of a festive procession or because of the disaster that befell the country [48].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Khan's authority was also recognized by neighbouring pagan peoples as well as ordinary cassaars also.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khan was a factor in maintaining peace until the last days of the Khanate of Cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently the same type of dual rule was also held by the Hungarians.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[49] The ruses have apparently also had that type of cassar borrowed dual rule.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[50] The Tarhans, who were their nobles, were the supreme of the Khans of Cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among them were many relatives of the king, below them the Eltebers, who were the leaders of the vassal peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[51] In the early stages, the Khanate of Kasar did not have any administration; it began to develop only as the Cassaars became acquainted with the social systems of the more developed neighbouring peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the Caucasus, the cassars introduced the Sassanid tax collection system, as well as placing overseers to monitor the actions of craftsmen and merchants.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In Crimean cities, the system of control of the cassairs was copied from the Byzantines.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The cassaars placed the Khan regent (tudun) as the overseer of the local government.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

During the Jewish period, the system of government developed quite rapidly.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There was an outpost at hubs on trade routes where special officers charged customs duties.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The capital of the Khanate of Kasars, Itil, also had a judicial system.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It had 7 judges from different religions (2 pcs for each of the 3 religions of one god, plus 1 piece for Gentile believers).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The judges were appointed by the King's official


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Various professions were practiced in the capital.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Craftsmen and merchants from other nations paid tax annually to the khan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Between the 8th and 9th centuries, the Khanate of Casaars consisted of several territories governed in quite different ways.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The core of the kingdom lay in the lower reaches of the Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It was mostly inhabited by cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In that area, the Khan and nobles conducted an annual round of inspections, beginning in April and ending in September.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Strategic targets were handled directly by the central power.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The targets were the fortifications of the cassacks.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The most famous of them were the defensive fortress of the Sarkel Don route, as well as Samkerts at the mouth of the Kerch Strait between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Of great importance was also the old capital of the Kasars, Semender, on the coast of Dagestan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The city was a special area by some estimates, ruled by a relative of the Khan of the Casaars, who was a Jewish ruler.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A large part of the region was governed without interference from the central government in its actions.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Allies of the cassairs: Alans, Bulgars, Burtas, Hungarians, Slavs, as well as others were allowed to maintain their own social and political systems.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They all had their own rulers, who had to collect taxes and send them to the Khanate of Cassaars, as well as to give their daughters to the Khan's harem, as well as military troops for the Khan's use.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It is known that the Volga Bolgars paid a tax of one fur per economy.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[52] The Slavs paid one silver coin per plough. [53].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The army at the time of the Arabian Kasar Wars was the lifting force behind the military force of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the insistence of the cassars, the nations that depended on them had to hand over to the cassaars warrior groups.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The size of the army could be as high as 100—300 thousand warriors. [54].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The army was hull by cavalry.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Their battle tactics were typical of nomads: some of the cavalry were hidden until at an opportune moment they became involved in the fighting.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cassaars knew how to conquer cities using siege equipment.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The military forces of the Casaars could even outperform the regular army of the Arab Caliphate, with capable warlords at the head [55].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Between the 8th and 9th centuries, the structure of their militia changed.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

After the ruler stopped the great war expeditions, he began to assemble troops of different nationalities who were not too closely related to each other.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The core of the army of the Casaars was a heavy cavalry guard assembled from warriors from the Muslim tribe of Arsija.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They lived in Itil and served the bek (emperor) by special contract.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Guard had its own vizier who agreed that they didn't have to fight against self-believers (Muslims).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Most of the enemies of the cassairs were heathen peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Warriors also got paid.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The male strength of the Guard, according to various sources, was 7—12 thousand warriors. [56].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Sarkel had a continuously changing 300 guard soldiers. [57].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In fact, the cassar army was already a professional army and with it the Khanate was able to survive more than 150 years against enemy armies even larger than that.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Guard was very influential, but not the only military force in the Khanate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The cassar emperors also employed mercenaries from among the Slavs and Rusis.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some of them were also in the capital.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The strength of the army of the Cassaars lay in cavalry, which the local nobles had to supply to the monarch according to their rank.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Peoples dependent on the cassaars (Burtas and Bolgars) had to supply them with lifting people.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Cossacks did not have a fleet although they knew how to make small boats, which they used to move along the Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The main weapon in the cassacks was the bow gun.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In addition to that, the cavalry carried spears, swords, sabres, as well as axes and daggers.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The elite of the military forces in the Casaars wore armour outfits, leather armour, helmets and neck guards. [58].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the head of the war effort was the Khan as well as his close relatives or a commander from the Tarhanian nobles.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

