Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

In northern Germany it reached around 5400−5100 BCE.. The hallmark of the spreading wave in Western Europe can be considered the La Hoguette pottery, the origin of which in Europe was on the Mediterranean coast around 5600 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

It may have arrived there from the Balkans or Africa.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

It spread to Spain, Portugal, France and England.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

However, the event of this spreading wave is weakly known.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[2] Middle East The old theory that pottery and agribusiness were closely linked in the beginning is not even true in the Middle East.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Studies and the extent of the dating material attest to agriculture beginning in the Near East 1000−1500 years before the invention of pottery.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pre-ceramic farming and animal husbandry was practiced from 8000−6500 BCE, after which pottery has been used as an aid to food economics.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The oldest utensils of pottery found have been found in Syria (6560 and 6860 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[28]) and Iraq (Jarmo 6300−5800 BCE. [29] [30]).


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[4] [31] Pottery was also made in Jordan from 5500 BCE., but indications of ceramics about 1000 years older exist (6500−6200 BCE [32]).


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pottery from the Middle East spread through trade relations to Turkey and thence to the rest of Europe.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[33] [2] Africa One of the best archaeologically studied regions in Africa is the Nile Valley and Egypt.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The Nile has been fertile in all the different eras, which you can see especially nowadays when the region is otherwise completely deserted.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

During the coldest period of the last ice age, the Sahara very dry, but during the younger Dryas period (10050−9400 BCE)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

after annual monsoon rains began to arrive in the region.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The area began to flourish as a grassy savannah whose sustenance people arrived from the south to exploit.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Scientists have concluded from the discovery data that people used herbaceous seeds and fish, among other things, for nutrition.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pottery developed for storing, processing and cooking them by fire then emerged in archaeological discovery material.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[34] [35] [36] [2] There are three theories about the origins of early African pottery where in common is its invention once somewhere in Africa.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Firstly, pottery developed in the Nile River Valley may have spread eastward along the southern edge of the Sahara and thus explain the simultaneous occurrence.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Secondly, pottery would have been invented in a region that was located south of the Sahara and from where it would have spread to the southern edge of the Sahara and the Nile River Valley.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

So far no such site to the south is known, as the oldest deposits of pottery found there are dated no earlier than 8000 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Thirdly, pottery would have been invented during the coldest period of the Ice Age in the Refugue of the deserted Sahara, where people would have invented pottery to facilitate living in harsh conditions.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

No such area has yet been found.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[34] [35] The Nile Valley in the Nile Valley in the Saharan side desert has early pottery at habitations in Egypt at Nabtan Bir Kiseiba E-79-8 (several dates to 9400−8000 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

), Bir Kiseiba in E-80-4 (9220 ± 120 BP) and Sudan's Sarurab 2 (8600 BCE)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

and in Wadi el Akhdar (8300 BCE).


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

There were large lakes and rivers in the eastern part of the south of the Sahara, which today are dried up.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

They descended into what is now the Nile.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Here, too, rains maintained grassy plains and fishy bodies of water.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[34] [37] Egyptian pottery is better known and in greater detail from the Neolithic period 5300−3200 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

from Fayum, Merimde, Omari, Badari, Naqada and predynastic Egyptian culture.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[38] The Saharan environment in Ounjougou in the municipality of Dogo in Mali lies in the Yamé Valley two abodes of Ravin du Hibou and Ravin de la Mouche, where fragments of pottery from strata dating to over 9400 BCE were found in 2007.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

At the time, the area was a floodplain regularly irrigated by monsoon rains on the savannah and there were also permanent lakes in the area.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Major floods washed out habitations and piled thick layers of sediment on top of them.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pottery appeared in the area with the mobile population in good quality, thin-walled and well burned.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Scientists have the impression that its manufacturing skills were learned in the South, but they don't know where.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Still 7000 BC.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

was used in the area for pottery, but drought subsequently evicted the population elsewhere.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Today, the region is an arid Niger River valley periphery.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[34] [35] [36] Another area of interest south of the Sahara is located in the Central Saharan Highlands of Niger.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pottery has been found there from the abodes of Adrar Bous 10 (8400−8200 BCE.)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

and Temet (9330 ± 120 BP, or about 8500 BCE).


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Wave patterns formed from points have been used in the decoration of the latter ceramics.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

This decoration was last used in Senegal in the first millennium BCE. The timings of pottery and residence may not meet, so the proving power of the timings is still disputed.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

However, also from the abodes of Aïr in Tagalagal (8600−8400 BCE.)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

and Tamaya Mellet (9350 ± 170 BP, or about 8600 BCE.)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

old pottery has been found.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[34] [35] [37] [2] South Africa Another centre for the invention of pottery may be located in the southern Arkika.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Its links with North Africa are tenuous, so the appearance of pottery there may be a result of independent invention.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

However pottery did not emerge there until the first millennium BCE [2] Contacts Pottery is distinctly younger in the Nile Valley than in the central Sahara.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

However, researchers speculate that the pottery spread there via the Mediterranean coast.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Timings of ceramic abodes in Uadi Ti-n-Torha (in Libya, 9080 ± 79 BP, or about 8300 BCE.)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

and Launey in AK-AF 094-18 (Algeria 9210 ± 115 BP, or about 8400 BCE.)


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

are so early that it seems possible.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Greening of the Sahara may also have caused populations in the south and north of the Sahara to confront each other and spread pottery making skills.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The rocky refuge Hassi Ouenzga is known from Morocco, whose pottery has features of Saharan and Mediterranean pottery together.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

There, the settlement adopted both farming and pottery around 5600 BCE..


