Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The generalization of paper money was also promoted by the emerging proficiency of book-printing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[123] The development of bookprinting skills also had a significant impact on the development of art and culture of the Song period.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[123] [124] Fiction became an important part of the country's culture and landscape painting became a major art direction.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[125] [126] [114] Southern Song Chinese culture, governance customs and ways of living of the common people spread from the territory of the Song Empire to the northern Liao Empire as well.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Partly because of this, the Kitans' hold over neighbouring peoples deteriorated from the early 12th century onwards.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[118] [127] The Manchurian Jürchen people no longer agreed to submit to the Liao rulers and they founded their own Jin dynasty in 1115.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[127] The Song Emperor Huizong allied with the Jürchens against the Liao dynasty, but the alliance was only ostensible, as the Jin dynasty defeated the Liao dynasty without significant assistance from the Song dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[118] [111] The Jin dynasty in 1125 overran the territories controlled by the Liao and the Liao court fled to the west, where they established the Karakitai Empire.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[118] [128] After the fall of Liao, the Jin dynasty turned against the Song dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[128] [129] The Song Emperor agreed to pay the Jürchens a forced tax similar to that of the Kitans in the past, but the Jin dynasty was not satisfied with this; in 1126, the Jin army took over Kaifeng, the capital of the Song dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[129] [115] [127] Song court was captured, but one of the princes of the ruler family fled south, where he founded the Southern Song dynasty, with Nanjing as its main seat, and since 1135, Hangzhou.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[129] [115] [127] The migration of the Song court to the south started the Southern Song dynasty period; however, it was the same dynasty and there was no major break between the Northern and Southern Song.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] The most important factor in this was the fact that the focus of the Song kingdom was already in the south.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[127] The state of war between the Song Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty still continued, but the Song army was able to defend against invaders in the warmer climate of the south and the rampant terrain.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[129] In 1142, peace was finally concluded and the Huai River was formed as the border of the kingdoms.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In addition, the Song Emperor bent to vassal status and agreed to pay the Jin dynasty an annual forced tax.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[118] [111] Peace was not complete, as in the early 1160s the Jin dynasty re-attacked from land and sea, but the Song army was able to repel the attacks while at the same time breaking away from its vassal position.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[130] [111] [127] After 1165, the Jin dynasty no longer engaged in attempts at conquest against the Southern Song dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[127] The Southern Song, thanks to its strong fleet, was able to repel outside conquerors for the next over a hundred years.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[115] A long period of peace lived in the Song kingdom and its governance was stable.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The capital, Hangzhou, grew into an even larger city of Kaifeniak.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] In the administration of the country, the old decree distinctions were gradually eliminated and clerical degrees began to become an important pathway to positions.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] [114] A long period of peace allowed technological advances, the Song period developed especially the steel industry.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

New inventions such as the compass and gunpowder also spread into the consciousness of Europeans.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] [114] The northern neighbor of the Song state, Jin, also flourished in the early 13th century and it gradually began to become Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] The power relations of the states began to change with the emergence of a new power in the northern steppes in 1206 following the rise of Genghis Khan to the supreme ruler of the Mongols.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[131] The expeditions of conquest pursued by Genghis Khan were initially directed towards the region of northern China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The mounted forces of the Mongol Empire subjugated the Xi Xia Empire to their control and subsequently continued in the direction of the Jin Empire.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Jin Emperor was forced to flee the Mongols from his capital, Beijing, to Kaifeng in 1214.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In the meantime, Xi Xia allied himself with Jin against the Mongols.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Mongols made Xi Xia's revenge expedition in 1226, destroying the entire state and estimated only about one percent of the country's male population survived.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[132] [131] The Jin dynasty succumbed to the Mongols definitively under Genghis Khan's successor Ögödei Khan in 1233.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the fall of the Jin dynasty, the Mongols directed their war expeditions as far as Europe.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[132] [111] Kublai Khan, the successor of Ögödei Khan, continued his war expeditions to Etellian China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] [133] In 1253, the Mongols took over the city of Dali, which was the capital of the Nanzhao Empire.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[134] After the Mongols conquered Nanzhao, the Thai people were forced to flee from Mongol rule to the territory of present-day Thailand.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[135] [136] Against the Song Empire, the Mongols invaded in 1268.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Song Army was able to resist the Mongol army in a long long siege battle, with these attention focused on the Korean and Japanese conquests.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] [133] Japan, however, was never subjugated under their rule by the Mongols.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[137] The Mongols finally gained control of Hangzhou, the capital of the Song dynasty, in 1276.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

For the first time, foreign invaders had gained control of the entire territory covering China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[111] [133] Yuan dynasty The Mongols were the first foreign-born people to rule China, although they were not even a literate and writing-skilled people in the early 13th century.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[138] [139] The Mongols were good wargoers, but the Mongols who made a living in nomadic life mainly pursued pasture land for their cattle.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The establishment of a civil administration that settled in place was a foreign idea to the Mongols and normally the Mongols massacred or enslaved the populations of conquered countries and took control of those lands.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[138] However, the situation changed when Yelü Chucai, a descendant of the Liao dynasty kinghouse who was elevated to an important advisor to the Mongol Khan, pointed out that by saving the lives of the Han Chinese and taxing them, he would be able to accumulate great wealth.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Ögödei Khan noticed the rationality of the proposal and the massacres carried out in the conquered territories were abandoned.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Several dozen years later, under Kublai Khan, conquered southern China was subjugated considerably more bloodless.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[132] [138] [140] Administratively, the Mongols had no way of collecting taxes, so the land was divided into fiefdoms and the tax collection right was sold to Central Asian Muslim merchants.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Later taxes related to commerce were also introduced.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[141] Kublai Khan further developed the administration of the country.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the conquest of southern China, the country was divided into provinces and the Mongol style of governance began to become Chineseized.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The most significant difference from the earlier one was that clerical examinations were abolished and the posts became hereditary.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Han Chinese population was discriminated against and top posts were given to Mongols and other non-Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[141] [142] The preference for foreigners explains the high position Marco Polo gained in the court of the kingdom.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[141] [114] Kublai Khan made Beijing the winter capital of the country and it was the first time Beijing was the capital of all of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[143] At the same time, the focus of Mongol administration shifted from Mongolia to the territory of China proper.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Kublai Khan also adopted the Chinese dyndish name Yuan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[142] [144] Beijing grew into a large metropolis under the Mongol rule, but its surroundings were unable to feed the growing population, so grain had to be imported from the south.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