With the diminished power of the Khans, the supreme commander of the military forces became a bek (emperor).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The cassar warriors who remained prisoners also gained access to the army of the Abbasid Caliphate.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some of them reached quite high positions such as personal servants of the caliphs and land lords in the provinces.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Byzantium also had casars as Guards. [59].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Economy The main source of livelihood of the population was cattle herding.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The oldest residential area of the Kasars was in Dagestan, where they grew grapes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the 7th to 8th centuries, in areas close to the sea (Crimea, the Taman Peninsula, the Kuban and along the Don), they switched from nomadic to farming. [60].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They grew wheat, barley, rice, fruits and vegetables.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There also developed ironsmith works, jewellery and pottery making, which were oriented towards the local market.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Dishes were made by dreijaming.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The upper class became rich in the early days mostly through their raiding expeditions to neighboring countries.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At a later stage, they also became rich through more peaceful means.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It was made possible by the growth of international trade from the late 7th century to early 8th century


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The merchants were mostly Jewish merchants.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Several international trade routes ran through the casaar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The main trade thoroughfare in Eastern Europe became the Volga River, the lower and middle reaches of which were under the control of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Volgan-Baltic river route ran from the Don estuary on a land isthmus along the drag sky to the Volga and thence to the land of the Slavs as well as the Baltic Sea shore states.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Many silver coin caches of dirhems obtained from Arabs have been found along this route.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the upper reaches, the Rus also became important intermediaries.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the Volga Delta, from the city of Itil, merchants made their way along the Caspian Sea to sail, and from the southern shore in caravans along the land to Baghdad or Central Asia.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

According to archaeological finds, there were also land routes: a network of karaavanisarai from Horezma to the Lower Volga.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the Crimean port cities, the Khanate of the Kasars was also involved in trading with the Byzantine Empire.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Control of trade routes also made it possible that between the 8th and 9th centuries the main source of income for the cassairs were customs duties.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

ITIL became a considerable market town.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At the same time, the cassaars themselves practiced traditional nomadic activity and did not participate in international trade.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

With it were mostly Jewish and Islamic communities.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khanate of the Casaars had been known as a major centre of the fur and slave trade.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Kasars' own export products were fish glue as well as sheep.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The casaar apparently also printed its own money, although this is still a contentious issue.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A few Arab dirhem coins with the inscription “Land of the Casaars” have been found in the Kasaar area along the Don [61].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some of the coins are from the late 8th century to the early 9th century and the rest are from the 830s.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[62] There are also the five dirhams found in Spilling Gotland Sweden which read “Mohammed the Messenger of God” instead of the phrase: “Moses Messenger of God” [63].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Religion Originally the Cassaars worshipped their old pagan religions.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The most important place in their sanctuary was reserved for the god of heaven, Tengri.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Khan was considered to have received his power directly from him.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Khan possessed a special life force in his possession, which secured the success of the entire nation. [64].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the pagan religion, Khan's position was supernatural demigod.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Arab historians mentioned that their faith resembled that of the Turks.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[65] But it is unfortunate that he has not been left with a more detailed description.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Many mentions of the worldview of the nomadic people of Kasaaria have remained in historical sources.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Close allies and vassals of the Cassaars, namely the Huns of Dagestan, bowed not only to Tengri, but also the thunder god Kuar, as well as the god of female fertility, who resembled the ancient goddess Umai of the Turks.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They also believed in the gods of roads, as well as bowing to the sun, moon and thunder.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The funerals of nobles also featured human sacrifices as well as ritual dances in which naked warriors danced with swords. [66].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Rulers of the Cassaars There is little information about the rulers, as there are few written sources on the cassaars from the 6th to the 8th centuries.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Foreign sources have names are sometimes distorted and the status of names can have titles.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

More reliably, there are records: of three khanates who ruled in the 7th century, there are records of one khan from the 6th century, when the Cassaars were still allies of the Turks, as well as one khan from the 8th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Some time ago ancient Turkic paintings were found in Mongolia mentioning chief Kadyr of Kasar, who apparently has been the ruler of the Kasars in the 5th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Below is a list of known rulers and khans of the Cassaars and the years in which they have been mentioned: Before the establishment of the Khanate, Hazar (Hazarig in Syriac sources) [67] the mythical ancestor of the Cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Sources don't give details of his actions.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Kadyr Kasar, a late 5th-century [68] contemporary of the Turkish Khan Bumyn (died in 552), who died shortly after Turkic.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Ebukagan (with Byzantines as Zievil), ruled from 626—630 [69] the head of the Casars in the Persian-Byzantine War of the 6th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