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Scientists speculate, again without direct evidence, that the pottery spread along the Nile along the Mediterranean coast rather than directly from the Sahara Desert.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[2] [34] [35] America South America Although it was the early invention of pottery in East Asia, it did not spread very far from its birth regions in Asia either.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Therefore, there is a consensus that pottery has been invented in South America independently.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

What is surprising, however, is its use environment in the jungle.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The oldest known South American pottery is found in the Caverna de Pedra Pintada</i>sta in the lower reaches of the Amazon basin.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

It is timed to around 5600 BC, when the entire Amazon was already inhabited.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Another cave from near the previous one, Taperinha, contained fragments of dishes, but are dated to around 5080 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

These groups had trekked into the jungle from the Caribbean Sea coast and lived mainly by fishing.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[39] [40] Another residence of early pottery is San Jacinto in Colombia.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

There, vegetable fibre mixes and decorative pottery were made, which may not have been used to cook food, but only to store and serve it.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

It is timed to 5900 BP or about 4800 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[41] [42] A third early site is found in Ecuador in the abodes of the Valdivian culture.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

These, too, were decorative tableware, but differ in many ways from Colombian equivalent pieces of tableware.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Some of the pottery has textile prints.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

They are timed starting around 5500−5200 BP, or about 4300−4000 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[43] [44] North America The oldest Alaskan and Canadian pottery has been found on the sea coasts of Alaska and the Yukon Territory, where it was produced by Paleo-Eskimos apparently following the Siberian example.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Pottery quickly spread to northern parts of North America, but not further south.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The first pottery is dated to around 3500 BP, or around 1800 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Other groups began manufacturing it after this and a few groups only knew how to make it a few centuries before Europeans arrived on the continent.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[45] [46] [47] The arrival of pottery in southern North America is still unclear, but it is widely suspected that it came there via islands in the Gulf of Mexico from South America.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The oldest known find is located in the Savannah River estuary in raw trunks on Stalling Island, which were surveyed in 1929 and 1999.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

The age of the pottery is estimated to be around 3800 BP, or around 2300 BCE.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

In the eastern parts of North America, there was a parallel tradition of producing soapstone vessels that would have had the same use as ceramics.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

In New England, there was a shift to pottery after the use of soapstone vessels.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

[48] [49] [50] Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Jordan, Peter & Zvelebil, Marek (ed.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

) | title = Ceramics Before Farming: The Dispersal of Pottery Among Prehistoric Eurasian Hunter-Gatherers| location = London, England| publisher = Institute of Archaeology| year = 2009| isbn = 978-1-9874-245-9| language = Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.| format = [GoogleBooks] | accessdate = 28.5.2014}} Lekenvall, Henrik: Pottery in China: A product of agriculture or hunter-gatherers?


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

(pdf, Literature Thesis, C-UppSats), Uppsala University: Uppsala, Sweden, 2007. referred: 24.5.2014, Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Sayers, Kelly M.:, University of Saskatchewan, 2011 References on the topic elsewhere in Ancient Pottery on the Pacific rim:, Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

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Question: Where was pottery invented?

Stone Age pottery

Category:History of pottery Category:Stone Age


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto, officially Co-operative Elanto was a cooperative shop in Helsinki that operated from 1905 to 2003.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto merged with HOK, resulting in HOK Elanto, which started in 2004.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto was the best known and most prominent of the cooperative movements proclaimed as Progressive Cooperative (E Movement).


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto was founded on 15 October 1905 and a bakery started as its first manufacturing facility in 1907.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's first managing director 1905—1908 was Asa Ensio.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

[1] Originally conceived as a bakery production cooperative, Elanto soon expanded into a consumer cooperative as it opened its own bread shops and cafés.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Areas conflicts of the Co-operative Movement in the 1910s Elanto grew in ten years to become a strong player in metropolitan retail as it established bread and milk shops in almost every borough.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In addition, Elanto launched a dairy business as well as began roasting coffee and brewing beer.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In 1915, a young jurist, Social Democrat Väinö Tanner, took over the leadership of Elanto, whose second-in-command was appointed burgher Otto Valmari.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Tanner smelled the effects of World War I on both commerce and the real estate business.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto acquired land and real estate beyond his own need; for the future and in an investment sense.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The solvent cooperative bought, among other things, a large plot of land on Aleksanterinkatu in Helsinki and the Backas manor of nearly 700 hectares in the present Vantaa Pakkala.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Conflicts between cooperative shops consisting mainly of urban factory working population, large and politically close to the left and cooperative shops consisting mainly of rural farming populations, small in number of members and politically close to the burghers The trend was strengthened when large cooperative stores wanted to gain more control in the Confederation of Co-operative Trades, based on the number of members of each cooperative trade.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

However, as this was staunchly against the one member - one vote - principle of co-operative activities, established the major cooperative shops under Elanto as their own non-profit confederation of the Confederation of Consumer Cooperatives (KK) in 1916, registering as a progressive cooperative movement.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

At the same time, however, it wanted to keep the Finnish Cooperative Shop Central Municipality (SOK) as its central store.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

SOK did not agree to this, whereby the KK member cooperative movements established the Finnish Osuustukkukunta (OTK) in 1917.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

As the political battle of direction intensified, Tanner stressed that Elanto wants to serve all residents of the metropolitan area, regardless of the cause.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

However, for all the people in Helsinki, this cooperative model was not enough; some of the burghers, under the direction of architect Jalmari Kekkonen, started working on a cooperative trade tied to the Pellervolese cooperative shop, YOL and SOK, whose founding meeting was held in 1919.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's market position strengthens in the 1920s and 1930s, Elanto became stronger in the market, elevating Tanner's position both in Reich politics and in the capital's food and retail sectors.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The cooperative built a new headquarters in Kaikukatu, opened new stores and redesigned its sausage and soft drink factory.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Bread remained a staple product, and a new bakery and own mill were built to secure production.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Tanner created an ideology of ownership for his cooperative: stores and production facilities operated on Elanto's own properties.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Wartime and then in the 1940s and 1950s, Finland recovering from war built and consumed.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The living met the demand by setting up stores after each other; in towns in every borough and in rural areas in every village.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Staff costs increased, forcing new modes of operation, such as unified stores and self-service, such as Kluuvikatu Elanto, a canteen popular with students.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's first express store opened in 1951.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

It represented changes in the customs of the time.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Other novelties for consumers included plastic bags, milk cans and a final sell-by date for bread products.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In the 1960s, Helsinki continued to grow strongly.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Downtown, the blocks began to be full, and construction of individual commercial buildings was minimal.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The focus shifted to suburbs and area construction.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The best trading venues were distributed in a four-kopla, which included Elanto, Helsingin Osuuskauppa, Kesko and Tuko.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's management underwent a full renovation.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Väinö Tanner stepped down from the Board of Supervisors and Paavo Heinimo from the General Manager's seat.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Dr. Mauno Koivisto was elected as the new Director General, but he did not have time to take up the position because he received a post at the Bank of Finland at the same time.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The seat was appointed in 1968 by Ylermi Hull, who led the movement until 1990.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

[2] Consumer habits changed.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The use of cars had increased exponentially and distances lost relevance.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

