Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[11] The College of Cardinals form the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church, headed by the Dean of Cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since May 2005, Angelo Sodano has served as Cardinal Dean.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[10] The right to nominate cardinals rests with the pope alone, who consecrates, or “creates,” the new cardinals at a solemn meeting of cardinals, or consistorium.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Under church law, cardinals are immediate assistants to the pope while he leads the church.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

With the death of the pope and the church thus falling into the sedisvak deck, the voting cardinals gather in the conclave to elect a new pope.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

According to Pope Paul VI's decree in 1968, those cardinals who had not reached the age of 80 on the day before the pope's death are entitled to vote.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The same pope issued a decree, confirmed by John Paul II in 1996, that the number of cardinals assembled in the conclave must not exceed 120.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Consistoriums in February 2001 and October 2003 temporarily increased the number to 135.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The distribution of cardinals by continent within the College of Cardinals, that is, the whole of cardinals, the different continents and states are unequally represented, which is probably a part of the reason that the pope is usually chosen from a European state and most often from Italy.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The reason probably lies in the papal institution's focus on Rome and Italy and its close association with Europe and its history.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Composition of the College of Cardinals 2004: [11] Integer number of continental cardinalsEligible cardinalsover 80 years of age cardinals (no right to vote in papal elections) Europe996138South America33249North America19145Asia18117Africa16124Australia and Oceania523All continents19012466 European cardinals are by far the largest group within the College of Cardinals, whether counted only suffragettes, or also cardinals over 80 years of age.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[11] Among European cardinals, the largest group are Italian cardinals, of whom in 2004 there were 39 in total.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[11] There were then 21 Italian cardinals eligible to vote.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[11] Classes of Cardinals There are three different classes (ordines): Cardinal Bishops, Cardinal Priests, and Cardinal Deacons.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinals are divided into cardinal bishops, cardinal priests, and cardinal deacons.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The background of the division is historical: it is based on those posts from whose holders the current cardinal posts have evolved.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Today, the division is exclusively ceremonial and does not affect cardinals' voting rights in papal elections.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinal bishops Cardinal bishops, or cardinals of the Episcopal Order, are among the most valuable of the office holders of the Church of Rome.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since today practically all cardinals are bishops, it implies the title of cardinal-bishop that the cardinal in question holds the title of bishop of one of the dioceses located around Rome, that is, a suburb arch diocese.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

As it was considered inappropriate for anyone other than the Bishop of Rome, that is, the Pope, to exercise the episcopal pantry in the territory of the city of Rome, the dioceses in the vicinity of Rome were made titular dioceses, with the title of bishop bestowed upon a distinguished cardinal.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Today, the patriarchs of the Catholic Churches of the East, which are connected to the Catholic Church, also hold the rank of cardinal bishop.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinal bishops are the only cardinals who must “always” have to be bishops.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since 1962, as a rule, only those consecrated as bishops have been allowed to be appointed cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

If a man who is not a bishop is elected cardinal, he should be consecrated as a bishop according to canonical law.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[13] However, the pope may exempt his chosen cardinal from this obligation, if he begs to do so.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

If a cardinal has not been consecrated a bishop, he, of course, cannot become a cardinal bishop.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The Dean of the College of Cardinals, president of the primus inter pares of cardinals, is always the cardinal-bishop, who is the titular bishop of the Suburbiarian diocese.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Previously, the rank of dean automatically belonged to the most senior cardinal bishop of his office, of which there were six.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Today, cardinal bishops elect a dean from among their ranks, but the vote will only gain the force of law once it has been approved by the pope.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

There are seven Suburbiac dioceses, but they have only six cardinal bishops.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

This because the titular bishop of Ostia is not his own cardinal-bishop, but rather the dean attaches it to his own title.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

If a person who has not been consecrated as a bishop is elected pope — which canonical law allows, [13] — he or she will be consecrated as bishop by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Currently serving as cardinal bishops of the Suburbiarc dioceses are: [10] Angelo Sodano, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Albano Laziale, Dean of the College of Cardinals, previous Cardinal Secretary of State.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The highest-ranking of the current cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[10] Bernardin Gantin, Cardinal Bishop of Palestrina, Dean Emeritus and former longtime head of the College of Bishops Roger Etchegaray, Cardinal Bishop of Portus-Santa Rufina, Vice Dean, Former Director of the Council for Papatic Justice and Peace Alfonso Lopez Trujillo, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, Head of the Papal Family Council Giovanni Battista Re, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto, Prefect of Episcopal Congregation Francis Arinze, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni, Prefect of the Worship and Sacrament Congregation to mid-1920s until their incumbent cardinal priests were entitled to be elected cardinal bishops when the seat of cardinal bishop became vacant.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

(By the same token, even today, cardinal deacons who have served ten years have the right to be appointed cardinal priests.)


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since then, cardinal bishops have been freely appointed by the pope at his own discretion.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Only key members of the College of Cardinals, who have a good relationship with the pope, are virtually feasible of being elected.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Only the Patriarchs of the Rite of the East join the College of Cardinals directly as cardinal bishops.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In 1965, Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad Purpuratorum Patrum that patriarchs of the Catholic rites of the East, who are designated cardinals, have the right to join the cardinals of the Episcopal Order.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[14] In rank, they would be below the Suburbian-arch cardinal-bishops (who had been relieved by John XXIII in 1962 of their last responsibilities in their titular diatrics).


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since they do not have a Suburbian-arch titular diocese, they cannot elect a dean and cannot be elected dean.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The three current cardinal bishops of the Catholic Rite of the East are: Ignace Daoud, Prefect of the Congregation of the Churches of the East, Stéphanos II Ghattas, Emeritus of Antioch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, C.M., Nasrallah Sfeir, Emeritus Patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, The Patriarch of Antioch Lisbon and the Western Patriarchs of Venice, who in practice almost always become cardinals, are appointed cardinal priests, not cardinal bishops.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinal Priests Cardinal priests, ranked protocollarily between cardinal bishops and cardinal deacons, are the largest of the cardinal groups.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Despite the appointment, cardinal priests generally serve as archbishops or bishops of major dioceses across the world, although some of them are in office in the curia.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

From the beginning, cardinal priests were vicars of parishes in Rome, who were invited by the Pope to be his advisors alongside his own office, and to whom he conferred the rank of cardinal.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Although today most cardinal priests are based in places other than Rome, each of them is still given their own parish titular church in Rome.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Pope Paul VI abolished even the last administrative responsibilities that cardinals had towards their own titular congregation.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

These days, therefore, it is simply an honorary designation.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

However, every cardinal appointee holds a special Jubilee Mass in his own denominational church, and his name and the cardinal's coat of arms are placed wrong with the door of his titular church.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Some of Rome's churches have been cardinal churches from as early as the second century.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In 1587, Pope Sixtus V limited the number of the College of Cardinals to seventy, and at the same time the number of cardinal priests was limited to fifty.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

This boundary was only repealed in 1958, and the denominational congregations remained almost the same for centuries — in practice changes only occurred if one of the denominational churches degenerated into unusable use.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

When Pope John XXIII lifted the restriction on the number of cardinal priests, he at the same time began adding new churches to the list of denominational churches.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Today there are nearly 150 denominational churches in Rome.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The oldest cardinal priest in office is a cardinal protopriest in rank.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

