Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[3] [4] According to Livius and Dionysios, the Romans adopted a hoplite phalang from the Etruscans.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

According to them, Servius Tullius, according to tradition, the sixth king of Rome, reformed the Roman army and social system, bringing the Hoplite War to Rome as well.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Servius reigned according to tradition from 579 BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

— 534 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

and archaeological evidence suggests hoplite warfare was introduced in Rome sometime in the 5th century BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

so this might hold true.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Livius and Dionysios both describe Servius' reforms in great detail.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Under Servius' system, citizens were divided into five categories according to wealth.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

These classes had in turn been divided into centurios, which were perhaps 100 men in strength.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each member of the class was required to obtain minimum equipment according to their class.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The wealthiest, or those belonging to the knighthood (), served in the centuria of 18 cavalry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Members of the first class served as fully equipped hoplites while the equipment of the last, or fifth class members, included only the extractor or throwing spear.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[4] [5] This system formed the basis of the comitia centuriata.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

However, it is likely that Livius and Dionysios, or their sources, reconstructed the system they described from the structure of the comitia centuriata themselves.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

According to one current reconstruction, Servius' system was likely much simpler and consisted mainly of only citizens with sufficient wealth to fight as hoplites and those who could only serve as light infantry or servants.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The former was known as classis and the latter as infra classem.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The original classis perhaps consisted of a first class comprising 40 centurias with 100 men each.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In this case, the 5th century BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Rome could have assembled a 4,000-man phalang, which sounds plausible.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Later as the state grew the members of Class II and III gained enough wealth and were allowed to join the phalanges, thus increasing the Phalang army to 6000.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

However, this is only speculation and there is no way to reliably describe the early Roman army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[4] [5] The Army of the Central Republic and the Legion of Manipul The organization of the Roman army began in the 3rd century BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

become increasingly systematic as wars became ever more extensive operations.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The army was still a temporary service formed by citizens, in order to share the burden of which no one had to serve for more than 16 expeditions or years.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The widening of the wars meant the division of the war effort and the Roman Senate decided each year on the war effort.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

During this period, none of the army officers were a professional soldier.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Commanders were elected from a pair of officers and held the supreme command ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The two consuls elected for one year at a time were each given command of the army and were usually assigned the most important military operations.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Smaller duties might have been given to praettors.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The word “legion” () had previously signified an invocation and meant the entire Roman army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

But now the Legion marked the most pivotal unit in the military.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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At least since 311 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

four new legions were formed each year to replace the former.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[8] The normal army consisted of two legions, two sub-units (, plural alae) formed by the allies of Rome, and two cavalry units.


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Army of Ancient Rome

The earlier phalanges switched to the most flexible manipules ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The Standard Legion included 4200 soldiers of infantry and 300 cavalry.


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The main force of the Legion was infantry grouped in three lines ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The men in the first line, the hastati, were young men, about 20 years old.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Behind them were the principes, about 30 years old, who were considered to be at their prime age.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The back row triarii consisted of the oldest and most experienced men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Hastati and principes were usually 1200 men in strength but the triarii only 600.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each line was divided into 10 Manipuls, basic tactical units of the Legion.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The manipules of the first and second phalanx usually consisted of 120 men, but the triarii manipuls of the third phalanx consisted of only 60 men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each manipuli was divided into two centurias led by a centurio, or centurion, as well as his subordinate, a sub-officer (option), a war signbearer (signifer), and a guard chief (tesserarius).


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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In addition to these, the legion had 1200 lightly armed Velites soldiers.


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The Roman cavalry () consisted of rich citizens with enough wealth to acquire a horse and other equipment.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Many young aristocrats began their careers in the cavalry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The horsemen's equipment included a circular shield, helmet, armor, sword, as well as one or more throwing spears.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Roman cavalrymen were known as zealous and courageous soldiers, but their main weakness was their sheer numbers, so the Romans often resorted to allied cavalry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The 300 horsemen of the Legion had been divided into 10 units () of 30 men and commanded by three decurios ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The cavalrymen usually fought in close formation.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Six military tribunes served as commanders of the Legion.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[6] [7] Three prefects (), who were always Roman citizens, served as commanders in the field.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

They were assembled primarily from a pair of Latin peoples and comprised 4000—5000 men infantry and 900 men cavalry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Alae had been divided into cohorts, but no more is known about them than that the cohorts had a strength of about 400—600 men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In the battle, the Roman army regrouped in such a way that the legions were in the center and alae sites, at which point they were called by the names “left” and “right” ala.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The best soldiers in the field were assembled into a single unit, called extraordinarii.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

It included both foot and cavalry and was directly under the consul.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

On the march, the extraordinarii always had the vanguard and in retreat it protected the army as an afterforce.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[7] In combat, the army was always in a three-phalanx () formation.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Manipuls were grouped into what is known as a chessboard formation (), where there was a manipul's worth of space between the manipuls.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Behind the gap left between the hastati manipuls stood the principes manipuli, and behind the gaps left between the principes manipuls again stood the triarii manipuli.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Velites force was in front of the Manipuls protecting the Legion as it organized.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

It has generally been assumed that the empty spaces between the manipuls were filled before the battle began.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Adrian Goldsworthy has suggested that the legions also fought in a quincunx formation.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[6] [9] The Roman army in the Central Republic was temporary in nature.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

All Roman citizens with the requisite wealth were eligible for war service.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The men usually joined the army for one war expedition and then returned back to civilian life.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Logging took place on Campus Martius, or Mars field outside the city, as legions could enter the city only during the triumph.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Since 396 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Romans started paying wages to their soldiers but it did not cover much more than basic living expenses.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In the army, Roman citizens received their wages and food from the state and voluntarily submitted themselves to very hard discipline, losing most of their legal rights.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Discipline applied not only to men's behavior in combat, but also to everyday life in the camp.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

For cowardice in combat, theft, sleeping on guard, homosexual behavior, and engaging in sex in the camp were punishable by death.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Lesser offences often led to flogging.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

If the whole unit had participated in cowardice, a so-called decimation could be imposed, in which a tenth of the men were sentenced to death.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The rest had to live in shame outside the camp and they received barley and not wheat for their food.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

However, the desire of the spoils of war and duty to the state led most citizens to join the army during the war.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[10] Throughout the 200th century BCE


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

none of the widespread resistance to war service is known during the period.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[11] Polybios praised the Romans' habit of rewarding their brave soldiers.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

