Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Having helped prevent revolutions, Nicholas seemed the most powerful ruler in Europe.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Despite the general atmosphere, Russian culture still rose to its heyday, Aleksandr Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol and Ivan Turgenev brought international fame and glory to Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Ballet was imported from France and established itself thanks to the compositions of Mikhail Glinka (1804—1857).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

With the nationality cause, philosophers split into two schools, others still seeing Russia as backward and primitive, and sought to promote Westernization.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Still others focused on Slavic culture and disparaged Western influences.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As Nikolai sought to maintain the existing situation in Europe, he took a firm stance in charge of the Ottoman Empire.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Following Russia's traditional position as patron of the Orthodox, he aspired to be the protector of the Balkan Orthodoxies dominated by the Turks.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russia waged a victorious war against the Ottoman forces in 1828 and 1829 and concluded the 1833 Treaty of Unkiar-Skeliss.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Under the cover of his international standing strengthened by the overthrow of the Revolutions of 1848, he provoked the Ottoman into the War of 1853 by conquering Moldavia and Wallachia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Fearing Russia would defeat the Ottoman, Britain and the French joined the side of the Turks in the Crimean War.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

European forces recaptured the Russian fortified Sevastopol base after a one-year siege in September 1854.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nicholas I died before the end of the war, but after the loss of Sevastopol and the rise to power of Alexander II, peace negotiations began and the war ended with the Peace of Paris on 30 March 1856.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[44] [45] Alexander II Alexander II succeeded his father in 1855.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He was a conservative, but reforms were bound to be made.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He reformed education, administration, law enforcement, and the military.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1861, he freed 20 million serfs from the power of his masters.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Land was distributed to the farm laborers, but they had to pay dues to the state for fifty years.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The losses of the hosts were offset by bonds.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The government had hoped the freed would be able to support themselves and produce enough crops to export and offset government spending.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the land distributed to the peasants was the poorest and due to inefficient farming methods, the peasants soon fell behind on their payments.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The value of landowners' bonds plummeted, and many were no longer able to farm the entire land they owned without labour and capital.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Local government restructuring followed the emancipation of slaves.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The European part of Russia was organized into provinces and districts (zemstva), whose management was attended by representatives of all social classes, and which were responsible for schools, health care, roads, prisons and food distribution.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1870, urban councils, dumat, were established.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The administration was often held by the former upper class.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1864, Western-style law courts with juries were established in major cities.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The new jurisprudence worked well, but the state did not have the funds to expand it to smaller villages.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Censorship was revoked in part, and public debate was required on some issues before decision-making.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the 1866 attempt was made to assassinate Alexander II, censorship returned, and the universities again lost the independence they had gained five years earlier.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The government also tried to impose a curriculum for school education, but lacked the resources to implement it.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The State Bank of Russia was established in 1866 to stabilize the currency.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

One of the goals of the emancipation of serfs was the intensification of the military, before a serf could not leave his owner for military training only to go back to being a slave.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Bureaucracy slowed the reform of the army until the Franco-Prussian War of 1870—1871 seemed indispensable for the creation of a modern army.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The introduction of the call-out system in 1874 led to the duty of the Army to teach soldiers to be literate.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Still, despite the reforms, the army remained a backwater, with Russia falling behind the rest in the deployment of rifles, machine guns and artillery, and in the field of navy.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Revolutionaries assassinated Alexander II with a homemade bomb on 1 March 1881.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Into power came to power was his son Alexander III (reigned 1881—1894), who continued to tighten the grip of the regime by organizing the police as Ohrana, which was placed under the control of the Ministry of the Interior and given special powers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In an attempt to save Russia from modernism, Alexander III enacted religious censorship, persecuted minority religions and peoples, initiated persecutions of Jews, and reduced the authority of universities.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Poles, Finns, Latvians, Lithuanians and Ukrainians reacted to unification efforts with accelerating nationalism and many Jews joined radical movements.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[46] Foreign Policy After the ill-ended Crimean War, Russia pursued a cautious foreign policy.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The 1856 Treaty of Paris had demilitarized the Black Sea and deprived Russia of Bessarabia and a strip of land at the mouth of the Danube.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Western European states gained the right to protect Christians of the Ottoman Empire rather than Russia, which had had this right since 1774 until the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainirj.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Alexander II's first objective was to once again gain access to his warship from the Bosphorus.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Britain and Austria (from 1867 Austria-Hungary) were considered the major obstacles to this plan, so France, Prussia and the United States became important partners.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Prussia (from 1871 the German Empire) replaced Britain as banker.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the Crimean War, the policy of expansion was continued in the direction of the Caucasus.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Numerous Muslim people—Chechens, Cherkesis and Dagestans—continued to resist despite numerous operations.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

It was not until the troops captured legendary Chechen leader Šamili's 1859 conquests that the 1859 conquests could be resumed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Tashkent was conquered from Kodand (Quqon) Khanate and Samarkand region from the Emirate of Buhara in 1868.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Khanates retained autonomy until 1917.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Following the United States, Britain, and France, Russia established relations with Japan and Britain and France acquired concessions from China in the Second Opium War of 1856—1860.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the Treaty of Aigun 1858 and the Treaty of Peking 1860 Russia received from China the territories north of the Amur and the Ussuri River, totaling more than one million km [34] [35], and began building a port and base at Vladivostok.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In order to secure the Amurin—Ussuri area and obtain funds, Alaska was sold to the United States in 1867.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As part of its European policy, Russia supported French anti-Austrian diplomacy, but cooperation tapered off.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russia more firmly supported Prussia, accepting German reunification at the price of the Black Sea issue.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This goal was achieved at the London Conference of 1871 after Prussia defeated France in the German-French War.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

United Germany became the most powerful state in Europe, allying with the Union of Three Emperors with Austria-Hungary and Russia in 1873 to prevent these from forming an alliance with France.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, Russian and Austro-Hungarian ambitions crossed in the Balkans, where Christian Slavic peoples were under the rule of the weakening Ottoman Empire.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the 1870s, public opinion began to turn to the side of liberating Christians in the Balkans and the annexation of Bulgaria and Serbia as a protectorate of Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1875—1877, there were rebellions in the Balkans in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria, whose rebellions were brutally defeated by the Turks.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The major European powers did not react, but Serbia declared war on the Ottoman.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1877, Russia came to the aid of besieged Serb and Russian volunteer forces by declaring war.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Within a year, the Russian army approached Constantinople and the Ottoman surrendered.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Generals and diplomats called for forcing the Ottoman to sign the Treaty of San Sterfanono, which would have created an independent Bulgaria stretching as far as the northwestern Balkans.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the treaty, and Russia backed down.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