He basically has certain ceremonial obligations in the conclave on the occasion of the papal invasion.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since the cardinal protopriest is almost always over 80 years old and therefore not allowed to participate in the conclave, these obligations have practically lost their relevance.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The current cardinal protopriest is Brazilian Eugênio de Araújo Sales.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinal deacons Cardinal deacons are the lowest class of cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Those in the class of cardinal deacons are usually either curiacardinals working in the curia or priests who received cardinal rank for their theological merits.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The class of cardinal deacons is born out of seven deacons who worked in the papal household, as well as seven deacons who oversaw the deaconic work of the church in the city of Rome.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[2] From the outset it was therefore the office holders responsible for the practical deacon and charity.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

When cardinal deacons became the title, they were limited to fourteen and given as titular any of these old Roman deaconates.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Today, however, the number of cardinal deacons is higher.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The number of cardinal deacons had been capped at fourteen since 1587, when Pope Sixtus V narrowed the number of the entire College of Cardinals to seventy, all the way up to 1958.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In all, there were over fifty recognized titular deaconates in 2005, although there were only thirty cardinal deacons.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

From their old age, cardinal deacons have had the right to petition the Pope for an elevation to the rank of cardinal priest, having been cardinal deacons for ten years.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In this case, they are treated protocollarically as if they had been cardinal priests from the time they were ordained cardinal.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

When a cardinal deacon becomes a cardinal priest, he may elect one of the vacant Roman titular churches as his titular church.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

His titular deaconate may also be elevated to the rank of titular church for this situation (pro hac vice).


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Until 1918 it was possible to obtain the rank of cardinal without the sacrament of priestly consecration.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In this case, however, the class of cardinal deacon was the only possible cardinal class.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In the 16th century, for example, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before being ordained a priest.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

However, it was stipulated in 1918 that all cardinals, including cardinal deacons, must be ordained priest, and since 1962 all cardinals have been bishops except some distinguished theologians elevated to the rank of cardinal by the Pope in thanks to their of his life's work.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Such cardinals, according to canonical law of canon 351, should be consecrated as bishops, but the pope may, by supplication, be relieved of this duty.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

As a cardinal, the most senior cardinal deacon in his tenure is entitled Cardinal Protodeacon.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

His main protocollar privilege is to be allowed to proclaim the name of the new pope after the concluded conclave from the balcony of the Blessings in St Peter's Basilica.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The current cardinal protodeacon is Renato Martino [15].


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Other cardinals Cardinal in pectore Cardinal in pectore refers to a secretly appointed cardinal appointed by the Pope without making his identity public.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[16] The pope therefore states that he has appointed a cardinal, but his identity is kept secret.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Theoretically, it is only known by the Pope and God.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Even to the cardinal-appointed himself, it is not necessary to be told of the appointment, although this is apparently usually done.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since serving as a cardinal requires that the appointment be public, a cardinal in pectore does not have the rights and privileges of a cardinal unless his name has been made public either verbally, for example in the consistorium or in writing, for example, in the spiritual will of the Pope.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

However, when the name of a secret cardinal is made public, he is considered to have served as cardinal from the moment of his appointment.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[16] Should the Pope die without publicly releasing the cardinal's in pectore name, the appointment shall lapse.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[16] The Pope may decide to keep the cardinal appointment secret if: he fears the appointment will lead to endangering the life, health, or liberty of the cardinal, or he thinks the appointment will lead to discrimination or persecution of Christians or Catholics in the region.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In either case, it is areas hostile to Catholicism or Christianity in general, or negative to religiosity per se.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Cardinals in pectore are thought to have been appointed to the territory of the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union and former Eastern European People's Democracies.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

For example, Pope John Paul II appointed four cardinals in pectore during his reign.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[17] Cardinal Nepos Cardinal Nepos ([18]) refers to his relative appointed as cardinal by the Pope, who was usually his half-brother or nephew.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[19] The way in which the pope made his kinsman one of the cardinals was in use especially during the Middle Ages and at the beginning of the New Age.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

A papal relative who was appointed cardinal received not only the post of cardinal, but also informal leadership in the College of Cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[19] The appointment of cardinal nepostes based on nepotism later proved to be an anomalous system, leading to it being phased out in the 17th century.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[19] The last cardinal nepos was Pietro Ottaboni — not to be confused with Pope Alexander VIII, who also had the same name.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Upon Ottabon's death, the appointment of cardinal nepostes was discontinued, resulting in a Cardinal Secretary of State rising to the head of the college.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The cardinal's clothing and rank marks As a sign of his rank, the cardinal wears a special vestment that distinguishes him from other holders of the Catholic priesthood.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

On special liturgical occasions of celebration, cardinals wear a charm red — during fasting and earlier in general purple — refers to or sutan, [20] a mozetta covering the shoulders, and a special priestly hat, or biretta, which the pope hands over to the cardinal in a special at the ceremony.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In addition, the cardinal's outfit includes a wide belt belt, or zingulum, as well as a pileolus, a small headpiece covering the parietal, from moirées silk.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The red color of the outfit suggests that cardinals should always be ready for martyrdom for their faith.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Outside services, cardinals wear a black sutan with a red stitched rim and red buttons.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[20] The cardinal hat formerly common, with a wide brim and fifteen red knots hanging on each side, is nowadays left out of use.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[20] However, it is depicted on the cardinal's coat of arms, and at the cardinal's funeral a hat is placed on his coffin.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

As a mark of his rank, each cardinal also wears a cardinal's ring, which he has received from the pope.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The ring hereby also depicts the close connection between the pope and the cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Each pope hands the cardinals his own ring, with the same image chosen by the pope on the front.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The ring of the previous pope Benedict XVI depicts a modern image of the crucifixion, with Mary and John standing beside it.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The inside of the ring bears each cardinal's own coat of arms.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Traditionally, as a token of their respect, Catholics have kissed a cardinal's ring when they meet him.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The cardinal system's grievances The cardinal system has its advantages, but also its disadvantages.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

While, for example, delegating the election of a pope to cardinals partially removed politicking in papal elections, brought the system with it grievances as well.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Popes, for example, are known during the long history of the papacy to have committed nepotism.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Popes appointed their brothers and nephews as cardinals, for example, to ensure the survival of the papal “dynasty” in the family history.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

In this case, cardinal appointments did not determine the political, diplomatic or theological skills of the cardinal candidates to be appointed; they only received office because they were related to the pope.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

The problems of the system were compounded in some places by the fact that brothers or nephews appointed by the pope became cardinal nepos, which included the post of head of the College of Cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

An example of the nepotism practiced by popes in relation to cardinal appointments can be considered the activities of Pope Calixtus III, who ruled in the 15th century.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Pope Calixtus III, who belonged to the Borgia family, made two of his nephews a cardinal.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Another nepotistically appointed cardinal later became Alexander VI.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Alexander VI later became known as one of the most disreputable popes in history, and during his time the papacy was in clear demotion.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[21] Pope Alexander VI practised nepotism himself, and he even made plans to give the Church State to his son.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

[21] Alexander VI also elevated his mistress's brother Alessandro Farnese to cardinal, and this later became Pope Paul III.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Paul III continued the tradition by electing two nephews—ages 14 and 16 years—as cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Another anomaly of the cardinal system was its focus on Europe and Italy in particular, causing no non-Italian pope to rise to the Papal See for hundreds of years.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

Since the vast majority of cardinals were Italians, they raised to the papacy other Italian cardinals, who again, when they were pope, appointed more Italian cardinals.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

For example, after Hadrian VI of the Netherlands (as pope 1522—1523), the next non-Italian pope had to wait more than 450 years, as the next pope from outside Italy was John Paul II, a Polish elected in 1978.