After each successful war expedition or battle, the Roman army held a parade in which soldiers of particular courage and performing feats were rewarded in front of others.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Prizes included ornate spears or harness carriages.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The soldier who was first to cross the enemy wall during the siege was decorated with a gold wreath ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The highest-ranking award was a simple laurel crown () given for saving the life of another Roman citizen.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Men were allowed to wear these decorations for the rest of their lives at various festivities.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

To the aristocrats, they were a major aid to the benefit of their own political careers.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[11] Despite the heavy discipline of the army, the militia armies of the Middle Seventies were of varying quality due to their provisionality.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The longer the army served the more effective it became.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Some legions enlisted during the Second Punic War served for years and its soldiers were highly experienced and competent.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

For example, after the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Roman survivors were formed into two legions that served throughout the war and fought in Zama in 202 BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Some men served after the war while still in Macedonia.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

When the army was demobilized the experience it gained disappeared and the new armies had to be retrained from the start.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Some individual veteran soldiers did serve again in the Army but not in the same units as before.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The wise general trained his army well before the battle.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Many of the losses suffered by Rome were due to consuls dragging into battle an army that had just been formed and with only minimal training.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The provisionality of the armies also caused that the Romans generally did not have enough competent officers and siege specialists.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[11] [12] Reforms of Marius Always the 10th century BCE


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Until the mid s the militia system worked well, but the expansion of the Romans outside Italy caused problems.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Wars were warred even further afield and sometimes lasted for years.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Some overseas provinces required an even more permanent garrison force.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The farmers who formed the legion recryte stock were forced out of their fields for up to years, causing major problems and even bankrupt.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Military service no longer sounded attractive when long wars no longer brought much personal honor or benefit.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Romans lowered the minimum amount of property required to join the army, but there still began to be fewer and fewer suitable men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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During the period 180 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

— 155 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

been a relatively peaceful period reduced the amount of experience in the army resulting in increasing losses.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each war was won but the number of losses increased.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The militia system was no longer able to accommodate the situation.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[12] Traditionally Gaius Marius, who won the War of Jugurtha in 105 BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

and later the Kimbrit and Teutons between 102 and 101 BCE, have been regarded as a reformer of the Roman army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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In 107 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Marius was elected consul to lead the war against the Numidian warlord Jugurtha in North Africa.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

He was not allowed to establish new legions, so Marius appealed to Rome's poorest citizens (, or “those counted according to the main chapter”) who did not have sufficient wealth for war service.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Marius quickly gained new men who turned out to be good soldiers.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Wealth was no longer accounted for when joining the military.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[13] [15] It is possible, though, that the change did not occur so abruptly.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The requirements for joining the army had been reduced and known of some professional soldiers who served for years in the army before Marius but their numbers are unknown.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Marius may have openly resorted to a practice that had used to be followed with minimal votes.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Marius's reform, however, was certainly an important step in creating a professional army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[13] The new army was completely different in spirit and tactics, although it retained some aspects of the militia army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The legions became more permanent and their numbers and names were preserved throughout their existence.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Soldiers considered the army their careers of life and identified with their units, developing a powerful mass spirit that many skilled generals such as Julius Caesar took advantage of.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Soldiers no longer needed to acquire their equipment themselves; the state supplied them with weapons, equipment and clothing.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Legion cavalry and light infantry remained out of service and all legionnaires were now heavy infantry, all with the same equipment.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The cohort replaced the manipul as the basic tactical Legion unit.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each legion had 10 cohorts, each of which theoretically contained three manipules.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Each cohort comprised six centurias comprising 80 men, commanded by centurios.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The cohort tactic may have been introduced in the wars fought in Hispania.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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During the period 91 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

— 87 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

there was a so-called Allied War, after which Roman civil rights were granted to virtually all towns south of the Po River.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The ALA units disappeared and Italians began to be recruited into the legions.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[13] The more permanent nature of the legions helped to gather experience for the Roman army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Technical skill increased and it was more easily transmitted to the next generation.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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In the first century BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Roman army had skilled pioneer forces capable of building bridges, defences, siege weapons, or entire warships.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The new pro armies were much better trained and more disciplined because of their persistence.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The legions admittedly lacked light infantry and cavalry, so these were often recruited from the war domain.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[13] Admittedly, the system had its worse aspects.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Soldiers were recruited from among the poor and had no livelihood when they returned to civilian life.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Roman Senate refused to take responsibility for the demobilized soldiers and did not look after them or their families.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Soldiers therefore turned to their generals, who were expected to provide them with means of subsistence after demobilisation, which usually took the form of donated farmland.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The army no longer represented the entire Roman people but separated from the community all the time and the soldiers were more loyal to their units and generals.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Charismatic leaders such as Sulla, Pompey or Caesar led armies that were much more loyal to them than to the state.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In the first century BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

there were plenty of civil wars when generals marched their armies to Rome to capture political power by force.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The army was an important prerequisite for the subversions that gradually destroyed the republic and resulted in a prinsipath, or emperor power.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[16] Prinsipath's army When Augustus rose to emperor in 27 BC.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In the Roman Empire, the so-called prinsipath period began (27 BCE.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

— 284 share.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

), at which time Rome was ruled by emperors.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Under Augustus, the Roman army was definitively shaped into a full-fledged professional army.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

It was greatly the emperor's own army and the new recruits swore an oath to the emperor rather than to the Senate and the Roman people.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Parades and various festivities were regularly held to commemorate the events of the Imperial Family.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Military units carried images of the emperor (), which recalled the soldiers' loyalty to the emperor.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

When the legionaries were demobilized, they received a monetary reward and a piece of land, paid for from the emperor's own military treasury ().