At the Congress of Berlin in July 1878, a smaller Bulgaria was created and the Western Balkans remained to Austria-Hungary.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russian nationalists infuriated Austria-Hungary and Germany for their lack of support, but a renewed alliance of three emperors remained in effect.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The military focus shifted again to Central Asia, where had been defeated by a series of rebellions in the 1870s.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Britain became concerned again in 1881 after Russian forces occupied the Turkmen lands on the Persian and Afghan borders, but war was averted after Germany gave its support to Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Meanwhile, in Bulgaria, dissatisfaction with Russian meddling in its affairs grew, and the country turned to Austro-Hungary.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Germany supported Austria, but pacified Russia by entering into a bilateral defense alliance in 1887.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After a year, however, Bismarck banned further loans to Russia, and French took over as the main financier.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck in 1890, the German-Russian military alliance ended, and Russia entered into an alliance with France three years later, to counterbalance the 1879 German—Austro-Hungarian alliance.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[45] The early stages of industrialization throughout the second half of the 19th century Russia developed more economically slower than other states.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As giant as Russia was, it could neither create nor memorize enough capital for industrialisation.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[47] France sought to invest significantly in Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Swedish Nobel family is well known for its investments in the oil fields of Baku.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In terms of population it was considerably larger than its western counterparts, but the majority of the population lived in rural areas, engaging in small-scale farming.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Four-fifths of the rural population were former serfs and state peasants.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

20% of the agricultural land was large farms over 50 km², but they were rarely cultivated as a single unit.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Between 1850 and 1900, the population doubled, but the land remained agricultural-dominated well into the 20th century.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Between 1850 and 1910, population growth was fastest among the major powers, with the exception of the United States.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Industrial growth was significant but volatile and not very extensive.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The most industrialized regions were Moscow, the central regions on the European side, St. Petersburg, the Baltic cities, Russian Poland and some areas along the Don and Dnieper rivers and the southern regions of the Ural Mountains.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

By 1890 Russia had 32000 km of railway and 1.4 million factory workers, most in the textile industry.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Between 1860 and 1890 coal production had increased by 1200% to 6.6 million tonnes per year and steel and iron were produced by 2 million tons per year.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[48] Revolutionary movements The reforms of Alexander II, especially the relenting of censorship, led to a freer expression of political opinions.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

While the government sought to win support for its policies in era and newspaper publications, movements critical of the government and exclusivity also got out loud.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the 1860s—1880s, the radicals were known by the generic name Narodniks and mostly focused on peasant affairs, which they referred to as narod (people).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the 1860s, Nikolai Chernychevsky suggested that Russia could move directly to socialism, bypassing capitalist society.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Other radicals included anarchist Mikhail Bakunin and his associate Sergei Netshayev, who called for direct action.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Pyotr Tkatchev spoke out against Marxism, arguing that revolutionaries had to act before capitalism developed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As a result of the failure, in 1876, the propaganda organization Zemlja i volja (Earth and Freedom) was created, which relied on terrorism.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The group was renamed the Narodnaya volja ('The Will of the People') three years later, under which name it operated in connection with the 1881 assassination of Alexander II.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1887, Aleksandr Ulyanov, an 1887 member of the Cherny Peredel (Black Division) propaganda group, attempted the assassination of Emperor Alexander III.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Authorities caught up with him and he was executed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The execution shocked Aleksandr's younger brother Vladimir Ulyanov, who joined the People's Will Organization and later adopted the pseudonym Lenin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[49] Alexander III Alexander III (reigned 1881—1894) ascended after the illness and death of his brother in 1865 and, due to the murder of his father, to the throne on 14 March 1881.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Already in his Coronation Manifesto, he stated plainly that no changes were coming to the autocratic form of government, nor did he change his mind later.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In his view, Russia would be saved from agitation by anarchists and revolutionaries the same values espoused by the older generation of Slavophiles — nationality, orthodoxy and autocracy.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

For him, an idealistic state would consist of a single nationality, language, religion and government.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This would be achieved by setting Russian as the school language for Germans, Poles and Finnish subjects, and by destroying the remaining remnants of German, Polish and Swedish institutions from the outer provinces.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

With accelerating industrialization in the late 19th century, Russian backwardness reached critical relations, the 1891 decay claimed half a million lives.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In return, extensive, but costly, renewal projects were needed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

To implement these was appointed Minister of Finance in 1892 Sergei Witte.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He organized foreign borrowing, organized an unstable currency to the gold standard, and accelerated the development of heavy industry, which included the construction of the Siberian Railway.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

These actions were intended to modernize the country and secure the Russian far east against the threat of Japan and China.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Despite the late-century slump, coal, iron and oil output tripled, and Russia rose in number of rail miles to second place behind the United States.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yet grain production and exports did little to grow, and doubling government spending ate up some of the economic growth.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[50] Industrialization increased the number of factory workers in cities.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Much of the industry was held by state and foreign owners, leaving the laborers with considerable influence in the absence of a rich bourgeoisie.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the 1890s—20th centuries, unhappy working and living conditions, high taxes, and the poor status of peasants led to many strikes and disorganization.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

These also encouraged political organization.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Poles in Russia, hardest hit by periods of repression, founded the Polish Socialist Party in Paris in 1892.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The party's founders hoped to unify a Poland divided between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Jewish laborers founded the 1897 Party (Bund), which gained support in western Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party was founded 1898.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Finns remained separate, but the Gruusians and Latvian Social Democrats joined the Russian Party.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the south, politically active Muslim peoples were attracted by Islamic unity and pan-Turkism.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the United Socialist-Revolutionary Party, born on the basis of the Narodnik movement, was formed as the largest party, with a mainly agrar-socialist agenda.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The young Vladimir Ulyanov was exiled for 1895—1899 to Siberia, where he took the name Lenin after the Lena River.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In December 1900, he founded the Iskra magazine ('Spark'), believing that a magazine produced abroad could create an organized revolutionary party to oust autocracy.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He also acted to create the VSDTP strictly organized and unified.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