By the time of the Yuan Dynasty, the Emperor's Canal had fallen into disrepair, having fallen short of use after the Song dynasty lost the northern parts of the country.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The canal was refurbished and extended as far as Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Maritime transport also grew in importance.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[143] Commerce developed under Mongol rule, as the Confucian superiority that previously held power was not favourable to commerce.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Foreign trade was limited during the Song period, but in the Mongol period it was buoyant.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Foreign trade was mainly handled by Muslim traders from central and south Asia.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[142] The status of small farmers under the Yuan regime was tukalin.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Mongols had almost no knowledge of farming methods.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Upon reaching power, the Mongols had confiscated large farmlands as pasture land or distributed it to overlords, beating the maintenance of lavi's irrigation systems.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Unable to pay large taxes, the peasant population applied to become laborers of large ranchers.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[142] The Mongols sought to prevent their own ruling elite class from mixing with the Chinese of the mainstream population.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The population was divided into several categories based on their social status.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The top classes were exempt from taxation, while the majority of taxpayers were southern Chinese low-class citizens.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[145] [114] [139] In the south, Mongol resistance was strongest.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[143] Administratively, the Mongols had to find the fact that they were forced to rely on literate Chinese officials.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[145] [143] Many Confucian officials viewed the Mongols with hostility.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[144] Under Mongol rule, the Confucian civil service examination system decayed, as civil servants no longer needed to know classical texts.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[145] The Mongol administration quickly became Chinese-made after the death of Kublai Khan's successor, Temür Khan, in 1307.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The civil service examination system was restored in 1313, but success in examinations did not guarantee high officialdom, as Chinese were still not allowed into senior positions.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[146] [145] [144] The Mongols were very tolerant of various religions, and did not attempt to spread their own animist religion, which was accompanied by Shamanistic features.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Libertarianism aimed at religions undermined Mongol dominance, as Buddhist monks were later implicated in anti-Mongol secret societies.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[147] The first 50 years in power of the Yuan dynasty was a period of relative stability and the kingdom was largely ruled in accordance with Chinese governance.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

One factor weakening the dynasty was the method of choosing a new emperor, which was different from Chinese tradition.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The position of emperor was not inherited directly, but the power was inherited in accordance with Mongol tradition so that a new khan was elected from the members of the ruling family by election.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This made the changes of power often bloody.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[139] The greatest moment of weakness for the Mongol power came in the 1320s, when the country was ruled by five weak rulers.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

At the same time, the country was hit by famines and floods.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[139] Rebellions broke out among the lowest social class of the worst-oppressed Chinese population in the southern parts of the country, which, however, the private armies of major landowners were able to defeat.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[148] In the following decade, rebellions became increasingly common.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The rebelling peasants disrupted the transport of grain to Beijing and the southern parts of the kingdom gradually began to break away from the Mongol grip.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[144] From the 1340s onwards, revolts against Mongol rule were a recurring phenomenon, fuelled by epidemics of pestilence and several roofing years thought to have been caused by the cold period of the Little Ice Age of the Middle Ages.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[139] Under the prevailing circumstances, the popular rebellion movement and various secret societies joined forces into a secret society of Red Turbans with the objective of defeating the Mongol power and the grand landowners allied with them.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

When the Yellow River breached its riparian embankment in 1351, the rebellion movement gained 100,000 new supporters from among the peasants who had been commanded into forced labour by the Mongol power to repair the damage.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Rebellions quickly spread across the kingdom.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[148] Zhu Yuanzhang of low descent emerged as the most prominent rebel leader.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[149] [150] He rose to the leadership of the rebellion movement and emphasized his independence from red turbans, whereupon the grand landowners also began to join the ranks of opponents of Mongol rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[148] Rebel forces led by Zhu Yuanzhang captured the city of Nanjing and gained control of southern China, most central to the kingdom's economy, by 1367.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Zhu Yangzhang established a Ming dynasty kingdom independent of northern Mongol rule in the south and declared it to be the legitimate successor of the Song dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the conquest of southern China, the rebels continued north and the Mongol power was defeated in 1368.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Mongols were forced to retreat north of the Great Wall of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[148] [150] Ming dynasty The first emperor of the Ming dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang is also known by his emperor name Hongwu.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The kingdom he controlled from Nanjing was able to drive the Mongols north and after this the Ming army was able to further expand its empire.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[151] [150] The threat posed by the Mongols did not completely go away, so during the Ming dynasty the Great Wall of China was restored and, in its present form, is very much from the Ming period.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[150] During Emperor Hongwu's reign, an administratively totalitarian social order was created for the Chinese Empire, which persisted until 1912.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Emperor Hongwu borrowed much for his administration from the Mongols, but the Ming regime began to become more despotic during Hongwu's reign.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1380 he executed his prime minister and centralized his duties on himself, as well as conducting administrative purges and 40,000 people executed.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] [149] [153] The Emperor gathered for himself all decision-making powers and ruled singularly by means of ministries inherited from previous dynasties.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Decision-making was hampered by reforms because the emperor became a bottleneck in the political system.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] [154] Hongwu ordered to be taken into practice the tradition that the emperor's power would be inherited by his eldest surviving son.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Hongwu died in 1398 and since his eldest son had already died, power was inherited by this son Jianwen.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Hongwu's second son and uncle of the emperor started a rebellion, resulting in the emperor's death and the ascension of an uncle to power, the emperor name Yongle.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This rise to power further consolidated the authoritarian empress as the regime was purged of the legitimate emperor's backers.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[151] [152] [155] Emperor Yongle was a strong emperor and during his time the Ming Empire continued to expand.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

To increase his power, he sent many expeditions to South and Southeast Asia and all the way to East Africa.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The most notable of the expeditions' leaders was the emperor's confidant eunuch admiral Zheng He.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The expeditions were not merely on trade voyages, but involved diplomatic embassies intended to persuade the rulers of the territories to recognize Chinese domination.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

However, long sea voyages became so expensive that the revenue from them did not cover the cost and the expeditions were abolished in the early 1430s.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] [156] [157] The influx of the kingdom's population into southern China had begun as early as the beginning of the Song period, which had already led to overpopulation of the southern parts of the empire.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

During the Hongwu and Yongle periods of government, efforts were made to halt development and Emperor Yongle moved the capital to Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The population was forced to migrate north, as this was done to ensure the northern border of the kingdom and strengthen the economy of the northern parts.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Farmers moved north were supported in the early stages and farming works were also taken over by the country's army.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[158] With the advent of agricultural works, the Ming army became self-sufficient in terms of maintenance.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[154] The population of the southern parts of the country decreased drastically, but Nanjing, Suzhou and Hangzhou continued to remain major trading centers.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[158] With Yongle's death in 1424, the kingdom drifted into an era of weaker emperors and real power began to live into the hands of the court unuchs.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Xuande, who ruled from emperors after Yongle from 1426 to 1435, established a palace school for eunuchs in what has been considered the beginning of the era of eunuch rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] [160] In the absence of a strong emperor, the kingdom began to decay.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Major construction projects initiated during the Yongle period, such as the construction of the Temple of Heaven, put a strain on the country's economy.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[160] [155] The army suffered military desertion and the upper class oppressed the rich population, causing unrest.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Rebellions began to emerge in the southern provinces and also the Mongols, who had fallen under Oirati rule, were again organized and they already posed a real threat to the Ming dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1449, Mongol forces made a raiding expedition into northern China and they took the reigning emperor Zhengtong prisoner, with the intention of extorting a large ransom from the Ming dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