Question: How many dynasties did China have overall?

Cardinal

See also List of current cardinals Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Simo Heininen| title = Larger than man: history of the papacy | publisher = Edita| year = 2004| id = ISBN 951-37-4184-2}} References Category:Ecclesiastical posts Category:Cardinals Category:Holy See Category:Key articles of screening


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

A magazine must be subscribed to, purchased in loose numbers or received on the basis of membership or customer affiliation, which appears regularly at least once a year.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Its frequency of appearance is less frequent than that of a newspaper and unlike a newspaper, news is not its most relevant content.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The periodical typically features articles of several pages or spreads wide, often illustrated with large-format photographs on topical topics.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The magazine is not mainly advertising in terms of content, and the proportion of advertisements does not exceed the proportion of editorial content.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

A magazine can be printed in any size, shape and printing paper of any type and readable digitally on any device.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

History of periodicals The Tatler, founded in 1709 by Englishmen Richard Steele and Joseph Addison, and published between 1711 and 1712, is considered to be the first periodicals in the world.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

They differed from newspapers because their content was more focused on entertainment and enlightenment rather than conveying news and hard factual information.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Their example was also followed by the first periodicals in North America, such as The General Magazine, and Historical Chronicle, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1741, For all the British Plantations in America, and Andrew Bradford's American Magazine, or a Monthly View of the Political State of the British Colonies.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Of these, both were already discontinued after a few issues.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] Sweden is also known as civility-oriented weeklies focused on moral issues from as early as the 18th century.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Readers of the first magazines were the literate civilisation of that time, who were practically all male.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The magazines were loaded and painstakingly printed by hand, with little use of illustration except for a possible cover woodcut.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Stagecoaches either refused to carry magazines thicker and bulky than newspapers, or demanded a heavy price for them.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] Even in Finland, the first journals were journals focused on religious and moral issues such as Mnemosyne (1819), or academic publications published by scientific clubs.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The first actual magazine was Om Konsten at rätt behaga (1782), which was directed at women.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[2] 19th century: literacy and leaf production evolve In the 19th century literacy in Western countries became widespread rapidly, and at the same time the middle class prospered.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Around 5000 new journals were established in the United States between 1825 and 1850, almost all of which were not successful.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In 1885, 3330 magazines appeared there, the best of which reached about one hundred thousand readers.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

These included the Ladies' Home Journal, founded in 1879, and The Saturday Evening Post, whose roots date back to Benjamin Franklin's founding in 1728 of the Pennsylvania Gazette</i>en.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[3] Other early American magazines included Atlantic Monthly, Century Magazine, and Scribner's Magazine.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] By the late 19th century, notice, or advertisements published in magazines, had become, along with subscription and loose number fees, an important form of funding for magazines.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The print style and illustration of magazines had also gained more spectacularity with the development of photography and various chemigraphic methods.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Steam power made papermaking cheaper and faster, so was printing with steam power thanks to rotational printing machines.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Text-making was revolutionised by the Linotype typesetting machine introduced on the market in 1886.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

All of these contributed to the fact that magazines became accessible to more and more in price.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] The 20th century was the golden age of magazines in the 20th century, magazines were increasingly published and aimed at increasingly specialized target groups.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Reader's Digest (Selected Palat in Finland) proved to be a worldwide success.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Life, founded by Henry Luce, invested in spectacular photojournalism, lost out to the picture slide of television, but the same publisher's weekly news magazine Time and sports magazine Sports Illustrated prospered longer.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The increasingly spectacular recurrence of photographs — first black and white and gradually also color images — in the gravity-printing and offset printing process gave rise to new magazine formats such as fashion magazines (e.g. Vogue), men's magazines (e.g. Playboy) and geographic magazines such as National Geographic.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Not only editors writing for magazines, but also designers and photographers of their layout began to become well-known names in the 1930s and 1940s.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] Many journals still published in Finland have their origins in the early 20th century.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In addition to the general magazines Apu and Society, they include women's magazines Eeva and Me Nainen, Donald Duck and Selected Palat brought to Finland by Sanoma limited company, amateur magazines such as Kamera magazine and Kalamies, and trade magazines such as Houseselämä and Lawyernews.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[2] In the second half of the 20th century, advances in telecommunications technology and electronic material manufacturing accelerated magazine publishing and printing schedules.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

On the other hand, television advertising increasingly began to compete with magazine notification as a medium of spectacular evocative advertising.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In addition to thousands of commercial magazines aimed at different target groups, a periodical-like print publication became a channel for communication for many organisations, companies and other organisations with their various stakeholders.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] 21st century: web integration and collaborative patterns In the 21st century, the possibilities of the internet for near-real-time communication of information have tested the economics and innovation capabilities of both newspaper and magazine publishing companies in an increasingly fierce struggle for survival.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In the United States, bulk issue sales of magazines dropped 45% from 2007 to 2012 [4].


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

New magazine titles are still being introduced to the market, but almost invariably printed magazines are also accompanied by a spectacular and continuously maintained website or other electronic services.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[1] Over the past few decades, more and more magazines have become international brands, published in several languages, applied to the needs of different countries.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Magazine publishers from different countries engage in a wide range of collaborations through licensing agreements or by setting up joint ventures.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

As the popularity of magazines declines in developed Western countries, magazine concepts proven in this way can easily be applied to emerging markets such as prosperous Asian or Eastern European countries.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

For example, Gruner+Jahr, the majority-owned German publishing house Bertelsmann, published seven of its own magazines in Poland in 2004, in addition to its own magazine, “Glamour” by the US company Condé Nast.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In Russia, German Axel Springer was publishing Newsweek, owned by The Washington Post at the time, and Forbes, a financial magazine.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Springer additionally published Playboy in the Czech Republic, among others, while Playboy, which was sold in the German market, was published in 2004 by Munich-based Burda Media.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Cosmopolitan, owned by Hearst, appears in more than 50 countries through licensing agreements.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Between 2005 and 2015, Finnish company Sanoma was involved in a company that publishes Cosmopolitan and Esquire magazines in Russia.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[5] [6] [7] Magazine formats The usual format is A4 (297×210 mm), the “Yankee size” is about 225×270 mm, besides there are other unestablished sizes such as, among others, the HS monthly attachment.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The ten largest Finnish magazines by circulation in 2014 Commonwealth 1,848 957 Housearts 244 522 Donald Duck 228 522 ET magazine 187,849 TV-world 176 508 Apu 136 467 Society 135 797 Tehy-magazine 132 219 Kodin Kuvalehti 124 811 Selected pieces 122 605 Source: MediaAuditFinland Ltd, 2015.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The ten largest Finnish journals by number of readers in 2014 Pirkka 2758000 Ylteaumaa 2017000 OP Pohjola magazine 1352000 Health!