At the second party congress of 1903, he forced the Federation of Jews to walk out, and was expelled from the party by the Menshevik fact, believing in spontaneous activity of workers rather than centralist guidance.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[51] On the death of Nicholas II Alexander III on 1 November 1894, the power was inherited by his eldest son Nicholas II.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nicholas was ill-prepared for his rise to power due to the early death of his father, and relied on his wife and his cousin, Emperor William II of Germany.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nikolai and his wife Aleksandra Fyodorovna (born Alix von Hessen-Darmstadt) and court tended to mysticism.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This was highlighted by the haemorrhagic disease suffered by heir to the throne Aleksei (d. 1904), at which point the Tsarist family sought help from the mystic Grigory Rasputini, who claimed to be able, by the power of prayer, to stop the bleeding.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

At the turn of the century, Russia gained space to expand in Asia thanks to accelerating competition from Britain and Germany.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

1895 Germany competed with France for the popularity of Russia, and the British government hoped to negotiate a treaty for a division of interests in Asia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Thus Russia came in between at the conclusion of the Japan-China War of 1895.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the negotiations, Japan was forced to retreat and cede the Liaotung Peninsula and Port Arthur in southern Manchuria.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1900, the Chinese responded to the encroachment of foreign powers with the Boksar Revolt, which was defeated by European, U.S. and Japanese forces.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

180,000 Russian troops fought in Manchuria to keep possession of its newly completed railroad.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Japan demanded that the United States and British-backed Russia withdraw from Manchuria, Minister Witte and a few diplomats were prepared to swap the territory for Korea, but courtiers, navy and army representatives, and the emperor rejected Japan's threats, despite its alliance with Britain.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Japan declared war in February 1904.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In January 1905, Japan conquered Port Arthur after an eight-month blockade, and in March Russian forces were pushed north of Mukden.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In October 1904, the Baltic Fleet, sent to aid, attacked British fishing vessels at Doggermataliko and suffered a crushing defeat in May 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[52] [53] Revolution of 1905 Interior Minister Vyacheslav von Plehwe was assassinated on 28 July 1904.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[52] The extensive strike, which began in December 1904, had left St. Petersburg without electricity and newspapers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On January 22, 1905, a peaceful march in Saint Petersburg with the intention of taking an appeal to the Emperor to the Winter Palace resulted in a massacre when nervous security forces opened fire.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Known as Blood Sunday, the event claimed up to thousands of casualties and led to a general strike and rioting.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Seventy protesters were shot in Riga and more than 100 in Warsaw.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In February, the army lost 90,000 men in combat against Japan.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The strikes spread to the Caucasus and in April to the rear of the Urals.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In May, nearly the entire fleet was lost at Tsushima.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Navy detachments mutinied in Sevastopol, Vladivostok and Kronstadt.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In June, the crew of the tank ship Potemkin mutinied sailing their ships to Romania.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As many as 2000 sailors were executed to restore order.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the October Manifesto, written by Witte and Aleksis Obolensky, the emperor finally conceded to the recognition of basic human rights, to allow political parties and to the right to vote.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nicholas II himself regretted the manifesto that led to the end of autocracy.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The strikes ended shortly after the manifesto.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The unrest and diplomatic pressure that led to the 1905 Revolution forced Russia into peace with Japan.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In an agreement brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, Russia ceded the southern part of Sakhalin Island to Japan, recognizing its domination over Korea and Manchuria.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The first National Duma was elected in March 1906.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Socialists boycotted the elections, so the Constitutional-Democratic Party (K-D; Cadets) rose to the lead.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nicholas II sacked Witte and elected Pyotr Stolypin a more sympathetic Pyotr Stolypin as his prime minister.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Relations between the Duma and the government remained tense.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Stolypin was assassinated on 18 September 1911 [54].


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Due to the new requirements and acting as a “hotbed of agitation”, the Emperor sacked the First Duma in July 1906.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Left parties gained plenty of seats in the Second Duma, but the deadlock continued, and the Second Duma was dismissed in June 1907.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The new electoral law reduced the influence of the poor and minority nationalities, and the Third Duma became more conservative dominated by the Octobrists (the 17 October Movement).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[55] One of Stolypin's reforms was a new land law that went into effect on 22 November 1906, which allowed private ownership and sought to break up the traditional village commune.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[56] He thus hoped to create a new class of landowners loyal to the Tsar.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, most peasants were unwilling to give up community security or allow outsiders to buy land.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

By 1914, only a tenth of the commune had been dismantled.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The economy grew significantly between 1907 and 1914, with steel production exceeding those of France and Austro-Hungary.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

By manipulating suffrage rights, the government organized the Duma to its liking, but less representative of the people, and if necessary it was bypassed entirely by imperial edicts.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The implementation of civil rights was postponed, and neither the laborers nor the Orthodox Church were allowed to organize themselves as they wished.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Repressive measures against Poles, Finns, Jews, Ukrainians and Old Believers were resumed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[57] Balkans To protect its strategic and economic interests, Russia went into a trialliance with Britain and France.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the Balkans, Russia competed with Austria-Hungary.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1908, Foreign Minister Aleksandr Izvolski agreed to support the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied by Austria since 1878, into Austria in exchange for an agreement on Bosphorus and Dardanelles neutrality.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, Britain was categorically opposed to this, allowing Austria to gain Bosnia without any counter-concessions.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russian and Serbian dissatisfaction with this led to an international crisis known as the Bosnian crisis.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

As Russia did not dare to wage war for Serbia's sake against the Tri-League, the crisis was triggered in March 1909 by the Russo-Serbian retreat.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On 31 August 1911, Russia concluded a military treaty with France and on 16 July 1912 a naval treaty [58].