People were running in built-up areas, and the countryside was deserted.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The metropolitan area was a migratory profit zone, but traditional grocery shopping did not pay off.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto sold only his own bread, even though consumers were already asking for something else.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Väinö Tanner was opposed to Elanto leaving the restaurant business, but was forced to bend in the final months of his management career.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Anniskelu came to the capital via Loviisa when the cooperative movement in that region fused with Elanto.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Soon Fennia and Kappeli in the centre of Helsinki also moved to Elanno.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

After adversity in the 1970s, Elanto's central OTK funds dwindled to maintain loss-making industries and supporting unprofitable Co-operative Movements.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Thanks to real estate assets, the co-op business stayed afloat, but the base business was reeling at a loss.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Even the new hypermarkets in Kannelmäki and Leppävaara or the HMS and Pullapuodit in the centre did not change the whole.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In the 1980s, heavy industry and unprofitable Cooperative Movements had pushed OTK to the brink of crisis.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Longtime claimants of responsibility are receding, and power was concentrated in a new chief executive who put the same way in the wind.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The 1983 merger between the cooperative shops and OTK formed E-Cooperative Eka, which became the 1987 Cooperative Group Eka.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

However, unlike other Co-operative shops, Elanto did not go into this, and thus the bond between Elanto and OTK, which lasted more than 65 years, was a history.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Already earlier that year, KK's name was changed to Confederation of Consumer Cooperative Activities after the merger, therefore only Eka and Elanto.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto acquired plenty of brand new business: Flat furniture and Home idea brought a selection of furniture, Machine Brothers appliances and Pizzeria Nr 1 pizzas.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

However, Elanto operated without a clear strategy of expansion and began to lose faith in his own basic competence.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The merger of Elanto and HOK was close for the first time Elanto received a competitor from its former central store when Eka bought the Valintatalo chain.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In order to improve Elanto's position, Director General Ylermi Run tuned in on a couple of occasions to discuss the merger of Elanto and Helsinki Cooperative Trade, or at least significant cooperation.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In 1989, the merger was closer than ever before.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Hull contacted Pentti Pasuri and key members of the HOK Supervisory Board.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

However, within the HOK governing bodies, ideas and leadership issues aroused suspicion that caused the project to fall through.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

End of e-Movement In 1992, Elanto and Eka, as well as SOK and the Confederation of Finnish Cooperative Shops, founded the Co-op Finnish Association of Consumer Cooperatives (COL), when the Confederation of Consumer Cooperatives ceased operations and the E-Movement went into history.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

KOL's activities, in turn, ended at least effectively at the end of 2003.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The recession ravages the business community The 1990s slump in Finland was the most severe in decades.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The number of unemployed people rose to almost half a million at most.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

State and local government tax revenues plummeted, and Social Security expenses increased.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto began the new decade prosperous but unprofitable and alone.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Jorma Seppänen, the new director general, tried to come up with medicines for the recession.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Movements were conditioned, but sales declined.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Every item of expenses and phase of work came under a magnifying glass.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Like Elanto, Eka was also in a bad crisis.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Jorma Seppänen said that Elanto's and Eka's mutual guarantee agreements concerning savings cash deposits and pension insurance assets.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto had to pay a £135 million pension liability shortfall, but later saved nearly 300 million by not having to account for Eka's dealings anymore.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The cooperative group EKA Group underwent corporate restructuring in 1993.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's management saw the signs of danger in the air and received a promise from its main financier Kansa-Osa-Bank that the bank would be responsible for financing the cooperative even if customer owners became anxious and savings cash deposits began to fall asleep.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Seppänen gave up his merger intentions and at the same time his post.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

He informed the Chairman of the Supervisory Board, Erkki Tuomioja, that he could start looking for a new man as Director General.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Tauno Palmroos, head of the retail trade group, was elected as general manager.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto is actively looking for a partner, Tauno Palmroos, the new executive director of Elanto, took the plunge.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

He held preliminary negotiations on a merger or other industry arrangement with HOK Vice President Esa Haapaniemi and Arto Hiltusen, CEO of Ässä-Partners Oy.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Else, KOP and Suomen Yhänpankki are merging.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

It was bad news for Elanno and foreshadowed trouble.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The question that interested the entire Co-operative movement was: Did the funding pledge made by the KOP also bind its merger partner SYP?


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The decision was a feared one: money was promised for everything else, but not for what it was most desperately needed, namely to compensate for the possible draining of the savings fund.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Knowledge of the funding decisions came out, and members of the savings fund rushed to withdraw their deposits.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

During one morning, tens of millions of marks left the shop's treasury, and Elanto applied for restructuring.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The newly elected governor was allowed to continue because creditors did not consider him guilty of the Co-op's plight.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The corporate restructuring program was quickly completed building on an earlier austerity program.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Palmroos managed to convince creditors that everyone would get theirs.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Savings cash depositors got their money when their claims were paid by the state and joined the creditors front.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Unlike the restructuring of Eka shortly before, Elanto's debts were not cut.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The savior again became Tanner's legacy, a strong real estate mass.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Stone houses were still plentiful, and their value began to rise again.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The renovation was distasteful for Elanno, but the only way to get back on his feet.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

All the stakes were in reviving the business.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The restructuring programme also provided an opportunity to break away from contracts that would otherwise have been impossible or costly to dissolve.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The cooperative movement, which was in distress, received several commercial cooperation offers.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

From the point of view of acting management, Tradeka cooperation remained the only opportunity.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The recession was deep, but after grounding, profitability rose quite quickly to a plus, the first time since the crazy years of the late 1980s.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Cooperation with Tradeka went uncomplicated at the operational level.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In owner policy, on the other hand, views differed: Tradeka wanted to corporate all the business, Elanto was faithful to his cooperative background.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The retail operations of Elanto and Tradeka were merged into joint chains (Siwa, Valintalo and Euromarket/Maxi).


