Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The Abraj Al Bait Towers, which rises to Mecca, will become the second tallest building in the world when completed and the tallest building in Saudi Arabia in 2011.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[75] Some key mosques are located in Saudi Arabia: Masjid al-Haram (Mecca), Masjid al-Nabawi (Medina) and Masjid al-Quba (Medina).


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[76] The first two are the holiest mosques of Muslims.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[77] The King Saud Mosque is located in Jeddah.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[78] What is special about Saudi Arabia is that shops and offices are closed for the duration of five daily prayers.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The exact time of prayer moments varies.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[79] An important spiritual leader in the country is its Grand Mufti, who since 1999 has been Abd-al-Aziz Aal ash-Shaikh.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

He was preceded by Abd-al-Aziz ibn Baaz.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[80] Film The first cinemas opened in 2005 after a twenty-year ban, though only for women and children.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[24] There are only a small number of Saudi Arabian films.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

In 2006, graduated from Keif al-hal? , which features Hisham Abdulrahman, among others.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[81] The Rotana company, which is part of the King family, led by Alwaleed bin Talal, has also worked on Arabic cinema.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The comedy Menahi (2008) produced by it also achieved great popularity.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[82] Wadjda, directed by Haifa al-Mansour, was screened at the Sodankylä Film Festival in 2013.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The film is about an 11-year-old girl who wants a bicycle.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Adult women are prohibited from riding a bicycle in Saudi Arabia and is even a criminal offence, for children cycling is allowed but frowned upon.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Wadjda is the first Saudi Arabian film directed by a woman.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The director had to do the job on outdoor shoots on a walkie-talkie from the van.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

One of the producers of the film is Alwaleed bin Talal.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

However, the most important contribution to the film's production was with Razor Filmproduction, a German production company specialising in Middle Eastern fiction cinema.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[83] A film festival was also held in Jeddah, the country's most libertarian city, since 2006, which was banned by the Ministry of the Interior in 2009.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[84] Education Education is free in Saudi Arabia.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[85] There are several universities, including King Saud University, King Abdilaziz University (KAU) and Islamic University of Medina.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The latter is a popular place of study among expatriate Muslims.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Finns have also been sent to Medina to study with Saudi resources.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[86] The new, more international King Abdullah University of Science and Technology () opened in September 2009.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[87] It is located on the shores of the Red Sea in Thuwal village.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[38] Recently, Saudi Arabia has sought to reform its education system so that terrorism could be prevented.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[88] Media King gained access to the radio network in 1932, and general use radio services came in 1948.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The media doesn't allow the presentation of any religion other than Islam.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Television beached the country in the 1960s and still comprehensively provides Saudi Arabians with both spiritual and secular repertoire.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

State-run Saudi TV broadcasts the program on four channels.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[89] Several daily newspapers appear in Saudi Arabia.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Appears in Arabic include Al-Riyadh and in English the Saudi Gazette and Arab News.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[89] The Internet has become widespread in Saudi Arabia rapidly.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The national domain is .sa.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

In 2010, the country had 9.8 million internet users.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Access to various sites is strictly restricted.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Almost ten thousand blogs appear.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[89] Sports Saudi Arabia participated in the Summer Olympics for the first time in 1972 and has since been involved in every Summer Olympics except 1980.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Three medals have come: Hadi Soua'an Al-Somaily received silver in the 400 m hurdles and Khaled Al-Eid bronze in showjumping at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and the showjumping team achieved bronze at London 2012.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[90] Saudi Arabia did not for a long time allow women to participate in the Olympics.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[91] In June 2012, Saudi Arabia finally gave permission for women to participate in the Olympic Games, and at the London Games the country had two female representatives, one in judo and the other in the 800 metres [92].


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

The Saudi Arabia national football team was seen at the World Cup for the first time in 1994.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

In the Asian championship, Saudi Arabia has won three times.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Well-known national team players include Muhammad al-Da'ayya', Majid Abdullah and Sami al-Jabir.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

Clubs at the top of the National League include Al-Hilal, Al-Ittihad, Al-Shabab and Al-Nasr.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[93] The country's scholars of faith have declared football an un-Islamic sport and called for youth to leave it immediately.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

[94] See also Blue Diamond Case Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Kimmo Kiljunen| title = World countries: flags and history| location = Helsinki| publisher = Into| year= 2013| id = ISBN 978-952-264-157-1}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Helen Chapin Metz (ed.


Question: How many countries belong to the League of Arab States?

Saudi Arabia

) | title = Saudi Arabic: A Country Study| publisher = GPO for the Library of Congress| year = 1992| format = [online version] | accessdate = 12.3.2017}} References on the topic elsewhere Category:42 Asia Category:Key Articles of Screening


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Valve Corporation (ex.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Valve Software) is a Bellevue, Washington based company specializing in video game development and digital distribution.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Gabe Newell and Mike Harrington founded Valve Corporation (then Valve Software) in Kirkland, Washington in 1996.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Valve's was made famous by its first release, Half-Life, in 1998.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Following the success of Half-Life, Valve set about developing the Team Fortress Classic mod for Half-Life.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Valve also helped independent mod developers and has acquired the rights to some mods for themselves.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Mods now owned by Valve, formerly independent, include Counter-Strike and Day of Defeat.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

At the 2003 E3 fair, Valve attracted attention by showcasing footage from Half-Life 2, which appeared to be finished by now.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Half-Life 2 was scheduled to air in the fall of 2003.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

However, the game's release was delayed with the source code theft.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

The game was finally released on November 16, 2004, and proved to be a success like the earlier part.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

[1] In March 2011, rumors of Valve's intentions to develop its own game console were leaked into the public domain.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

The idea of the device, rumored as the Steam Box, would be to act as a game console to play games available from the Steam service.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

[2] The Steam Box has later become known as the Steam Machine.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Valve announced SteamOS, its own operating system, on September 23, 2013.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

SteamOS is an operating system based on Linux that has been improved specifically for gaming.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

It also focuses on playing from the living room.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

On September 27, 2013, Valve announced the final announcement of its three-part release.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

The announcement was already expected Steam controller, the main purpose of which is to bring ease of use to the living room.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Games See also Steam Source The Orange Box Sources On topic elsewhere Transclusion error: {{en}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.


Question: What was Valve's first game?