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1912, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro were beaten by the Ottoman in the First Balkan War, but in 1913 the alliance was broken and the Serbs, Greeks and Romanians were defeated in the Second Bulgarian War.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Austria-Hungary now became the patron of Bulgaria and Germany of the Ottoman Empire.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russia, in turn, allied itself with Serbia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The complex network of alliance relations was extremely unstable with Bulgaria and Serbia being rivals of each other and the Serb resentment against Austria-Hungary over the annexation of the Serb territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In June 1914, Serb terrorist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Frans Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which it considered culpable.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Although Serbia was ready to concede for the most part, for Austria the answer was invalid and it withdrew its envoy from Serbia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the Austrian declaration of war on 28 July, the network of alliance relations went into action following Russia's declaration of 1909 support for Serbian independence, German support for Austria-Hungary and French Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After Germany invaded France through Belgium, the war escalated into a world war.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[59] World War I Russia's large population allowed it to equip more troops than Germany and Austria-Hungary combined.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the troops were as poorly armed as Austria's, and for Germany the Russian army did not fare as in number of troops.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the early stages, the invasion of East Prussia tied up the German forces enough for the Western Allies to halt the German attack.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Russian II Army, however, was almost completely destroyed at the Battle of Tannenberg, and forced a withdrawal from East Prussia, after which Russia was throughout the rest of the war on the defensive against Germany.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Austro-Hungarian attack was repulsed and the counterattack advanced into eastern Galitsia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the 1915 German—Austrian Spring and Summer Offensive drove the Russians from Galitsia and Poland and resulted in extensive losses.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Circum-Powers had already agreed upon the territorial changes caused by the victory, Russia had to receive East Galitsia from Austria-Hungary, East Prussia from Germany, and Armenia from the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war; in addition, control of Constantinople, Bosporus and the Darnells.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[60] The February Revolution German control of the Baltic Sea and Ottoman rule at the mouth of the Black Sea soon led to goods shortages and severe inflation.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

A Military Industrial Committee was set up to ensure the return of military equipment.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the military leadership did not trust the civilian administration and took control of the administration of the front areas, refusing to cooperate with the committee.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Duma was mired in conflict with the war bureaucracy and the government, and center-left delegates set up their own bloc in 1915, which demanded a government installed by the Duma.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the defeats of 1915, Nicholas II left for the front and assumed the position of nominal commander-in-chief from his uncle.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He was now linked to every adversity in the military.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Left in the capital were his German-born wife, Aleksandra, and the debauched Rasputin, who now wielded significant power in politics and the appointment of ministers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1916, the price of food and fuel shortages caused strikes in some towns.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Workers who had gained seats on the Military Industries Committee took advantage of it to create a political opposition opposed to the government.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The countryside, too, began to become restless.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Soldiers, especially the rural population, who had a good chance of becoming cannon fodder because of the unworthiness of war-leadership, became unruly and unwilling.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Of the 15 million soldiers sent to the front, 7.8 million had been killed or wounded.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[61] In December 1916, a group of nobles decided to get rid of Rasputini and he was murdered.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The increasing confrontation between the Duma and the emperor's government branded both incapable of their actions.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In early 1917, rail transportation capacity collapsed leading to fuel and food shortages.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

There was rioting and picketing in Petrograd, the strike expanded into a general strike from 25 February.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

General S. Habalov, who commanded Petrograd's 160,000 man force, was ordered to pacify the city.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The next day several hundred were shot, but the strike continued on the 27th.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The troops were again ordered to the streets, but they turned to the protesters, setting up the Petrograd Workers' and Soldiers' Representatives Council.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Duma established an executive committee, which on 15 March, with the support of the Petrograd Council, was organized into an interim government.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Prince Georgi Lvov became Prime Minister of the government.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Duma also decided on the creation of a Constituent Assembly, but its elections were postponed until autumn.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Britain and France recognized an ad hoc committee set by the Duma as the legitimate government of Russia on March 14.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Representatives of the new government met Nicholas II on the evening of the 15th in Pskov, where he manifesto renounced the crown, appointing his brother Michael as his successor.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He said he would agree, only in case the Constituent Assembly asked him to be emperor.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[62] [63] [64] [65] October Revolution and Civil War In the October Revolution, councils dominated by Lenin's Bolshevik Party seized power from Aleksandr Kerensky's provisional government on 25 October 1917 (7 November according to the modern calendar).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This was followed by a bloody civil war.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Russian Civil War was fought between “Red” communists and revolutionaries and “White” monarchists, conservatives and liberals opposed to revolution.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

A group of nationalists and anarchists referred to as “The Greens” also played a smaller part.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Other countries in the Triple Entente, formed by Russia, the United Kingdom and France, joined the Whites side.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The war broke out fully underway in March 1919.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The White armies advanced from the south under Anton Denik, in the Baltics under Nikolai Judenich, and in the east under Aleksandr Kolchak towards Petrograd and Moscow.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the Red Army formed by Lev Trotsky was repulsed by Kolchak forces in June, Judenich in October.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

These armies collapsed almost simultaneously in mid-November.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Tsarist family was imprisoned in Siberia, Yekaterinburg, where they were shot by the Bolsheviks on July 17, 1918, ending the dynasty of the Romanovs that began since 1613.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Russian Empire existed from the 1721—1917 conquests of Peter the Great to Russian expansion from the Baltics to the Pacific until the February Revolution of 1917, when Emperor Nicholas II was deposed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Soviet period See also: Soviet Union Social unrest, saturation with authoritarian emperor rule, combat fatigue caused by World War I, and revolutionism that has long simmered finally led to the 1917 implosion of the Russian Empire.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Power was first taken by a mainly Duma led interim government, which nevertheless fell within a year with the Bolshevit Party assuming the dominant position under its leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The series of events known as the October Revolution, which began with a coup on 7 November 1917, led to a civil war in which the opposing parties included the Socialist Reds and (counter-revolutionaries), whites supported by foreign powers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The civil war ended with the victory of the Red Army, after which conditions calmed down so much that it was possible to establish a new state, the Soviet Union.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In connection with and after the events of 1917, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine gained independence from Imperial Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

