Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[19] The 1917 Order Guards Battle for Ordinary Power begins The ouster of Emperor Nicholas II in the March 1917 Revolution brought down the ordinal power in Finland as well, with the capture of Governor-General Franz Albert Sey on 16 March.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Subsequently, large popular assemblies took place across the country calling for the Tsarist police force under his command to resign.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Senate tried to rein in citizens who acted self-empowered, but in the end the police lost their position altogether.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Responsibility for the ordinal power passed to the Russian military people, who in turn handed it over to organized labour.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[28] When the status of the organizational commissions and councils established by the local divisions of the SDP together with local authorities in the spring became established, the militia calling the ordinaries became established.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In other localities, the establishment of the militia took place in agreement between the working people and the bourgeoisie, but in places the bourgeois city councils attempted to restore the status of the deposed police department.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

By the end of March, a total of 18 towns entered the People's Militia System.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The bourgeoisie now feared that all organisational power would be hijacked by the working people, and thus the struggle to fill the power vacuum began until the autumn.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, the militia system was short lived, with Senator Allan Serlachius in charge of police issues issuing orders for it to be abolished as early as the end of May.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[28] Spring and Summer Strike Guards With the new situation that emerged after the February Revolution, the labour movement at the same time began to accelerate its own demands with strikes and job stoppages, organised across the country by up to several hundred.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Since municipal and city councils were still composed only of the wealthy bourgeoisie at the time, several localities also sought to redistribute municipal power by using municipal general strikes as a means of pressure.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Temporary picket vigils and order guards were set up to order the strikes.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were temporary formations that usually disintegrated while the strike ended.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Strike Guards were, as a rule, unarmed, and also did not have any longer-term plans aimed at revolution.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] However, during May, Ordinary Guards began to be organised within the Labour Movement, which in nature resembled the Red Guards disbanded in August 1906.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

On 12 May, a meeting of two hundred former Red Guards was held in Kaisaniemi, Helsinki, where plans were made to re-establish them.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The New Guards were considered to have the same function as in 1905—1906 of maintaining order, protecting citizens, and safeguarding freedom of speech and assembly for the labour movement.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, the Helsinki Parliament of Workers' Organisations, set up alongside the bourgeois Helsinki City Council, opposed the project.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the same time, other parts of Finland were also activated, for example in Pori the Social Democratic Local Organisation established a special workers' order and at a meeting of organized workers in Tampere on 16 May it was decided to create its own militia crew.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[30] The Workers' Order Guard emerges The Social Democratic Party had a negative view of the armed Guards until the autumn of 1917, when the situation changed with the establishment of patronage municipalities by the bourgeoisie.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] Social instability, with various industrial action and agricultural strikes, had escalated throughout the summer until the first violent confrontation occurred in Huittis 13.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

on July.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[31] The first incident that claimed a fatality occurred on 9 August, when the police shot dead a workman Simo Saarikko (b.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[32] As a result of the Huitic dairy skirmish and the food riots that followed in August, the bourgeoisie began to establish their own patronage municipalities, to which the labour movement responded by forming its own Guards of Order.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

On 3 September, the Helsinki Parliament of Workers' Organisations, which opposed the new Red Guards, decided to establish an organisation called the Social Democratic Party Organizers.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

It differed substantially from the temporary Strike Guards of the spring and summer, consequently in their place a direct continuation of the Red Guards which had been disbanded “for the time being” in 1906.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The rules of the organisation were approved by the party and operated under the control of labour associations as well as professional departments.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Ingredients were also active within the organisation which sought to form it into an armed revolutionary organisation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

These managed to acquire a small number of weapons from the Russian Bolsheviks.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] By mid-October, Guards had been established in 17 towns and 20 rural counties.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Their membership numbers at that stage have been estimated at around 7,000 to 8,000.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Most of the Guards were based in the industrial localities of Uusimaa, Turku and Pori and Vyborg counties.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The party's interest in the Guards increased further after parliamentary elections in October, when the left lost the majority position it had gained in them a year earlier.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Russian Provisional Government, with the help of the Finnish bourgeoisie, had dissolved the previous parliament at the turn of July—August as a result of the dispute over the proxy law.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The measure caused great bitterness in the labour movement and in many places were prepared to resort to foreign parliamentary means such as the Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