Valve Corporation

Category:US video game companies Category:Key articles on screening Category:Valve Corporation


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The Red Sea is a long and narrow stretch of water bounded by Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, belonging to the Indian Ocean.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

States west of the Red Sea are from the north including Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti, and on the east side Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

To the north is the strategically important Egyptian-controlled Suez Canal, with access to the Mediterranean Sea.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

From the south, the Red Sea is through the Bab el Mandeb Strait () connected to the Gulf of Aden and from there further through the Arabian Sea to the Indian Ocean.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The name of the Red Sea derives from an algae called Trichodesmium erythraeum observed there, which “when it blooms” turns reddish brown.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

[1] The redness of the sea is enhanced by the red-hued mountains reflected from its surface at sunset and occasionally the skyline glowing red.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The Red Sea is the saltiest and warmest of all bodies of water containing marine life.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

High marine salinity due to favorable ocean currents and abundant evaporation have created excellent conditions for rich fauna and fairy-tale coral reefs.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

There are over 1100 different species of fish in the Red Sea [2] and more than 200 different types of coral have been found there.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Geography The Red Sea is long and narrow and oriented from north-northwest to south-southeast.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

At its northern end there are two narrow bays: the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

From the northern end of the Gulf of Suez leaves the Suez Canal, connecting it to the Mediterranean Sea.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Between the bays remains the Sinai Peninsula.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The length of the sea is about 2000 kilometers and the width at the widest point is 352 kilometers.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The area is 438,000 square kilometers.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The average depth of the ocean is about 500 meters and the deepest point is about 2500 meters.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

In the Red Sea there are several small islands that form archipelagos.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

These include the Dahlak Archipelago off the coast of Eritrea, the Hanish Islands between Yemen and Eritrea, and the Farasan Islands off the coast of Saudi Arabia.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Also at the northern end of the sea, off the tip of the Sinai Peninsula, there are countless small islands with coral reefs in between.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

[3] The Red Sea shoreline is divided between nine states.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The longest parts of the coastline are in Saudi Arabia, Eritrea, Egypt, Sudan and Yemen.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

On either side near the coast rises hills or mountain range: in Sudan and Egypt the Red Sea Hills, on the Saudi side the Sarawaat Mountains and in front of them the Hejaz Mountains.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Physical Properties The Red Sea is connected via the Arabian Sea to the Indian Ocean.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

There's really little rain in its catchment area.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Evaporation is greater than the flow of fresh water into the ocean, and replenishment water from the Indian Ocean prevents the Red Sea from evaporating dry.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Therefore, the water is saltier than in other seas of the world: typically 3.8%, in the Gulf of Suez and Aqaba up to 4.1%.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

[4] The average tide is 60 cm in the northern part of the sea and 90 cm in the southern part.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

History and culture The oldest memorized long sea voyages along the Red Sea were the voyages of the ancient Egyptians to Puntland.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

[5] The Second Book of Genesis tells of the trek of the Israelites across the sea; traditionally this journey is combined with the Red Sea.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

[6] In the 5th century BCE.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

King Dareios I of Persia built a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, [7] and sent explorers to the Red Sea.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

They localized dangerous pitfalls and increased the value of the sea as a transport artery.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The Greeks continued to work on mapping, and in the 10th century share.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

a published inscription tells the Red Sea to be the shortest sea road to India.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

The trade route from Rome to China ran along it until trade traffic was blocked by the Kingdom of Aksum in the 200th century.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

In the Middle Ages, the Red Sea was an important part of the route of spices to Europe.


Question: How salty is the water in the Red Sea?

Red Sea

Sources On the topic Elsewhere Photo Gallery of Invertebrates * Category:Biblical Places Category:Key Articles of Screening


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Causality (lat.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

causalitas < causa 'cause') is a cause—effect relationship, that is, a relationship of two events in which one causes the other.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

One event is then a cause and the other is a consequence.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The concept of causality has been much contemplated by well-known philosophers since Aristotle.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In his book Metaphysics, Aristotle defines four causes into which all the different causes can be classified: material, formal, arising, and goal cause.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Of these, in scientific debate, the most interesting is the cause, that is, the cause from which the change originates.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

According to David Hume's philosophy, causation is merely a relationship between observed events, but empirically it cannot be verified that one event (cause) would cause another (consequence).


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Instead, one can examine whether the observed event (consequence) regularly follows another observed event (cause).


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Hume's analysis identified three criteria for whether there is a causal relationship.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Spatial/temporal continuity, temporal order, and constancy of connection.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Hume's empirical mindset was used as his starting point by Patrick Suppes, who dealt with probability theory for causality.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Suppes theorized that an event is the cause of the second event if the occurrence of the first event is very likely followed by the occurrence of the second event, and there is no third event explaining the relationship of the first two events.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[1] In Albert Einstein's strict theory of relativity, causality invariance is one of the fundamental starting points.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

According to it, the cause—effect relationship between two events is the same in all coordinate systems.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Correlation does not result from causality Correlation, by definition, tells us about the dependence between two variables.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Although the values of the two variables are related, no conclusions about causality can be drawn from the mere observed association.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

There may be an unobserved variable underlying the observed association, a confounding factor affecting both variables.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

An example is the association between ice cream sales and drowning deaths, where air temperature is the confounding factor.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

There may be a strong correlation between ice cream sales and drowning deaths, but causal conclusions would be incorrect, at least without careful consideration of other factors.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Association or causal relationship The correlation does not necessarily result from causality, but nevertheless the purpose of the research setting is often to draw conclusions specifically about the occurrence of causal relations.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Often, when there is no adequate prior knowledge, there is a dependence on observations and observed associations between events.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Sir Austin Bradford Hill has put forward the following criteria for assessing whether the observed association can be attributed to causality.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The criteria given are not necessary conditions for causality but are intended to help identify in which situations association could be caused by causality.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[2] Strength of association - the stronger the correlation, the most likely underlying causal association Consistency - similar results in other independent studies Specificity Temporal relationship - cause should precede consequence Dose-response by increasing exposure, response changes Credibility - causality is biologically plausible, i.e. it can be explained by biological principle Consistency - suspected causal relationship does not conflict with known knowledge Experimental evidence - in some cases it is possible to obtain experimental evidence for causality Analogy - similar causal connections are known pre-Rubin's causal model Suppose the population consists of individuals u {\ displaystyle u}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

There are two possible manipulations S for individuals: the control group (S = c) {\ displaystyle (S=c)} and the processing group (S = t) {\ displaystyle (S=t)}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In an experimental study, a researcher can control which group each individual falls into, in an observational study the group is determined by other, outside factors.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

What is essential in Rubin's causal model is that every individual can be subjected to any processing.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Or, therefore, the value S (u) {\ displaystyle S (u)} could have been different for each individual u {\ displaystyle u}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[1] The function of the response variable is to measure the effect of the selected treatment.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

There are two potential responses, Y t {\ displaystyle Y_ {t}} and Y c {\ displaystyle Y_ {c}}, depending on the processing S {\ displaystyle S}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Denote the potential responses of individual u {\ displaystyle u} Y t (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u)} and Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {c} (u)}, where Y t (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u)} is the response that would have been observed if individual u {\ displaystyle u} had been subjected to the processing t {\ displaystyle t}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Similarly, Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {c} (u)} is a value that would have been observed from the same individual u {\ displaystyle u} had it been exposed to processing c {\ displaystyle c} .