By the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty of 3 March 1918 with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, the People's Commissars recognized Ukraine.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the revolution, Soviet Russia was dominated by the Bolshevik Party, which began calling itself communist in March 1918.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After civil war-communism during the civil war, the government began to allow private enterprising alongside nationalised industry.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The seizure of crops in rural areas was replaced by a tax.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Under the New Economic Policy (NEP), the Soviet Union emerged as the world's largest grain producer.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, the underdevelopment of industrial production led to severe inflation and market speculation, resulting in a shortage of food in cities.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After Lenin's death in 1924, there was a power struggle in the party between Lev Trotski, Nikolai Buharin and Josif Stalin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Stalin defeated Trotsky, after his expulsion he nevertheless turned against the moderates to take power in the party and administration.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Buharin was executed as part of Stalin's purges of 1938.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Trotski fled the country initially to Turkey, and then to Mexico, where he was assassinated in 1940.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Under Stalin, the industrially undeveloped Soviet Union was set out to modernize through Stalinism.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

A prosperous peasant class, the kulaks were allowed to experience persecution.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Stalin intensified Soviet totalitarianism by empowering the state police (GPU, OGPU and NKVD).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the 1930s, Stalin carried out purges in which almost the entire former leadership guard was deposed and executed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The terror that departed from this led to extensive incarcerations, during which millions, according to some figures, tens of millions of people were sent to the Archipelago of Prison Camps (GULAG), liquidated or simply disappeared.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Despite this, the Soviet Union developed in the years before the war into a powerful industrial power.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany unexpectedly entered into a non-aggression pact in which they divided Poland among themselves and annexed Finland and the Baltic states into the Soviet sphere of interest.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In accordance with the treaty, the Soviet Union soon afterwards occupied the Baltic states and fought a Winter War against Finland in the winter of 1939—1940.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On June 22, 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Soviets managed to win only by making great sacrifices, and lost more lives than any other country in the war.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

By the end of World War II, the Soviet Union conquered all the territories of the Empire except Finland.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Soviet Union also installed governments of their liking in many Eastern European states with military force.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After World War I and especially the development of a nuclear weapon (1949), Stalin's Soviet Union had elevated to second among the world's superpowers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the winner of the power struggle that followed Stalin's death in 1953.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States struggled for a position of hegemony during the Cold War.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

However, no direct war was ever fought, possibly due to the bulky nuclear reserves of both.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the country.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

He initiated a policy of reform that became known under the names “perestroika” (reform policy) and “glasnost” (transparency).


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1989, politicians calling for reforms won an election for MPs.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The miners went on strike.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Across the Soviet Union, disputes between nationalities arose.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The economy was mired in a deep crisis because of an arms race spiral.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Berlin Wall came down.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In July 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In October, the leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decided that the Soviet Union should be dissolved and a lax federation called the Commonwealth of Independent States be established.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

After the Soviet Union Main article: History of the Russian Federation The Russian Federation emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Between 1992 and 1999, the country was led by President Boris Yeltsin, after which Vladimir Putin ascended to the post.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin's favorite, Dmitry Medvedev, won the 2008 presidential election.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin sought to establish democracy and a market economy in the country by embarking on economic reform by liberalizing prices and foreign trade.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin advocated freedom of press and party activities, and gave the territories great power.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On the other hand, he ran the country by the decrees he enacted.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

With the onset of economic reforms in January 1992, rapid inflation began, causing widespread impoverishment in a pre-existing poor country.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This deprived President Yeltsin of popular popularity.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Under Gorbachev, communists in the elected parliament conspired against Yeltsin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the early 1990s, there were even fears of civil war in volatile, impoverished Russia and the rise of the Liberal Democratic Party, led by far-right Vladimir Žirinovsky.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1993, “red-brown” communists and right-wing extremists attempted an armed coup, failing, and a new constitution centralized power to Yeltsin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The government couldn't collect enough taxes when tax avoidance became more common.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The shortage of money drove the government to it into a loss-making giant privatisation, where those who had already become rich speculated for themselves more assets.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In economic reform, privatised state assets quickly accumulated in the hands of big businessmen, among other things, because citizens sold off their privatisation vouchers.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The rich took capital overseas.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

No salaries were paid in Russia for months and years because of the government's cash shortage.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Organized crime spread.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The army was in a bad state due to lack of money.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Some businessmen and politicians were murdered in the country.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

1994 saw the start of a war against declared independence Chechnya, making President Yeltsin unpopular and blackening Russia's reputation abroad.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The health of the ageing Yeltsin, who suffers from alcoholism, was reeling.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Power was held by an inner circle known as Yeltsin's “family,” divided between businessmen known as economic reformers and those of the security services, the military, etc.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

“gasps”.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin was elected president for the second time in 1996.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The president was backed in the election by big businessmen, oligarchs who feared power would slip to the Communists.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Around the same time, siloviks of the security service began to take over posts in St. Petersburg.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin made peace with Chechnya with the help of General Lebed, separating the war hawks from his regime.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the second half of the 1990s, infighting between top-rich businessmen, oligarchs, began to become increasingly evident in Russian politics.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1998, there was a banking crisis in Russia that brought down many banks and many oligarchs who trusted banking lost their wealth.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin's policies were criticized as creative with instability and dispersion, and he was accused of corruption.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In 1999, bombs exploded in Moscow and a youthful Prime Minister Vladimir Putin with a security service background started the Second Chechen War.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Yeltsin stayed out of the post of president at the end of the year, recommending Mr Putin as future president.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Recent Russian History Putin's reign The policies Putin pursued have been called Putinism.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin has advocated firm governance by the state in domestic politics.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In a few years, Putin brushed aside his political rivals, Yeltsin's faction, oligarchs and leaders of the regions out of politics.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Thus, representatives of the power ministries, the security service, the military and the interior ministry, or siloviks, led by Putin, won the Russian power struggle.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In this case, Russia moved mainly to the control of the security service FSB.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Under Yeltsin, general talk of Russia breaking up stopped.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In a fairly straightforward, but veiled manner, Putin sought to thwart opposition expressions of mind by narrowing democracy and freedom of expression.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin acquired control of the state TV stations that criticized him.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Some dissenting oligarchs left, under pressure from Putin, to go into exile.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin's support party was the right-wing conservative Kremlin-controlled United Russia, which became the largest party in the Duma.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin opposed political extremism such as fascism and also the most ardent pro-Western.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On the other hand, Putin restored some Soviet emblems and customs to use.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin's government favored the Orthodox Church, which developed into Russia's state ideology.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Siloviks opposed Western-type political parliamentarianism and advocated a strong Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