This may also have been the Khan of the West Turks, Ton Jabgu.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Khans of Ibuzir Gljavan ruled 705—711 [70] as Bardzil (in older versions Barsbek, Bardzik), ruled 722—731 [71] the son of the ruling Khan, who commanded an army in the Arab War.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Parsbit, ruled from 730 as regent during the minor heir to the throne.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Khan's mother, who died the same year.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Bardzil was still alive at the time, but did not assume power for himself.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Vihror, reigned 732—750s [72] he gave his daughter Tsitsak as a wife to the future Emperor Constantine V of Byzantium.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Bagatur, reigned 759—763 [73] He ruled during the 762/763 war expedition.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

His daughter married around the year 760 to the Arab Armenian regent.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Zaharia, ruled 860—861 [74] during the Khanate to Kasaar came the legation of Constantinos Philosophos.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

?.. ut, period of reign unknown [75] part of a text related to the name of a person from the Crimean Mountains.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Beks, or emperors In Russian-language literature, Beks have been referred to as emperors.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In Joseph's letters to Hasdan ibn Šafrut, Minister of Economy of the Caliphate of Cordoba, 10 generations are known of the dynasty beginning with Obadia.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It may be that the list was enlarged because the second letter mentions 9 generations and Jehudi the Barcelonian letter 5 generations.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[76] Further details of the actions of those three emperors are mentioned in a letter from an unknown Jewish cassar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It is also mentioned there that the first ruler (either Bulan or Obadia) to convert to Judaism took the Jewish name Sabriel.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Apparently all emperors had the first name Turkic.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

One of them survived in the history of Derbent, where the cassaar emperor who ruled in 901 was called K-sa ibn Bulan [77].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Another mentioned was in al-Jakub's work (about v.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

891) named Jazid Bulaš. [78].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Obadia apparently Arab caliph Harun ar Rasid contemporary (786—809) Ezekia Manassia I Hanukkah Isaac Zavulon Manassia II Nissi Aaron I Menahem Benjamin (cassaar emperor) 880s—9th century Aaron II (cassaar emperor) 932—960 chapter wrote a letter to Hasdan ibn Šafrut around the year 961.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The reigns of the last three emperors have been defined by A.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

TR.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Novoseltsev. [79].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The main sources of information on the history of the Cassaars can be consulted from various literary sources, most of which are written by the neighboring peoples of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They had a strong literary heritage.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The history of the cassairs is partly shrouded in obscurity.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the 4th—5th centuries, there are almost no mentions of cassaars, because in those times they were overshadowed by mightier peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There are mentions of cassaars from later centuries, but the years do not always add up.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Between the 6th and 7th centuries, the Casars were at their most formidable and are mentioned in connection with various wars of conquest.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Many of these events were recorded down no earlier than the mid-8th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

At that time, as the Arab geography flourished, information about the Kasaar state system was also recorded.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The greatest number of contemporaries records is from the 9th century, when the Cassaars left their own written mentions of their land, as well as accounts of other contemporaries from abroad such as Casaaria (Ibn Fadlan, Constantinos VII).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Casaar Information Sources.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

No texts in Kasar have been found, although they apparently have existed since there are mentions of them. [80].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In any case, the Cossacks have been left with written texts.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They are part of the so-called Jewish Kasar Correspondence, which also contains two letters in Yiddish.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

One of them is that of the cassaar emperor Joseph from about 961 and the other is a so-called Cambridge documentary written by an unknown casar Jew circa the year 949.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Both documents mention the origins of the Casaars, their conversion to Judaism, the emperors who ruled and their achievements, and the geography of the Casaar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

One more new cassar Jewish source of information has recently been discovered, which was a letter of recommendation from the Kiev Jewish community (9th century.).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A few of the signatories to the letter, in addition to their Jewish name, also had a Casar (Turkish) name.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It was quite common practice in the Khanate of Casaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The last sentence of the letter is written in Ancient Turkic text.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Texts of similar type (very short ones) have also been found in various archaeological excavations.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The texts have not yet been successfully deciphered.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Arabic-Persian Sources The largest and most diverse dataset can be found in different countries of the caliphate [81].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They are divided into two different types: historical and geographical works that mention the various contacts between the Casaar and the Islamic world.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Historical sources mention battles between the Kasars and the Persians, as well as the Kasar and Arab.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Geographical sources focus on peaceful intercourse, which was based on commerce.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The first case tells of the 6th to 7th centuries, when the Arabs fought with the cassaars in the Caucasus.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The second case recounts the 8th to 9th centuries, when Kasaar was an important transit route for international trade and a large Muslim community formed in the capital Itil.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