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

However, only one of the two potential responses is observed from an individual, the unobserved response is called counterfactual.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[1] The causal effect of processing t {\ displaystyle t} with respect to control c {\ displaystyle c} for individual u {\ displaystyle u} is the difference Y t (u) − Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u) -Y_ {c} (u)}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[1] Fundamental problem of causal inference The distinction Y t (u) − Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u) -Y_ {c} (u)} cannot be used as such to calculate the causal effect, since both values Y t (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u)} and Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {c} (u)} cannot be detected.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

It is impossible to measure both responses from the same individual.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Two general solutions can be presented to the problem.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The scientific solution is to assume temporal stability, in which case the response does not depend on the time of processing or previous treatments.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In this case, both Y t (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u)} and Y c (u) {\ displaystyle Y_ {c} (u)} from individual u {\ displaystyle u} can be measured.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Another option is to assume homogeneity of individuals, in which case the causal effect can be calculated as the difference Y t (u 1) − Y c (u 2) {\ displaystyle Y_ {t} (u_ {1}) -Y_ {c} (u_ {2})} using the responses of two different individuals.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The statistical solution considers the mean causal effect T = E (Y t − Y c) = E (Y t) − E (Y c) {\ displaystyle T=E ( Y_ {t} -Y_ {c}) =E (Y_ {t}) -E (Y_ {c})}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

However, in general, the equation E (Y t) = E (Y t | S = t) {\ displaystyle E (Y_ {t}) =E (Y_ {t} |S=t)} does not apply.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Or, therefore, the mean calculated for the entire population differs from the mean calculated over individuals subjected to processing t {\ displaystyle t}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Equivalence applies if individuals are randomly divided into processing groups, which can be verified, at least in experimental research.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In this case, the prima facie with causal effect T P F = E (Y t | S = t) − E (Y c | S = c) {\ displaystyle T_ {PF} =E (Y_ {t} |s=t) -E (Y_ {c} |s=c)} one can estimate the causal effect of interest T {\ displaystyle T}.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Pearl's Causal Model Statisticians are traditionally wary of making inferences about causality.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

However, in the health, social and behavioural sciences, for example, there is interest specifically about causal relationships, rather than just the perceived association.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

External knowledge is always required for causal terminals and cannot be made solely by the collected data, which contributes to the caution in making inferences about causality.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In a well-implemented randomised study setting, conclusions on causality are valid.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

It is not always possible to implement such a research setting.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

For example, it is not possible to study the link between smoking and lung cancer this way for ethical reasons.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In the framework of the causal model introduced by Judea Pearl, using the rules of causal calculation, the need for experimental intervention can be eliminated.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In causal calculus defined by Pearl, the central part has a do () operator.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The notation do (X) means that the value of variable X is fixed, that is, an action applied to it, also called intervention.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[3] In Pearl's causal model, the variables are equivalent in terms of what may be the cause.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Traditionally, only variables whose values can be controlled have been qualified as a reason.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In the context of Rubin's causal model, the motto “No causation without manipulation” has been used in Holland's article to clarify this philosophy.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[1] Pearl's compilation of the causal model springs from the exact definition of causal structure using graph theory.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

The causal structure simply tells us about the causal effects between variables.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In the graph, each node corresponds to a variable and the arrows drawn between the nodes, the edges, tell the direction of the causal connection.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

There is a requirement for the construction.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

the fact that the causal structure must form a directional loopless graph.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Simply, this means that the causal effects must have a direction (variable X affects the variable Y) and, moreover, there must be no loops in the structure.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

For example, a graph where X affects the value of Y, Y affects the value of Z, and Z still affects the value of X is not an acceptable causal structure in this sense.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[3] Granger causality The concept of Granger causality is used in time series prediction.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

If signal X1 is the Granger cause of signal X2, then previous values of X1 should contain additional information to predict X2 values.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In other words, using information provided together by X1 and X2 yields better predictions for X2 compared to predictions that would have been calculated using only previous X2 values.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

Granger causality was developed in the 1960s and has been widely used ever since, especially in economics.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

In recent years, applications in neurosciences have also become more common.


Question: What does causality mean?

Causality

[4] See also Causa sui (self cause) Correlation Egg or chicken Post hoc- argumentation error Statistics Correlation does not imply causality Sources On topic elsewhere entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Category:Philosophy terms Category:Statistics Category:Key articles in screening


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Rome (or, Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn;; “Empire of the Romans”), was the eastern part of the Roman Empire that survived after the collapse of the western part in the 4th century, and whose reign lasted more than a thousand years right up to 1453.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantine identity was a combination of Romanism, Greek (Hellenistic) culture, and Orthodox Christianity.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantium considered until the last to represent the legacy of the Imperial Roman Empire in the Christian form created by Emperor Constantine the Great.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[1] [2] [3] [4] The name Byzantine Empire is derived from the earlier name Byzantion, the capital of the empire, Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The denomination is purely historiographical and was developed in the 16th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The inhabitants of the kingdom themselves saw themselves as Romans (rhomaioi) until the end, and the denomination remained in use in Greece until the 19th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The name Byzantium was used in Western Europe mainly because of the desire to distinguish that medieval kingdom gradually separated from Late Antiquity Rome in historiography from both Ancient Rome and Greece, which were often viewed ideally in the 15th—18th centuries.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[2] [3] [4] The beginning of the Byzantine Empire and the end of the ancient Roman Empire can be placed in several ways.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

One beginning can be considered the year 330, when Constantine the Great founded Constantinople on the site of the city of Byzantion.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Another possibility is to use as a starting point the time of Emperor Theodosius I at the end of the 3rd century, when the dichotomy of the Roman Empire became definitive.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Today, most scholars use the name Byzantine only from the time of Emperor Justinian I from the early 5th century onwards.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[4] [3] Definitively Byzantium can be considered to have changed as a political organization to one distinct from the ancient Roman Empire as a result of changes in the 6th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[5] Latin remained the governing language of the kingdom until the 6th century, when it was superseded by the Greek language spoken by the majority.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Initially, the Byzantine Empire included all the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean Sea.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the 6th century, it lost much of its territory to the Arabs, after which it encompassed only Anatolia and part of the Balkans.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The kingdom experienced periods of rise and fall, but remained a major power in the Mediterranean region until the 12th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The kingdom was temporarily divided after the Fourth Crusade and was definitively destroyed when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[6] However, Byzantine cultural heritage still lives on, for example, in the Orthodox Church and its monasteries.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[7] Byzantium is studied from Classical philology in the late 19th century by a differentiated subject called Byzantinistics.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[2] History of the Origin of Eastern Rome A separate Eastern Roman administrative region arose when Emperor Diocletian split the Roman Empire in two in 293.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The reason for the division was that the vast kingdom had become difficult to control.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Diocletian created a system of tetrarchy with two emperors (augustus), one in the west and the other in the east, and each with a junior ruler companion, or “sub-emperor” (caesar).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] This separation of powers continued right up until Emperor Constantine the Great became ruler of the entire empire in 324.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Constantine chose as his new capital the city of Byzantion, a former colony of Megara, and the city was renamed Constantinople (Constantinoupolis, “City of Constantinos”).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The location of the town was seen as strategically pivotal as it was possible to keep connections both west and east of it.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