However, Yu Qian, a minister who served the Ming dynasty, elevated the emperor's brother Jingtai to the throne.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Mongols freed Zhengtong for free to provoke agitation and Zhengtong managed to return as emperor upon Jingtai's death in 1457.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[160] [159] In the early 16th century, the power of the hovieunuchs grew to its peak during Emperor Zhengde's reign between 1505-1521.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] [158] The era of Jiajing, who ruled from 1521 to 1567, Zhengde and his successors, has been regarded as a demotion period for the prestige of the Ming emperors.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] Zhengde rose to power as a minor and he gave real power to the entrusted eunuchs, Liu Jin became the most prominent eunuch leader of them.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He assembled power in his own hands and used his position ruthlessly to benefit his own interest.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He amassed a huge fortune for himself by, among other things, blackmailing officials.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Liu Jin was eventually prosecuted for treason and in 1510 he was sentenced to be cut into strips, the harshest possible punishment imposed by law.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[158] [159] Zhengde had no boyhood, which is why power was inherited by his cousin Jiajing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] Also, Jiajing gave administration of the kingdom to his unpopular ministers and withdrew himself from his imperial duties.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] During his time, the period of peace enjoyed by the kingdom came to an end, as the Ming dynasty again faced external threats from the Mongols on the northern frontier, with Japanese pirates on the coast.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

As new arrivals, Europeans had also come to China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] [161] [162] The Portuguese were among the first Europeans seeking to gain their share of China's trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1557, the Emperor gave the Portuguese permission to lease Macau as a storage place for their goods and it became an important trading base for them.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[163] [164] After the Portuguese, the Spanish and Dutch entered the Chinese market.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Spanish were given permission to trade along the southeastern coast of China in the 1750s and in 1626 they established their base on the island of Taiwan, but in 1642 the Dutch drove them off the island.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[161] [162] As the most recent colonial power, the English arrived in the area under the command of the East India Trading Company, in 1636.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[162] Not only commerce, but also Christian missionary work was one of the motivations of Europeans to come to China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

A prominent spreader of Christianity rose to be the Jesuits, among whom the Italian Matteo Ricci, who managed to get out of favour with the emperor as well.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[161] [162] The Jesuit order was a useful companion to the Ming dynasty, having helped in the manufacture of these war-needs.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[161] However, the religious intolerance that came with Europeans and the pursuit of their own commercial interests later became destructive for the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[165] The last notable Ming emperor was Wanli, who ruled from 1572 to 1620.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

During his reign, the administration of the country was stable and the Ming army was able to repel Japanese invasions of Korea led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the 1590s.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] [152] However, the Korean war expeditions became costly and had to be financed through increased tax collection.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

One of the biggest drivers of government spending, however, was the overbloated Ming court.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[166] Increases in taxes caused unrest, exacerbated by the canopy periods experienced in the 1610s and subsequent famine.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[166] [152] Emperor Wanli, towards the end of his reign, relied increasingly heavily on eunuchs.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] At the end of the Ming period, eunuchs practically ruled the land.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[166] With the death of Wanli in 1620, the Ming court was mired in turmoil and a time of weaker emperors.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Moreover, peace in the kingdom began to unsettle with the rebellions of the Interior.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[159] [152] [166] The main external threat of the Ming dynasty came from the northern Jürchen tribe.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Jürchens were united under the leadership of their chief Nurhaci and began to refer to their tribe as Manchut.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

By the early 17th century, the Manchus controlled large areas north of China and they had already gained control of most of the Mongol neighbourhoods.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1618, they took over the Liaodong region.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] [167] [168], however, in the 1620s the Ming dynasty was able to prevent the expansion of Manchupower through the use of canons manufactured by the Jesuits.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Nurhaci died in 1625, but under the leadership of his son Abahai, the Manchus continued their war expeditions to China and they carried out raiding all the way to Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[167] [169] [159], however, the Ming dynasty was definitively defeated due to internal revolts.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The kingdom suffered repeated periods of disappearance between 1632 and 1643, causing famines and epidemics of disease.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Due to periods of loss, tax revenue was no longer coming in, which is why the army was left without its pay.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[152] One of the Yangtze Valley military leaders Li Zicheng undertook a rebellion against the Ming dynasty in 1644 and his forces took Beijing without much resistance, as the last Ming emperor Chongzhen was unable to raise sufficient troops to resist the rebellion.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Chongzhen committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree and the Ming dynasty's reign came to an end.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[166] [152] [159] Li Zicheng declared himself the new emperor, but the shambles situation was exploited by the Manchus.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[170] [169] Abahai had died in 1643 and command of Manchu forces was in the hands of Regent Dorgon.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Supported by the former Ming army, Manchu forces overran Beijing to defeat Li Zicheng.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Manchus and the Ming army ripples succeeded in driving Li Zicheng out of Beijing, but after a victorious battle, the Manchus had no desire to leave Beijing, instead declaring their own Qing dynasty founded.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

There were rebellions against Qing rule in the southern parts of the country until the 1680s, when Taiwan was overthrown by Qing rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

With the rise to power of the Qing dynasty, China again came under foreign rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[169] [171] [172] Qing dynasty The real ruler of the Qing Empire in its early years was the regent Dorgon.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He maintained the administrative practices of the Ming period and encouraged Chinese officials to serve the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[173] At his behest, all Chinese men were also required to wear a plait of hair as a sign of submission, which caused opposition and many would rather choose death, but over time many resigned.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[173] [174] Dorgon died in 1650 and power passed to the first emperor belonging to the Qing dynasty family and Abahai's son, Shunzi.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Emperor Shunz's reign fell short, for he died of smallpox in 1661.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[175] [176] [173] His third son Kangxi was chosen as his successor, because he had already contracted smallpox and survived.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Upon his rise to power, Kangxi was a minor, but became one of the most prominent emperors in Chinese history.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[173] [174] Emperor Kangxi ruled the Qing dynasty from 1661 until 1722.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