An even earlier era from the 5th century Arabs referred to Persian Sassanid chronicles, which unfortunately have not survived until our times.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among historians, names are mentioned: Belazuri, al-Jakubi, at-Tabari, al-Kufi, Caliph ibn Hajjat, as well as others.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The role of the cassairs in the Caucasus in the late days of the Khanate is mentioned in the historiographics of the territories bordering the Caspian Sea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There have been few of them left.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The history of Derbent and the historiography of neighbouring regions is best mentioned in Munaim-Baš's work The Ottoman Empire.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Questions relating to the history of the cassairs would be difficult to ascertain without the geographical works.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In these sources, a lot of unique material can be found, which contemporaries noted, and secondly, they told about the structure of different kingdoms, of which there are no mention in Christian works.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Arab view of Kasaar was that the kingdom was located at the edge of the earth in an almost uninhabitable area.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

According to them, the area was first inhabited by the demonic peoples Gog and Magog, but as knowledge increased, imaginary views were replaced by more real views of the inhabitants of the region.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Thanks to the geography of the Arabs, the double allude of the Kasars (khan and bek), something about the conversion to Judaism of the Cassaars, the prevalence of Judaism, as well as something about their capital.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Of great importance is also direct and indirect mentions of the composition of the people of the cassairs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among the geographical works, travel books and books about peoples were the most important.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They contained important information about trade routes.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among the first such surviving works by Ibn Hordadbeh from the mid-8th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the same period, there are also works by Ibn Rust and Gardiz, detailing the peoples of Eastern Europe being of the same type as the work of the already lost Bukharan scientist al-Aihan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The 9th century situation was described by the geographer of the classical school: Istarihi, Ibn Haukal, Al-Mukaddasi.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The last two writers also recorded important information about the destruction of Kasaar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In addition to them, important travellers who recorded their travels were Ibn Fadlan and Al-Masudi, who visited the borders of Casaar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Ibn Fadlan in 922 visited Volga Bolgaria and another in the 940s the southern shores of the Caspian Sea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Byzantine sources.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Greek sources about the cassaars are quite scarce, because in those times Byzantine historiography was not in force.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the early days of the Khanate of Casaars there are 2 works with the same source work: Chronograph by Theophanos the Scientist (written at the beginning of the 8th century as well as the work of Breviarij Nikiforos from a slightly earlier period.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Byzantine sources cite the destruction of Greater Bolgaria as the reason for the rise of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

This view is also confirmed in Joseph's Epistle, of which it is in the current history writing.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The later stages of the Khanate of Casaar have been narrated by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In 948—952, he wrote instructions to his son and successor Romanos on how to govern the kingdom in De Administrando Imperio, in which he collected information about the peoples surrounding Byzantium, as well as giving advice to his son on how to deal with different peoples.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among these data are also confirmation of the Arab view of the dual rule of Casaar, information related to the construction of Sarkel, and the relations between the Casars-Hungarians, the Kasars-Petsenegs and the Casars-Alans.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There is also apparently the only historical mention of unrest from the Khanate (apparently a rebellion of the Cavaars).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Another important source of information is the biographies of different persons, whose heroes are mentioned in different political contexts.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Biographies have survived in both Greek and Slavic languages.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Casaar is mentioned in the following biographies, among others: John the Gothic (events in the late 8th century), Stefan Surožk (late 8th century), and especially Constantin-Kirill, which mentions a missionary visit to Kasaar in 860—861 as well as recounting the Christian view on the controversies of the cassairs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In Byzantine literature, the toponym Kasaaria survived most distantly.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