With the transfer of the capital, the administrative institutions that operated in Rome, such as the Senate, were transferred as such to Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the same time, numerous construction programs were started in the city and it was equipped with stronger walls.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] [9] Constantine's other reforms included the reform of the monetary system and the introduction of solidus, separation of military and civil administration, and reform of rural administration.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The army was reformed so that the troops of the border provinces were separated from the Emperor's reserves, which could be moved to problematic frontier areas if necessary.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Constantine was the first Christian emperor and supported Christianity in many ways, but traditional pagan religion was allowed alongside Christianity until the late 3rd century, practically for longer.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] [9] In 364, the dichotomy of the kingdom deepened when it was divided between Valentianian, who had control of the western part, and Valens, who gained control of the eastern part.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The kingdom was definitively split in two in 395 when Theodosius I divided the kingdom among his sons: [10] at that time Arcadius ruled in the east and Honorius in the west.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

From now on, eastern and western Rome is usually spoken.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The early years (approx.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

4th century) Western Rome crumbled in the 4th century with the Germanic conquests.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Germanic settling in the west weakened the position of Emperor of the West, and the Empire ceased in 476 when Odovakar, the Gothic chieftain who had seized power, did not assume the rank of emperor, but returned the title that had taken as a formality to Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Continuing the tradition of the Roman Empire, the eastern part of the empire was spared much of the Germanic invasion and colonisation due to its stronger economy and defences, among other things.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The rebuilding of the walls of Constantinople initiated by Theodosius was completed in 413.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The walls came to last for a thousand years right up to the Osmanic Conviction.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] In the early years of Byzantium, the Christian church grew stronger.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

On the other hand, time was marked by disputes over the correct interpretation of the doctrine.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The two main disputes concerning the Byzantine Church in particular were the dispute over Areioism in the early 3rd century and the dispute over Nestorioism in the early 4th-century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Areiolism was condemned at the Ecclesiastical Assembly of Nicaea in 325, Nestorioism at the Ecclesiastical Assembly of Ephesus in 431.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In turn, as a counter-reaction to Nestorioism, the Monophysite movement emerged, condemned at the Ecclesiastical Assembly of Kcracdon in 451.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Also, the emperor was often forced to take positions on heresy disputes, thus bringing the relationship between the Church and the Emperor closer.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] Leo I (as emperor 457—474) was the first emperor to receive the crown, according to Roman tradition, not from a warlord, but from the Patriarch of Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[11] Zenon, who was from Isauria, married Ariadne, Leo's daughter, and they had a son who rose to emperor under the name Leo II in 474.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Upon the death of Leo II, Zenon became emperor.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

To reclaim Italy, he allied himself with Teoderik of the Ostrogoths, who subsequently ruled as the commandholder of Italy.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine succession to power included that if the emperor died without leaving descendants, the augusta-appointed empress had the power to choose a successor for him.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Augustas were allowed to be several and Augusta was allowed to be a relative other than a consort of the emperor.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Thus, upon Zenon's death, in 491 his consort Ariadne appointed Anastasios I, a wealthy courtier (as emperor until 518), as emperor.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] [12] Anastasios laid a favourable foundation for the country's economy.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He promoted East trade and industry.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Silk was transported overland via Persia or from India by sea to Byzantine territory, where craftsmen made silk cloth.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[12] The reign of Justinian I (early 5th century) Under Emperor Justinian I (527—565) the political and military position of Eastern Rome became established.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Often the medieval Byzantine period is calculated to begin precisely with his time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[8] The emperors of Constantinople had never agreed to consider Western Roman territories lost, but only temporarily as territories outside the Emperor's direct rule.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Attempts were made to reincorporate them into the kingdom, and in this was also met with occasional and partial success.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Under Justinian, the kingdom fought against Persia, the Goths and the Vandals, as well as recapturing large parts of the Italian peninsula, the coast of North Africa, and Spain.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[13] Behind these victories was largely the warlord Belisarius.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Furthermore, in 532, he signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I, the ruler of Persia.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Nika Rebellion of 532 in Constantinople resulted in the execution of an estimated 30,000 rebels.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Historian Prokopios' work The Secret History tells of the resistance faced by the Emperor's policies.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Belisarius succeeded in recapturing North Africa from the Vandals in 533, and by 548 the local tribes had been subjugated.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

There was war in Italy against the Eastern Goths.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The expedition came ashore in Sicily, but failed to break the resistance until 540, when Ravenna, the capital of the Eastern Goths, was overrun.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[13] Wars against Persia continued until 561, when the peace treaty was extended.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The wars continued in 565—591.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] The so-called Justinian plague struck Byzantium in 542.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Many scientists believe the disease has taken off from China [14].


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

It spread across Asia to Egypt, from where it was transported by grain ships to Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

According to the contemporaneous Prokopios, the disease would have killed 10,000 people daily, [15], but is now considered a more likely casualty rate of 5000 persons per day.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Half of the city's population is estimated to have died of


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Emperor Justinian is reported to have contracted the plague himself, but cured of it.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Reforming the Laws under Justinian, Roman laws were compiled and rewritten under John the Cappadocian as the Corpus iuris civilis law collection.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

It consisted of three different parts, the Digesta (or Pandektai), the Institutiones Iustiniani and the Codex Iustinianus (repetitae praelectionis), with the addition of a fourth volume, Novellae (constitutiones), containing later enacted laws.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Collections of laws formed the basis of all of Byzantine later legislation.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[16] Religion policy Justinian quarreled with Jews, Gentiles, and various Christian sects such as Manicheans, Monophysites and Nestorians.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Partly for practical reasons and partly out of an effort to eradicate pagan religiosity, Justinian closed Athens's illustrious school of philosophers in 529.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Christian culture began to gain ground, but traditional Greco-Roman culture had its adherents, such as the natural philosopher Johannes Filoponos.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The gem of the emperor's great building program was Constantinople's new cathedral Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Justinian's successors (late 5th century) Justinian's successors were unable to counter new external threats.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Italian peninsula was lost to the Langobards in the late 5th century, the Slavs took over the Balkans, and Persia in turn Syria, Palestine, and Egypt.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In addition, the high taxes required to maintain the kingdom caused internal discontent.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[13] The dynasty of Heracleus (610—711) Fokas (as emperor 602—610), considered a tyrant, assassinated Emperor Maurikios.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Khosrau II of Persia used this as a reason for taking over Anatolia.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The exarch of Carthage, Heraclius the Elder, sent his son Heracleios, who was subsequently crowned emperor, to retake Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Three years after this, the Persians took Damascus and Jerusalem.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