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

1144000 Donald Duck 835000 ET Magazine 596000 Me 583000 Seiska 498000 World of Technology 492000 Kodin Kuvalehti 423000 Source: KMT Reader Research, MediaAuditFinland Oy, 2015.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

In Finland, the VAT on the subscription fee for magazines and newspapers was zero per cent until the end of 2011.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

The procedure originated in the 1960s and was based on the importance of magazines as mediators of news and popular cultural considerations.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

When it joined the European Union, Finland gained the right to continue the tax exemption.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[8] As magazines became subject to VAT from the beginning of 2012, their publishers soon began mailing magazines from Åland to avoid tax, leaving the tax return to a tenth.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

When the use of Åland was made impossible by a change in law in 2015, publishers moved to mail magazines VAT-free from the nearest non-EU country, Norway.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

[9] Classification of magazines Periodicals are broken down by their content, target audience and publisher.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Leaves can also be divided into men's and women's magazines.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Specialty magazines can be divided into many subgroups, such as interior design, hobby magazines, technology, economy, etc. General magazine For example, Suomen Kuvalehti, Apu, Seura, Selected Palat Special Magazine For example, Kaksplus, Teknion World Asiakaslehti publications, such as Pirkka or Ylieksä, which are used as part of the company's market communications.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Organizational Journal Organizations or Communities are driven by publications such as Martat magazine.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

Can also be newspaper format, such as Journalist magazine.


Question: What are considered the first magazines in the world?

Magazine

See also List of Finnish magazines Sources - Periodical media References Literature Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Kivikuru, Ullamaija| title = Foreign magazines: Magazine at the intersection of time and place| location = Helsinki| publisher = University weight| year = 1996| id = ISBN 951-570-305-0}} On topic elsewhere * Category:Key articles in screening


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

A capacitor is a two-pole passive component used in electrical engineering.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Its most essential feature is capacitance, which is the ability to store electric charge.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitor stores energy in an electric field.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When the charge is transferred to the poles of the capacitor, a voltage is formed between them directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge transferred and inversely proportional to the capacitance of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors, due to this capacitance, can be used in electronic circuits to equalize voltage fluctuations.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The ability of a capacitor to equalize voltage fluctuations is directly proportional to its capacitance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[1] [2] History The first capacitor was invented by Ewald Georg von Kleist at Cammin in Pomerania on 11 October 1745, in an attempt to store electricity in a bottle full of mercury.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

To the world, however, knowledge of the new invention spread through Pieter van Musschenbroek.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

He conducted an experiment with a vessel filled with water at the University of Leyden (Leiden) in Holland in January 1746.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

It was from this that the Leyden bottle got its name.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[3] Structure A typical capacitor consists of two electrodes, each storing an electrical charge of equal but different brands.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, electrodes can be planar plates (disk capacitor) or nested ball shells (ball capacitor).


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The electrodes are isolated from each other, and when the capacitor is connected to a voltage source, they acquire an electrical charge and an electric field is formed between them.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

A capacitor is also charged if either of its electrodes is touched by a charged body.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In this case, the second electrode also acquires an equal, but opposite-character charge under the influence of influenza.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[1] The electric field of the capacitor is practically entirely between the electrodes, as elsewhere electric fields induced by opposite-brand charges on the electrodes cancel each other out.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In a disk capacitor, this electric field is practically homogeneous, that is, everywhere between the plates equally pronounced.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The electric field strength is: E = U d, {\ displaystyle\ mathbf {E} = {\ frac {U} {d}},} where U is the voltage between the plates and d is the distance between the plates Non-ideality Square Pipe If the voltage exceeds the insulation durability, occurs a breakdown, whereby the insulation becomes conductive (see.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

arc).


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

This voltage is called the breakthrough voltage U = E ⋅ d, {\ displaystyle {U} = {E}\ cdot {d},} where E is the dielectric strength of the insulation, and d is the distance between the plates.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

To prevent this, the manufacturer determines the maximum permissible operating voltage of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Leakage current The electric field formed between the plates of the capacitor is retained even when the voltage source is disconnected, since the electric field holds the charges in place.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, the insulation between the plates has conductivity, which depends on the insulation material.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

This conductivity causes a small leakage current RLeak between the poles of the capacitor, so the capacitor discharges over time to itself.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Equivalent serial resistance and serial inductance The legs of the capacitor give rise to the equivalent series resistance RESR and the equivalent serial inductance LESL.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Equivalent series inductance and resistance must be considered when designing high-frequency couplings, since as frequency increases, capacitive impedance decreases and inductive impedance increases, whereby serial inductance and resistance determine the impedance of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Water analogy In the water analogy, charge drivers passing in a wire are described as a flow of water in a pipe.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitor is like a plastic film in a tube.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Water molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but water can stretch the membrane.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The analogy elucidates a few perspectives about capacitors: Current changes the charge of the capacitor the way the water flow changes the elongation of the membrane.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The more the capacitor is charged, the greater the voltage drop.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

One can observe the water analogy so that the more the membrane is stretched the more it begins to resist stretching.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The charge can flow “through” the capacitor even if the electrons do not reach side to side.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In the water analogy, this is described by the flow of water in a tube, even if water molecules cannot penetrate the membrane.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Still, the flow cannot continue in the same direction indefinitely or the membrane ruptures, that is, the current can pass through the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on a single capacitor plate.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

A very stretchable film describes a higher capacitance than a poorly stretchable film.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

A charged capacitor stores potential energy like a stretchable membrane.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitance The capacitance (symbol<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[6294,6299,2,2]}'>C) of a capacitor is a magnitude describing the magnitude of the charge (Q) relative to the potential difference (U) between the electrodes.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Thus, C = Q U.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

{\ displaystyle C= {\ frac {Q} {U}}.}


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The unit according to the SI system of capacitance is the farad [F], which corresponds to the charge of one coulomb at a voltage of one volt.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Farad is a very large unit for practical applications, so prefix units picofarad (pF), nanopharad (nF), microfarad (μF), and millifarad (mF) are usually used.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[2] Calculation of capacitance in capacitor switches for capacitors C1, C2,... Cn capacitance is the sum of capacitances C e q = C 1 + C 2 + + C n {\ displaystyle C_ {\ mathrm {eq}} =C_ {1} +C_ {2} +\ cdots +C_ {n}} When parallel connected capacitors are connected to voltage V, is the voltage of all capacitors the same.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitance of capacitors C1, C2,... Cn connected in series is 1 C e q = 1 C 1 + 1 C 2 + + 1 C n {\ displaystyle {\ frac {1} {C_ {\ mathrm {eq}}}} = {\ frac {1} {C_ {1}}} + {\ frac {1} {C_ {2}}} +\ cdots + {\ frac {1} {C_ {n}}} When connecting capacitors connected in series to voltage V, receive all capacitors equal charge Q. The total voltage V is the voltages of the capacitors sum.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

V = V 1 + V 2 + + V n {\ displaystyle V=V_ {1} +V_ {2} +\ cdots +V_ {n}} DC does not pass through the capacitor because there is an insulator between its plates.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

But if it is connected to a variable voltage, the charge of the plates also changes, and when the capacitor is charged or discharged from the voltage source to the plates, or vice versa, a current of magnitude i = C d U d t {\ displaystyle\ scriptstyle I=C {\ frac {\ rm {d}} U} {{\ rm {d}} t}}, whereC is capacitance, Uvoltage, and ttime.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[2] The capacitance can therefore be determined as the ratio of the current i of the capacitor to the rate of change of voltage U d<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[8365,8370,2,2]}'>u/d<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[8372,8377,2,2]}'>t by the equation C = i (d U d t ) {\ displaystyle C= {\ frac {i} {({\ frac {dU} {dt}})}}.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitor electrodes are usually metal plates or films.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitance of a disk capacitor consisting of two equal parallel plate electrodes is C = 0 r A d, {\ displaystyle C=\ epsilon _ {0}\ epsilon _ {\ rm {r}} {\ frac {A} {d}},} where A is the surface area of the electrode, d is the distance between the plates, ε0 is the permittivity of the vacuum, and εr is the relative permittivity of the insulator between the plates.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