That name was used for a long time from Eastern Crimea.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Later it was also used in Italian documents up to the 16th century. [82].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Armenian Sources.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Important sources also exist in the Ancient Armenian language.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They tell of the 6th—7th centuries, when the cassairs, or “northern barbarians,” ruled south of the Caucasus.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Armenians referred to the ruler of the Casars as “Emperor of the North” as a counterweight to the Byzantine Emperor, who was referred to as “Emperor of the West” as well as the Arab caliph “Emperor of the South”.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Armenian historiography mentions the cassaars as having appeared in the first centuries of our time.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Among the most important works relating to the history of the Kasars is the Geography of Аrmenia, written in the late 6th century by Anania Širakatsi as well as the history of the Aluanki lands from Moses Kagankatvats, who told the history of Caucasian Albania.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Levond's historical work from the 7th century is also important because it recounts outsiders' views on the Casaar-Arab wars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Georgian sources of information The most important from Georgian sources are later compiled works from the 10th to 18th centuries: the “Chronicle of Kartlis chevreb” as well as the “Adventures of Saint Abo the Tbilisian”, which ova cassar recounting events from the late 7th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Syriac sources Historians consider that the oldest mention of the cassaars is in the Syriac chronicle of Zahari Ritori from the late 5th century.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Later events are recounted in the work of Mikhail the Syrian (10th century) and Abu-al-Faradge (12th century).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Russian sources There are very few East Slavic sources from the cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

This is mainly due to the fact that Ancient Russian writing skills began only after the dissolution of the Khanate of the Kasars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The main source is the Chronicle of Nestor, for which information about the cassaars was collected partly from Byzantine literature and partly from oral lineage.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Most of the information is from the First Chronicle of Novgorod, written in the 1070s by the scribe Nikon, a monk from Kiev's Petser Cave Monastery, who lived for long periods in Tmutarakan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

From the Russian-Kasar perspective, there is quite a bit of information, but they say something about the interaction of the cassars with the peoples that depend on them.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

There are few such mentions in history works.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The year 965 is mentioned in the chronicle as the year when the military forces of the Cassaars lost to Svyatoslav.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

An embassy of the Jewish cassairs to Vladimir in 986 is also mentioned, after which the casars are only mentioned in connection with events in the Principality of Tmutarakan.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Another important Ancient Russian source on the cassaars is Vladimir's memory and praise recorded by Yakov Mnih (late 10th century), detailing Vladimir's policy with the casars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In ancient Russian literature, there is a story from the 14th century: “The Story of the Emperor of the Casaars and his Wife”.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It tells the story of Byzantine emperor Justinian II who was married to a cassaar princess [83].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Jewish Sources There are mentions of Kasars in some Jewish sources.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[84] Contemporaries from travellers en: Eldad ha-Dani (late 10th century), Saadia Gaon, head of the Babylonian diaspora (early 9th century), Karaimite priest En:Jacob Qirqisani (937), and Italian scribe Josif ben Gorion (mid-9th century).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Of the later sources, the most extensive is Jehuda Galev's book Kuzari, which details the attitude of the cassars towards religious issues.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Its author sought to demonstrate the solemnity of Judaism, which is why he recounted with praise about the conversation between a cassaar emperor and a Jewish priest.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Galevi refers to the chronicles of the cassairs and tells the exact date of the reversal of the cassairs.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Rabbinism writers” attitudes towards the cassaars were either positive or impartial while the Karaim wrote about them negatively [85].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Western European Sources The works of Christian Europe as original sources mention almost nothing about the cassaars, but they do contain some fragmentary information that makes it easier to understand the attitude towards cassaars in the outside world.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The cassaars are first mentioned in a Latin source around the year 700 in the Anonymous of Ravenna.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

A few times they are mentioned in the Bavarian Land Records.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Around the year 864, an Aquitanian monk Kristian of Stavelo mentioned that the cassars practiced Judaism.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Hungarian historical sources, such as “Acts of the Hungarians”, appeared quite late, correspond to the 12th to 13th centuries, and examine the prospects of antiquity according to perceptions of that time.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

They say almost nothing about the cassaars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Archaeology To date, no clarity has yet been reached about the origin of the people of the Casaars and the Casaar heartlands, especially the lower reaches of the Volga, have not been studied enough.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Monuments in the main regions of the Khanate (along the Don, on the shore of the Sea of Azov and in the Crimea) have been linked above all to the archaeological culture of Saltin-Majatsk [86].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Its main peoples were the Alans in the forest steppe region and the Turks in the steppe region. [87].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

In the early 20th century, excavations began, which continued during the Soviet era and beyond, in which many urban settlements and fortifications have been found.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Two have been mentioned in written sources: Sarkel, located on the left bank of the Don (now called Tsimlyansk Ancient Castle of the Left Bank: sunk in the Tsimljansk reservoir), and Samkerts-Tamatarha (Taman Ancient Castle).