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto's turf was the capital area garnished with Riihikallio in Tuusula, and Tradeka, in turn, the whole rest of Finland.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In HOK, the CEO changed twice within a short period of time.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

After Pasuri and Haapaniemi, the steering responsibility passed to a new generation when Arto Hiltunen was elected CEO.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

HOK followed Elanto running dry, knowing that Elanto had been forced to go to hard school in the early 1990s and trim his machine to boot condition.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

When Tauno Palmroos, the chief architect of the renovation of Elanto, died unexpectedly, Arto Ihto, the construction company Polar.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

As a business leader, Ihto was a strategic visionary and co-builder.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

His goal crystallised into a simple one: Elanto would not survive on his own.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

It would have to get a partner selected on a business basis.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto and HOK merge In spring 2000, Elanto's Board of Directors outlined its future in the post-debt restructuring period.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

There were three options: risky cooperation with venture capitalists from outside the sector, deepening cooperation with a group that turned into Cooperative Group Tradeka, or partnership alongside HOK.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

In all cases, cooperation was conditional on disconnecting from the restructuring ahead of time.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

It was considered entirely possible.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Ihto received powers of palpation from the government and met with Arto Hiltusen.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Ihto offered cooperation in metropolitan grocery and received a counter-proposal for a direct merger.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Meetings became more frequent, and clearances started in both cooperative shops.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The conditions for unification were limited to three: the Competition Bureau's position, the release of Elanto from corporate restructuring and the exit from the Tradeka cooperation.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The first of the points was the easiest.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The Competition Bureau saw no obstacles to unification in its preliminary estimates.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The restructuring programme also proceeded briskly ahead of schedule.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

It was over in 2001.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

The third condition was the most laborious to fulfill.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Tradeka had a series of contracts with Elanto that it did not want to unravel.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

After a couple of years of negotiations, an agreement was reached on the price of the detachment: 46 Siwa, one Valentalo and two hotels (Cumulus Seurahuone and Cumulus Olympia) moved to Tradeka.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

At the end of 2003, Elanto ceased operations (as did HOK) and in early 2004 the Helsinki Osuuskauppa Elanto started.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

With the reform, a total of 42 Valintahouses, Siwa and Max belonging to Elanno became S-Group chains during 2003-04, with 29 new Alepos converted from the smallest Valistotalo (19) and Siwoi (10 pcs), and 9 S-Markets which had been converted from larger Selection houses (5 pcs) and Valintalo Plus stores (4 pcs).


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Three of the Maxi markets (in Iso Omena, Sello and Kannelmäki) were converted into Prismo and one department store Maxi in Hakaniemi from its operating goods department to Sokos department store and food division into S-Market.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

[3] Among the establishments of the new cooperative trade, Elanto were also canceled by e.g.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Restaurants Highlight, Kappeli and Zetor, BeerMachines (e.g. William K), beer pubs Aapel Bar, Käpygrill, Martinralli, Pirjon Krouvi, Poseidon and Tin Pint and Backas Garden Centre.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Elanto Funeral Service was renamed HOK-Elanto Funeral Service, Rainbow cosmetics stores were replaced by Emotion chain stores and Ramada Hotel President moved to the Sokos Hotels chain.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Sarantola-Weiss, Minna et al.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

(ed.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

) | title = Around the Corner Living! | location = Helsinki| publisher = Helsinki City Museum| year = 2005| isbn = 952-473-562-8}} Unto Hämäläinen: Red Capital.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Helsingin Sanomat Monthly Appendix, June 2016.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Also.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

References Literature Elanto 1905—1955.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Huddersfield 1955.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

J. Wing: Half a century of living.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Huddersfield in 1963.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Honkanen, Helmiriitta: Old Dear Elanto: History of the Elanto advertisement from 1905—1978.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Lahti Art Museum 1994.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

ISBN 9789519679914.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Mauno Saari| title = Memorized by Väinö Tanner| publisher = Gummerus| year = 2005}} ISBN 9512070154.


Question: Who founded the Cooperative Elinto in 1905?

A living

Sofia Magazine 1 - 2/2005: City Museum Celebrates Living *


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Stephen William Hawking, CBE, FRSA, FRS (8 January 1942, Oxford, UK — 14 March 2018 [1] Cambridge, UK) was a British theoretical physicist and cosmologist.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[2] [3] Hawking worked as a Lucas Professor at the University of Cambridge in a post where Isaac Newton has previously worked.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[4] He was Professor at the University of Cambridge from 1977 and Professor of Mathematics from 1979 onwards.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He retired in the fall of 2009.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[5] Some of Hawking's works on cosmology have been very successful.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

With that, he also has a reputation as a folk consciousness of science.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's book A Brief History of the Time, published in 1988, had by May 1995 topped the list of best-selling books in the Sunday Times newspaper for a total of 237 weeks, breaking the previous record of 184 weeks.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The record was recorded in 1998 in the Guinness Book of Records.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[6] ALS caused Hawking to become almost complete unable to exercise.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He underwent a fistula in the trachea, which also caused him to lose his ability to speak.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He messaged with a speech synthesizer connected to his wheelchair, which enabled him to type sentences letter by letter for the device to speak.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking was an exceptional ALS patient in two respects: he contracted ALS at the age of 21 and had the disease for a very long time.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Typically, people with ALS are infected between the ages of 40 and 60 and patients die three to five years after the disease is diagnosed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[7] Hawking's illness progressed so that he was unable to attend his birthday celebrations at the age of 70.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[8] Life Family and birth Stephen Hawking's parents Frank and Isobel Hawking lived before his birth in London, where Hawking's father worked for his own company conducting medical research.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Frank Hawking, like his wife, had studied at Oxford, where he had mainly concentrated on medicine and especially tropical diseases.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Isobel Hawking is known as a political civic actor [6] [9], but she also worked before meeting Frank Hawking as a tax officer and medical laboratory secretary, among other things.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking's parents both came from a middle-class family.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[10] The Hawkings moved to Oxford because London was a dangerous place for an expectant mother at the time of World War II.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At Oxford, Isobel Hawking gave birth to her firstborn, Stephen Hawking, on 8 January 1942, exactly 300 years after Galileo Galilei's death.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[11] Frank Hawking had stayed in London, where Isobel returned with his son.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The family lived in Highgate in north London, where Stephen started schooling.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He has two sisters, Mary and Philippa, and one brother, Edward.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[9] Adolescence and early period of study Frank Hawking got work at Mill Hill, and the family moved to St Albans to make travel easier.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At this time Stephen Hawking was eight years old.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking went to school at St Albans Girls' High School, to which boys too were accepted until the age of 10.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Next, Frank Hawking wanted his son to transfer to a private school in Westminster, as he felt it would guarantee the boy a better future.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, parents could not afford the tuition, so Stephen should have received a grant for his studies.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, Hawking was unable to qualify for the scholarship application exams () because he was ill at the very time of them.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In any case, Hawking believed he had received a better lesson at St Albans than he might have received at Westminster.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[6] As Westminster dreams tapered away, the father decided to send his son to a school called St Albans School, which was a boarding school in the family's home town.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 1952, entrance exams were held at the school, which young Hawking passed easily.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In September of the same year he was accepted into the school