As the size of the plates increases, the amount of charge increases.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Also, with a decrease in the distance between the plates, the amount of charge capacity increases, but at the same time the voltage tolerance decreases due to the pass/throughput of the insulation.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[2] The energy charged to the capacitor The energy charged to the capacitor is equal to the work that was done when the capacitor was charged.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Let be the capacitance<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[9312,9317,2,2]}'>C of the capacitor, and the charge charged to it<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[9352,9357,2,2]}'>Q.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When a small charge<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[9382,9387,2,2]}'>Q is transferred from one electrode to another, therefore, through the potential difference U=Q/C, we work<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[9509,9514,2,2]}'>W: d W = Q C d q.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

{\ displaystyle {\ rm {d}} W= {\ frac {Q} {C}}\, {\ rm {d}} q.}


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The total energy of the capacitor is thus obtained by integrating this infinitesimal small transfer<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[9707,9712,2,2]}'>over the entire charge Q: W = ∫ 0 Q q C d q = 1 2 Q 2 C = 1 2 C U 2 = E.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

{\ displaystyle W=\ int _ {0} ^ {Q} {\ frac {q} {C}}\, {\ rm {d}} q= {\ frac {1} {2}} {\ frac {Q^ {2}} {C}} = {\ frac {1} {2}} CU^ {2} =E.}


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Since, on the other hand, the capacitance of the capacitor is given by the equation C = 0 r A d {\ displaystyle C=\ epsilon _ {0}\ epsilon _ {r} {\ frac {A} {d}}} and between its voltage and electric field prevails connection U = E ⋅ d, {\ displaystyle U=\ mathbf {E}\ cdot\ mathbf {d},} we obtain from this the expression E V = 1 2 o r A d E 2 d 2 1 A d = 1 2 0 r E 2.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

{\ displaystyle {\ frac {E} {V}} = {\ frac {1} {2}}\ epsilon _ {o}\ epsilon _ {r} {\ frac {A} {d}}\ mathbf {E} ^ {2}\ mathbf {d} ^ {2} {\ frac {1} {Ad}} = frac {1} {2}}\ epsilon _ {0}\ epsilon _ {r}\ mathbf {E} ^ {2}.}


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

It can be shown that this energy density theorem is generally true for all electric fields, not just for capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitor in electrical circuits The capacitor does not pass through the charge transporters, since its electrodes are galvanically isolated from each other by an insulator.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, for a short time after switching on the voltage, an electric current passes to the electrodes of the capacitor, which causes an electric field between the electrodes and reserves the electrodes of the capacitor with opposite-character charges.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When such a charged capacitor is connected to a load, the energy stored in the electric field is converted back into an electric current.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The current passes until the charge of the capacitor is discharged, that is, the electric field has gone away.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In alternating current circuits, the charge of the capacitor is charged and discharged the more often the higher the frequency.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

It follows that the average charge and discharge current of the capacitor increases as the frequency increases.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The resistance of the capacitor to alternating current is therefore inversely proportional to the frequency.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

This opposing property in AC circuits is called capacitive reactance (XC, unit ohm), defined by the equation X C = 1 2 π f C, {\ displaystyle X_ {C} = {\ frac {1} {2\ pi fC}},} where fis the frequency of the alternating current and Cthe capacitance of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In AC circuits, the voltage and current of the capacitor have a 90° phase difference while the current is ahead of the voltage.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Due to phase shift, complex number calculation can be used in the calculation of capacitor circuits.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, capacitive reactance can be interpreted as the imaginary component of the circuit impedance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Identification Capacitor value data are commonly denoted by numbers, diagonal lines and letters in the following format: capacitance/tolerance/voltage resistance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When the letter is between or in front of the numbers, the letter is interpreted as a decimal point at the same time.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In labelling, the base unit is usually picofarade (pF).


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The letter M denotes microfarad (µF) (i.e., millionPF, M='Mega').


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The letter K denotes nanofarad (nF) (i.e., thousandPF, K='kilo').


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The letter E denotes picofarad (pF).


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, 4M7/10/100 is interpreted as 4.7µF, 10% tolerance and 100V voltage resistance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

44K/10/100 is interpreted as 44nF, 10% tolerance and 100V voltage resistance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

3E3/10/400 is interpreted as 3.3pF, 10% tolerance and 400V voltage resistance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Another method of notation is to write only the capacitance value in picofards such that the last digit denotes the number of zeros at the end.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Example: 473 means a number with 47 and three zeros, i.e. 47000pf=47NF.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Types of capacitors Plastic insulated capacitors Plastic film capacitor is the most common capacitor in consumer electronics that is cast in epoxy and produced in radial and axial structures.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Popularity is due to high C*U output over unit volume, low losses, high pulse tolerance, and moderate temperature stability.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Polyester capacitors (KT, KS) are very ordinary, because they are cheap, but rather weak in properties.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

As insulation, polyester film is used and metal strips, which are usually aluminum, as plates.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The KT abbreviation comes from the German words 'Kunststoff, Teraftalat'.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Metallized Polyester Capacitors (MKT, MKS) are very much similar to polyester capacitors, but do not have a separate metal film, instead a thin metal film is vaporized onto the plastic film surface to one side.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

These capacitors are good in that they can self-repair from the breakthrough because the metal film vaporizes and the breakthrough is eliminated because the metals do not touch each other.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In addition, MKTs are smaller than KT's, but cannot withstand high frequencies.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Polycarbonate capacitors are slightly superior in characteristics than polyester capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

They can be used, for example, as switching capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Polystyrene capacitors are suitable for quite demanding uses such as time-constant circuits and high frequency use.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Less commonly used plastic-insulated capacitors include polypropylene and polytetrafuoroethylene capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitors Ceramic capacitors are mainly used in high-frequency switching and compact devices.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Generally available are ceramic capacitors with capacitance 1pF to 1μF and voltage resistance from 16 to 15000 volts.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The dominant characteristic of a ceramic capacitor can be low tolerance, small losses, good stability or small size.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, you can't get everyone in the same package.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Ceramic capacitors easily crack, so they need to be handled gently.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Even a small fracture may result in the insides of the capacitor being exposed to air moisture and the capacitor being destroyed over time.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Ceramic capacitors are often divided into different classes or groups according to relative permittivity.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Higher permittivity means a higher loss factor, but at the same time it allows you to reduce the size of the capacitor to really small.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors In an electrolytic capacitor, the insulation between the capacitor plates acts as a layer of metal oxide, which is created when the plates of a capacitor made of a suitable metal (tantalum or aluminum) are immersed in the electrolyte liquid and a direct voltage is introduced between them.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Relative to its thickness, the oxide layer can withstand a very high voltage.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Thus, it is possible to get a large capacitance into a really small space.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

If the electrolytic capacitor is connected incorrectly in polarity or to an alternating voltage, it may be destroyed because the oxide layer does not form properly and the plates will short-circuit.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors provide high capacitance in a small size.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