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The commanders of the armies were, with few exceptions, officers represented by the emperor and this authority, legates (), who were personally appointed by the emperor.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[17] [18] The core of the army remained the legions, of which there were about 30 in the early 10th century.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The strength of the legion was, on paper, about 5240 men, mainly of heavy infantry divided into ten cohorts.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Legion also included a large number of accountants, pioneers, surveyors, crew of throwing machines, trainers, as well as various craftsmen.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Legions were mainly intended to fight in major battles, but their command system also allowed them to serve as garrisons or in administrative positions.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Flags () could also be sent to disparate parts of the kingdom.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Vexillations may have included a few cohorts or soldiers.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[18] The Legion was supported by a large number of auxilia units, or auxiliary troops.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Auxilia Corps consisted of foreign soldiers, usually recruited from the war domain.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The state provided them with weapons and equipment, as well as paying a salary.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Soldiers who were part of Auxilia units were trained in the same way as legions and they too were professional soldiers serving in the army for years, with units similar to legions being permanent.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Auxilia soldiers were not organized into units of the same size as legions but into cohorts of infantry or sub-cavalry units, which were usually about 500 to 1000 men in size and were usually commanded by a knightly prefect.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

There were also so-called mixed cohorts () with both foot and cavalry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Auxilia units took their name from the people or tribe of which the unit was initially recruited.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Most auxilias served far from their domiciles and no new soldiers were recruited from the original location, so cohorts and alae often consisted of numerous different nationalities.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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The command language was always Latin, which made it easier to assimilate soldiers into a single unit.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

From the Auxilia Corps, the Roman army generally received good quality cavalry, light-armed infantry, and bow and spin men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

However, most of the Auxilias fought in the same manner as the legionnaires, i.e., as heavy infantry.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[18] During the Prinsipate no legions were stationed in Italy than until the late 10th century because Augustus and his followers did not want to show themselves dependent on military support.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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However, Augustus established the Praetorian Guard, which served as the emperor's bodyguards, with nine cohorts of 480 men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

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Only three cohorts served in Rome at first at a time but under Tiberius all nine cohorts were placed in the barracks of the Praetorian Guard () in the interior of Rome.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Later the size of the cohorts was increased to 1000 men.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

A cavalry unit was also attached to the Guard, the size of 2000 men at its largest.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Rome had not only the Praetorian Guard but also two paramilitary units.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Cohortes urbanae force, of which there were initially three cohorts but later five, served as a police force and also guarded the Imperial Mint at Lugdunum.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

As well as seven vigiles cohorts who act as fire brigades and order keepers at night.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[19] In 197, Legio II Parthica, founded by Emperor Septimius Severus, was placed in Alba, near Rome.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[20] The Late Antiquity Army of the Prinsipath ended in the 13th century divide.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

to civil wars and unrest, when periods of calm were rare.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Roman army of late antiquity was similar to that of the Principath, but there were changes.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The army was now divided into field army (comitatenses) and border area garrison corps (limitanei).


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[21] Comitatenses troops were commanded by the emperor or one of his closest subordinates and are sometimes understood as mobile strategic reserve forces that moved into crisis zones as needed to repel enemy attack.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

They were often stationed in the heartlands of the provinces away from the borders which differed from the time of the Principath when the army was mainly held in border areas.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Prinsipath system often caused difficulties because if the enemy was able to penetrate through the borders, it often took quite a long time before troops could be transferred from other border areas to counter the invasion.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

But in this case, these areas could also get into trouble.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Comitatenses corps were also not tied to a particular region unlike the legions of the Principath's time, which also participated in provincial administrative functions.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

In this case, the relocation of legions to the new territory caused major problems.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The movement of the Comitatenses forces did not cause similar problems, but it is also questionable to what extent they served as a strategic reserve for the entire kingdom.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

They gave the emperor at least strong protection against coup attempts.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[21] The Limitanei were under the command of a local military commander (dux) and were trained in the manner of the Comitatenses Corps and differed from the units of the field army only for their position.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The Limitanei patrolled the border areas daily and performed garrison service mainly on the borders but sometimes also in the inner regions of the kingdom.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

The size of the Limitanei force was too small to be able to repel large-scale raiding or invasions, but they did well in small-scale warfare.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Sometimes limitanei units were deployed in field armies, where they sometimes remained permanently.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Limitanei units permanently transferred to the Comitatenses Corps were referred to as pseudocomitatenses.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

[21] See also Roman military history Army of the Byzantine Empire Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Adrian Goldsworthy| title = Roman Warfare| publisher = Cassel| year = 2000| id = ISBN 0-304-35265-9| language = Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.}


Question: How long did the Ancient Roman army maintain its empire?

Army of Ancient Rome

Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Adrian Goldsworthy| title = Roman military| publisher = Karisto| year = 2005| id = ISBN 951-23-4590-0}} References Category:Armies Category:Roman military history


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Mosaic is a composition made of small fragments.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The pieces can be made of stone, colored glass or ceramics, for example.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[1] The pieces, or tesseras, are attached to each other and to their substrate with a special binder, putty or cement.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

In a narrower sense, mosaic is understood as the method of decorating walls and vaults (for smaller pieces of jewellery), where the pieces are either cut according to the pattern (florentine mosaic) or triangular and square, polygonal and irregular, roughly equal in size in stone, glass and terracotta studs.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

To increase the effect, enamel and gold (Byzantine, Roman, Venetian mosaic) are often used.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Also, intarsia can be considered a mosaic.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Mosaic art has flourished in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East and, to a limited extent, in pre-Columbian cultures of the Americas as well.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[2] Etymology The word 'mosaic' comes through French (mosaïque), Latin (musi (v) um, 'decoration made of small square-shaped stones'), and perhaps originally Greek (mousa, 'muse').


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[3] History The remains of the earliest mosaics have survived in Mesopotamia, where mosaics depicted things such as animals, farming activities, warfare and royalty.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Chopped stone was used as material in Sumer.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[4] In Greece, mosaic floors were made of smooth pebbles.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The stones were fixed, for example, with cement mortar.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Sometimes stained pebbles were used, and on the island of Delos, stained stone and coloured glass differentials were used for mosaic floors.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[5] In the Roman Empire, mosaic art spread to temples, theatres, public institutions, baths, shops, covered columnar aisles and squares.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

There were a wide variety of styles, techniques and subjects of decoration.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The mosaics were made from local or African imported marble and dyed a full-bodied colour.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

All Roman cities had mosaics, but the most artistically valuable have been found in Pompeii, especially the House of Faunes.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[6] With the advent of Christian art, mosaics began to be made on walls instead of flooring.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Images of persons figures were made on the walls of churches and abstract or nature-themed patterns and Biblical themes on the domes.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Byzantine mosaics used tesseras cut from opaque glass, and the surface of the mosaics was deliberately rough and uneven.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

New types of light effects were achieved by combining tesseros plated with silver and gold and placing the pieces so that daylight was reflected facing the viewer.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The main Byzantine mosaic works are located in the Istanbulian Basilica of St. Sophia, the Sicilian Cathedral of Monreale, and the Venetians in the church of Santa Maria in Torcello and St. Mark's Basilica.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[7] In the 6th century, mosaic art spread from Constantinople to Islamic lands to the mosques of Mecca, Medina and Damascus.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Subjects included landscapes, palaces, temples, as well as stylized nature motifs and geometric patterns.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Human figures, on the other hand, were omitted as a result of the provisions of Islam.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