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[12] Hawking's classmates took a cool approach to him in some places.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He also found himself school-bullied for his mild speech defect.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

On the other hand, Hawking also had friends from the same class who, like him, did well in school.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's average was only slightly above the average in his class, but despite this, teachers apparently considered him an intelligent student.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[13] In terms of political causes, young Hawking was much influenced by his somewhat left-wing mother, who also belonged to a local liberal organisation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[14] Another person who influenced Hawking socially was Mr Finlay, who taught at St Albans School.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The teaching methods of this included discussing topics of social importance with third graders, such as nuclear disarmament and birth control.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[15] At school, Hawking's mathematics teacher made him interested in mathematics, which in his final years at his school he specialised in studying.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

His father would have wanted his son to continue studying at University College of Oxford University, where he himself had previously studied.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

With his future university studies in mind, young Hawking wanted to take an advanced course in physics and mathematics as his major.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, Frank Hawking, like himself, hoped for his son to become a doctor and insisted he also take up chemistry as his major.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Thus, eventually Stephen Hawking chose mathematics, physics and chemistry as his major subjects.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At this point, however, he did not have to make any decisions yet with the university in mind.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[16] While attending the sixth grade of boarding school, Hawking got into the newspaper for the first time after the local Herts Advertiser publication made a story about him and a few other sixth-graders who built their own computer.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[17] At this time, England had computers mainly only in the Ministry of Defence and some universities.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[16] Years of study and falling ill at Oxford In March 1959 Hawking went on scholarship application exams with the aim of reaching Oxford to study natural sciences.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The entrance exam was required to take five two-and-a-half hour tests in writing, divided into physics, mathematics and general knowledge.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Some of the questions had nothing to do with the subjects of which Hawking sought to be a student: for example, one question was tasked with singling out the future significance of Fidel Castro, who just came to power, to the world.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[18] After written tests, each applicant was interviewed individually.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

After the exams, Hawking received an invitation to another interview, after which he was accepted as a pupil and was awarded a scholarship.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking held debates and discussions with his father about his future studies.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He still wanted to study medicine instead of physics and mathematics.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Later, Hawking told reporters he didn't want to study biology because he found it “too descriptive and didn't delve deeply enough into the basics.”


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[18] Frank Hawking, on the other hand, thought that training as a mathematician would not open up any career options other than the teaching profession.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the end, Stephen had his way.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In his natural science studies at University College, Hawking specialised in physics.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Physics and maths tasks were easy for him, and he didn't bother to work hard for his school success.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At this time, at University College, only some occasions were compulsory for students, but otherwise they were allowed to use the time as they wished.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[19] The final grade consisted solely of the final examination organised by the university.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking himself has said of his Oxford days: Hawking himself, however, excelled with little effort, despite attending studies almost purely on mathematics in his first year.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

On the other hand, the then teaching of physics was not much different in level from what Hawking had had at St Albans School.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[20] Despite his little effort, he managed, among other things, to win the compulsory university physics competition in his second year at Oxford.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[21] As a counterbalance to the boredom caused by the university and the too-easy courses, Hawking began to dabble in rowing as his team's mate.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

During his time as a student, Hawking got into trouble with officialdom after, in the company of his friends, painting the text on a local bridge: “VOTE LIBERALS.”


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[22] After living a lazy student life for almost three years at Oxford, Hawking was forced to take a crucial final exam.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Before the experiment, Hawking realised that he had studied too little and, despite his innate abilities, would not necessarily be able to acquire points of brilliance from it.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, it would not be until the final exam that would determine the final grade from three years of study: the tests and competitions that preceded would not matter.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

According to his calculations, Hawking had spent about an hour a day on his studies for three years, which he thought was not enough for a final exam.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The pressure was also heightened by the fact that his admission to Cambridge would depend on how good a final grade he would get.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[23] In the final exam, Hawking's tactic was to focus mainly on theoretical issues that would not require very detailed information.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

After the test, it was discovered that he had achieved the best and second best rating for borderlands.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The problem was that Cambridge was required to get the best possible grade from Oxford.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's possible future at Cambridge was resolved at an oral hearing.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Despite his lazy and alcohol-filled student life, Hawking managed in questioning to convince his teacher of his intelligence.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Eventually, he was awarded a grade qualifying for Cambridge.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[24] Cambridge In 1962 Hawking moved from Oxford to Cambridge to study general relativity and cosmology.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In this case, he also had to choose either quantum physics or cosmology as the subject of his dissertation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In Hawking's own words, his choice was influenced, among other things, by the fact that particle physics lacked a theory of fitness.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

“The particles were just organized into categories like plants,” explained Hawking later.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

“Instead, cosmology has a clear premise, Einstein's general theory of relativity.” This is how Hawking ended up in cosmology.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[25] Around this time Hawking began to experience problems with motor coordination: in some places, even tying shoelaces produced problems.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[25] However, these things were hardly noticed in Cambridge.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The problem with studying, on the other hand, was that Hawking was unable to become a student of the scholar he wanted and his mathematics skills were no longer sufficient for the convoluted and arduous calculations required by relativity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In addition, Hawking's study again began to resemble Oxford life.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

His teacher also felt that the source of the problems was that Hawking had not found the subject he wanted to base his dissertation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[26] During the Christmas break at his home, Hawking met young Jane Wilde, his future wife.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

They got to know each other and became friends.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, the Christmas holiday also brought bad news for Hawking, as back home his increased coordination problems were immediately noticed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Initially, his father Frank Hawking, who specialised in tropical diseases, suspected that his son had contracted some strange disease while on holiday in the Middle East.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[26] Hawking was hospitalized for two weeks in the spring of 1963.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He was diagnosed with a motor neuron disease called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's condition quickly deteriorated, and doctors predicted he wouldn't live long enough to complete his PhD: He was promised to live for two more years.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[27] According to information later in the press, Hawking would have the results after getting secluded in his room and started drinking.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, Hawking disputed the writings themselves about severe drunkenness as exaggeration.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[27] In any case, Hawking became deeply depressed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, she has told me that after seeing a leukaemia patient dying in the same hospital, she realised that some others were doing even worse than her.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[27] As his condition stabilized, Hawking began working on his doctoral dissertation again under the supervision of his supervisor Dennis Sciama.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's father had asked Sciama that Hawking could argue for a PhD faster than in the set three years, but university rules forbade this.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking, in his own words, saw no reason to go to the trouble of getting his PhD.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, Jane Wilde made him lighten up after his depression.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[28] Hawking's illness progressed rapidly, and he soon began to need a walking stick to be able to move.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, in spite of everything, Hawking was able to establish himself a reputation as a promising physicist of the future.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He gained attention in cosmology circles for demonstrating mathematically that the latest theory of world-renowned scientist Fred Hoyle was flawed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking and Hoyle held debates on the subject, the outcome of which Hawking's position was proved correct and the theory proved wrong.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[29] The illness continued to spread, however, and it was soon difficult to find out from Hawking's speech.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At the same time, however, he increased his work, and the dissertation progressed faster.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking also became engaged to Jane Wilde and married her in 1965.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[30] Hawking gained new impetus in the work of his doctoral dissertation after hearing lectures in London on black holes and the singularities they may contain.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Following this, Hawking began to develop his own theory on the subject, which he included in his PhD thesis.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking received his Doctor of Philosophy from Trinity Hall, University of Cambridge, in 1966.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Shortly after this he obtained a scholar fellowship place at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[31] Adulthood Hawking joined the staff of the Institute of Astronomy in 1968.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