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The definition of Belener and Semender among the cities of contemporary Dagestan has been contradictory.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The search for the capital, Itil, has also been difficult and has not yet been verified.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It was long assumed that it could have become submerged as the surface of the Caspian Sea was elevated.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

[88] In 2008, a strong assumption came to archaeologists that Itil was located in the ancient castle of Samosdelsky in the Astrakhan Oblast in the same place where the city of Golden Orda was located.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

This assumption is based on the fact that the remains of an ancient city that predated the Mongolian period were found at the site.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

It is the only ancient city so old in the Astrakhan region.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The base formula for the ancient castle corresponds to the information cited about Itil in various written sources. [89].


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Archaeology problems in the Kasars also include how different archaeological findings can be linked to different historical written mentions of them.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Sources Literature Artamonov, Mikhail Illarionovits: История хазар.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

St. Petersburg, 1962.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

2nd edition, 2001.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

ISBN 5-8114-0377-1 Golb, Norman:.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

2nd edition М. Jerusalem, 2000.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

ISBN 5-93273-126-5 Zahoder, Boris Nikolayevits: М., 1962.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Oleg Ivik, V. Kljutsnikov: Хазары.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

М., 2013.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Artur Köstler:.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

St. Petersburg, 2001.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

ISBN 5-8071-0076-X Л., 1932.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Murad Gadzievits: Образование Хазарского каганата: По материалам археологических исследований и письменным данным данным.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Moscow, 1983. Moscow, 1963. М.,1990.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

S. A. Pletneva.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Moscow, 1976.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

2nd edition, 1986.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Brook K. A.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The Jews of Khazar.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

1st edition.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1999.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Dunlop D.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

M.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The History of the Jewiš Khazars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Princeton, 1954.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Golden P. B. Khazar Studies: A Historic-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazares.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Budapest, 1980.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

V.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Golden P. B., Ben-Šammai H., Róna-Tas A.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

(ed.)


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

The World of the Khazars.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

New Perspectives Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium hosted by the Ben Zvi Institute.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Leiden — Boston: Brill, 2007.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

ISBN 978-90-04-16042-2 Ludwig D. Struktur und gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Berlin, 1982.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Poliak A.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

N. Kazariyaah.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

Toldot mamlakha yehudit be-eiropa (Khazaria.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

History of the European Jewish Empire) (in Hebrew), Tel Aviv, 1944.


Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

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Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

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Question: How long did the Khanate of Cassaars exist?

Khanate of Casaars

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Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

A laser is a device that produces coherent light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In coherent light, all light waves are of the same length and oscillate in the same direction and at the same frequency.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

This is possible with the help of stimulated emission of radiation.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In stimulated emission, the light is amplified so that the electron in the atom passed by the light enters its lower excitation state, and sends the light quantum in the same direction as the passing light beam.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

[1] This is how the light beam is amplified.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The first laser was developed in the United States in 1960.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The laser is used for reading DVDs and CDs, transmitting information along fiber optic, for reading barcodes, and in laser printers.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The laser is used in industry in welding and cutting, among other things.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

There are military-powered lasers for rangefinder and target illumination.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In medicine, the laser is used, among other things, for surgical purposes.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The world's most powerful lasers are capable of an instantaneous power of about 1 petawatt, or 1015 watts.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In 2009, physicists at the University of Texas reported an intention to increase power levels roughly thousandfold to 1018 watts, or one exawatts.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

[2] [3] A laser laser (, amplification of light by stimulated emission of radiation) is an optical device that produces a coherent beam of light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The action is based on a quantum mechanical phenomenon called stimulated emission.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The lasing medium acts as an optical amplifier only in a specific wavelength band or bands for a wavelength.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Often the medium is inside an optical resonator.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In this case, the light is more or less collimated and monochromatic.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In incandescent lamps, where light is generated by random thermal motion, light is incoherent, its wavelength band is wide, and is emitted in all directions.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In practice, in a laser, light is formed between two mirrors facing each other.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

One of the mirrors lets out a small part of the light from which the actual laser beam is formed.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

When passing back and forth between mirrors, differential and phased components are removed from the light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The physical basis Laser consists of a lasing medium and a resonant optical cavity, which is often, for example, a tube of suitable length.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Suitable properties are required for the medium to be laserable, that is, stimulated emission occurs.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In order to make the medium lase, energy is supplied to it, i.e. pumped.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Pumping can be done optically by supplying light energy by the collision excitation method, whereby the energy is transferred in atomic collisions, or by feeding charge transporters into the medium.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The pumped energy generates excitation states in the medium.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

When there are more particles in some excitation state than some other lower state, an inverse occupation occurs.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Normally, the beam passing through the medium is attenuated as the medium absorbs photons in the beam.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