For example, the outer walls of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem are covered with mosaics, and also exist in places such as the Great Mosque of Damascus and the Mosque of Córdoba.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[8] In the Americas of the pre-Columbus period, mosaic works were performed for funerals and religious deliveries.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

For example, turquoise, jade, coral, malachite and mother-of-pearl were used as stones.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The stones were cut with flint into small fragments and fixed to the substrate with natural glue.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The walls of the houses in the Mitla Pass in the Oaxaca Valley are clad in mosaics.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[9] In the Middle Ages, mosaic stone floors in Europe were usually commissioned by churches that willed a cheap decorative floor.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Biblical scenes, mythology, zodiac signs, letter signs and legends were used as illustration.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The streets of cities were paved with decorative cobblestones from the Middle Ages right up to the 20th century.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[10] Mosaic art began to recede in Europe from the way of painting beginning in the 14th century, losing its status as an independent art form.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

However, mosaic works were still carried out for places such as Florence Cathedral in the 15th century as well as Rome in the 17th century.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

A lot of mosaics were produced in St. Petersburg in the middle of the 19th century.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

At the beginning of the 20th century, Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí made many mosaics in Barcelona, composed in the manner of scales.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Many well-known artists such as Marc Chagall, Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Gino Severini, Lucio Fontana and Diego Rivera have done mosaic work on buildings, floors and objects in the 20th century.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[11] Materials Tesseras material The traditional material for making mosaic is stone such as pebbles, marble and granite.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Later, glass pulp and semi-precious stones began to be used to make the mosaics more colourful than before.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[12] Stone used for tesseras should not age over time and should be dense enough not to break when cut.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Stone species used in mosaics include volcanic rocks granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, diabase, porphyry and obsidian; sedimentary rocks sandstone, limestone, translucent gypsum and travertine; and metamorphic rocks shale, marble, steatite and serpentine stone.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[13] Fragments of stained glass made of glass are called smalt.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

From their ingredients depend on their glazing, coalescing and strengthening.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Smalts are made by spreading the hot glass mass into the shape of a plate and cutting the cooled plate into pieces.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[14] Semi-precious stones such as agates, jade, onyx and lasuuri stone are spectacular but relatively expensive and difficult to cut.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[15] Glazed ceramic tile is a common material for making tesseros.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Tesseras made from it are colorful, easy to cut and more economical than marble and smalt.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[16] Other materials As a permanent base material for mosaic work, for example wood, cement fiberboard, marble or stone tiles or burnt bricks are used.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

The base should not deform, which is why wooden boards are not suitable as a basis for mosaic work.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Laminated wooden boards, however, curve.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

If an indirect method is used to make a mosaic, a temporary base can be made of clay, sand or plasticine.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

For fixing, glue, mounting mortar or cement mortar are used.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Welded steel truss or iron wire can be used for reinforcement.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[17] Tools and Cutting The most important tools of the mosaic artist are hammer, chisel, pliers and small anvils.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[18] The stone may be tapped initially with a chisel at the point where it is desired to be split.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

In glass and ceramic tile, the groove is made with a cutter by towing.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[19] Stones used for tesseras can be broken with a mosaic hammer with one or two cutting edges.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Stones can also be broken with the help of a sledgehammer and a chisel.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

A cut-out blade may be attached to the anvil to which the mosaic tile is struck to split it.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Marble and stone tiles can be chopped with a cutting sledgehammer.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Tongs are used for cracking small stones and shaping tesseras.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Marble or other hard stone materials are cut and sanded with an electric circular cutter.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Ceramic tiles, marble and granite are cut using an electric cutter with a built-in diamond cutter.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

Glass tesseras are cut with a diamond cutter or glass cutter tools such as a tile cutter.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[20] Mounting Methods In the direct method, the tessera is attached directly to a substrate on which glue or mortar has been smeared.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

This method can be used in mosaic works of all kinds and sizes.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[21] There are two techniques for the indirect method: direct attachment and reverse fixation.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

In direct attachment, the tesseras are initially laid out on a temporary substrate such as dry sand, soft clay or plasticine, to which the tesseras adhere without glue.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

After that, the mosaic work is covered with water-soluble glue and kraft paper.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

After the base has completely dried, the work is turned over and the temporary undermaterial is removed.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

After that, mortar is poured over the mosaics.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

In reverse fastening, the mosaic is fastened from the “wrong” side and turned twice.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

This technique is suitable only for tesseras, which are of the same color on both sides.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[22] Direct attachment to the wall is a relatively rare technique.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

In it, tile mortar is applied to the wall, on top of which the mosaic can be laid directly or, for example, attached to a metal mesh.


Question: What was Mosaic?

Mosaic

[23] See also Icon Stained Glass Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Chavarria, Joaquim| title = Mosaic making| others = Translated by Heli Naski| publisher = Family Media| year = 2008| id = ISBN 978-952-494-171-6}} References on the topic elsewhere Category:Interior Architecture Category:Ancient Roman Architecture Category:Applied Arts Category:Ancient Roman and Etruscan Art Category:Painting Techniques Category:Key articles of screening


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

Jämsänkoski Ilves (Jilves) is a Jämsänkoskelan sports club founded in 1930.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

The club has activities in skiing, swimming, athletics, hockey, cycling and football.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

[2] The Ilves football representative team plays its home matches at Jämsänkoski ballpark, [3] and its team rose to the upper Kolmonen of the league level for the 2016 season.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

[4] Ilves has played in Finland's second highest league level, the then Suomensarja, for a total of eight seasons between 1963 and 1970.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

[5] In 1974—1976, 1978, 1981—1983, 1985, 1990 and 2012 the team played in Kakkonen.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

[5] In cross-country skiing, Jämsänkoski Ilves, as a team in the 2010s, have established their place in the elite of their country, and have won two SM-silver in the men's relay.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

At the 2013 Finnish Championships in Kontiolahti, Ilves won SM-gold in the pair sprint.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

[6] Ice Hockey Jämsänkoski Ilves Ice Hockey Division was founded 1953.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

From the outset, junior operations were the foundation stone of operations.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

As a result of his good junior work, Jilves played at the second highest league level during the 60s and 70s, the then “Finnish series”.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

As the league level dropped lower, hockey enthusiasm faded in the 80s, but has now restarted when all the hockey clubs in Jämsänjokilaakso have been merged under the Jilves name.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

In addition to the representative team, the club has six junior teams, a women's team as well as a second team.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

In addition to this, the club is involved in the Leijona-discus school.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

Practices and games are conducted in three ice halls (Jämsä, Jämsänkoski, Länkipohja) and on outdoor ice courts.