When the bourgeoisie established armed patronage municipalities at the same time, it was felt that the labour movement also needed to be counter-balanced by its own fighting organisation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Pressure also came from the field, as persistent inflation, unemployment and food shortages plaguing the country increased demands for direct action among working people and the poor as the parliamentary road looked exhausted.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] On 20 October, a declaration from the Finnish Professional Association (SAJ) was published in the workers' journals, which called on the party's local organizations as well as professional departments to set up ordinal guards for the anticipated major strike.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The intention was to create a nationwide guard capable of stopping the entire business life of the Grand Duchy.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the same time, preparations were also made for a revolution in Russia, the effects of which would also be reflected in Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Following the proclamation, the Guard Rules were quickly drafted and published in the press four days later.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The rules were based on the Red Guard Rules of 1905-06, but the name now became the Finnish Workers' Ordinance Guard because of the desire to get rid of the old reputation of the Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Guards were quickly established across the country, so that after three weeks there were already a total of 237.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition to towns and industrial localities, Ordinary Guards were also established in rural keepers.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Members in them numbered about 30,000 at the time.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] November General Strike On 1 November, a ten-point Me Demand programme, drawn up by the SDP party leadership, was published in the press, which envisaged, inter alia, the implementation of Finland's independence by agreement with the Russian government and the constituent convening the National Assembly.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, it contained social reforms demanded by the labour movement.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In Russia 7th—8.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Inspired by the November revolution, the SAJ and the SDP established the Central Workers' Revolutionary Council on the Russian model, which, in order to boost the We Demand programme, declared a general strike to begin on 14.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

on Nov.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] The purpose of the Central Council was that during the strike the power would be exercised by local strike committees, but in several localities it passed to the Labour Guards of Order.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They carried out, among other things, home inspections, in which the apartments of wealthy burghers searched for food to be confiscated, as well as weapons.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Patronage municipalities were generally poorly armed, so inspections were favoured voluntarily, but violent clashes foreshadowing civil war ensued in some localities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In Helsinki, the Order Guard received rifles from the Russian revolutionary matruuses, under the cover of which it captured a couple of hundred burghers and occupied the Läätytalo, and thus even prevented the Senate from working.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] Following the end of the strike, the SDP party leadership condemned the self-empowered actions of the Ordering Guards, and on the last day of November, a five-man “supreme commission” was elected as their new leadership body.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[33] At the same time Ali Aaltonen, who had previously served in the Russian Army as a lieutenant, was chosen as Commander-in-Chief of the Order Guard, when Adolf Taimi of Saint Petersburg refused the position.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Aaltonen even had war experience in the Russo-Japanese War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[34] The party then attempted to take control of the Guards once and for all in Tampere from 16—18.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

at the Assembly of Deputies of the Labour Guards on


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the vote, new rules were adopted stating that the Guards were under the absolute authority of the SDP and SAJ.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, the Guards in the major cities had already become so radicalised that they were no longer under the control of the party or the Central Profession Organisation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] Civil War The Finnish Red Guard is established after Finland gained independence, the confrontation between the working people and the bourgeoisie continued to escalate and as the parties became armed the situation developed towards violent confrontation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The first Red Guard came into existence on 6 January 1918 when the Helsinki Workers' Ordinary Guard was reorganized into the Helsinki Red Guard, and at the same time it declared itself independent of the party.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[35] Three days later, the Sipoo skirmish that claimed two casualties occurred when the Helsinki Red Guard attempted to carry out food and weapons seizures in Sipoo.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[36] In response to the actions of the Helsinki Red Guard, a bourgeois majority parliament gave the Senate a week later the mandate to create a strong ordinal power.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Ali Aaltonen, Commander-in-Chief of the Order Guards, had at the same time travelled to Soviet Russia to acquire armament for the Workers' Ordinary Guards, and eventually managed to obtain some 10,000 rifles and a dozen cannons.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

On January 16, the Senate allocated funding for the creation of a police force, and announced that they were not intended against Russian military personnel who were still in the country.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

This further stoked moods when the labour movement interpreted that the police had therefore been formed to defeat it.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] Over the next week, a number of violent incidents were seen across the country.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The most notable was 19—20.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