After holding the post for five years, he transferred to the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the University of Cambridge.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking became Professor of Gravitational Physics at Cambridge University in 1977, and two years later received the Lucas Professorship.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[32] In 1965—1970, Hawking studied the singularity using general relativity and, as a result, devised a new kind of mathematical model allowing the study of singularities.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking undertook numerous studies with Roger Penrose, who was at Birkbeck College in London at that time.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

From 1970 onward, Hawking began applying his inventions to black holes.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[33] Meanwhile, Hawking's illness worsened further, and he was forced to swap his walking stick for crutches.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

His speech, too, became even more ambiguous.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At Cambridge, Hawking began to achieve fame as a scholar, and in some circles he was already spoken of as the “new Einstein”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[34] Hawking also had a child with his wife Jane, but since Hawking himself was unable to participate in household chores because of his illness, they were left to his wife in their entirety.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The wife later described the first years of marriage: Hawking's studies of black holes led to a remarkable discovery in 1970.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 1974, by using quantum theory to study the properties of black holes, Hawking was able to show that black holes produce radiation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

This radiation is today called Hawking radiation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[35] Hawking and his first wife Jane Wilde, then Hawking, divorced in 1991.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The reasons for the breakup were the fame Hawking gained and the difficulty of his illness.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Three children had been born into the family before this.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Four years after divorcing in 1995, Hawking married his nurse, Elaine Mason.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

This first husband, David Mason, had designed the first version of Hawking's speech synthesizer.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In October 2006, Hawking filed for divorce after 11 years of marriage.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[36] On his birthday, January 8, 2007, Hawking announced that he would embark on a weightlessness flight that year to train on board Virgin Galactic for a 2009 spaceflight, the full cost of which billionaire Richard Branson had pledged to pay.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[37] As Hawking's illness worsened, his speech became even slower and more difficult, even with the help of a computer.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

On June 24, 2012, it was announced that Hawking would come to trial the iBrain device, which could enable communication using brainwaves in the future.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[38] [39] Hawking died at the age of 76 in March 2018.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[3] His funeral was held on 31 March at Cambridge Church.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The ashes will be placed in Westminster Abbey next to Isaac Newton's grave, close to Charles Darwin's final resting place.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[40] Research work Hawking's key fields of research were cosmology, quantum gravity and string theory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

His major works deal with the relationship between black holes and thermodynamics.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Black holes and singularities In the early years of Hawking's career, there was a lack of clarity in scientific circles regarding black holes.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The theoretical possibility of the existence of black holes was already known, but most scientists did not consider them to actually exist.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[41] The infinite density of black hole singularities was not yet generally considered a problem.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the 1960s, again, there was talk in cosmology circles that the universe itself could behave like an inverted black hole.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[42] In 1971 Hawking and Sir Roger Penrose showed that universe must have been a singularity at some point, provided general relativity applies.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Such a view had been opposed by astronomers even in the 1940s and 1950s, [43] that is, before the actual Big Bang theory had gained public support.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Later, Hawking sought to refute his own theory (among others in his book The Universe in a Nutshell) by using imaginary time: the singularity becomes a point similar to any other point in spacetime, and thus one can get rid of the problems faced by the singularity would cause at the beginning of the universe.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking became interested in black holes especially when he realised that it would be possible to apply his and Penrose's methods of calculation to them.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Meanwhile, with Hawking, the essence of black holes was also contemplated by Jakob Bekenstein, based in the United States, with whom Hawking got into disputes.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The controversy concerned how thermodynamics should be applied to black holes: Hawking used thermodynamics as his mere model of thought, while Bekenstein applied it directly to black holes.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's work on black holes became considerably complicated, as due to his advanced illness he could no longer use pen and paper in his calculations.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking, after all, had to do the complicated calculations in his head.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[44] Many colleagues have described him as having a very good memory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

For example, according to one of the reports, Hawking may have remembered a small error in a book he read years ago as well as the page number in question.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[44] In his studies on black holes, Hawking decided to approach problems in a new way.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He attempted to combine both quantum physics and relativity in his calculations.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[45] This demanding task was complicated by Hawking's inability to use aids in his bills.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 1974, Hawking calculated that black holes emit matter into their environment, depriving the holes of energy so much that they might cease to exist.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The result was cataclysmic, and Hawking thought it himself at first head-butted.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[45] This so-called Hawking radiation, calculated theoretically by Hawking, is the stronger the lower the mass of the aperture.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Eventually, the black hole's mass converges to zero, Hawking radiation becomes even stronger, and the aperture appears to explode.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The idea was novel and quickly attracted opposition after it was announced.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The theory quickly emerged as a talking point among physicists around the world.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking radiation can be explained using virtual particles.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

These virtual particles are particles that exist everywhere according to quantum theory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

They are particle-antiparticle pairs that cancel each other's effect immediately after birth, resulting in the destruction of both particles.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

As virtual particles get into the vicinity of a black hole, one of the two pairs of virtual particles may fall into a black hole, leaving the other party of a pair of particles alone.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The remaining particle might end up in a black hole as well, or move away from its vicinity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The behavior of a pair of virtual particles in the vicinity of a black hole can also be viewed from the other direction.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