Question: When is Jämsänkoski Ilves founded?

Jämsänkoski Lynx

Sources on the topic elsewhere Category:Finnish football clubs Category:Finnish athletics clubs Category:Jämsänkoski Class:Jämsäläinen sports clubs Category:Sports clubs founded in 1930


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spam () is mass mailing by email for which the recipient's permission has not been obtained in advance.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

According to some estimates, in 2006, about 75% to 80% of all email was spam, others say more than 90%.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

[1] According to a study by Sophos published in December 2007, 11% of spam recipients have purchased some items advertised with spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

[2] Since mail delivery is almost free for the sender, spam is often a lucrative activity.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spam and the law in Finland related to communication that is understood as spam are dealt with in the Law on Electronic Communications Services [3], the Personal Data Act [4] and the Consumer Protection Act.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Electronic direct marketing may not be sent to natural persons without prior consent of the recipient (LSVP § 200) Electronic direct marketing may be sent to entities.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Entities have the right of prohibition (LSVP 202 § 27) The addresses of natural persons in enterprises are interpreted in principle as a requirement for prior consent.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

However, the Government's proposal for the Electronic Communications Data Protection Act [5], which preceded the current law, suggests that this requirement can be haggled under the status mandate.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Section 200, 202 of the Law on Electronic Communications Services applies only to electronic direct marketing.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Electronic mass direct communication that has no commercial purpose, such as religious, political, or opinion polling, would not appear to be within the scope of this regulation.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Article 25 of the Personal Data Act requires that an addressable consignment of this kind, for which the person's name and contact details have been obtained from the personal register, must indicate the name, the controller and the contact details of the personal register used for the data acquisition.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Article 19 and Article 25 of the Act cite ko.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

in addition to competent direct marketing of legal points, opinion or market research or other addressable consignments.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spam Sending Internet service providers and private users have developed several different means of protecting against spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Almost all Internet operators prohibit spamming and close the user ID if the ID is used to send spam mail.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

However, this has not proven to be enough to prevent spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Using a computer other than your own Initially, spam was sent with its own ID directly to recipients.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Recipients complained to the operator, and soon the sender ID was shut down.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Because of this, it soon became the basic means of spammers to send messages using someone else's computer and network connection.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

In this way, real senders protect themselves in a variety of ways: they hide their tracks, gain access to other computers” resources, and direct their countermeasures to quite a place other than against the actual spammer.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

In the 1990s, the most popular means was to use open mail servers (MTA).


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Within a few years, there was a shift from open mail servers to open proxy servers.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

During 2003, spamming took a new twist.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Instead of searching the Internet for open services, “services” began to be created by yourself.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spammers took computer viruses to help.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Many of the worst viruses of 2003 (e.g.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Sobig and Mimail) were spam viruses.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

In particular, security holes in the Windows operating system allowed viruses to install on the end user's computer and turn the machine into an open server.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

In addition to spamming, viruses were also started to be used for other purposes.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Starting in July, virus-infested computers were harnessed as working tools for distributed denial of service (DDoS, Distributed Denial of Service) attacks.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The attacks were targeted at those opposed to spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The attacks were not the first, but reportedly nevertheless the first effective attacks.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

In August and September, two entities (Osirusoft and Monkeys.com) stopped maintaining DNSBL lists after the attacks.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Other DNSBL operators such as have, among others, distributed and mirrored their systems globally to better withstand attacks.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Protection against spam There are a wide variety of methods to combat spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

There are solutions that companies or Internet operators can take advantage of on their email servers, thereby protecting all users from spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

On the other hand, there are also solutions for an individual user to filter mail from their machine.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spam filtering by internet operators has been required for some time.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The problem here has been the Privacy Act, which prevents you from tampering with messages without the user's permission.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

However, a new privacy law has been completed and will allow Internet operators and other service operators to either delete or mark traffic they classify as spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The issues are addressed by e.g.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Communications Agency Order 11 A/2008 M on the security and functionality of email services and document MPS 11, justification and application of the order [6] Individual user solutions have been separate programs based on different filters.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

If messages interpreted as spam are flagged by an Internet operator, the program may be instructed to move those messages directly to the spam folder or dispose of once and for all.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

There are a lot of different effective filtration methods.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

However, they always run the risk of non-spam messages being spammed or completely eradicated.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Therefore, spam emails are sometimes worth checking, although they should never be opened.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spams should also not be answered.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Replying to the message indicates that the recipient's address is enabled and additional spam can be sent there.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Nowadays, however, the sender's address is usually fake, and the answer ends up nowhere.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Prevention Spammers most often collect email addresses from Web pages and newsgroups.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Also, discussion boards, IRC, homepages, and various newsletters are the most popular sources for spammers to collect addresses.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Sign-ups on various gaming and entertainment pages might pass addresses to spammers.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Email addresses may also fall into the hands of spammers as a result of data breaches.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

You can protect yourself from the first methods of collection by using a second, more heavily filtered address in public contexts.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Some use service-specific email addresses when registering for different services, for example, on some email servers, mina-xyz@example.org is directed to the mailbox mina@example.org, but with information about the address it was addressed to.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

This way you can see where the spam is from.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Companies have broadly adopted a principle that states, for example, “Our company email addresses are etunimi.sukunimi@yritys.example.com”.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

This is quite an effective means of preventing automated collection of addresses, but very problematic in some cases.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

If you have more than one Matti Mekäläinen in the company, this general instruction does not tell you which of them to reach with the address specified in the instruction and how to reach them.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Also, the instruction does not say that it had to be changed to a.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The conversion of hyphens or names containing exotic characters to email addresses may not be unequivocal.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spammers also scar email addresses, especially short ones like that.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

For example, dab@example.com is easily spammed even if the address isn't featured anywhere.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Dictionaries and name directories are also used in guessing new addresses.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

A project called Project Honey Pot has been launched in the US to try to hold spammers accountable.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Volunteers involved in the project install a program on their homepage that always generates a made-up email address when the program is downloaded.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

At the same time, the IP address of the harvester bot collecting email addresses that downloaded the program is stored in memory.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