A counterattack by Heraclius destroyed the main force of the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Heraclius was emperor in 610—641.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

War with Persia resumed in 603; this so-called Byzantine—Sassanid war consumed both Byzantine and Persian forces.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Persians took over Syria, Palestine and Egypt.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The war lasted until 628, when Heraclius defeated the Persians.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Thus Byzantium managed to recapture the territories for some time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

However, weakened by war, it was unable to resist the Arabs who embraced Islam, who, some twenty years after the Persians, conquered all these territories, and later all of North Africa, under Caliph Omar.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 636, Byzantium suffered a decisive defeat to the Muslims at the Battle of Jarmuk.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Of particular importance was the loss of Egypt, as it had been the granary of the kingdom and a major source of tax revenue.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] [13] During the time of Heracleus, Greek became the official language of Byzantium, which was reflected in the emperor beginning to use the title basileus instead of Augustus in Latin, and the kingdom became more unified in culture and religion.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the southern provinces occupied by Muslims, monophysitism was prevalent, contrasting with Orthodox Christianity as defined by the Kcracdon Ecclesiastical Assembly.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

To reconcile the dispute between the Kcracdonians and the Monophysites, Heracleitos proposed monoteletism as a solution.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

By 642, the central regions of the Monophysite faith had been conquered by Muslims.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[13] The Arabs, who now controlled Syria and Palestine, sent raiding expeditions into Anatolia and in 674—678 besieged Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Repeated raiding expeditions into Anatolia forced Byzantium to organise a fiefdom system (thema system) in which land was distributed in exchange for military service.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Troop transfers from the Balkans allowed the Slavs to advance further south, for which reason many village communities shrank and fortified themselves.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The emergence of the casars in the 670s drove the Bolgars to the south of the Danube.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 681, Emperor Constantine IV signed a peace treaty with the Bolgar Khan Aspharukh.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Prior to this, the local Slavic tribes had at least nominally recognized Byzantine rule.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Constans II (as emperor 641—668) continued the policy of favouring monoteletism initiated by his grandfather Heracleios, which provoked strong opposition.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The most strident opponents of the monk Maksimos Homologetes and Pope Martinus I were imprisoned and exiled.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Constans probably fell out of favour in the capital and moved to Syracuse, where he was assassinated.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Justinian II (as emperor 685—695 and 705—711) ruled with tyrannical grips and imposed harsh taxes.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He was forced to abdicate the crown in 695 and went into exile first to the Casars, then to the Bolgars.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 698, Carthage was overrun by the Arabs.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Thus Byzantium had definitively lost all territories of North Africa.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Justinian II returned to Constantinople with the help of Khan Tervel in 705 and seized power back for himself.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In his second term, he took bloody revenge on his enemies, and in 711 he was overthrown with the support of the cassars.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He was succeeded by Philippikos (as emperor 711—713).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Arabs besieged Constantinople for a second time in 717—718.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] The political and territorial changes of the 6th century brought about the fact that the kingdom, as a political organisation, was no longer a memory.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Therefore, Byzantium can be considered to have changed definitively from the old Roman Empire to a separate one within the 6th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[5] Period of iconoclasm (717—843), Leon III (as emperor 717—741) seized power in 717.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He successfully fought against the Arabs and defeated these in 740.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

With the reign of Leon, iconoclasm, or pictorial grandeur, was triggered by this denial of icons and the respect paid to them.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Also, Constantinos V (as emperor 741—775) adopted an iconoclastic stance towards the end of his term.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

One of the reasons for the emergence of a stance against icons was the rise of Islam and the successful conquests of the Arabs: the Byzantines may have thought that the Muslims who opposed the images were therefore doing something right.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Natural disasters, such as the volcanic eruption of Santorini in 726, added to the idea that Byzantium was punished for some cause.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The icon ban led to rebellion, as well as the destruction of many products of Byzantine art.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Iconoclasm, however, mostly affected the court, the top officials and the top clergy, not so much the ordinary people.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[13] [17] In 798, a woman, Empress Irene (Eirene), stepped on the throne for the first time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the West, it could be considered that the Western Roman throne had remained vacant.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 800, the Pope crowned the Frankish king Charles the Great as Roman Emperor.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The West thus had an emperor after a hiatus of more than three hundred years, and Byzantium was no longer the sole heir to the Roman Empire; the crowning of Charles the Great was considered an open challenge in Byzantium.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[17] Under the influence of Empress Irene, the Seventh Ecumenical Ecclesiastical Conference held in Nikaia decided in 787 that icons were to be venerated but not worshiped.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Emperor Leo V reinstated iconoclasm into force in 813, as the ban on images was considered to be against the backdrop of victories made in wars.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[17] Theodora II allowed icons in 843 with the support of Patriarch Methodios, and the ecclesiastical assembly confirmed the decision of the Ecumenical Ecclesiastical Assembly of Nicaea.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Iconoclasm and the dispute between Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Fotios further deepened the divide between the churches of East and West.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Golden Age (ca.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

850—1050) during the Byzantine Golden Age can be considered the time of the so-called Macedonian dynasty between 867 and 1056.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

During the dynasty Byzantium succeeded in building a great power again, reclaiming lands which had been conquered by the Arabs in the east and the Slavs in the Balkans.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Southern Italy was also conquered, and Emperor John I Tzimiskes extended the fighting all the way to Jerusalem.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 1014, Emperor Basileios II (as emperor 976—1025) overthrew Bulgaria.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Due to victorious wars and strong rulers, Byzantium was strong both militarily and economically, with the capital Constantinople a glorious focal point of culture and power.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Trade and craftsmanship flourished, new schools were established in Constantinople, interest in ancient culture and philosophy rekindled, and secular literature and other culture revived.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the same time, Byzantine civilization also spread to areas of neighboring peoples.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[17] [18] [19] The Byzantine—Arab Wars saw a successful takeover of Crete from the Arabs temporarily in 843, but the emperors failed to prevent the Muslims from taking Sicily and Sardinia for a bit by 902.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

On the other hand, victories were also experienced, such as the Battle of Damietta in 856.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Muslims often allied themselves with the Paulician faith sect living in the eastern provinces, which was persecuted as a heretic.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Basileios I (as emperor 867—886) succeeded in ending the sect's rule.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Russ attempted to plunder Constantinople in 860.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