January The Pietinen factory skirmish took place in Vyborg, which some scientists consider even to be the real beginning of the Civil War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Other clashes included the Taavet skirmish in Luumäki and the Ruotsilan skirmish in Kiikka.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[37] [38] The party leadership of the SDP long opposed armed revolution, but was eventually forced to bend under pressure from the radical Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The decision was also influenced by the proclamation of the Senate on 25 January which made the patron municipalities the official Finnish army.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The labour movement saw this as an open declaration of war against the working class, and at a meeting the next day the Finnish Workers' Ordering Guard and the Helsinki Red Guard were merged into the Finnish Red Guard.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] The revolution kicks off after the Red Guard was set up late in the evening of 26 January, a red lantern was lit on the tower of the Helsinki Workers' House to signal the beginning of the revolution.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The next day, the bourgeois politicians still held a meeting at the Weathering House, but fled the scene after the Red Guards issued warrants for their arrest.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Subsequently, the occupation of administrative buildings and other buildings central to the functioning of the society began and on Monday 28 January the entire capital was practically held by the Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

On the same day, the Finnish People's Delegation was formed as a revolutionary government, with Kullervo Manner elected to head.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The bourgeois senate fled to Vaasa, where it soon resumed its activities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[29] [35] After the revolutionary declaration of the workers' organizations, the Red Guards initially took control of Vyborg, Kouvola, Lahti and Riihimäki in addition to Helsinki while sheltering the gun train arriving from St. Petersburg.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In Tampere, Turku, Pori and Kotka, the dominance of the reds was so great that the patron municipalities withdrew from the cities with favour, while the reds voluntarily left Ostrobothnia in the possession of the whites.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

When they were still taking control of Lapland, Kainuu, Savo and most of Karelia, the border between red and white Finland was formed by the end of February on the line Pori—Tampere—Lahti—Lappeenranta—Vyborg.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the start of the war, personnel changes were made immediately at the head of the Red Guards when Ali Aaltonen, known for his reckless alcohol use, was traded for Eero Haapalainen on 27 January.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Adolf Taimi, a St. Peter Finn, was appointed as his assistant.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[39] Red Guard Field Army The Finnish Red Guard warfare was derived from the General Staff in Smolna, Helsinki, under which front staffs were subordinated and the district and local staffs still under them.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Commander-in-Chief Eero Haapalainen was ousted from his post due to poor war success on 20 March, [40] when a trio of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta were chosen to replace him.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[41] The Chief of Staff was the American Finn August Wesley and the military adviser was Russian Colonel Mikhail Svetchnikov, who was responsible, among other things, for drawing up the Red War Plans.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[42] [43] After the Battle of Tampere, which ended in defeat, the Reds warleadership moved from Helsinki to Vyborg on 9 April, and at the same time Kullervo Manner became Commander-in-Chief, who also chaired the People's Delegation under the dictator's powers.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[44] Mainland and numerous other Reds leaders fled to Soviet Russia on 24—25.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

April, after which the Red Guard ripples fought for a week and a half without war-leadership until the last surrendered at Kymenlaakso 5.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

May.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[45] Assembling the local Red Guards into a field army capable of warfare did not begin until mid-February.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Like other armies, the Finnish Red Guard was organised into regiments and battalions, but in practice the largest operating units remained the companies.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were run according to the organizational principles of the labour movement, which meant that the units chose their chiefs themselves and were also able to dismiss them if they wished.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Leading figures from labour organisations, who generally had no military background whatsoever, were selected for the positions.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Red Guard was a volunteer-based pay army, with crews earning about 450 marks per month.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The war was generally fought like a normal working day.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The war effort commenced in the morning and after nightfall the troops returned again to their lodges.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Due to lack of communication connections, the front and general staffs did not always know the strength or location of the troops in service, which led to companies often deciding their movements according to their own assessments of the situation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[46] The strength of the Finnish Red Guard at the start of mobilization on 27 January was between 20,000 and 30,000 men, of whom only a few thousand were armed.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the same time, however, a gunload of 15,000 rifles was already arriving from St. Petersburg.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In the late stages of the war, the strength numbered about 75,000 men, according to the General Staff's own calculations.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The wartime total probably rose to over 100,000 men, of whom the front had a maximum of 30,000—40,000 men at the same time.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[35] [47] The largest individual Guards in addition to the Helsinki Red Guards were the Tampere and Vyborg Red Guards and the Finnish Red Guard in Saint Petersburg.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[48] In addition, some 2,600 female Guardsmen fought in the Red ranks, as well as 3,000 to 4,000 Russians.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[46] [49] Military action Red Guard warfare had been divided into “western”, “northern”, “middle” and “eastern front”, which today are generally spoken of according to the division used by whites as Satakunta, Häme, Savo and Karelian fronts.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