They are mainly used in voltage sources as leach capacitors, but are also suitable for other purposes, where capacitors of capacitance from millifarads to microfarads are required.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, the stability of this type of capacitor is poor, so for applications requiring precision they do not run.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Also, for high-frequency switches, electrolytic capacitors do not run due to high losses.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

They often age the other components of the device faster and frost resistance is poor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor plates are thin aluminum foils, between which a piece of paper moistened with glycol-based electrolyte is inserted.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

These layers are rotated into a roll and enclosed in a case filled with electrolyte.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When the capacitor is connected to DC voltage, an insulating alumina film (Al2O3) is formed on the surface of the anode, that is, the positive plate.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The thickness of this layer depends in part on the voltage, so even the tolerance of capacitance is high.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

As a cathode, an electrolyte fluid is electrically connected to another aluminum foil.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitance can be increased at the manufacturing stage by roughening the surface of the anode plate.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

An aluminium electrolytic capacitor that has been idle for a long time may lose its oxide layer, in which case it must be repaired by supplying DC voltage to the capacitor through a few kilo-ohms of resistor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

If no resistor is applied, the current may increase before the oxide layer is formed to such a magnitude that the capacitor is destroyed in the same way as an aluminium electrolytic capacitor connected incorrectly or to an alternating voltage.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The principle of operation of the tantalum capacitor is approximately the same, that is, an electrolytic tantalum pentoxide film (Ta2O5) is made on the surface of the tantalum piece acting as an anode, which therefore acts as an insulator.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

On top of it, a cathode of silvered graphite layer is formed.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The oxide layer of the tantalum capacitor that has been unused does not require repair.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Adjustable Capacitors Adjustable capacitors are used to adjust the oscillation frequency of oscillators and resonant circuits.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Adjustable capacitors are divided into two groups: continuous-adjusting capacitors and tool-adjusted trimmer capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In design, all adjustable capacitors are almost identical, that is, consist of two disk compartments, of which the solid is called the stator, and the mobile one is the rotor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitance is determined by how much the plates are overlapped with each other.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

As insulation, adjustable capacitors use air, mica or plastic.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

They are usually used in high-frequency circuits.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Other types of capacitors In addition to the above types of capacitors, there are mm.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

paper, metal paper, mica, glass and dry aluminum electrolytic capacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Until the 1970s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were commonly used as an insulating agent in large capacitors, which, however, have been abandoned due to their toxicity and environmental harm.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

A vacuum capacitor uses high vacuum as an insulator.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Today there are also so-called supercapacitors.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitance of a supercapacitor can be thousands of farads, but the voltage duration is very low.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Application of capacitors Capacitors are used among others.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

for the following purposes: Energy storage A capacitor can store electrical energy when disconnected from an electrical circuit, allowing it to be used as a short-term battery.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors are commonly used in electrical appliances as a maintenance power source when replacing batteries.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

(This prevents information from being lost in short-term memory.)


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The capacitor converts the kinetic energy contained in the charged particles into electrical energy and stores it.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Conventional capacitors charge specific energy below 360 kJ/kg, while conventional alkaline battery has a specific energy of 590 kJ/kg.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

As a compromise between the two, supercapacitors act, which charge and discharge energy much faster than batteries and can withstand more times of charge than rechargeable batteries.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, they are ten times bigger in terms of charge than conventional batteries.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

On the other hand, it has been able to show that the charge formed on the diaelectric membrane of the capacitor can be equal to or even greater than the charge on the plates of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[4] In automotive audio systems, large capacitors are used to reserve energy for the use of the amplifier.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Digital memory in the 1930s, John Atanasoff applied the ability of capacitors to store energy to build dynamic digital memory chips to the first binary computers.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

[5] Pulse power Large purpose-built, low-inductive and high-voltage capacitors are used to make large current pulses.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Applications include e.g.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

electromagnetic design, Marx generators, pulsed lasers, radars and particle accelerators.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Short-term electrical stores Storage capacitors are used in power supplies where they act as equalizers for rectifiers.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

They can also be used in charge pump circuits as energy stores when producing higher voltages than supply voltages.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors tend to coexist with other electrical circuits, as they smooth out current changes that occur with the power supply.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Audio devices, for example, use capacitors to filter interference in the operating voltage before it reaches the signal circuit.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Reactive Power Compensation Capacitors are used in current distribution to compensate reactive power.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Such capacitors usually come in the form of three capacitors connected to a three-phase load.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The purpose of capacitors is to resist the induction caused by electric motors and transmission lines, and to make the load so seem resistive for the most part.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Engine starters Capacitors are used as engine starters because, for example, in cage-coiled rotor motors, the engine's own capacitor is incapable of initiating rotor rotation but capable of maintaining it.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

So a second starter capacitor is needed.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, in the ignition system of the input engine alongside the tips of the breaker.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Memory chips In DRAM memory chips, capacitors are used to store the state of bits for the duration of the computer's life continuously refreshed.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In flash memory chips, information is stored for years as charges of capacitances in memory embryos.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Sensors Capacitors are usually unchanged in physical structure.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

However, several factors can change the structure of the capacitor and these changes cause fluctuations in the capacitance of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

From these variations in capacitance, one can observe what has changed in the structure of the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, the operation of the microphone is based on changes in the distance between the plates of the capacitor under the influence of sound waves.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Resonant circuits A resonant circuit has a coil and capacitor when parallel or serially coupled, whose reactances or susceptances cancel each other out at the resonant frequency.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Light generation A light-emitting capacitor is made of a dielectric that uses phosphorence to produce light.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

If one of the conductive plates is made with a transparent material, then the light will be visible.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Light-emitting capacitors are used to build electroluminescent panels for applications such as laptop backlighting.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

In this case, the entire panel is a capacitor, which is used to generate light.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Hazards and safety The dangerousness of a capacitor depends on the amount of energy it stores.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

The magnitude of the voltage and the shell material are secondary to this, as only the probability of electric shock depends on these and not the damage caused by a possible shock.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors in a circuit can remain charged for a long time even if the circuit power supply is removed from it; this charge can cause dangerous or potentially lethal electric shocks and damage appliances connected to the capacitor.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

For example, a 1.5-volt AA battery that rotates the flash light of a disposable camera has a capacitor that can hold up to 15 joules of energy and charge at more than 300 volts.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

When servicing electronic equipment, the capacitors of devices are most often drained from the reserve to avoid incidents.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to reduce the amount of energy charged into them to safe when the supply is broken.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

High voltage capacitors are stored short-circuited to avoid the emergence of dangerous charges.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Some old large oil-filled paper or plastic film capacitators contain polychlorinated biphenyls.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Polychlorinated biphenyls can drain into groundwater if capacitors fall into landfill.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors can fail when they come under the effects of currents or voltages outside their ratings, or as they grow older.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Dielectric interference or contact interference with metals can generate arcs that vaporize the dielectric fluid in the capacitor, causing shell bulge, cracks, or even capacitor explosion.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Capacitors used in radio applications or long-lasting high-voltage applications can overheat.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

High-voltage vacuum capacitors can generate weak X-rays even with their normal operation.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

Hazards can be reduced by a decent design, using a capacitor type suitable for the purpose, decent fuses and joints, as well as carrying out preventive maintenance.


Question: Who invented the capacitor?