It was during this period that the most glorious era of the Qing Empire began.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The Qing dynasty extended its power in Central Asia to Turkestan and the kingdom also became Tibet, and for a while Chinese rule reached as far as Nepal.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[168] In Tibet, Chinese rule was not recognized and Tibetans allied with the Mongols against the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The westward expansion of the Qing dynasty brought the Chinese into conflict with the Russians for the first time, who were expanding their living areas eastward.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Qing dynasty feared that the Russians might have allied themselves with the Mongols and they thus wanted to make peace quickly.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Qing dynasty and Moscow Russia concluded in 1689 the Nerchinsk Peace Treaty, in which the borders of the kingdoms were determined and the Russians were also allowed to establish an ecclesiastical legation in Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [176] [177] After the peace with the Russians, in 1696, the Mongol armies were defeated by the Qing army, and this is considered to have ended the threat posed by the Mongol Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Russians also expanded their power in Central Asia at the expense of the old nomadic tribes.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Qing Empire also occupied Tibet in 1720 and established its own administration in the region.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] One of the major factors driving the success of the Qing dynasty was the development of farming, which allowed crops to be more abundant, as well as large population growth.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Between 1750 and 1850, the number of the Chinese population doubled from 200 million to 400 million.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This was made possible by better fertilizers, new fast-ripening varieties, and new crops that came mainly from the new world, which included maize, sweet potato, peanut and potato.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[178] [174] [179] Clearing farmland also began to present problems, as rainwater spilled from bare cleared hills caused erosion and risk of flooding in the valleys.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The same development has continued until our days.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[178] Administratively, the Manchus ensured that they had supremacy over the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The Grand Council was the main advisor to the Emperor.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] Below that, the administration was divided into several agency groups whose functions overlapped in part to prevent any agency from gaining too much power.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[180] Provincial administration had been put into the hands of Chinese officials, whose actions were overseen by senior Manchus.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] Posts lower than county-level administrative posts were usually solely in the hands of the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[168] There were 18 provinces during most of the Qing period, these did not count Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang and Manchuria, which were governed differently from provinces.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[181] Military administratively, the manchus were divided into flags and every citizen knew which flag belonged to.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The purpose of the flag was to satisfy the recruiting needs of the military forces.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

For flags placed on the territory of China proper, lands were confiscated from the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The original intention of the Manchus was to consider themselves a superior ruler caste, always receiving replenishment from the north where necessary.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[168] Mixed marriages between Manchus and Chinese were forbidden and Han Chinese were barred from migrating to Manchuria.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] However, Manchuja constituted only 2% of the total population.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] However, Manchu quickly began to become Chinese and as early as the 18th century the Chinese language supplanted the Manchu language as the main governing language.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[168] Kangxi died in 1722 after ruling the kingdom for 61 years.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After him came to power was his son Yongzheng, who rose to power controversially.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

His governance was very autocratic and if he had not died unexpectedly in 1735, there might have been unrest in the kingdom.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Yongzheng was succeeded as emperor by his son Qianlong.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[182] Qianlong, like his grandfather Kangxi, was one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He ruled the country right up until 1795, when he renounced the crown out of respect for his grandfather Kangxi, as he did not want to rule him for longer.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[182] [174] During Qianlong's reign, the power of the Qing dynasty extended as far as the present borders of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The 18th century was a time of prosperity for the Qing Empire, conditions were calm and the economy was booming.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] Foreign trade with Europeans was also advantageous to the Chinese, as large quantities of silver flowed into the country as payments for commodities.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Tea was formed as the main export item.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Other notable products included silk, porcelain, lacquer items, spices and sugar.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[180] However, the Qing dynasty sought to restrict trade with Western merchants as early as the Kangxi regime, as Western countries were seen as a threat.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The Qing rulers were very suspicious of mutually hostile Europeans and they feared Western ideas would destabilise the Qing Empire living in stable time.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [183] In 1757, the Qing dynasty restricted trade with Europeans to be allowed only in a trading post located off Canton.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Due to its actions to restrict trade, the Qing dynasty has been seen as hostile to trade and ununderstanding of the importance of commerce.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In fact, it was understood in the Qing court that trading was not itself a problem, but who was engaged in it.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] Around the same time, the British were about to conquer India, and the Qing dynasty was concerned about the potential hostile intentions of the foreigners.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[183] Europeans were annoyed by limited trade and they tried to improve their positions in Chinese trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The English attempted to improve their positions by sending an embassy led by Lord Macartney to the Qing court to establish diplomatic relations, but the legation failed in its mission, as the emperor speculated that the dispensation granted to the English would cause others to claim them.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Furthermore, Macartney refused to kneel before the emperor as a sign of submission, which Westerners found humiliating.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[183] [174] [184] Qianlong relinquished power in 1795 and he died the following year.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [176] After him, the Qing dynasty no longer received as strong an emperor and the Manchupower began to decay.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[185] The Qing dynasty was mired in economic difficulties due to war expeditions under Qianlong and the misappropriation of state funds by corrupt advisor He Shen.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Upon Qianlong's death, He Shen was arrested and his immense property, which amounted to about half of the state's annual income, was confiscated.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [185] The decline of Qing power coincided with the strengthening of Western power in the East.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

European seafaring peoples were also irritated by the fact that Russians received better treatment in China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[185] [186] The Western countries, especially the English, also did not accept that the Chinese opposed free trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Conflicts between cultures culminated into the opium trade between the English and the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The Portuguese were the first to discover that the sale of opium to the Chinese was economically productive.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Soon, however, the dominance of the opium trade passed to the English.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] [174] The English East Indies Trading Company did not formally operate the ocontract trade, but gave its management to private merchants.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] Opium poppy, from which opium is obtained, had been a well-known drug in China for a long time.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

With European production methods, opium production was so abundant that the price was so low that the problem blew into hand.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] [174] Qianlong brought into effect an imperial law in 1729 banning the sale and burning of opium.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The ban had little effect, as Chinese officials were usually bribed from illegal trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] The opium trade grew so drastically that by the arrival of the 1820s the total trade balance was in deficit to China and silver was now flowing out of the country more and the kingdom began to suffer economic hardship.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[185] [174] The Qing dynasty was unable to stop the opium trade with prohibitions or suppress opium smuggling.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

There was also disagreement within the dynasty's administration, as others wanted to legalise the opium trade and tax it.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] [174] However, the Emperor adopted the opposite position.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1838, Emperor Qing Emperor Daoguang introduced tougher means and sent Commissioner Lin Zexu to Canton to oversee the implementation of a full ban on the opium trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