On the occasion of a new attempt, they were beaten back in 941 under the leadership of John Kurkuas.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He achieved other noteworthy victories, such as swapping the image of Edessa for Muslim prisoners.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the latter half of the 9th century, the Empire expanded again north into Syria, recapturing Crete and Cyprus, as well as occupying the territory of Antioch.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine troops advanced as far as the gates of Jerusalem.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[17] Wars against the Bulgars, Tsar Simeon I the Great of Bulgaria defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Bulgaryphon in 896, which forced Byzantium to pay tax to Bulgaria.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Later, Emperor Constantine VII married Simeon's daughter.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Romanos I suffered defeat at the Battle of Anchialus in 917, after which the Bulgars extended their war expeditions all the way to Corinth.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

After Simeon's death in 927, Byzantine position improved in the Balkans.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Basileios II achieved a decisive victory over Bulgaria in 1014 at the Battle of Kleidion.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The kingdom gained a new ally from the newly established shadow state when Basileios's sister was married to Vladimir the Great, ruler of Kiev.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the same time, yet another new heresy spread from the north, the dualistic doctrine of the Bogomiles, which had been influenced by the Paulicians.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The doctrine gained popularity, especially in Bulgaria, but it also spread among the Byzantine upper class.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] Wars against the Seljuks, Normans and Petsenegs In 1054, relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Church were broken for good (the Great Schism).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the same time, Byzantium was threatened by new dangers: the Seljuks in Asia Minor, the Petsenegs in the north, and the Normans in Italy.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan thoroughly defeated the Byzantine army and took Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes prisoner.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result, Byzantium lost almost all of Asia Minor and its best agricultural areas.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In addition to this, Byzantium lost Italian territories to the Normans and Balkan Petsenegs by 1081.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] The mayhem after Manzikert ended in 1081 with the capture of power by Alexios Komnenos (as emperor 1081—1118).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

He reorganised the army and regained important territories from the Seljuks.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Alexios also had to fight the Normans.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

One of the most dangerous Normans was Robert Guiscard.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantium lost southern Italy to the Normans by 1100.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Alexios also sought to suppress the movement of the Bogomiles.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] The time of the Crusades (1097—1261), as a result of Alexios's request for assistance to the west, was triggered in 1097 by the First Crusade, allowing Nikaia to be recaptured.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The intervals between the Byzantines and the crusaders were never warm, and both sides were suspicious of each other.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Alexios's work was continued by his son John and grandson Manuel.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The lost Balkan and Asia Minor territories were regained.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Komnenos dynasty ended in the reign of Andronikos Komnenos in 1185.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Komnenoks was succeeded by the weaker Angelosten dynasty.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In an effort to gain support from the West, Byzantium ceded significant trading rights to western merchants.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result, Venice in particular gained a dominant position at sea and in trade in the region, weakening Byzantium's own positions.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Venice gradually gained considerable political influence as well.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Crusaders, on the other hand, meddled in the affairs of the formerly Byzantine sphere of influence from the kingdoms they established in the surroundings of Jerusalem.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] In the 1170s, relations between Byzantium and Venice became strained.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

1182 in Constantinople there was a massacre of Western Europeans, especially Italian, merchants in connection with Andronikos Komnenos's coup d'état.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The goal was to weaken the influence of western merchants.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

1192, however, Byzantium concluded trade treaties with Pisa and Genoa.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result of the events, the anti-Byzantine alliance in the west grew stronger.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] [10] The Fourth Crusade and the Byzantine division of Venice gained its revenge through the Fourth Crusade.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The crusade had initially been supposed to be directed towards Egypt, but it eventually ended up, led by Venice, taking Constantinople in order to strengthen Venice's position in commerce in the region.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The crusaders took Constantinople on 12 April 1204 and plundered the city, receiving a huge spoil of war, as wealth had been amassed in the city for a thousand years without having been overrun once during that time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] After Byzantium was defeated, the Crusaders established in the Byzantine core region, in the surroundings of Constantinople and on the territory of present-day Greece, a Latin Empire whose emperor became Balduin I of Flanders.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Several vassal states were under the Empire: the Principality of Akhaia in the Peloponnese, the Duchy of Naksos in the Aegean archipelago, the Kingdom of Thessalonica in northern Greece, and the Duchy of Athens in central Greece.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] Byzantine heritage was continued by the states located around the Latin Empire: the Empire of Nikaia, ruled by the House of Laskaris; the Empire of Trebizond, ruled by the Komnenos; and the Despotate of Epirus, ruled by the Angelos.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

All three states sought to recapture Constantinople and sought support in the west from Venice's opponents, above all Genoa.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Under Theodoros Laskaris, Nikaia gradually gained control under other states.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In 1261, Nikaia recaptured Constantinople under Michael Palaiologos (as Emperor Michael VIII).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] The ruler family of Palaiologos founded by Michael became the last of the kingdom.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantine End Times (1261—1461) The reincarnated Byzantium took over the Peloponnese under Michael and emerged for a time as a politically significant player.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Negotiations for the unification of the churches of the East and West began in the latter half of the 13th century, and the issue was discussed at the Ecclesiastical Assembly of Lyon in 1274. At that time, Emperor Michael VIII would have been willing to accept unification in order to obtain military assistance from the West.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

However, the reunification did not materialize due to public opposition.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[20] At the same time, Charlemagne of Anjou planned to take over Byzantium with the support of the Pope.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Rise of the Ottoman Empire The threat to the Ottoman Empire also began to rise gradually, and the last two centuries of the Empire were mostly a retreat from under the Ottoman Empire.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Turkic Ottoman people gradually occupied territories in Asia Minor from the 1280s onwards.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Brusa found itself overrun in 1326, Ephesus in 1328, Nicea in 1329, and Nicomedeia and Bithynia in 1337.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] [10] In its final years, Byzantium continued to negotiate with the West for the unification of the churches of the East and West in order to obtain military aid.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[20] Reunification was already supported by many members of the High Council and some of the clergy, but the monasteries and the majority of the population continued to oppose it.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Along with the external threat, the Empire also suffered from internal strife within the ruler family, as well as social and religious disagreements.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

John VI Kantakuzenos rose to become power aspirant and emperor (as emperor 1347—1354).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

A hesycastic movement based on mystical contemplation developed within monastic communities, which also connected itself to politics by opposing Western influence and the unification of churches.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In politics, hesycasm manifested itself as the so-called palamism espoused by Gregorios Palamas.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The movement gained popularity, and Kantakuzenos also embraced the movement's views.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Hesycasm became the official position of the Byzantine Church in 1351.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] [7] Thrace was overrun by the Ottoman in the 1360s, Thessaloniki in 1387.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