If an antiparticle falls into a black hole, it can be considered an ordinary particle exiting the black hole's impact field, which can be explained by the particularities of the antiparticle.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[46] When a particle passing logically “incorrectly” reaches the point where the virtual particle appears to have arisen, the gravitational field puts it to travel forward in time, thereby exiting as an ordinary particle from the proximity of a black hole.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[46] This is how time travel is realised on an extremely small scale.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Applying quantum theory to the Big Bang Hawking's studies on black holes had also been groundbreaking because they had been able to combine relativity and quantum theory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[47] For example, according to general relativity alone, the area of a black hole could not decrease [48], contrary to what Hawking's calculations showed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[49] After combining two basic theories of science, Hawking began to study the application of quantum theory to the beginning of the universe as well.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[50] Combining quantum theory and relativity has been one of the greatest challenges facing modern science.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking, however, did not set out to attempt a unification of theories, instead settling for dealing with some aspects.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the early 1980s, he reached the conclusion that time possibly has no beginning.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[51] In his studies, Braans Hawking also took a position on Braans.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

For example, in his book Hawking 2003, he dedicated his own chapter to the Braans.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Braani (also known as p-braan) is a theory used in theoretical physics that our universe would be on the surface of one braan and there could be multiple braans.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The theory has been used to extend string theory and M-theory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Braanit was invented by Paul Townsend of the Cambridge Department of Theoretical Mathematics and Physics.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[52] In Braans, the notation p denotes dimensions.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The 0-braan would therefore be a zero-dimensional braan, a 1-braan strand, a 2-braan surface i.e., a membrane, a 3-braan space, and a 4-braan spacetime.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Our known universe is commonly 10-braan or 11-brane in M-theory, [53] although the dimensions diverging from the four fundamental dimensions (height, width, depth and time) are curled up into very small, possibly infinite, torus.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

As a rule, all forces behave in a braan just as in a conventional, four-dimensional world.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

An exception to this is gravity, the effect of which can also extend to additional dimensions and thereby to other braans.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

This information has been used to explain the existence of dark matter in such a way that dark matter would actually be the gravity of an adjacent ghost brane body extending into additional dimensions.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[54] In relation to Braans, Hawking, among other things, addressed a model of thought in which a braan could be described as a bubble and the space it contains as the fifth dimension.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In this model, the dimension on the surface of the braan can be experienced as expanding while the bubble itself bulges like a balloon.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[55] Hawking also considered the question of human beings being merely shadows falling on the braan, and that the actual events were within the described “bubble”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[56] To the question of what might be outside the braans, Hawking presents three possibilities in his book Hawking 2003.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

According to the first, there is nothing outside, and not even empty space.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

According to the second possibility, the braan is related to another braan, but mathematically the thing is the same as the empty exterior.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[57] According to the third model, the braan itself is in space diverging from the inner part of the “bubble”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Thus, the number of braans is also possible, as are collisions between brains — it has been suggested that the Big Bang could be caused by just such a collision.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[57] Time travel Hawking also took some position on time travel and the problems it brings.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The subject he addressed both in his book A Brief History of Time and The Universe in a Nutshell, in which he states: “Of physicists, only us a few steamheads have ventured into such a dubious business [dealing with time travel].” [58] Hawking was, however, one of many of scientists who are very sceptical about the possibility of time travel.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In his works, however, Hawking did not outright deny the possibility of time travel, but found it very unlikely.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

By his calculations, the probability of a man being able to journey into the past and murdering his grandfather would be a ratio of one to ten potency of one million trillion trillion.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[59] Hawking as a non-fiction writer, Hawking was also known as a general talker of science, particularly for his illustrious non-fiction books.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The short history of Time (1988), Universe in a Nutshell (2001), A Shorter History of Time written with Leonard Mlodinow (2005), and a youth book The Key to the Universe written with daughter Lucy Hawking (2007).


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Unchecked is a 1993 writing collection of Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Textbooks written by Hawking include The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime (1973), worked with George Ellis, and General Relativity: An Einsteinian Centenary Survey (1979) and 300 Years of Gravity (1987) with Werner Israel.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[60] The Brief History of Time in particular has risen to great popularity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

It is available in forty different languages, with a total edition exceeding nine million copies.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[61] In the opening words of the revised edition, Hawking writes that there is one Brief History of Time book in the world for every 750 people.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[61] Another translated work by Hawking, The Universe in a Nutshell focuses on the story of new trends and lines in science after the short history of Time.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the book, Hawking discusses modern theories that perceive the nature of the universe, such as superstrands, braans, quantum physics, and M-theory.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In Hawking's views on the future of humanity Stephen Hawking also addressed issues related to the future of humanity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In his book The Universe in a Nutshell, he devoted an entire chapter to contemplating the future of humanity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

At the beginning of the chapter, Hawking notes, among other things, that if growth in terms of population and electricity consumption were to continue at current rates, “in 2600 people would be standing on the side of the Earth with their flanks and the electrical power generated would cause the entire planet to glow red”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[62] So Hawking concludes that growth cannot continue indefinitely, giving as one option a nuclear war that destroys all mankind.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

On the other hand, he also points out: In reflecting on the future of humanity, Hawking addressed genetic manipulation and its application to humans.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking didn't think human gene modification was a good thing.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[63] In any case, however, he speculated that, quite certainly at some point, human genes will also be artificially inflicted.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

“Only a complete dictatorship spanning the entire globe could prevent that,” writes he Hawking in his 2003 book.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[63] In his book he also discusses the increasing power of computers, noting that it is possible to artificially develop human-like intelligence for computers.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[64] From this Hawking goes on to conclude that intelligent computers would also be able to design even smarter machines.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

On the development of human intelligence, Hawking, on the other hand, notes that head size in childbirth forms a boundary to brain development, but by raising fetuses in laboratories, this problem could be circumvented.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[65] In addition to the development of humanity, Hawking dealt with interstellar travel and migration to new planets on various occasions.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In a speech to Nasa's 50th anniversary, Hawking set out the view that 0.25 per cent of global GDP should be directed towards mapping extraterrestrial habitation opportunities.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

For the manned Mars flight, he set out the implementation period no later than 2025.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

As a longer-term goal, he wanted to set a manned flight beyond the Solar System within 200—500 years.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[66] Hawking addressed the question that if intelligent life has evolved elsewhere in the universe, why, for example, the Earth has not already been visited.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

According to another of his explanations, a possible smarter civilization would have little regard for itself less intelligent humanity, in the same way that humans don't exactly notice the insects and worms spinning at their feet.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[67] As a more relevant explanation, Hawking considers that no intelligent life has evolved on other planets.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking has pointed out that evolution does not necessarily lead inevitably to the emergence of intellect, and that intelligence does not, in the end, confer a very large advantage in the struggle for survival.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In Hawking 2003, Hawking states: “The intellect may not have a decisive advantage in the struggle for existence between organisms.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Bacteria are doing well without intellect, and are left behind when this so-called intelligent species has destroyed itself with nuclear bombs.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