All of Canton's opium stockpiles were confiscated and destroyed by this.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] Before the confiscation, the representative of the British government in Canton had taken all opium belonging to British merchants under its own responsibility, so that the matter was no longer between private traders and the Chinese authorities.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[186] [174] England felt that it should receive compensation for the destroyed opact and the situation led to the First Opium War.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The British fleet occupied all the main Chinese ports and went up the Yangtze River to Nanjing, occupying the city.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Qing dynasty had been forced to agree to peace talks and conclude the Treaty of Nanjing whereby Hong Kong was ceded to the Britons and China had to pay large war reparations.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Not a word was mentioned in the peace treaty about opium, but the Qing dynasty no longer attempted to prevent the opium trade.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[187] [174] [188] The Nanjing Peace Treaty was humiliating for the Manchupower and it generated growing anti-Manchuism among the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Qing dynasty feared Chinese alliance with Western nations and thus tried to restrict foreigners' access to the country.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[189] Fear was not unwarranted, since in 1850 the Taiping Revolt began in central China, which became a civil war that claimed the lives of 20 to 30 million people.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The Taiping rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, a convert to Christianity, who claimed to be Jesus' younger brother.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He incited the Chinese to revolt to liberate the country from Manchurule and already had more than ten thousand supporters when the revolt began.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1851, the Taiping movement engaged in open rebellion against the Qing dynasty and advanced into the northern parts of the country, looting the land.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1853, the rebels regained control of Nanjing and made it the center of their theocratic rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [190] The Taiping rebels received no support from Western countries, as these did not accept the form of Christianity practiced by the rebels and the rebellion also cut off trade on the Yangtze River.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Officially, Western nations remained neutral, but foreign mercenaries enlisted in support of the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The military forces available to the Qing dynasty were unable to resist the rebel advance, so the Manchu regime turned to local forces led by Han Chinese warlords to defeat the rebels.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [190] [191] The Taiping Rebellion was significantly weakened by the internal dispersion of the rebels, which eventually led to the defeat of the rebellion.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[192] Once and for all, the rebellion was defeated by the local armies of the Chinese, who had morphed into the private armies of the generals.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

They financed their operations by collecting taxes from the provinces they administered.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] With the support of private armies, Nanjing was recaptured in 1864.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The main reason for the defeat of the Taiping Rebellion was that the rebellion was poorly run.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Had the insurgency movement not had a religious fanatic under its leadership, it might have received the support it needed from Western and Confucian Han Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[192] Western countries managed to profit from the mayhem caused by the Taiping Rebellion to expand their influence in China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The British were dissatisfied with the activities of the anti-foreigner authorities and when twelve Chinese sailors were arrested by the Chinese, under this pretext, started the Second Opium War in 1857, with the Taiping Rebellion still underway.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The French joined the war alongside the British.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[192] [174] The British and French navies struck down the Qing army and the dynasty agreed to a peace treaty in 1859, but the Chinese did not comply with it and the war continued.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Second Opium War ended when the British and French conquered Beijing in 1860 and the Qing dynasty was forced to conclude a peace treaty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Under the treaty, the Chinese were forced to pay large war reparations and British territories in Hong Kong were expanded.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Russia acted as a conciliatory party to the peace treaty, and as compensation Russia ceded the territories east of the Amur River from Manchuria.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[192] [174] [193] Following the Glandular Treaty following the Second Opium War, relations between the Qing Dynasty and Western powers began to improve.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Western countries withdrew from Beijing, and the Qing regime also began to adopt the view that the Western countries were not so much interested in the conquest of China as they were interested in developing trade relations.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[191] [185] The Western powers felt that it was advantageous for them to support the pro-Western Qing dynasty and the Western countries were very helpful in defeating the Taiping rebellion.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[185] In the era following the Opium Wars, Western influences increased and the Chinese began to adopt Western technology.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] [194] This brief period of peace has been called the Reconstruction Period named after Emperor Tongzhi, who ruled from 1862 to 1874.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] In place of Tongzhi, who had risen to emperor as a child, real power was exercised by Ci Xi, the widow of the deceased Emperor Xianfeng and mother of the sitting emperor.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[195] [196] Tongzhi died at the age of 18 in 1875.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[197] He had no heirs and Ci Xi succeeded in elevating to the throne another child emperor of Guangxu, thus the real power still remained in his hands.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[195] Despite the period of peace following the Opium Wars, internal and external threats within the Qing Empire did not go away.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Western parts of the country suffered famine, which claimed the lives of some 20 million people.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Russian Empire threatened land in the north.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In the south, China was threatened by the French from their Vietnamese colony and a war was fought between the two countries from 1884 to 1885.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

However, a rapidly modernized Japan had been formed as the main external threat.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[194] [198] Japan conquered the island of Taiwan in 1874 and the Reef Bully Islands in 1879.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Japan then directed its expansion efforts towards Korea.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[194] Korea was an important buffer state to the Chinese, recognized by Chinese supremacy between Japan and China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[199] China's dominance of Korea was at odds with Japan's imperialist aspirations and in 1894 Japan took advantage of internal unrest within the Joseon dynasty that ruled Korea.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

War broke out between China and Japan when the Japanese attacked Chinese troops sent in support of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[174] The conflict expanded rapidly and became a disaster for the Chinese, as Japan quickly destroyed the Chinese fleet and advanced inland, conquering parts of Manchuria.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

China had been forced to enter into the Shimonoseki Peace Treaty, where only French German and Russian intervention in the so-called triple intervention prevented the expansion of Japanese rule as far as the Liaodong Peninsula.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In the aftermath of the war lost to Japan, Western powers established new bases in China upon discovering the weakness of the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[200] [198] [201] After the end of the war, the Qing emperor Guangxu came of age and gained power from Dowager Empress Ci Xi.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [195] War defeat to Japan was considered a disgrace and the country's doctrine appealed to the emperor for reforms.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The emperor founded a reform movement led by the name Kang Youwei.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[200] [198] [195] Under this leadership, the country was to implement the Hundred Days reforms in 1898, under which the country would move towards constitutional rule and implement administrative reforms.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] For high-ranking officials in the Qing court, whose dominance reforms would have taken away, these reforms did not.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