They seek to acquire direct or indirect ownership of key sectors of the economy such as the energy sector.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Thus, with the help of the security police, the silovikes holding power also had the plutocracy on their hands.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On the other hand, Putin was also in favor of economic reforms and did not threaten with arrests those oligarchs who did not stand in opposition against him.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin's intention was to oversee a unified Russia toward rapid economic growth.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The country stabilized politically from Yeltsin's times and its economy was on the rise, taxes were collected more efficiently than under Yeltsin and wages and pensions were mostly paid.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Fighting between criminals in Moscow quieted down.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The people were pleased with this.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The growth of the economy was partly driven by higher oil prices, and little new type of internationally competitive industry has emerged.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Accordingly, it was feared that economic growth was not on a secure footing.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Innovation and infrastructure upgrading were still behind us.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

There was still glaring economic inequality in the country.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Corruption worsened and crime was still rampant, though fewer murders occurred.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin or his aides are also suspected of using illegal means to silence their opponents, an example of this is considered to be the murder of Litvinenko.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The army was still weak despite reforms and corruption began to become more common there.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Fascism and hatred of other nationalities reared its head in some areas under Putin.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Putin was succeeded as president in 2008 by his endorsement of Dmitry Medvedev, who won the election as expected.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Medvedev is a so-called technocrat who is not in favour of such hard grips as Putin but neither does he believe in the potential of Western-style democracy in Russia.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In early 2010, Putin appeared to be playing an increasingly prominent role in Russian politics as prime minister.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In the fall of 2011, Putin announced that he wanted to be president, and he was thought to win the election.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

United Russia lost seats in Duma elections seen as fraudulent to other major parties.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

For a long time there were quite large stretches of interest in the country after the election results came out.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Mm.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Mironov and Prohorov intended to challenge Putin, but these were not thought to win the election.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

In March 2012, Putin was elected president with a 63% vote share.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Ukraine 2014 Putin triggered the Crimean crisis when he deployed Russian army special forces to the territory of the independent state of Ukraine into Crimea in March 2014.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[66] This had been preceded by an uprising in Kiev which resulted in pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych being forced to flee the Ukrainian capital on 22 February 2014.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[67] According to a survey published by the Russian State Opinion Polling Institute on 24 February 2014, 73% of Russians agreed that Russia should not react to the revolution that took place in Ukraine.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[68] However, the Russian military took control of the Crimean region and replaced the regional administration on 27 February 2014 with a pro-Russian administration led by the new Prime Minister of Crimea, Sergey Aksjonov.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

This new administration held a referendum on 16 March 2014 to join Russia under conditions of occupation, where there was no real option to remain part of Ukraine.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[69] [70] Putin and the Russian leadership lied during the crisis that the insignified military forces are not Russian special forces, but “the self-defense forces of the Crimean region.”


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

It was only after Crimea was annexed to Russia that Putin, in a speech praising the striking capability of Russia's war forces, admitted on 28 March 2014 that Crimea was militarily taken over by the Russian military.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

[71] Freedom of speech and propaganda Russia restricted since 2012 the activities of foreign agents and since 2015 the activities of unwanted organizations.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

On the other hand, the government supported patriotic organizations, including Cossacks and the motorcycle club Wolves of the Night.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Russia was slipping towards wartime censorship and believed Russia's freedom of speech situation was deteriorating further, according to a spokesman for the Foundation for Freedom of Speech.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Interviews aired by actors were shown on Russian channels which, for example, reported the killing of civilians in Ukraine by the United States, Germany and other countries.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Western countries did not have any soldiers in Ukraine at all during the crisis.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The Russians' perception of the situation was shaped especially by TV channels.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

The longtime general manager of the most prominent critical radio channel, Eho Moskvy, was dismissed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

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Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

) | title = Russian history| location = Helsing| publisher = Otava| year = 2000| id = ISBN 951-1-15799-X}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Vahtola, Troop| title = Finnish History: From Ice Age to European Union| location = Helsing| publisher = Otava | year = 2003| id = ISBN 951-1-17397-9}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Curtis, Glenn E.| title = Russia| location = Washington| publisher = GPO for the Library of Congress| year = 1996| language = Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

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History of Russia

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Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Development of Russian statehood in 862—2000| location = Helsinki| publisher = Edita| year = 2001| version = Kleio| id = ISBN 951-37-3300-9}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Luukkanen, Arto| title = Changes in Russia: History of Russia 862—2009| location = Helsinki| publisher = Edita| year = 2009| version = Based on the author's works Does Russia break up?


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

and Land of Councils.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

Kleio| id = ISBN 978-951-37-5438-9}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Oittinen, Vesa (ed.


Question: When did historic Russia first become independent?

History of Russia

) | title = Russia and Europe: Russian idea in the 19th century| location = Tampere| publisher = Equipoise: Alexander Institute| year = 2007| version = Englishers: Anita Mitroshin and others | id = ISBN 978-951-768-199-5}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Pursiainen, Christer| title = Russian idea, utopia and mission| location = Helsinki| publisher = Gaudeamus| year = 1999| version = Foreign Policy Institute publications No. 6| id = ISBN 951-662-759-5}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Pyykkö, Rite| title = Country where everything is possible: Writings About Russia| location = Turku| publisher = Book-Aurora| year = 2002| id = ISBN 951-29-2294-0}} On topic elsewhere e-book in Internet Archive Check date values in: |date= (help) * Category:Key articles of screening


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Guam () is the largest island of the Mariana Islands group in the Pacific Ocean, 48 kilometres long and 14 kilometres wide, that has come under U.S. control since the 1898 war between Spain and the United States.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The capital of the island is Hagåtña (formerly Agaña).