So we can find primitive life in galaxies, but hardly beings like ourselves.” [67] In the spring of 2010, Hawking released a statement deviating from his previous conception.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[68] He pleaded that humanity should avoid contact with extraterrestrial life.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[68] Hawking stated that he was convinced that life could be found beyond Earth.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He bases his views on probabilities — it is rational to assume that in a universe containing 100 billion galaxies, Earth is not the only planet that would have evolved life.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[69] In terms of planets, Hawking is certain.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He considers it possible that life could be found elsewhere, such as in stars or hovering in outer space.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[70] The biggest challenge for Hawking is to find out what extraterrestrial life would be like.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[70] Hawking believes that attempts at contact with the intellect of foreign planets should be avoided because some extraterrestrials can pose a threat to Earth.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In this case, connecting with them could be devastating to humanity.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[70] In the fall of 2010, Hawking urged humanity to occupy space over the next two centuries unless it wanted to become extinct.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

He sees crises threatening the existence of humanity, what the Cuban Missile Crisis was like, increasing in the future.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the long run, it is difficult or even impossible to avoid such an accident, so not all eggs should be kept in one basket.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Threats, he says, include exponential growth in population and limited use of raw materials.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking says mankind's only chance of surviving for a long time is migration from Earth and colonization of new planets.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[71] [72] Hawking's views on religion Early adolescent friends at Hawking's St Albans School are known at one point to have taken a great interest in Christianity and later the occult.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[73] Hawking, however, is not known to have shared the views of his friends, and later has been described as having observed discussions of faith and God on “intellectual highs”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Admittedly, in the third grade of St Albans School, the school rewarded Hawking in theology.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[73] More than Christianity, Hawking was interested in the occult that gained ground in his circle of friends after a religious orientation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the main, this was because the chance of experiments was greater than religion.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[73] Hawking is not known to have demonstrated religious thought either when his ALS disease was diagnosed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In their biographical book, Michael White and John Gribbin describe this stage, writing: In adulthood, Hawking has been described as saying that he is not an actual atheist, but may not just be able to reconcile God to his concept of reality.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking's first wife Jane had received a Christian upbringing, as a result the married couple's religious views differed greatly from one another.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking stated before 1992 that “in studying the beginning of the universe, I move along the borderlands of religion and natural science, but I try to stay on the natural sciences side of the border.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Possibly God is acting in a way that cannot be described by the laws of nature.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In that case, it is only about the personal faith of each person himself.” [74] One idea relating to religion and science which Hawking once feuded with his wife Jane was the so-called “fringelessness model” favoured by Hawking, in which the universe is, in Hawking's words, “simply just exist”, and thus would not require a moment of birth or separate creation.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[74] In 2010, Hawking stated that the emergence of the universe does not require the influence of a god.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

According to him, it can be seen that the Big Bang has been a consistent consequence of the laws of physics.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the book The Great Plan he says that “because there is such a law as the law of gravitation, the universe can arise and emerge by itself out of nothing”.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In The Brief History of Time, Hawking considered the existence of a god possible.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 1992, the first planet orbiting the star was discovered in another solar system.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

This prompted Hawking to revise his perception.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The discovery of the planet showed Hawking that the solar system of humans is not central to the universe.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Everythingness is not created just to serve man.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[75] [76] Hawking betting Hawking is known, especially outside of scholastic circles, also for its various betting.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The best-known bookmakers deal with black holes, and the parties in them are predominantly Hawking himself, as well as Kip Thorne and John Preskill.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

One of the most famous Hawking bets was a bet in 1975 with Kip Thorne on the character of the Cygnus X-1 target.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking was betting on the fact that Cygnus X-1 wouldn't be a black hole.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[77] He described his plea afterwards, saying it was “a form of insurance.”


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[78] If black holes did not exist, his research on them would have been completely futile, but on the other hand he would automatically win the bet.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Instead, confirming Cygnus X-1 as a black hole would prove their existence, causing him to happily lose the bet to Thorne.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[78] In 1990, Hawking confessed that he had lost the bet and, as compensation, commissioned Thorne the Penthouse magazine for one year.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[79] Another known bet was struck between Hawking, Thorne and Preskill.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The topic was the possible disappearance of information into a black hole.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[80] In this bet Thorne and Hawking took the same position against Preskill.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 2004 Hawking confessed that he had lost the bet, [81] but Thorne did not agree with his interpretation, [82] and the outcome of the bet cannot yet be considered scientifically confirmed.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking also made bets with Thorne and Preskill that “cosmic censorship,” meaning that you can't see singularities, always applies.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[83] Hawking lost the bet, as scientists found mathematical solutions that it would be possible to see a particular kind of singularity from very far away.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[84] Stephen Hawking in popular culture Hawking was a well-known public figure in whom the media showed interest.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In addition to his scientific work, his private life was also the subject of news in the media.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

However, he is known to have viewed the handling of his private life negatively.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Hawking wanted to be known primarily as a researcher and non-fiction writer.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[85] In entertainment, Stephen Hawking's character has appeared in films such as The Simpsons, Futurama, [86] the Disaster film, the Dilbert comic, and Star Trek as a Holodeck poker opponent.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[87] Hawking has additionally played himself in one episode of the series Rillit in Frost in 2012.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In 2004, the BBC produced a 90-minute TV film Hawking, starring Benedict Cumberbatch.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The film chronicles Hawking's adolescent years, falling ill and breakthrough.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking speaks synthesised in the song “Keep Talking'” by the band Pink Floyd (from The Division Bell album, 1994) [88], and likewise in the song “Talkin' Hawkin” (from The Endless River album, 2014).


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[89] The band Manic Street Preachers released a song titled “Me And Stephen Hawking” (on the Journal For Plague Lovers label) in 2009.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[90] Hawking has been in the process of screenwriting the film Beyond the Horizon, which was released in 2008.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[91] He also plays himself in the same film.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

[91] In 2014, the biographical film The Theory of Everything directed by James Marsh, based on Jane Hawking's memoir Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen, premiered.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

The film focuses on their relationship, Stephen's falling ill and success as a physicist.


Question: When is Cosmos: A Personal Voyage produced?

Stephen Hawking

In the film, Stephen is played by Eddie Redmayne and Jane by Felicity Jones.