They turned to Dowager Empress Ci Xi and in her name ordered the emperor to be placed under house arrest, where she lived the rest of her life.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The reforms were cancelled and reformers executed.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Kang Youwein, with the help of the British, managed to escape to Hong Kong.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [195] [202] Power passed again into the hands of Dowager Empress Ci Xi.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This had in the usurpation of power the military leader Yuan Shikai.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[203] [195] Around the same time in the late 1890s, an anti-foreigner movement known as the Boxar Revolt began simmering in eastern parts of the country in Shandong.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [204] In China, foreigner hatred had already been rising since the 1860s as missionaries sought to spread Christianity among the Chinese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[205] Christians also received dispensation before justice, as Chinese officials often feared intervention by Western powers.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This inequality indignant the Chinese population.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[205] [198] The mood in the region had intensified after the Germans took control of Qingdao, following the murder of two German missionaries.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [205] The Boxars began attacking all signs of Westernization, such as telegraph lines and churches, during 1899.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] Attacks against missionaries also became more frequent.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[199] After Ci Xi seized power in the Qing court, power was held by reactionary xenophobic officials.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[205] Ci Xi issued an instruction in 1900 to allow boxers to operate; however, most provincial governors did not do so.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] Many governors regarded the Qing court's decision to support boxer shorts and driving out foreigners as absurd.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[195] One of the Boxars' opponents was Yuan Shikai and the forces he led had the rebellion suppressed from Shandong.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[205] [204] After the rebellion was defeated in Shandong, unrest moved north.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In Beijing, the number of supporters of boxers increased and the situation began to become increasingly serious.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In June 1900, the Boxers assassinated a Japanese legation secretary and a German ambassador.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[204] Foreign powers had begun to react to the situation and a coalition of eight foreign powers invaded Beijing through Tianjin.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the fighting in August 1900, foreign troops occupied Peking and the Boxar Revolt was defeated.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[204] [205] The Qing court fled the Allies to Xi'an.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [206] Under the peace treaty concluded after the Boxar Revolt, China was forced to pay large war reparations and foreign powers were entitled to increase their forces in China to safeguard their own interests.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

What was most fatal to the Qing dynasty was that its prestige had plummeted.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [205] The people were increasingly dissatisfied after the revolt.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The heaviest burden of paying war reparations had to be borne by the peasant population.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[204] [205] At the beginning of the 20th century, the country began to increasingly vociferously call for a constitutional monarchy on the Japanese model.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[204] A republican movement emerged in the country, particularly supported by young Chinese students.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The most famous leading figure in the republican movement was Sun Yat-sen, who received a Westerner education.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[207] [198] The republican Tongmenghui organisation he founded in 1905 received support, especially from Chinese living abroad.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[208] The Qing dynasty was still trying to improve its position by implementing the Hundred Days reforms it had previously rejected.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] Dowager Empress Cixi had to bend under pressure and she acquiesced to the transition to a constitutional monarchy in 1908.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[209] At the end of the same year he died.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Emperor Guangxu died just a day before him, possibly poisoned.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The minor Pu Yi, whose power was held by regents, was elevated to the new emperor.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [209] However, the republican Tongmenghui organization did not initiate the final rebellion that defeated the Qing dynasty, but was prompted by the Wuchang Uprising of 1911, which led to the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The rebellion was very indecisive and was quickly defeated, but the rebellion quickly spread to nearby towns.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [210] [208] Many Manchus were massacred by the Han Chinese and the situation spiralled out of the hands of the Qing dynasty.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The situation led to the abdication of power by the Qing emperor Pu Yi, by which time the period of Chinese emperor lasting 2133 years had come to an end.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] Modern Republic of China When the republican revolution finally began, Sun Yat-sen was on a fundraising trip in the United States, and the Tongmenghui organization initially played no part in the revolution.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[207] [198] The revolution began in the city of Wuhan, where, after an explosion of gunpowder storage by the insurgents, the local police got hold of the membership lists of the rebel organisation.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The uncovered were threatened with a death sentence, for which they went into rebellion at once.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[198] [205] The rebellion quickly spread to other cities, where it also received support from the upper social classes that had previously remained peaceful.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[210] The situation had soon escaped the control of the Qing dynasty and 15 provinces announced independence from Qing rule within a month and a half.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[207] [208] Sun Yat-Sen returned in December 1911 to China and was elected the first interim president of the Republic of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[210] [208] [211] A republican government was established in Nanjing, but the country was still fragmented and Beijing was still dominated by the Qing government.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[207] [212] The decisive figure in the overthrow of Manchua rule emerged as the military leader Yuan Shikai.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [198] Yuan Shikai became the most powerful man in the country during the remainder of the reign of the Qing dynasty, because if the Qing army under his command were to defend Manchu rule, the army could still have been able to defeat the republican revolution.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Thus, either a civil war between the republicans and the Qing army led by Yuan Shikai, or a compromise solution lay ahead.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In order to be spared the civil war, Sun Yat-Sen turned to Yuan Shikai, as only he had so much influence that he would be able to force the Manchu emperor to abdicate the crown.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The republican movement promised Yuan that if this caused the Manchu Emperor's regent to renounce the crown and support the republicans, Yuan would be made President of the Republic of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [211] [208] The offer caused Yuan to switch sides and on February 12, 1912, Yuan Shikai issued the Emperor's proclamation abdicating the crown.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Sun Yat-Sen resigned the office of president in favor of Yuan and a new Republic of China government was established in Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [198] [212] [213] The success of the Xinhai Revolution had been the result of many compromises on which no stable republican administration could be established.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Many who supported the republic primarily wanted to overthrow the Manchu regime, and Sun Yat-Sen's attempts at democracy meant nothing to them.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [198] Quite soon Yuan Shikai, who rose to the presidency, set about consolidating his own power.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

To consolidate his power, he was guilty of assassinating Kuomintang vice-president Song Jiaoren after he won the 1913 elections.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [213] [215] The Kuomintang was declared illegal and its leader Sun Yat-Sen fled to Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [213] [212] Yuan Shikai ruled the Republic of China with dictatorial gestures, appointing as military governors of the provinces his own supporters, ousting those connected to the Kuomintang.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [213] Yuan attempted to restore emperor power in 1915 by becoming emperor himself; however, he failed to gain support for his company, as many influential Chinese no longer accepted the monarchy.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [214] Yuan's popularity also began to decline after World War I.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Japan took control of the old German-administered territories in Shandong and made the so-called 21 demands to China which, if realised, would effectively make China a colony of Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Yuan acquiesced to the demands, which weakened his support nationwide.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[213] [214] [212] Yuan, under pressure and due to the unrest that had arisen, was forced to give up his dreams of emperor.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The opposition demanded he step down from the presidency as well.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The question was resolved by itself, as Yuan Shikai died unexpectedly at the age of 56 in June 1916.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[213] After Yuan Shikai's death, China lacked a powerful leader and the country slipped into an era of regional warlords holding power.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[213] [216] [212] In northern China, a group of military leaders tried to restore the Manchu to power and in 1917 they elevated Pu Yi to emperor again, but after only a few days, another northern forces aborted the restoration of Manchupower.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] The official leader of the country was the President, who was always the warlord who had ruled Beijing at any given time.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In practice, the country had been divided into provinces operating independently, run by warlords competing with each other.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [212] Sun Yat-Sen returned from exile and led a republican government established and operated from Canton, which opposed the government forces in the country.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

He tried in vain during World War I to persuade the Circum-Powers to recognise the Cantonese government.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[212] [213] China supported the Circum-Powers in World War I to thus regain the territories formerly belonging to Germany that Japan had occupied.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