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Geography Guam of volcanic origin is the largest and northwesternmost island in the Mariana Islands.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The northern part of the island consists of a fairly flat coral limestone massif, steep beach cliffs and a narrow riparian plain, and the area contains most of the island's fresh water.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The central parts have low hills and the southern part is mountainous.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[1] Guam is surrounded almost everywhere by coral reefs.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[2] Guam also administratively includes the small islands Cocos Island and Cabras Island within the same reefs.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Guam's climate is tropical but is cooled by pasate winds.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The rainy season is between July and October.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[1] History Guam was inhabited like the other Mariana Islands until about 1500 BCE.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

by.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The people who settled on the islands were Malay-Filipinos.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Based on archaeological evidence, by 800 a complex society had developed in the Mariana Islands, with stone pillars remaining that supported the communal houses.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Spanish Reign The first European on Guam was verifiably Fernão de Magalhães in 1521.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Spain announced in 1565 that it owned the island, but did not seek to retake it until the latter half of the 17th century.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Spain subjugated the islanders to power after a 1670 revolt and 25 years of timely warfare.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The number of native inhabitants of the island decreased due to the war, as well as diseases brought by Europeans.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Guam was in Spanish possession until 1898, when, during the Spanish—American War, the US Navy's USS Charleston bombarded the old fort in Apra harbour.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Spain ceded Guam to the United States and in 1899 sold the remainder of the Mariana Islands to Germany.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Under U.S. control, the Japanese occupied Guam in World War II on December 12, 1941.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The United States pounded Japanese forces barricaded on the island and recaptured the island in the month-long Battle of Guam in October 1944.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Subsequently, Guam was a major air and naval base from which attacks on Japan were made.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Guam became a territory under the auspices of the United States Navy in 1950, directly administered by the United States Department of the Interior.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

In the 1970s, Guam began a slow transition to representative self-governance.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The governor was first elected in 1970, and in 1972 Guam was given the right to send a non-voting representative to the United States House of Representatives.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Under the Office of Insular Affairs, Guam passed in 1995.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Andersen Air Base was expanded in the 1990s and in 2000 became the first United States Air Force base to retain aircraft-launched cruise missiles.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] [1] The politics of Guam is a United States Territory.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Its residents hold U.S. citizenship but are not entitled to vote in elections.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] [2] Guam is a region of geopolitical significance.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

About a third of the island is in U.S. military use.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[1] The statutory body of Guam is the unicameral parliament of 15 members, with a term of two years in office.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Parliament is responsible for the laws on community safety and the promotion of health and welfare.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The federal government of the United States administers issues such as immigration, international treaties, some maritime related matters, environmental protection, and defense policy.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[4] Guam also elects a representative to the United States House of Representatives.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

However, the representative has limited voting rights.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Executive power Guam has over the governor and lieutenant governor, both of whom are elected for four years at a time.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[4] [3] The 2014 election of Eddie Calvo was elected Governor of Guam, for whom the term that began in 2015 was the second.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[5] Guam's legislation is based on the system of the United States, and common federal laws are in effect.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[2] The municipalities of Guam are divided into 19 municipalities called villages.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The villages are: Agana Heights Agat Asan-Maina Barrigada Chalan‑Pago‑Ordot Dededo Hagåtña Inarajan Mangilao Merizo Mongmong‑Toto‑Maite Piti Santa Rita Sinjana Talofofo Tamuning Umatac Yigo Yona Economy of Guam's economy is dependent on revenues brought in by US Air Force and Navy bases on the island, which allow Guamese people to have a high standard of living.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Plans to close four bases are raising fears of rising unemployment on the island.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Guam is, after Hawaii, the most important tourist destination in the Pacific Ocean.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[1] The largest employers are the service and tourism sector and administration.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[1] Guam's main trading partners are Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Guam's most significant resource is fish.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The most significant revenue comes from tourism and the transit port.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Population Chamorros are the largest ethnic group on the island and they comprise 37.1% of the population.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The other large groups are Filipinos (26.3%), those from other Pacific Islanders (11.3%), and Caucasians (6.9%).


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[2] English, Filipino and Chamorro are spoken as languages.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

The vast majority of the people (85%) are Catholic.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Culture Guamese culture is diverse, with fairly large Chinese, Japanese, Filipino and Korean communities living on the island, as well as many people originating from the US mainland.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

Before World War II, the customs and traditions of the inhabitants bore considerable resemblance to 19th-century Spain.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

In each village, the patron saint of the village was celebrated.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Efforts have been made to revive traditional Chamorro culture in the latter half of the 20th century.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

To revive the culture, a number of public and private groups have been established to promote music, dance and other traditional art forms.


Question: Where is Guam located?

Guam

[3] Sources on the topic Elsewhere Coordinates: * Category:U.S. Islands Category:Key Articles of Screening


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The history of officer training in Finland comprises the training of officers in the region that has been opposed to the independent Finnish state, both during the times of Swedish and Russian rule and Finnish independence.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The first officer school in Finland was the Haapaniemi Cadet School founded by Yrjö Maunu Sprengtporten and operated in Kuopio in 1780 and in Rantasalmi from 1781 to 1819.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The Finnish Cadet School was based in Hamina and trained officers for the needs of the Russian Empire.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

It was disbanded in 1903 as a result of various orders issued during the I repressive period.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

After independence, until 1992, the Finnish officer training was divided into three schools: the Cadet School, which gave basic training (founded 1919), the Military School which gave the general staff officer training (founded 1924), and the one that gave pre-officer and advanced training to the Battle School (founded 1927).


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

All of these schools were consolidated from the beginning of 1993 into the College of National Defence, one large college providing college-level officer training.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The Supreme Officer Training Haapaniemi Cadet School (1779—1819) The commander of the Savo Brigade, Colonel Georg Magnus Sprengtporten () had taken an initiative on 20 March 1779 to the King of Sweden to establish a war school in order to satisfy the officer needs of the forces in Savo and Karelia.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Consequently, the Haapaniemi War School started operating on 1 August 1780 in Kuopio.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

On 1 May 1781, the school was transferred to Haapaniemi's place to the keeper of Rantasalmi.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

In 1791, the name of the school was changed to Haapaniemi Kadettikoulu, and under this name it operated until 1808, when the school's activities ended with the outbreak of the Finnish War.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The name of the school was changed in 1812 to Haapaniemi Field Measurement School, when the school returned to operation after the war.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