From the recaptured Adrianoupolis in 1365, the Ottomans made their capital until 1453.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Asia Minor had been lost to the Ottomans practically entirely by the Ottoman takeover of the semi-autonomous region of Philadelfia in 1390.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Coinciding with the Ottoman conquests, the Serbs took advantage of the opportunity and took over Albania, Eastern Macedonia and Thessaly.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

However, the Serbs were defeated by the Ottoman in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Polje and also, with victories over the Hungarians and Bulgars, gradually took over the entire Balkans.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] [10] By the fall of Byzantium by the entry into the 15th century Byzantine territory had shrunk to cover almost solely the city of Constantinople, Thessaloniki, the region of the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea), as well as some islands in the Aegean Sea (e.g.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Lesbos and Limnos).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Regions separate from Constantinople were practically independent and only nominally and by tradition part of the kingdom.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] [21] The city of Thessaloniki ceded itself to the possession of the Venetians in 1423.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Ottoman took over the city in 1430 and massacred the entire population and the Venetian soldiers who were in the city.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I besieged Constantinople between 1397 and 1402.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Emperor Manuel II toured Europe seeking aid to Byzantium.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The kingdom was saved after the invasion of Ottoman territories by the Mongols at the same time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Ottoman power soon revived.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Sultan Murad II in turn besieged Constantinople in 1422.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Ottoman invaded Thessaloniki in 1430.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] Now Emperor John VIII Palaiologos sought help from the West and therefore approved the unification of the churches at the Ecclesiastical Assembly of Florence in 1439.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

A crusade of Hungarians and Latins, the so-called Varna Crusade, was organised against the Ottoman, but it ended in disaster for Christians at the Battle of Varna in 1444.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] The unification of the churches was finally declared effective in Constantinople in 1452.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[10] However, it did little to materialise in practice due to public opposition.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The end of the Byzantine Empire came in 1453.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

On April 2, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II began the siege of Constantinople, which lasted almost two months.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The emperor sent requests for help to the West, but no help came.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire was definitively defeated on 29 May when the Ottoman took the city by storming.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The last emperor, Constantinos XI Palaiologos, fell in battle against the Turks.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The last European part of Byzantium, the Despotate of the Morea was overthrown in 1460 with the takeover of Mistra.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Ottoman took over even the last knackles of the kingdom when the Empire of Trebizond was overthrown in 1461.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[18] The causes of Byzantine decadence as the cause of the Empire's decline in its final centuries were not merely armed conflict, although the takeover of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade spurred decadence.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The state was left by many serious grievances: the concentration of ownership in the hands of the few and the activities of these grandees against the interest of the state; the tension between rich and poor; the reduction of the armed force and its concentration in the hands of foreign mercenaries; the abandonment of its own navy; and leaning on the Genoa fleet, as well as the repeated depreciation of the value of money and the resulting distrust of financiers.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[22] In Enlightenment historiography, Byzantium was often seen as a degenerate aftershow of idealized ancient Rome.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The same attitude has persisted for a long time before modern research.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The causes of political and cultural decadence have included despotic autocracy, bureaucratic administrative machinery, constant intrigues and corruption, orientalism, social stagnation and enveloping into patterns, as well as mystical religious mentality and religious fanaticism.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[3] [5] [23] [24] The Byzantine scholar John Haldon recalls, however, that Byzantine society and culture were in fact very dynamic, the efficient machinery of government was possibly one of the reasons for the long age of the Empire, and that Byzantium, for example, was no more corrupt than any other societies of the time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[3] [24] Byzantine heritage Byzantine cultural heritage continues to live on in the Orthodox Church and its monasteries.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The culture of antiquity mediated in the West through Byzantium contributed significantly to the genesis and development of the Renaissance, as manuscripts of ancient literature moved with Byzantine refugees to the West even before Constantinople fell.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[7] [24] The Ottoman Empire took Constantinople as its capital and inherited many aspects of Byzantine culture in its culture and, among other things, in its building art.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Russia, in turn, inherited the role of patron of the Orthodox Church, the title of emperor, as well as the emblem of the House of Palailogos, the two-headed eagle, after the marriage of Sophia, the last emperor's niece, to Ivan III.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Ivan IV became the first Russian emperor, or tsar.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Since the 16th century, Russia has often considered itself the heir to Byzantium and the third Rome.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[25] [23] [26] Geography, Economy, Peoples and Languages At birth, Byzantium was formed of three distinct and very different geographical regions: Asia Minor, namely Anatolia, the Balkans, and the Levant (Middle East and Egypt).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The sea both separated and connected these areas to each other.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The land area is characterised by coastal plains, highlands, as well as mountain ranges.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The main industry of Byzantium as well as the Roman Empire was farming.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Farming was concentrated in coastal areas, while more cattle husbandry was practiced in the high plains.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Egypt's importance as a producer of both grain and tax revenues was very high.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Other prosperous provinces included Syria, Mesopotamia, Euphratensis, Osroene, Phoenicia, Palestine and Cilicia.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result of the loss of these areas, state revenues are estimated to have dropped by a quarter.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[27] Administratively, the territory of the empire had been divided into Peruvian provinces of the ancient Roman Empire.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the 6th century, the division was replaced by a new division into so-called themes (thema).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Each theme was commanded by strategos, who also oversaw the civil and economic management of their region.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[28] As the boundaries of the kingdom changed, the theme lodge was also changed.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Some of the key cities to Byzantium were (with the Empire at its most extensive under Emperor Justinian I), besides the capital Constantinople, Rome, Ravenna, Naples and Syracuse in Italy; Alexandria and Carthage in Africa; Thessaloniki and Athens in the Balkans; Antioch, Nicea, Ephesus, Ankara, Seleukia, Caesarea, Melitene, Seleukia and Trebizond in Asia Minor; Herson in Crimea; and Jerusalem, Emesa and Damascus in the Levant.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Of these, Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Ravenna and Carthage were the capitals of the prefectures and Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem were the seat of the patriarchates.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[27] In the Middle Ages, Greco-Roman urban culture regressed.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