However, an optical beam passing through a medium under reverse occupation causes more stimulated emission than absorption and the beam is amplified.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Thus, the pumped lasing medium can also be used as an optical amplifier.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The light produced is similar in characteristics to the original signal.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Its wavelength, phase and polarization are conserved.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

This is due to the coherence characteristic of laser light and the preservation of the polarization properties and the monochromaticity achieved through the structure of cavity.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Optical cavity is a device formed from mirrors that allows the generation of standing light waves.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Thanks to mirrors, each photon passes through the medium several times before being emitted from the laser's mouth opening or lost due to absorption or diffraction.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

If the gain generated by the medium is greater than the attenuation provided, the power of the light beam may increase exponentially.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

However, since stimulated emission decreases the amplification capacity of the medium, amplification may be saturated at a certain point.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

In this case, the pumped energy, beam gain and energy losses are in equilibrium and the beam is not strengthened further.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

At excessively low pumping power, the gain is insufficient and the output power generated is nonexistently small.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The light emitted by the laser is highly collimated.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

This means that when directing the laser's light to a distant surface, the area of light it forms is relatively small.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

However, a perfectly collimated beam cannot be produced due to diffraction.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Because of this, laser light spreads slightly over longer distances.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

However, this spread depends heavily on the type of laser.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The beams of large gas lasers are often highly collimated, but the rays of small semiconductor lasers decay almost immediately after the mouth opening (angles might be up to 50° order).


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

However, these scattered rays can be re-collimated using optical devices.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Light from non-laser sources, on the other hand, is very difficult to collimate well.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Coherence or coherency refers to the ability of light to interfere with itself.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Coherency is usually defined as the journey on which interference is possible.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

Travel depends on wavelength and bandwidth.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

For an incandescent lamp, the effective bandwidth is about 150 nm and the average wavelength is about 550 nm.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

As a ratio of these values, 550 nm to 150 nm, we find out the number of maxima and minima of the interference pattern.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

There are a few pieces of Newtonian rings in light bulb light, and a coherent distance of a few hundred nanometers.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

If the lane is narrowed by a color filter, then the coherent distance and the number of tires increases accordingly.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

Laser

The bandwidth of light in a continuous-action gas laser (for example HeNe) is quite substantially less than in an incandescent light bulb, but not zero.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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This is due to the Doppler effect occurring in hot gas.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Strictly speaking, laser light is not monochromatic and has limited coherence, but yet quite different orders of magnitude than other light sources.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Lasers are divided into pulsed lasers and continuous-action lasers.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Pulsed lasers can achieve significantly higher maximum powers than continuous-action lasers.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Some lasers can produce light at many wavelengths.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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This allows very short pulses of light to be produced.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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These pulses can only be of the order of femtosecond (10-15 s) in duration.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Although the word laser specifically refers to a device producing visible light, the word is also used among other devices that produce frequency photons.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In this article, the word “light” can therefore also mean, for example, X-rays, infrared radiation or ultraviolet radiation.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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However, a similar device that produces microwaves or radio waves is usually said to be a maser.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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This is due to historical reasons, as the first masers that produced microwaves were built before light-producing lasers.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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History Albert Einstein laid the theoretical basis for lasers in 1916 with his research examining Planck's radiation law.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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However, this work was not returned until after World War II in 1953, when Charles Townes and graduate students James Gordon and Herbert Zeiger built the first maser.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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However, the device was not capable of continuous beam output.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Townes shared the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics with Soviets Nikolai Basov and Aleksandr Prohorov, who had elucidated the problems associated with producing continuous beams.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In 1957, Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow studied infrared range masers at Bell Labs.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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However, infrared was abandoned and the study was focused on wavelengths of visible light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Initially, this device was called an optical maser, for which a patent was applied for the following year.


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A scientific article was also published on the matter (Phys.


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The Rev.


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Vol.


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112, 6).


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Simultaneously with this, graduate student Gordon Gould of Columbia University was working on research on thallium energy levels.


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After meeting Townes, Gould had taken notes on his idea to build “LASER”.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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The term laser, however, was published for the first time in Gould's 1959 article.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Gould envisaged the -laser to be used as a terminal according to the wavelength produced by the device, but eventually only the term laser became common.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Gould considered several applications for lasers in fields such as spectroscopy, interferometry, and nuclear engineering.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Gould filed for a patent later that year.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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However, this application was rejected and Bell Labs received a patent in 1960.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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This was followed by a dispute lasting twenty years, which resulted in the Federal Court in 1987 ordering Gould a patent on an optically pumped and gas-discharge laser.