There were still a number of smaller regional frontal lobes within them.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[50] The attack phase launched by the Reds at the end of February was aimed at cutting off the cross-rail line from Vaasa to Sortavala, thus isolating the White forces in Ostrobothnia and Karelia from each other.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The first general attack began on 21 February and the second on 10 March, but the advance stalled quickly both times, with little to move the front line further north.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[51] The Red Guard offensive phase fell short, as the Whites began their own major offensive on the Häme front to recapture Tampere as early as 15 March.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Tampere was the most important city in terms of Red warfare, the loss of which on 6 April settled the war once and for all.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The German Baltic Division troops arriving in support of the Whites came ashore at Hanko on 3 April, and captured Helsinki on 13 April.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the same time, the escape of the Reds from Southwest Finland and Satakunta began.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

By the end of April, the Germans occupied the localities along the main line as far as Hämeenlinna and soon took control of Lahti as well, thus closing the route of the Reds fleeing to the east.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The last significant battle was fought at Vyborg, which surrendered on 29 April.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The remaining Red Guards surrendered their weapons to the Germans at Ahvenkoski, Kymenlaakso, on 5 May, and the Red Guard war was over.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[52] Terror The Civil War also included terror by both sides, referring to executions carried out outside of actual combat activities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Red Terror is thought to have begun as early as the autumn 1917 general strike, when 25 people counted as white were killed across the country.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

22 of these took place in Helsinki or elsewhere in the Uusimaa County region.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In other skirmishes during the strike, five whites and at least two red were killed.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

A further 15 people were killed in the period between the general strike and the outbreak of the civil war.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the war started, red terror was concentrated in the counties of Uusimaa, Häme and Vyborg, so that at the beginning of the war it occurred most in Uusimaa and at the end again in Häme and Karelia.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[53] The leadership of the Reds was against terror, yet unable to control what the individual Red Guards were doing.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At the beginning of the war, some of the Red Guards chiefs thought intimidation with terror was even necessary, but usually caused by the Reds” personal resentment against the wealthy bourgeoisie.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In the late stages of the war, it was also accompanied by bitterness caused by defeat.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition to whites, terror also targeted their minions or representatives of working people suspected of being spies.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The total number of people killed during the Red Terror was about 1,650.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Executions were usually carried out by some local command, but it is normally impossible to ascertain the execution orders who were in ultimate charge.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[53] White terror began immediately upon the start of the war, where captured Red Guards and Red backed civilians deemed dangerous were executed on varying grounds.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, the actual terror wave did not kick in until February 25, when the White Commander-in-Chief General C.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

G.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

E. Mannerheim issued the so-called Let's Shoot on the Spot Declaration.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

With it, white troops had broad powers to carry out executions at their own discretion, which in practice meant that surrendered Red Guards were shot immediately after the battle without trial.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Terror also included the purge of white-occupied areas of Red sympathizers, which were generally considered to be, for example, all active in the labour movement, whether they had participated in armed activities or otherwise supported the Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

White terror was also accompanied by national fervor, leading to extensive executions of Russians in Tampere, Vyborg and Joensuu.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The most widespread white terror ended in mid-May, when Mannerheim finally outlawed death sentences imposed by field rights, but executions were still carried out sporadically over several months.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In total, more than 8,300 men and women were killed in white terror.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[54] Losses Red Guard front losses totaled about 5,700 fallen, of which female Guardsmen numbered 130.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, a large proportion are those executed immediately after the surrender, so the true number of those fallen in a battle situation is not clear.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[55] [56] The highest number of dead came on the Häme front, where about 1,900 Reds were killed in the fighting, around 1,000 on the Karelian front, 600 in Savo and 500 in Satakunta.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Some 1,500 Reds were downed or executed in the fighting against the Germans.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, just under 200 were killed in clashes north of the front line.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[45] The number of wounded has been estimated at 10,000—12,000.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[57] Counting the victims of white terror as well as those killed in prison camps, the total losses of the Reds are approximately 26,000 persons, including about 880 women.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition to the Red Guards who carried the gun, the chapter also includes other supporters of Reds or those counted red by whites.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[45] [56] Swedish Red Guards died in fighting 1,200 and later at least 400 perished in prison camps.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[58] Hero Funeral Fallen Red Guards were often buried in mass graves near battle sites, but the deceased were also transported to their native localities where solemn hero funerals were held.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