If a made-up email address comes up with spam, it will be known who sent it.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Handling Spam Responding to spam is usually useless, as the sender's address is very likely to be fake.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Often, HTML format spams will also attempt to open files (usually images) from the spammer's server, providing confirmation that the mail has been read.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Many email clients know how not to open such files.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Spam Detection Methods Content Filtering The keyword-based identification method examines the entire message and searches for specific keywords such as “viagra”, “university degree” or “loan”.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

If the message contains these keywords, the message may be identified as spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The problem with keyword recognition is that the spelling of words can be changed.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

For example, the computer does not recognise the words “viagra” and “v14gra” as the same words, even if a person can understand the difference when reading them.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

So it's easy to fool keyword recognition.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

An even more serious problem is that relevant messages are easily classified as spam if they address issues and words that are on the spam keyword list.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

One effective subset of content filtering is heuristic scanning, which examines the header information and message section of a message.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The message is scored using various algorithms and techniques.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

For example, the sender's address and domain, “target” and “copy” fields, message spelling, keywords, HTML code and links, etc.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

It's only when a post gets enough points that it's classified as spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The problem with heuristics is that the program doing the identification should first be taught.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

You have to tell the program which messages are spam and which aren't.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Thus, the program gradually learns to become more reliable and better.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Blacklists The most popular and generally easiest way to filter spam at the server level is blacklists.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

An organization or individual maintains a DNS server containing information on a different basis: some includes known spam senders, some with open proxy servers.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The email server will query the DNS server for every mail that enters and rejects those found on the blacklist.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Bayesian Filtering In the last couple of years, a learning spam filter based on Bayesian filtering has been implemented in several email clients.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

The idea is based on a 2002 article by Paul Graham, based on theorems of probability calculus developed by mathematician Thomas Bayes in the 18th century.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

This is a more sophisticated method than keyword recognition, which, to put it simply, is based on statistical analysis of the occurrences of words.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

When the Bayes filter is properly “trained”, it can at best detect quite a large proportion (e.g. 80-90%) of spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

A filter based on the Bayes method is standard included in mm.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Mozilla in Thunderbird (and Mozilla Mail) as well as Apple Mail.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Bayes filtering can also be combined with traditional heuristic methods, as has been done in newer versions of the Spamassassin program, for example.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Summary No means has so far proven to be entirely certain in combating and identifying spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

I'm sure there's no single way.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

Legislation, common international game rules, software and hardware are needed to reduce spam.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

I'm sure you can't get rid of spam altogether, at least in the short run.


Question: Is spam illegal?

Spam

See also MakeloveNotspam.com Sources on the topic elsewhere A project to hold spammers accountable Category:Email Category:Information Technology Crime Category:Screening Key Articles


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Howard Robard Hughes, Jr.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

William William (December 24, 1905 in Humble, Texas — April 5, 1976, Houston, Texas) was an American financial magnate, aviator, engineer, film director and producer, and philanthropist.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Billionaire Hughes was, in his day, one of the wealthiest figures in the world.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Adolescent Howard Robard Hughes II was born in the town of Humble, Texas, on December 24, 1905, as the child of Howard Robart Hughes Sr. (1869—1924) and Allene Stone Gano (1883—1922).


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Howard and Allene had gotten married in Dallas on May 24, 1904.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes' Howard father became rich with the help of Hughes Tools, a company that manufactures oil drilling equipment.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The company specialized in drill bits that the company did not sell, but rented.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes Tools had patented the world's only effective oil drill blade.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[1] Hughes' Allene mother died unexpectedly from postoperative complications at age 38 on March 29, 1922, and Howard father at age 54 from myocardial infarction less than two years later on January 14, 1924.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

At the age of 18, Hughes inherited the Hughes Tool company from his father [1] and turned the inheritance into a huge fortune.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The dollars earned on drill bits didn't satisfy the Texan youngster's ambition.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Enthusiastic about aviation, Hughes settled in 1925 in Los Angeles with the goal of a career as a film producer.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

A movie mogul in the film industry, Hughes followed the example of millionaires like Joseph Kennedy and set up a film studio to acquire a beautiful women's company, among other things.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

However, Hughes's studio also produced notable films such as Horna's Angels air war film, which Hughes both directed and produced.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

With a giant budget of $4 million, it was the most expensive of the films to do so.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Horna's Angels was originally shot as a silent film on a budget of $2 million, but Hughes wanted it to be a sound film, and it was completely re-filmed with a budget of $1.7million.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

A major flop was expected of the film, but it received good reviews and was successful at the box office hatches.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The film featured others including Finnish Carl von Haartman and future technology chief of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe, World War I fighter ace Ernst Udet, as a stunt pilot.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In the film's shoot, three pilots perished as the planes hit each other.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The film remained Hughes' only actual directorial work.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[2] Another film for which Hughes is noted as a director is Outlaw, in which his part is negligible however.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Directing was initiated by Howard Hawks and was subsequently directed by Hughes, but was eventually co-directed by Jules Furthman as well.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The Outlaw movie had an erotic upload that caused it to be censored.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes also produced the Scarface film (1932), which emerged as a classic, directed by his good friend Howard Hawks.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The Hawks were also originally intended to direct Horna's Angels.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Aviation Hughes became interested in aviation and founded the Hughes Aircraft aircraft company.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

His H-1 race aircraft was a pioneer, with retractable landing gear, a big star engine, a seamless fuselage and other overhauls.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Some see it as a paragon of World War II fighter aircraft.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In a 1954 interview with Look magazine, Hughes himself enthusiastically judged his plane to have been a model of the Japanese Zero fighter.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[3] Hughes acquired ownership of TWA airline and thus influenced, among other things, the design requirements of the Lockheed Constellation aircraft.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes' huge transport flying boat, Hercules, was an example of Hughes's financial resources and backwardness.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In 1946, Hughes was badly injured after a prototype of an XF-11 reconnaissance aircraft was crushed in Los Angeles, where he was flying in violation of the test flight program.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The plane's engine failure led to a crash-landing.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes burned his lungs and suffered broken bones.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He was able to fly the second prototype of the plane a year later.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

This accident is probably the initial cause of his bacterial injury.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The United States Air Force did not order Hughes' plane.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes Aircraft never received workable intervals with the Armed Forces Purchase Organizations.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The company prospered only when it began making radars, missiles and, in the early 1960s, satellites.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Later, the factory expanded its product line to include helicopters.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes's name rose to public prominence in the 1970s with his equipment in use for the lift-off of a sunken Soviet nuclear submarine.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hermit Life and Death After being herded, Hughes lived aided by Mormon spirit guards and some of his few friends in hotels without becoming public for more than 20 years.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes used to always rent a hotel penthouse.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