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The first working laser was built by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories in 1960.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In doing so, he won, among others, Townes' group at Columbia University and Schawlow's group at Bell Labs.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Maiman's laser was an optically pumped ruby laser that produced 694 nm pulsed red light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In the same year, Ali Javan, an Iranian, along with William Bennet and Donald Herriot, built the first gas laser.


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It used a mixture of helium and neon as a medium.


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Basov and Javan proposed a semiconductor laser.


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The first laser diode was introduced by Robert N. Hall in 1962.


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Hall's gallium arsenide device produced 850 nm infrared light that was not visible to human eyes.


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The first visible light semiconductor laser was introduced later that year.


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Like early gas lasers these semiconductor devices produced only pulsed light.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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They also require constant cooling with liquid nitrogen.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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The first continuous-action laser diode was developed in 1970 at the same time both in the Soviet Union and at Bell Labs.


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The first widespread applications were a bar code reader in 1974 and a laser turntable in 1978.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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The first truly successful consumer product with a laser was the CD player, which entered the market in 1982.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Applications Laser cutting industry Laser cutting in medicine Laser wireless data transmission The cheapening of laser components has since led to more and more widespread applications.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Similarly, specialized laser types allow the utilization of new wavelength bands, higher output and maximum power, better energy efficiency, and accurately controlled output pulses.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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When the laser was originally developed, it was referred to as “a solution looking for a problem.”


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Today they have numerous scientific, medical, entertainment, industrial, military, law enforcement and computer applications.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In 2004, 131 thousand lasers were sold in the world, excluding laser diodes.


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There were 733 million laser diodes sold.


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An example of the mundane application of a laser is CDs and DVDs, as well as the yet uncommon laser dental drill, which does not hurt to drill a tooth.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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The multifunctionality of the laser is due to the monochromaticity, coherency and ability to achieve high powers of the light it produces.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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A coherent laser beam can be used to store large amounts of data.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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It is also possible to target a laser of medium efficiency on a small field, allowing it to be used for things like cutting or burning.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Lasers are also used for data transmission along optical fibers and optical data transfer in free space such as a few kilometers between houses on an accessible line and in space between satellites, up to gigabit per second.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In scientific use, lasers are used in many interferometric and spectroscopic methods.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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They can also be used in nonlinear optics research, remote sensing, land surveying, and space applications.


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For example, in 1969 and since 1969, retro-reflection prisms have been introduced to the Moon, which have been used since then to measure the distance between Earth and the Moon at about a centimetre.


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There are few similar Lageos satellites in Earth orbit that have been used to measure variations in Earth's gravitational field.


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Surveyors attach similarly functioning laser reflectors to measurement points to refine their measurements with their laser rangefinders.


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At least some of the lidars use a laser.


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For communication and distance measurements, laser monochromaticity is of particular benefit if it is possible to use an atomic line filter or other optical filter that allows only the right kind of laser light through.


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In medicine, laser can be used to perform vision correction surgeries, as well as remove tattoos, hairs and birthmarks better than, for example, with filtered and targeted sunlight.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In industry, lasers can be used to cut metals.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Lasers can also be applied in aircraft gyroscopes and some fusion reactors.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Laser radar is used in speed monitoring.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In military use, lasers may be applied as a kind of warning shot substitute, for glare, as a kind of highly accurately aligned searchlight/lamp, in target search and target determination, in the future possibly also as a weapon, for example to shoot down aircraft, missiles and disturbing birds in areas where bullets or shoots may not be used (such as urban centres).


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Laser ignition is planned as a replacement for the spark ignition of internal combustion engines.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Laser types Gas lasers HeNe laser (wavelengths 543 nm and 633 nm) Argon (-Ion) laser (wavelengths 458 nm, 488 nm or 514.5 nm) carbon dioxide lasers (wavelength 10.6 µm) - used in industry for cutting and welding, can produce up to 100 kW power.


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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Today, the term CO2 laser is misleading insofar as the gas mixture contains only a dozen per cent carbon dioxide, roughly the same amount of nitrogen and the rest helium.


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The exact mixture is determined by the manufacturer of the cutting device.


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carbon monoxide lasers - require cooling, can produce up to 500 kW of power Eximer lasers, produce ultraviolet light.


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Used for the manufacture of semiconductors and in LASIK eye surgery.


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Wavelengths 157 nm (F2), 193 nm (ArF), 222 nm (KrCl), 248 nm (KrF), 308 nm (XeCl), 351 nm (XeF).


Question: Who developed the first laser beam?

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In dermatology, lasers are often used, for example, for the removal of tattoos and birthmarks.