More than 100,000 men were sent from China to assist the Allies in supply missions.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] According to the Peace of Versailles drawn up after the war in 1919, previously German-controlled territories located in China were ceded to Japan, contrary to China's claim.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[217] [214] In particular, Chinese doctrine reacted critically to the peace agreement unfavourable to China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Disappointment with the peace treaty and ensuing discontent spread across China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

A large demonstration took place in the country in 1919, named as the Fourth of May Movement after the time of its event.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[217] [214] [218] The protests mobilised large segments of the population and spread to the urban middle and working classes.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[216] [217] As one result of the Fourth of May Movement, communist ideology began to arise in China as well.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Marxism began to spread rapidly in China and the Comintern soon offered its support to the socialist movement.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Communist Party of China held its first General Assembly in 1921.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[219] [220] As a result of the Fourth of May Movement, the Kuomintang also strengthened their positions in the south of China and Sun Yat-Sen led the southern government operating in Canton.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[221] [216] During his lifetime he did not have time to consolidate republican rule and bring China into unity.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Sun Yat-Sen died in 1925.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

A young general named Chiang Kai-šek rose to be his successor at the Kuomintang leadership.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[221] [217] The Soviet Union did not yet believe in the power of the Communist Party of China, as according to the Marxist cause, the revolution of the proletariat was preceded by a revolution of the bourgeoisie, which is why the Bolsheviks felt that support had to be given to Sun Yat-Sen and much larger than the Communist Party of China Kuomintang.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[220] [214] The Russians called on Chinese communists to join the Kuomintang and seek to leftist its policies.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[220] Sun Yat-Sen was ready to engage in cooperation with the Communists and the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China entered into a cooperation agreement in 1923.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Their common goal was to promote a national revolution against local warlords and to counter the colonialism that threatened China by Western powers and Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[220] [214] The Kuomintang and the Communist Party, supported by the Soviet Union, began a joint war expedition in 1926, with the goal of unifying all of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In nine months, half of China had already been overrun.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[216] [214] [221] However, war success also led to internal fighting.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After Sun Yat-Sen's death, the Kuomintang had split into a right-wing and left-wing wing whose aspirations diverged.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[216] Chiang Kai-šek led the right wing of the Kuomintang and did not agree to cooperate with the communists.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Led by Chiang, right-wingers seized power in the Kuomintang, many communists were shot and pro-communism became a crime worthy of capital punishment.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Legitimate activities for the Communists became impossible and they were forced to switch to underground activities.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Communist bases began to emerge in areas intermediate between the districts of power and distant mountainous areas.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[216] [220] By 1928, all of China had been at least nominally conquered under the right-wing government of Chiang Kai-šek and also gained international recognition as the country's only legitimate government.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[221] The polittic situation in China remained in disarray despite the successful war expedition, as provincial generals supported the Kuomintang only if it was in their own interests.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[220] [216] The Nanjing government sought to make a major modernization, but reforms fell short.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The administration's resources were plentiful expended on the fight against the Communists and preparing for the Japanese threat.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[216] [214] The communists had succeeded in establishing new Soviet territories in the periphery.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Of these, the most significant bases emerged under Mao Zedong in Jiangxi Province, where the Communists had their own regional administration.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [221] Even greater than the Communists, a threat to the republican government of the Kuomintang was formed by Japan, which had embarked on an aggressive policy of expansion.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Japanese had regarded military units in Manchuria as justified by a peace treaty drawn up after the Boxer Rebellion.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In 1931, in the so-called Mukden Incident, the Japanese staged a terrorist attack against themselves and under its guise occupied Manchuria, where they established a puppet state called Manchukuo, with Pu Yi named as its nominal ruler.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [222] However, Chiang Kai-šek felt that the threat of communism came to be defeated first and the Japanese later.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[223] [224] Chiang Kai-šek, supported by Germany, managed to organize the army into battle against the communists and in 1935 Kuomintang forces managed to militarily subdue the Jiangxi Soviet area.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The communists had to flee Jiangxi and were able to break through the Kuomintang lines and retreat for the 5000 km journey to Yan'an in northern Shaanxi.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Thus, the communist legend of the long march was born, of which only about one in ten of those who went on the march survived, with others in karate or dead.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[225] [214] [226] The most significant change brought by the Long March was the rise of Mao Zedong to lead Communist Party decision-making.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[226] Chiang Kai-šek reconciled a conciliatory policy towards Japan, despite being well aware of the threat posed by Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

For this decision, he was widely criticized.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Communists, on the other hand, had exploited the situation in their own propaganda, declaring war on Japan as early as 1931.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] However, the Xi'an incident in late 1936 formed as a turning point in Chiang Kai-šek's policy regarding Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After Chiang travelled to Xi'an, he was taken prisoner by Äne's own generals.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[227] [223] This also worried the Soviet Union, which feared that if Chiang were killed, this might prevent the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China's joint front against Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This was also the advantage of the Soviet Union, which needed China to be an ally against Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Communists sent a council led by Zhou Enlai to negotiate with Chiang Kai-šek and the general Zhang Xueliang, who had captured him.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

As a result, Chiang was persuaded to agree to the formation of a joint front with the Communists against Japan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[228] [223] [214] [221] Sino-Japanese war broke out in 1937, where the Japanese used the Marco Polo Bridge incident as a pretext, demanding to get across the border from the Manchukuo side to China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] [229] The real goal of Japan was to subjugate all of China under its colonial rule.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[226] The joint front formed by the Chinese communists and the Kuomintang did not have sufficient military strength to halt the Japanese advance.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] At the beginning of the war, fierce fighting took place between Chinese and Japanese forces in Shanghai, ending in victory for the Japanese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the Chinese backed down, the Japanese advanced on Nanjing, where they carried out a brutal massacre against civilians in which 300,000 Chinese were killed.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The motive of the Imperial Japanese Army for the atrocity is unclear, it has been thought to be an attempt to intimidate the government of the Republic of China into negotiating peace.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] The Kuomintang regime evacuated to Chongqing in Sichuan Province, where it was able to resume operations.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The communists' base remained in Yan'an, from where they organized guerrilla warfare against the Japanese.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After 1938, the Japanese no longer advanced in China militarily; instead, they focused on attacks elsewhere and sought to achieve the rest of their objectives in China more diplomatically, establishing puppet governments in the territories they conquered.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] The period of Japanese occupation of China meant the deprivation of the Chinese population and the forced admissions of civilians as labor, effectively slaves.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] As the war progressed, the combined front between the Kuomintang and the Communists began to crack.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Chiang Kai-sek was concerned about the growing popularity of communists led by Mao Zedong and military clashes arose between the two sides.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] [224] China initially received support only from the Soviet Union in the war.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor soured US involvement in the anti-Japanese front.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] [231] Japan was unable to respond in the face of the Allies' immense military capabilities and surrendered in August 1945.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] After the end of the war and the withdrawal of the Japanese, most of the country remained in communist possession.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[232] The economy of the country was paralyzed after the war, commerce was at a standstill and the country suffered famine.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[233] The Communists did not want to give up the territories they administered, while the Kuomintang demanded that the Japanese surrender only to republican forces.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[232] [227] Attempts were made to resolve the situation peacefully, but the situation escalated into civil war in 1946.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[232] [214] In the civil war, communists relied on northern China, backed by the Soviet Union.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[226] The Kuomintang received support from the United States from time to time, but the corruptness of the Chiang Kai-shek regime and the grip of republican rule during the civil war made support of American allies wavering.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[232] [214] At the beginning of the war it seemed that the Kuomintang would defeat the communists in the north, but in several battles the communist army was able to quantify the larger republican army in 1948-1949.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[226] In early 1949, Beijing and Tianjin were left under communist control.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Nanjing and Shanghai were conquered in April 1949.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The remaining Kuomintang forces noticed their Tukala situation and retreated to Taiwan Island, where the Republic of China government continued to operate.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