From the old polis centers moved to the more easily defensible hills around the fortifications (castro).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The capital, Constantinople, formed as the only major urban center.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[4] All cities depended on the countryside of their immediate surroundings.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Transportation of products by land was expensive and cumbersome, and therefore water transportation was more central.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Only cities with a port managed to develop into major centers of trade.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantium inherited the road network of ancient Rome, but the maintenance of roads gradually deteriorated considerably.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[27] Road transport was operated by cursus publicus, a governmental transportation and horse exchange system.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[29] Byzantium was a multinational kingdom thanks in part to its geographical scope.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In addition to the Greeks, especially in its early centuries, the kingdom included Latin-speaking populations, Syrians, Egyptians, Armenians, Slavs, Albanians, Bulgars and Jews.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The population was united by the Greek language and, in the early centuries, also Latin, which was spoken not only in Italy and the Balkans, but especially in coastal areas.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Latin served as the official language until 620 and was especially used as the language of legislation.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Subsequently, the importance of the Greek language as the maintainer of Romanism grew and the population became increasingly Greek.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Greekness was accentuated above all by the kingdom's loss of much of its territory over the centuries.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[1] [30] The administration of the Emperor Byzantine Empire continued the Roman Empire without historical breaks.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[5] The emperor was an autocrat ruler who was seen to receive his power directly from God and was appointed by God.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Despite this, it was also seen that it was possible to overthrow the emperor if it was God's will.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Power was often disputed, with coups also taking place as a result.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[3] The most prominent ruler lineages of Byzantium were: ruler family of Leo (457—518) Heracleius ruler family (610—711) Isaurian ruler family (717—802) Amorian, or Phrygian ruler family (820—867) Macedonian ruler family (867—867) 1056) Komnenos ruler family (1057—1185) The ruler family of the Angelos (1185—1204) Laskarinen ruler family (1204—1261) The ruler family of the Palaiologos (1261—1453) The Senate and officials The Senate in Constantinople continued the legacy of the Roman Senate.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Senate of Constantinople originally consisted of 300 senators, but later the number grew to thousands.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Senators held the hereditary title clarissimus.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Other senatorial positions included illustris and spectabilis.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The position of senators was primarily based on land ownership.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The senatorial mastery played a significant part in fostering the old Greco-Roman cultural heritage.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[31] The Byzantine system of government was complex and included a number of different posts and titles, forming a strict hierarchy of officials.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Senators originally had exclusive authority over the highest offices in both the capital and the provinces.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As time passed, the importance of belonging to the old senatorial statute diminished, as posts in the emperor's court were also determined meritocratically, along with pedigree background.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Acting at the emperor's court gradually formed as the most significant path to social exaltation.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

At the same time, the conflict of interests between the central government in Constantinople and the land-owning upper class, among other things, in the enforcement of taxation in the provinces grew, leading to civil wars as well.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[31] The army of the Byzantine Empire evolved from the army of the Roman Empire that preceded it.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The army changed under Emperor Diocletian from traditional heavy legions to encompassing more cavalry.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine army was famous for its heavy catafraction cavalry.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Roman army was later reorganized under Emperor Heracleios according to the new themed system.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The war force consisted of both volunteers and men received through taxation coupled warfare.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[28] Foreign mercenaries became more common over time.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The highest-paid soldiers were cavalry with bows washed from men of the Turkish-Tatar peoples of Central Asia.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The element of this first-strike force in the tactic was first to barge at the enemy, shoot and retreat.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The art of archery on horseback is extremely difficult to achieve, but was mastered by Turkish nomadic tribes.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The most famous and secret weapon of Byzantium was the Greek fire, very significant in the world of that time, with its deterrent effect.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the 1070s, the Byzantine army experienced a crushing defeat at the Battle of Manzikert, from which it never recovered.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Taxation One key function of the bureaucratic administrative apparatus was the collection of taxation for the central power.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[19] Byzantine taxation was based on both the land tax and the strict control of land property required by him, and on the intellectual tax.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the beginning, the land and intellectual tax had been combined so that taxation took into account the number of able-bodied persons a given land (capitatio-jugation principle).


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Later, land tax (canon) and spirit tax (kapnikon, “home stove”) were separated.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In addition to these taxes, various additional taxes were required by the state for, among other things, public works and domestication.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Over time, the system evolved to become complex and also corrupt.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[32] Beginning in the 12th century, taxation rights (pronoia) began to be allocated to private people in respect of certain territories as well.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Initially, rights were granted only to members of the ruling Komnenos family.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Under the influence of the Crusades and the western feudal system, rights began to be distributed more widely in the 13th century.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result, the portion of tax revenue received by the state decreased while the financial burden caused by the upper class increased.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As a result, the land began to be charged rent to peasants as well.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

As the kingdom's land area contracted as a result of the conquests, the importance of the taxation of commerce (kommerkion) increased in the late Byzantine times.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[32] From the 13th century onwards, the emperors of the House of Palaiologos, who ruled, were in trouble as the Byzantine economy weakened and did not invent healing medicines for it, but rather spurred the downhill pace of the economy.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

For example, Italians had been granted trade advantages that meant a reduction in state customs revenues.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

However, export production of luxury goods was able to continue.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Silk, gold brocade, jewelry and other arts and crafts products were made.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

However, the state intervened in these through taxation and restrictions, which benefited the Italians.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine government kept the domestic consumer sides, but at the same time weakened the economics of export companies.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Employment of the subjects was also taken care of, but it undermined the profitability of companies because there were too many wage earners.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Emperors of the House of Palaiologos increasingly resorted to degrading money to get the state finances in order.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Eventually the Crown Jewels were also sold, which were replaced with fake stones.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

It has been said that Byzantium's long struggle to die was first and foremost a state economic tragedy.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[33] Culture Byzantine culture was very Constantinopole-centric.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[4] Byzantine literature was initially essentially a Christian-coloured continuation of ancient Greek literature, and no clear boundary between ancient and Byzantine literature can be drawn.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

During the 5th and 6th centuries, the weight of theological literature increased and the volume of secular literature contracted.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Secular literature flowed beginning in the 8th century as ancient literary traditions began to be revived, rising in the years 1000—1200 to its highest heyday.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[19] Byzantine art was conservative and respected tradition.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

After the pictorial strife, the art of painting became schematic.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the last centuries of Byzantium, high-level art was again created outside Constantinople.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Western influence increased and art took on more diverse forms.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[19] Of great note are the miniatures adorning the manuscripts.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The main monuments of building art are the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of the Holy Wisdom in Constantinople (built 532—537), which was through medieval Christendom the largest church, and the Basilica di San Marco in Venice.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Byzantine art still lives on in the church art of the Orthodox Church.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Church was a major player, and Christianity was a central part of Byzantine culture and society.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

In the Empire, no clear boundary was made between state and church.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

The relationship between church and state was described as harmonious, i.e., “symphony” or “harmony”.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

Church and state saw themselves together as defenders of Orthodoxy, or orthodox Christian faith.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[34] [35] [36] The Byzantine period saw the development of those liturgical forms that are still in use throughout the Orthodox Church.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[37] The two main features of Byzantine philosophy were Hellenistic rationalism and Christian tradition.


Question: When was the Byzantine Empire destroyed?

Byzantine Empire

[7] Byzantine philosophy was characterised by a close association with Christian worldview and theology, but drew much influence and thought from ancient Greek philosophical texts, particularly from Plato, Aristotle, and the Neo-Platonists.