It continued to operate in the same premises of the Cadet School, initially training cartographers and, from 3 April 1816, again officers.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The school premises burned down on 27 September 1818, and this was one of the reasons for the school's eventual abolition on 27 May 1819.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Of the 210 completed cadets, 130 of the 210 completed cadets participated in the Finnish War, of whom 8 were downed and 34 wounded


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

After the war, there were about 50 serving in Sweden, 34 in Finland and 10 Hapaniemeni in Russia.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Later they became land lords, generals, senators and state counsellors.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The majority remained as officers and the remainder as civil servants.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Sprengtporten had a pragmatic way of training and had personally organised officer training at his own expense before the establishment of the Haapaniemi War School.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Sprengtporten, however, resigned from the service of the Swedish army as early as 1779 and defected to Russian service during actions 1808—1809 as the first Governor-General of Finland.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The most famous Haapaniemi is probably Finland's first military pedagogue, Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Möller, who served at the Haapaniemi Cadet School from 1779 to 1800.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

As head of the school, he served 1782—1800 and again as a teacher 1812—1814.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Möller gained a reputation, which spanned the entire Swedish Empire, as an accomplished pedagogue and exemplary breeder of cadets.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Admission requirements for Haapaniemi cadet school in 1783 nobility (not necessity) 13—15 years of age Knowledge of catechism good indoor literacy avoidant writing skills and four counts passing entrance exam and subjects fortress doctrine artillery mathematics drawing cursive theology moral doctrine history geography riding fencing French, Russian and German languages Education therefore also included extensive general education, and not just war doctrine.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The pupils and teachers of the Finnish Kadet School (1821—1903) The students and teachers of the Haapaniemi Field Measurement School (also referred to as the Finnish Topographer School of Haapaniemi) were transferred in 1819 to Hamina, where on 5 March 1821 the Finnish Kadet School (Hamina Cadet School) was founded.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The Finnish Cadet School trained officers for the service of the Russian Empire, so teaching took place in Russian, but later partly also in Swedish.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

From 1843 to 1863, Lieutenant-Generals Johan Munck (23 November 1843—1855), Otto Leonard von Blom (12 November 1855—1858) and Carl Mauritz Martinau (12 May 1858 — 29 March 1863) served as successive leaders of the Finnish Cadet School.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The Finnish Cadet School was renowned for its severe choke and spartan conditions.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

For example, the young Gustaf Mannerheim, who studied at the school from 1882 to 1886, was expelled from the school when he could not tolerate what he thought was the absurd, pointless and useless inhuman discipline of the Finnish Cadet School run by Carl Enckell.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Of the 1611 cadets who began their studies, 960 received their final certificate.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Of these graduates, 181 later attained the rank of general and 153 the rank of colonel.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

In civilian fields, educators from the Finnish Cadet School served as Ministerial Secretaries, Assistant to the Governor-General, Senators and Governors.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

A few also excelled in the fields of science and art.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The cadet school was usually entered between the ages of 9 and 10.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Every year 40 children of Finnish civilisation were admitted.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The school had a preparatory class and four general classes to teach general education subjects and languages.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Three theory-oriented special classes taught military skills and finally earned degrees in tactics, military history, artillery doctrine, fortress doctrine, warplant doctrine, war laws, statutes, and Russian language.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

After completing these classes at the Cadet School, the cadet was admitted to the Imperial Alexander University without taking entrance exams.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The demise of Finland's own army, which began in the repressive periods, was also reflected in the difficulty of the Finnish Cadet School's operations.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Regulations hampering operation of various schools had dropped the number of aspirants to study in 1903, when Major General Oscar Enckell, head of the Cadet School, proposed abolishing the school and begged for resignation from the army.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Both of these requests were granted, and the last day order was signed on 19 January 1905.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The former cadets founded the Finnish Cadet Club in 1908, which later transferred the intellectual heritage of the Finnish Cadet School to the future Cadet School.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Among Hamina's cadets, some continued their careers in the Finnish Army.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Of these cadets, one attained the rank of Marshal of Finland, 28 generals and 36 colonels.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The most famous is probably Marshal Mannerheim of Finland, who, after his dismissal, went on to study at the Military Academy in Saint Petersburg, where he graduated, General of Artillery Vilho Nenonen and Lieutenant-General Hannes Ignatius.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Early stages of independent Finnish officer training (1917—1920) After the abolition of the oppressive periods, military and officer training in the Finnish Army could not be obtained as in the Russian army or alternatively in other European countries.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Russia was an excluded option, and Finns' eyes turned to Germany.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

An ice warehouse movement was born.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

Thus, 1895 Finns received military and/or officer training in Germany.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

In the autumn of 1917, 60 Jääkäers arrived in Finland, beginning to organise the base of the Finnish army, training patronage municipalities.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

However, there were not enough ice patronage for every patronage, so there was a need to quickly arrange patrol and platoon leader training for ordinary patrons.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The need for platoon and squad leaders grew, especially with conscription abolished at the beginning of the century, taking effect in early 1918.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The first officer training in independent Finland took place at Vimpel School, which lasted from 28 December 1917 to 13 January 1918.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The teachers of the Vimpel War School were ten icemen.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

On 12 January 1918, based on the experience of the Vimpel School, it was decided to hold an even larger military training course in which 700 patronage municipalities would be given underpatrol and squad leader training.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The first pupils arrived on 26 January, just a couple of days before the war began.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

In February—March, the number of pupils at Vöyr School increased as they were removed from the front.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

J. H. Heiskanen, captain of the school, served as the head of the school.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

From 10 March 1918, schoolchildren from Vöyr participated as a 700-man strong battalion called the “Vöyr Guards”, which experienced heavy losses in the fighting.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

However, the Vöyr Guard was dissolved by order of Commander-in-Chief Mannerheim prior to the takeover of Tampere, so as not to lose the minor underpavement.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The tradition of Vöyr School was continued by the now-defunct National Defence College.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

After the war, various officer temporary courses were organised, the most famous of which is probably the Vyborg Officer Coke Course, or the Markovilla Course, whose programme became the hull for future reserve officer training.


Question: In what year has the first officer training been held in Finland?

History of officer training in Finland

The course began on 1 April 1920 under the guidance of the ice captain Kosti Sundberg and numbered 143 pupils.