On Taiwan, Chiang Kai-sek declared Taipei the provisional capital of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[234] [230] [214] Mao Zedong again declared on October 1 in 1949 officially the re-established capital of the People's Republic of China in assumed Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[235] [226] [236] The People's Republic of China at the beginning of the People's Republic of China is perceived by Mao Zedong's solemn proclamation in Beijing's Celestial Peace Square, October 1949.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[237] The civil war that preceded this led to the partition of China into the People's Republic, which was located on the mainland, and the Republic of China, which operated on the island of Taiwan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Peace between the two sides has never been established.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[214] The most central explanation for the success of the communist revolution is the war between China and Japan, which laid the groundwork for the growing popularity of communism.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Western historiography considers the mayhem caused by the war, which ruined the republic's economy and elements of good government, as the main reason for the communists' rise to power.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Communist Party of China, on the other hand, holds that the Communist Revolution was about the liberation with which the Chinese people overthrew colonialism.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[233] For the majority of the people, however, the communist revolution was just another change of power in Beijing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[233] For the vast majority, it was not communist ideology, but that the country was governed by a Chinese authority who promised to implement land reform, which was a major issue for the country's large peasant population.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[232] Mao Zedong was a natural choice to be head of the country, but more significant was his position at the head of the Communist Party of China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] Real power was exercised by the Communist Party, to whose power the state administration was subjugated.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[237] In foreign policy, China relied heavily on the Soviet Union, from which considerable contributions and a large number of advisers were received.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] [239] Before their rise to power, the Communists had put forward the idea of a federal state in which Tibet, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia would have been autonomous states.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

After the revolution, federal speeches were forgotten.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[237] Tibet did not want to become part of the People's Republic of China, and the negotiations brought no result.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Chinese People's Liberation Army invaded Tibet and the area was annexed under the People's Republic.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

In Xinjiang as well, rebellions were suppressed.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[240] With the outbreak of the Korean War, China set out to support the Soviet Union, which brought it into direct combat with the United States.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

For China, the most far-reaching consequences of the war were that the country became increasingly distanced from the non-communist world as the United States imposed its embargo.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The People's Republic was forced to conduct foreign trade mainly with Eastern Bloc countries.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The United States also positioned itself to support the Taiwan-based regime and did not recognize the People's Republic diplomatically.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

At the end of the war, the Korean Peninsula was divided into Chinese-Soviet-backed North Korea and US-supported South Korea.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[241] [238] By the start of the Korean War, China had only just begun to rebuild a country ruined by civil war.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] The goal of the Communist Party was to transition to full socialism, supported by the Soviet Union.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[242] The Communist Party implemented a land reform in which land was redistributed from large landowners to poor house boys.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[243] There was no blinding of violence and two million landowners are thought to have died in violence related to land reforms.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] After the Land Reform, agriculture was collectivized and peasants were instructed to form mutual aid cooperatives for the allocation of works.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[230] [238] [242] The urban populations were also organized into work units, which were factories, agencies, universities or army units.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] Administrative reforms included the 1953 Chinese People's Congress elections, which resulted in Mao Zedong being elected chairman.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai were named to other leading posts.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[242] As part of efforts to promote the involvement of the country's intellectuals in the governance of the country, in 1957 Mao declared the beginning of the Hundred Flowers campaign, opening politics to open debate.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[242] [244] The campaign led to a lot of criticism directed at the Communist Party, leading to the government suppressing freedom of expression and initiating a campaign against the right.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Critics of the administration were confined to re-education camps, where many spent the rest of their lives.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Today, it has been suspected that the transparency campaign was, in the beginning, a plot to trap political dissidents.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[244] Building on the new changes, Mao tried to promote the advancement of communism as quickly as possible.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

With the establishment of the commune in 1958, calls began to be made for a significant increase in industrial production.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This great leap was to be realized in three years by multiplying the country's industrial output.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This meant that practically all Chinese had to multiply their labor contributions.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Backyard furnaces began to emerge in the country and because there were no iron reserves, economic objects had to be melted down.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

This only resulted in such poor quality steel production that steel was often unusable.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] [245] [246] Agriculture relied on Lysenko humbug science and during the Great Leap Forward Agricultural production decreased.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] Official propaganda claimed the great leap was successful, when in reality it caused the country to derail into economic crisis and famine, resulting in 30-40 million people perishing.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] As a result of the failure of the Great Leap Forward, Mao Zedong began to be criticized within the party and was replaced as head of state by Liu Shaoqi in 1959.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[245] [246] During the Great Leap Forward, China's relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated due to Mao's threat to be the world's leading communist leader and the countries were mired in an intermediate break.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

The Soviets pulled their advisers out of China and the countries accused each other of misconduct.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

According to Mao's view, the Soviet Union led by Nikita Khrushchev was moving towards capitalism, which development had to be stopped in China.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] [247] Mao Zedong returned to the leadership of politics in 1966 by embarking on a political purge known as the Cultural Revolution against moderate leaders.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

Mao was confident that with the support of the Red Guards he formed, he would be able to defeat those individuals within the party who opposed his policies.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[238] [248] Mao established a Central Committee formed of his closest allies, which later came to be called the Kopla of Four, which included his most confidant supporters, his wife Jiang Qing, as well as Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

As his support, Mao also had Lin Biao, whom he considered his successor.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[248] [249] Lin Biao, a couple of years before the start of the Cultural Revolution, had compiled a collection of citations from Mao's speeches, which later became known as the Little Red Book.


Question: When was the Song dynasty affected?

History of China

[250] The ideology of the Cultural Revolution soon turned into violence across the country and was driven into a situation where the Red Guards fought for power among themselves, all claiming to be Mao's supporters.