Capacitor

See also Damage Capacitor Supercapacitor Reactance Flash Memory Loss Factor Coil Cascade (electronics) LCR meter Sources Literature Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Wiio, Osmo A.; Somerikko, Unto V.| title = Adolescent radio book| publisher = World of Technique| year = 1963}} Category:Electronics Components Category:Energy Storage Category:Electrostatics Category:Key articles in screening


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

European breakers user-readyShip nameKronstadt1864Pilote (see


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

text) Hamburg1871Eisbrecher iHampuri1877Eisbrecher IIOSLO1877MJölnerriika1877? Göteborg1882 isbrytarenDenmark1883stærkoddertanska1884bryderenstettin1887stettinstettin1887swinemündestettin1889berlinStockholm1880-Ivuthornikolaev/blackmarian1890ledokol itanska1890mjölnerSuomi1890breakersAnska1890Brethorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthorthor1890? Sweden1891svensksundhampuri1892eisbrecher IIIOslo1893isbjörnamsterdam1893ysbreker iamsterdam1893ysbreker IIMalmö1894boretanska1894jyllandDenmark1894Tyrliepāja (Libau) 1894Udalibaikaljärvi1895Baikalgöteborg1895BryisBryisBryisBryisBryisBryisbry1895Baikalgöteborg1895BryisBryisBryisBryisBryisBryisBryisBryisBryisbrY1895BaikalTaren II (1895) Liepāja1895Ledokol Iitallinna1895stadt Revalcopenhagen1896sleipnerStockholm1897IsBrytaren I (1897) nikolaev/blacksea1898gaidachargesomi1898sampoturku1899AvanceRussian1899Jermakodess1899Ledokol IIIuomen State Iicebreaker Name Murtaja Sampo Tarmo Wäinäteinen Assistance Force Polar Bear Sisu Voima Bear Breaker Sampo Tarmo Varma Apu Urho Sisu Otso Kontio Fennica Nordica Botnica Completed 1890 1898 1907 1914 1899 1924 1926 1939 1954 1958 1959 1960 1963 1968 1970 1975 1976 1986 1987 1993 1994 1998 Increase in power of Finnish icebreakers 1877—1890 1899 1925 1957 1961 1971 1976 2006 Number of Express 2 5 6 6 8 9 9 Total power (hp) 400 5000 14000 25000 41000 73000 113000 167000 Through winter maintained sea connectionsCity Hanko Turku Pori Kotka Kaskinen Hamina Kokkola Kemi From 1890 1899 1925 1925 1957 1957 1961 1971 The history of icebreakers can be attributed to the 1830s in the United States, when the development of the steam engine allowed the bathing to break into the ice.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In Europe, ice-breaking steamships began to be built in the 1870s.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Early stages In the Age of Sailing Ships, shipping stagnated as the waters froze.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The wind couldn't carry the ship in ice and the ice bruised the wooden hull.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The snow attack froze sails, ropes and pumps.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

When Parkki Oskari attempted in December 1876 to reach Finland, it was forced to turn back south and use 1.5 tons of its salt cargo to melt the ice accumulating on the ship to reach Copenhagen.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Sailing ships had to move to more southerly seas for the winter or float in Finnish ports waiting for the ice to leave.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

As shipping stopped, Finland's foreign trade to the West and Russia also came to a halt.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Sure, you could move along the ice, but it was slow and arduous.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The postal link between Stockholm and Turku has been so important to the kingdom that it has been maintained for hundreds of years year-round.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Mail transport received a fixed arrangement in the 1630s, when it was cared for by postal house boys living in the archipelago.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The journey from Turku via Åland to Grisslehamn was 265 kilometres, of which 96 km was waterway.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Ice boats about six feet long were used to transport mail and individual journeymen.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The scramble of these sharp-bowed boats was reinforced to better withstand an ice encounter.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In open water, the ice boat travelled by the force of sails or by rowing.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

When encountered ice so one of the boat's six-person crew settled into the bow to trample ice with his broken legs and push ice boulders aside.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Other men used biscuits to push the boat forward.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

By tilting the boat, an attempt was made to make the bow rise on the ice to break the ice under the weight of the boat.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

If ice carried travellers, two booms were placed across the boat, from which the boat was kept balanced while two men pulled it forward with a rope.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Whenever the ice failed, you had to quickly throw yourself into the boat and preferably so as not to wet himself.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In this way, winter mail traffic between Finland and Sweden was carried out until 1898.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The advent of the steam engine Basically breaking ice became possible in the late 18th century when ships began to run on the power of the steam engine.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Although ships stuck in ice had been beaten and sawed off by ice shackles before, and helped towards open water, but men did not break the ice over long distances.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first ship built for icebreaking was completed in 1837.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Named City Ice Boat No 1, the wing pirate steamer was built in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, to break ice caused by flooding the Delaware River.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

This timber-framed ship served until 1865, when it was replaced by an iron ship of the same name.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In 1836 the Lawrence & Sneden shipyard in New York City, United States completed the wing-pike steamer of Norwich.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship initially served as a passenger ship and was converted in 1842 to a tug.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Norwich was a local notoriety for its immense ice-breaking ability.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Norwich's activities as an icebreaker apparently did not begin until the 1840s.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The evolution of icebreaking from first trials to actual special ships occurred gradually, so naming the first icebreaker is not an unequivocal matter.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In Europe, at least in the Netherlands, ordinary merchant ships were used to break the ice as early as the 1850s.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Traffic between the outer port of Kronstadt (a war port) and the town was handled in the open water season by ships and in winter by horse-drawn routes.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

From 1864 onwards, Britnev, a Russian merchant, attempted, with the help of the steamer Pilote, to extend the sailing season to the boil break time, when the ice did not carry horses.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Britnev converted the ship's bow wire so that the scramble rose on top of the ice and the weight of the ship broke the ice.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The waterborne season is reported to have extended the longest by some weeks.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Britnev built yet another, a steamer named Boy, to chop ice.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In Germany, the first actual icebreaker in Europe was completed in 1871, the steam vessel Eisbrecher I, named in Finnish icebreaker.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship, later renamed Eisfuchs, broke ice in Hamburg Harbour and on the Elbe.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In the Nordic countries, where icebreakers are particularly needed, Hamburg's example soon followed.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first breaker in Norway and at the same time Scandinavia was completed in 1877 and was named Mjölner.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Built in Malmö, the ship broke ice in Kristiania, or the port of present-day Oslo, and in the fjord leading there.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Mjölner broke its solids with his weight and as the hull pressed ice chunks in the water downwards they were subjected to a stream of water produced by two centrifugal pumps which pushed the pieces under solid ice.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Winter sea shipping in Finland The need to extend the sailing season is related to the development of the Finnish forest industry in the second half of the 19th century.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The Riihimäki—Saint Petersburg railway opened in 1870, but access to Western European markets required a sea connection.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Increased foreign trade increased the need for transportation and the stagnation of shipping in winter brought strong seasonal variation to the sector.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The tip of Hankoniemi was considered the best place for winter harbour in Finland and the railway line there, the Hyvinkää to Hanko section, was completed in 1873.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The beginning of winter shipping in Finland can be considered when the first steamer Express II confirmed for ice passage began service between Hanko and Stockholm on 15 December 1877.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship was renamed the Express only after the Wing Vapour Express went out of service.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Express II was designed by poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg's son, engineer Robert Runeberg.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