From 1966 to 1976, Hughes lived in hotels in Beverly Hills, Boston, Las Vegas, Nassau, Vancouver, London, Managua, and Acapulco.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He contracted obsessive-compulsive disorder.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[4] On November 27, 1966, Hughes arrived in Las Vegas by train car and moved to the Desert Inn Hotel.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes refused to leave the hotel, and so, in order to avoid scandals, he bought that hotel in 1967.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The eighth floor of the hotel was entirely part of the Hughes empire and the ninth floor was Hughes' private residence.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Between 1966 and 1968, he purchased several hotels and casinos in Las Vegas.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes was Nevada's largest taxpayer.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. government conducted underground nuclear tests in the Nevada desert, and Hughes feared he would receive ionizing radiation.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He decided to leave the United States for Managua, Nicaragua.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He stayed at the Intercontinental Hotel on the shores of Lake Nicaragua, where he got the privacy he craved and had his own guard.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

On December 23, 1972, an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 6.3 was done in Managua.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[5] Fearing assassination and the press, Hughes fled to Nicaragua's presidential palace, where dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle gave him asylum.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes took a private plane to Florida still the same day.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Only a very few in the last 25 years had seen Hughes or spoken to him privately.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He was creepy for germs, and he was very specific about neatness.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

One manager of his company had once been allowed to meet him, but they had to be in a sterilised room.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Two shareholders tried to have him declared dead, but Hughes' lawyers announced he was nevertheless alive.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The court accepted the case.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In 1972, US novelist Clifford Irving announced that he was going to publish Howard Hughes' memoirs.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The publisher was McGraw-Hill.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Irving's book became a bestseller, and he became a famous author.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The mysterious millionaire's life became a hit.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Then came another surprise: A mysterious phone call came from one hotel in the Bahamas.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes wanted to hold a press conference in Los Angeles.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes said via phone to a few large media representatives that he hasn't even met a person named Clifford Irving.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

At the same time, Hughes' mysterious life took a twist — he turned out to be alive.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes urged the publisher to claw back its money from Irving.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes' lawyer, Chester Davis, sued Irving, accusing him of forgery and his wife Edith of fraud.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes died on April 5, 1976 at 1:26 p.m. on a plane en route from Acapulco to Houston Methodist Hospital at the age of 70.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

According to some, Hughes died in Mexico.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Codeine [6] and lifestyle made him almost unrecognizable.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes, according to some sources, allowed his nails, hair and beard to grow without cutting them.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

On his best days, Hughes stood 193cm tall and weighed 72kg.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

At his death he was 7.5cm shorter and weighed just 41kg [6].


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The FBI had to take fingerprints to identify him.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes' private pilots described him as old, tired and worn out.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He had a beard and grey hair that extended to his shoulders.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

As part of the autopsy, it was discovered that Hughes' death was also contributed to by severe kidney disease.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes's grave is modest.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He is buried at Glenwood Cemetery in a family grave in Houston.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The grave reads Howard Robard Hughes, Jr (December 24, 1905, April 5, 1976).


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes was particularly known as a friend of banana, walnut and chocolate ice cream.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

He even ordered thousands of gallons of them for his hotels.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes was married to Ella Rice 1925—1929.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Actor Terry Moore stayed with Hughes for a short time, and after Hughes' death he claimed they had been secretly married since 1949 and had never divorced.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The union with actress Jean Peters was in effect from 1957 to 1971, although the couple lived for years in separation and only talked by telephone after Hughes became divorced.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Hughes in popular culture In 2005, Howard Hughes became current with the film The Pilot, which won five Oscar-awards.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

The film was directed by Martin Scorsese and Hughes was played by Leonardo DiCaprio.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

In the Amazing Howard Hughes television film (1977), the eccentric billionaires are played by Tommy Lee Jones.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

[7] The case of Howard Hughes' fake autobiography is addressed by the 2006 film Dragging.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Filmography Produced by Swell Hogan (1926) A Thousand and One Alleyways (Two Arabian Knights, 1927) The Mating Call (1928) Horna's Angels (Hell's Angels, 1930, also directed by Howard Hughes) Home rewritten (The Front Page, 1931) Woman's Power (Cock of the Air, 1932) Hello!


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Get out of the way!


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

(Sky Devils, 1932) Scarface (Scarface, 1932) The Outlaw (The Outlaw, 1943, also directed in part by Howard Hughes) Oh What Wednesday (The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, 1947) Vendetta (1950) The Riddle of Death Laboratory (The Whip's Hand, 1951) Two tickets to Broadway (Two Tickets to Broadway, 1951) Embrace of Death (The Las Vegas Story, 1952) Under High Skies (The Big Sky, 1952) The Abyss of Death (Second Chance, 1953) Louisiana Territory (1953) French Line (The French Line, 1954) Sinbad, adventurer-lover (Son of Sinbad, 1955) Sunken Treasure (The French Line, 1954) Sinbad, adventurer-lover (Son of Sinbad, 1955) Sunken Treasure ( Underwater! , 1955) The Conqueror (The Conqueror, 1956) Flying Devils (Jet Pilot, 1957) Sources On the subject elsewhere Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.


Question: What was Howard Hughes first film?

Howard Hughes

Category:US pilots Category:American film producers Category:US billionaires Category:US businessmen Category:People born in 1905 Class:Those who died in 1976 Class:Key articles of screening


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

Women's suffrage is an economic and political reform that gives women the right to vote.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

However, the right to vote did not always mean being eligible for election, i.e., allowing women to stand for election.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

New Zealand was the first to give women the right to vote in 1893.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

Limited suffrage and eligibility for election were granted in Australia in 1902, which however only applied to the white population.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[1] Finland, as the third in the world and first in Europe, gave women the right to vote in 1906 as part of universal and equal suffrage.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

At the same time, women were also allowed the right to stand for election and in 1907 the world's first female parliamentarians were elected to Parliament.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[2] In Soviet Russia, women's suffrage was enacted in the October Revolution of 1917.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[3] In the United States, women's suffrage was in the New Jersey State Constitution as early as 1776, but was repealed in 1807.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

Later, women gained the right to vote in the United States in 1920.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[4] In France, the Paris Commune gave women the right to vote in 1871, but the decision was reversed when the commune fell.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[5] Of European countries, Switzerland gave women the right to vote only in 1971 and Liechtenstein last in Europe in 1984.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[4] In some Swiss cantons, women's suffrage had been denied until the early 1990s.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

[6] In 2015, there is virtually no other country in the world where women's suffrage is completely prohibited by law, after Saudi Arabia gave women the right to stand in local elections [7].