It was built by Oskarshamn shipyard in Sweden and achieved a speed of 10.75 knots (20km/h) using its 400ihv steam engine.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship had a length of 42.4m, a width of 6.85m and a draught of 3.5m.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Later, the ship was lengthened by 7.7 meters.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finska Transito Ångbåts AB's ship operated between Hanko and Stockholm for 12 years and only in harsh winters departures had to be cancelled.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finland's second ice-reinforced ship was the SHOY cargo steamer Capella, whose bow and stern were reinforced in 1888.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In 1887, Danish shipping company Det Forene Dampskilb Selskap started traffic between Hanko and Copenhagen.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The steam ships Libau and Uffo needed an icebreaker to help them, and so the first actual icebreaker was seen in Finland in April 1899 when Bryderen, a Danish company, visited to open a waterway to Hanko.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finland's first actual icebreaker was built by the Swedish shipyard Finnboda.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship, given the name Murtaja, was completed in 1890.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Its steam engine developed as much as 1600ihv and had a length of 47.5m, a width of 10.9m and a draught of 6.17m.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship's bow wire and ice met at an angle of 33 degrees.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

On the open bridge, it was good to wear a fur coat, as you could only warm up inside after four hours of watch.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Because navigation was done by means of a magnetic compass, in dark and bad weather, one often had to stay and wait for the weather to improve.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Relief work may have been interrupted even because the breaker went out to get more coals.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The breaker broke ice for a long time, for it was not scrapped until 1958 as unhelpfully obsolete.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Turku became Finland's second winter port in 1899 when the archipelago icebreaker Avance, commissioned by Turku-based entrepreneurs, was completed in Kiel.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finland's first harbour breach was built by Hietalahti Shipyard in Helsinki.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The ship, named Mercator, was built by Hackman & Co, a trading house in Vyborg and completed in 1910.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Technical developments The new icebreaking technique was represented by the Swedish gunboat (cannon boat) Svenskssund, completed in 1891, which had a pass crane bow and whose bow wire and ice met at an angle of 28 degrees.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Bow thrusters were the first to be used for icebreaking on the US Great Lakes by train ferry S's Ignace, which was completed in 1888.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first European bow-propelled breaker was the Finnish state's second breaker, the Sampo completed in 1898.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first ship with two bow thrusters was the Canadian train ferry Abegweit, completed in 1948.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Lessons gained from it were utilised when designing the Finnish Voima, the first icebreaker with two bow thrusters.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Sweden's first sea ice breaker was the Isbrytaren II acquired by the city of Stockholm in 1915 and later given the name Sankt Erik.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first Swedish state icebreaker was the 1926 completed Atle.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The icebreakers had their range increased as their steam engines began to be heated with oil.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In 1926 entered the oil age Swedish Atle and Finnish Polar Bear.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

The first diesel-electric machinery was the Swedish company Ymer, completed in 1933, from which good experience inspired the choice of diesel engines for the Finnish company Sisuunk 1939.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In the 1930s, the Soviet Union acquired seven large breakers for Arctic waters, three Kirov-class ships using diesel-electric machinery and four Stalin class ships having three steam engines each.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

In the same decade, the United States acquired eight diesel-electric 10,000-horsepower breakers, seven of which were sister ships of the Wind class.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Large, nuclear-powered icebreakers designed for ocean routes are also used in the Soviet Union and today Russia.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

They are capable of breaking several metres thick perm ice and even the North Pole is inaccessible to them.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

As the first surface ship, the North Pole was reached by Arktika on August 17, 1977.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

See also Icebreaker Shipbuilding Sources Tom Artela: Operating and Technology of Icebreakers.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finnish shipping 1978:7 —8 p. 26—31.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Finland 20 April 1888 p. 1—2.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Jan-Erik Jansson: Isbrytare och deras konstruktion.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Navigator 1956:12 p. 236—239, 252—253.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Jorma Pohjanpalo: 100 years of Finland's winter sea shipping.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Huddersfield in 1978.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Henrik Ramsay: Ice blockade breakers.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Huddersfield in 1949.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Erkki Riimala: Winter fumes.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Navigator 1983:9 p. 24—25.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Stora focus.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Stockholm in 1988.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Åbo Underrättelser 12.3.1877 p. 2.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Svensk uppslagsbok.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Malmö in 1950.


Question: What was the first icebreaker?

History of icebreakers

Category:Nautical Category:History of Technology


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Charles II (, 29 May 1630 — 6 February 1685) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1660 to 1685.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

He was the son of Charles I, who was beheaded after the Civil War.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

After a brief republic period, Charles II was summoned to England by Parliament, and the monarchy as well as the power of the Anglican Church was restored.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

The king was dependent on the contribution of Parliament in many matters, and the backers of the republic were not punished very severely.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

The signatories of Charles I's death warrant were admittedly executed, and Oliver Cromwell's body was removed from Westminster Abbey.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

There were two bad misfortunes at the beginning of Charles II's period: the Great Plague Epidemic of 1665 and the Great Fire of London the very following year (though the rats that spread the plague were apparently wiped out by fire to extinction).


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Later, Charles was troubled by the wars with Holland and the fact that he was suspected — with some reason — of intending to restore the country to Catholicism, which involved machinations with Louis XIV of France.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Charles II is known for his female adventures and the numerous mistresses he keeps.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

He had at least 14 illegitimate children, but none of the descendants eligible for the crown.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

The dispute over whether Charles's Catholic brother James II could become Protestant ruler of an established country gave rise to the seed of the British party system: two parties formed, the Torys approving James, and the Whigs rejecting this.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

A Whigi conspiracy to assassinate the king was uncovered, the Tory position prevailed, and James II, upon Charles's death, inherited the crown.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Childhood and adolescence Charles Stuart, the eldest son of Charles I and Henrietta Maria who grew up to grow up, was born at St. James's Palace on 29 May 1630.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

At birth, he automatically became (as the eldest son of the Kingdom) Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Shortly after his birth, he became Prince of Wales.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Due to the emergency situation caused by the English Civil War, Charles was never officially fitted with the Welsh Crown Jewels.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

In the 1640s, while the Prince of Wales was still a young Charles I fought against Parliament and Puritan forces in the English Civil War.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

The prince accompanied his father at the Battle of Edgehill [1], and at the age of fifteen he became the formal commander of the English forces.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

In 1646, amid fears for the crown prince's safety, he left first for the Isles of Scilly, then to Jersey and finally to France, where his mother was already in exile.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

During the Second Civil War in 1648, Charlemagne moved to The Hague, where his sister Maria and brother-in-law William II of Oranian seemed to offer better security than the Queen Mother's French relations.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Charlemagne was unable to take part in the battles of the Royalist forces before they were beaten at the decisive Battle of Preston.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

In The Hague, Charles had an affair with Lucy Walter (who, according to some sources, secretly married Charles) and their son James Crofts (later Duke of Monmouth and Buccleuch) became the most prominent influence of Charles's many illegitimate children.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Charles I was captured in 1647, escaped, and imprisoned again in 1648.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Despite rescue attempts made by his son, he was beheaded in 1649 and England declared itself a republic.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

At the same time, however, Scotland recognised Charles as his father's successor because he did not want to let England decide the fate of his kingdom.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

Consequently, Charles II was proclaimed King of the Scots in Edinburgh on 5 February 1649.


Question: By what name were Oliver Cromwell's troops known?

Charles II of England

In 1650, Charlemagne concluded the Peace of Breda with the Scottish Presbyterians, arriving in Scotland on 23 June 1650.