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

However, this does not include states where voting is generally not held (and therefore men are not allowed to vote either).


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

The Pope to be elected in Vatican elections is chosen among male delegates on religious grounds.


Question: Which country was the first to give women the right to vote?

Women's suffrage

See also History of Suffrage in Finland Timeline of the history of women's suffrage Sources on topic elsewhere Category:Female Class:Suffrage Class:Key articles on screening


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Outokumpu Oyj is a Finnish metal industry company operating in 30 countries.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Pre-current company operations began in 1910 in the town of Outokumpu, the then keeper of Kuusjärvi, where copper ore was found.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Ore Field's birthday is considered to be March 16, 1910, when the first drilling samples were obtained.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

At its bottom, the Outokumpu mine, producing copper ore, was created.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Outokumpu became a state company when the Finnish State purchased the entire share stock of the Outokumpu Mining Company from the Vyborg Hackman trading house [1].


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Today, Outokumpu owns the Kemi chromium mine, the Tornio steel mill and the ferrochrome smelter, as well as several production facilities outside Finland.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Outokumpu's main business area is Stainless Steel (Stainless Steel), which is divided into three business areas: Europe (Europe, Middle East, Africa, Asia and Pacific), Americas and Long Products.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The company's major European competitors as stainless steel makers until 2012 were the larger German company Inoxum/ThyssenKrupp, Spanish-French-Luxembourg-based Aperam/ArcelorMittal and Spanish company Acerinox.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

In late 2012, Outokumpu acquired Inoxum and became the largest player in the industry in Europe, if not as much as the world.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Outokumpu Oyj is a partner of Voimaosayhtiö SF, which owns Fennovoimaa in Finland.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

[2] Historia A Finnish joint venture and a Norwegian leasehold company By 1914, a joint venture Outokumpu Kopparverk had been established, in which the Vyborg trading house Hackman & Co and the Finnish state were the owners.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The management of the company then included the old trade adviser Wilhelm Hackman and Senator Paul Kraatz.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The technology, or copper separation method, was obtained by a Norwegian company's electrolytic method.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

After various difficulties, it was concluded that the company was leased to the Norwegian company Hybinette in August 1917.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

This period lasted for a total of three years.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The Finnish State Business Institution Rental Company was purchased to mine owners, namely the Finnish State and Hackman, in January 1921.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Eero Mäkinen, Doctor of Philosophy, was elected CEO.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The final settlement of the State Mining Company came to fruition in December 1924 when the state redeemed Hackman's share of the mine.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Thus, the Outokumpu mine, a state business institution, was born.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

After that, for several years, there was a battle between the CEO and the Board of Directors over the development direction of the company, which finally ended as Mäkinen wanted.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Amongst other things were built, the tailings and the old copper factory were closed, although the profitability of the company was hit hard by the recession years.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The company employed about 400 people at the time.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The Outokumpu mine, a state-owned joint-stock company, functioned as a state business institution until the early 1930s, but a joint-stock company type operation was seen as a target due to the company's development needs.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

After a rigorous debate and voting in parliament in December 1931, the joint-stock company-shaped model gained acceptance — the new Outokumpu Oy started operations on 1 June 1932 with an order of at least 75% state-ownership.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The company's position in the world copper market was then still modest.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

In the European market, the role was more prominent with the company being among the top five copper mining producers.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The energy available at the Imatrankoski power plant and low cost to crude copper in its own processing plants also resolved the method of manufacturing copper smelter in favour of electrometallurgy.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The copper and sulphur dioxide plants were thus built at Imatra, which were put up and running during 1936.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Thus Outokumpu ore could now be processed into crude copper.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

In addition, by-products were created in the processing process, including sulphur whine, whose use was favoured by new technologies in the cellulose industry, among other things.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The raising of Finland's economic defence readiness in the late 1930s highlighted the need for the establishment of a domestic metal factory.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The decision on the plant was taken in June 1938, and Pori became the place of investment.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Construction work on the factory happened to be triggered by the advent of the Great War.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The mill was completed during the intermediate peace period, namely autumn 1940


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

A copper electrolysis plant in Pori was completed for further processing, or raffining, in spring 1941.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Thus Finland became self-sufficient in terms of copper and brass.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Wartime also marked Outokumpu's investments, as the then Finnish government insisted on nickel production.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The Petsamo and Nivala mines were a source of raw materials for the nickel factory established in Pori.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Production got underway in early 1942.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The stamp-giving to wartime Outokumpu Oy was the extent of trade with Germany and the widespread use of copper for military purposes, which in 1944 was already 75%.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

More mines had also been opened: the Makola nickel mine in Nivala and the Ylöjärvi copper mine.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The number of employees had also increased significantly, to nearly 3000, of which approx.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

1300 was on the breeding side.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The military situation on the Isthmian front became difficult between June and July 1944.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The transfer of the copper smelter, important to the war economy, from Imatra now became necessary.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Harjavalta, located on Kokemäenjoki in Satakunta, became the new investment place.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The first products were brought out in January 1945 — the transfer was therefore successful.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Postwar period — war reparations and development of flame melting The postwar period was marked by war reparations.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Outokumpu Oy's products played a significant part in it.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

In particular, the large cable deliveries of the first years 1945—1947 required large processing inputs from Outokumpu.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Copper production went thus 1945 90%, 1946 43%, 1947 44% and another 1948 37% to war reparations.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Subsequently, the share of reimbursements fell below 20%.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The need for nickel dropped rapidly after the war.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Thus, Outokumpu ceased nickel production in 1946.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Although it came along with copper production in small quantities.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The difficulty of accessing electricity and increasing price after the war spurred the development of an energy-saving method of smelting, known as flame smelting.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The most important persons in the development of the method were the head of the metallurgical department in Pori, Master of Science Petri Bryk and the superintendent of the Harjavalta plant, chief engineer John Ryselin.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

The third member of the team of researchers can be considered mountain counselor Eero Mäkki, who made the decision to develop the method.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

A test smelter was carried out in Harjaranta in 1947.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

This is said to have been one of the most notable inventions of the 20th century in the field of copper metallurgy—the method was patented in several countries including Norway, Canada and the United States.


Question: Who founded Outokumpu Corporation?

Outokumpu (company)

Based on this, the Harjavalta smelter was built by 1949.