For example, in Helsinki they were held in Mäntymäki, Tampere in Pyyniki and Vyborg in Papulanmäki.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[59] [60] Hero funerals were also held in other major cities, as well as in some rural localities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the end of the war, whites opened most of the graves and moved the deceased by discriminating to the located large mass graves.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the fighting, those executed were usually buried in unmarked mass graves, of which no information was given to relatives.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[61] Only some of the mass graves are today in their original sites, as deceased people have been moved to comrade graves in churchyards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[62] After the Civil War Prison camps and pardons Since the Battle of Tampere, which ended in early April, tens of thousands of surrendered Red Guards remained in the hands of the Whites, whose execution was no longer possible.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They began to be placed in prison camps, which by the end of the war had more than 80,000 Reds.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[63] In addition, in the final phase of the war, tens of thousands of Red refugees sought east from western and southern Finland, thought to have been on the move up to 100,000.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition to Red Guard fighters, other Reds supporters, as well as members of their families, were included.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the Battle of Lahti, which ended on 30 April, around 30,000 Red refugees remained in the hands of Whites and Germans, 22,000 of whom were placed in a short-term concentration camp known as Fellman's Field.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Most of the women and children were soon released, and the men were transferred to prison camps across southern Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[64] The largest prison camps were the prison camps in Hämeenlinna, Hennala, Tampere, Suomenlinna, Tammisaari and Riihimäki, some of which even held more than 10,000 prisoners.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Conditions were very poor, due to which, by September 1918, about 12,000 prisoners were dying from starvation, pestilence or executions in the camps.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[63] Red prisoners were allowed on parole from mid-September 1918, when the prison camps passed from the POW to the Correctional Board, which served as civil authorities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Pressure from Western powers was also to blame for the demolition of the prison camps.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After the turn of the year, there were only 6,100 prisoners, and in 1921, when civil rights were restored to 40,000 former Red Guards, there were only about 100 left.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The last 50 Red prisoners were released in 1927.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[65] Some 13,000 [66] Red Guards in Soviet Russia of the Red Refugees attempting to the East eventually managed to escape to Soviet Karelia or St. Petersburg, where some 6,000 Reds arrived.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Refugees were initially received by the Finnish Red Guard of Saint Petersburg, until after its abolition on 6 May, a special committee headed by Yrjö Sirola was set up to manage the affairs of refugees.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

When conditions in the city plagued by food shortages were very poor, about 3,000 refugees were resettled since the turn of April—May in the Bui refugee camp set up northeast of Moscow in Kostroma Governorate.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, it was quickly drained already during the summer, when refugees established settlements in the Urals and Siberia.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[67] In July, family members of Red Guards were returned to Finland by two trains.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[68] A company that fought in the Russian Civil War was also formed out of Red Guards in the Buj camp.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[69] In Saint Petersburg, former Red Guards joined the Red Army and were also involved in the activities of the Communist Party of Finland, which was founded in Moscow in August 1918.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In 1918—1922, Red Guards participated in the battles of the Russian Civil War across the country and some also fought against Finnish whites who attacked East Karelia in tribal wars.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[70] In June 1918, the so-called Muurmann Legion was formed out of the Red Guards fighting in Karelia in Viena, acting under the British forces involved in the Northern Russian Intervention initiated by the Circum-Powers.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The unit was established by V


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

With the permission of I. Lenin, on condition that it not be used against the Bolsheviks.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The purpose of the Muurmann Legion was thus to repel a potentially threatening attack by the German and Finnish armies of the Allied forces, but it was eventually forced into only one small battle and was dissolved by the summer of 1919.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[69] According to an estimate by Toivo Antikainen, some 2,000 Red Guards who fled to Soviet Russia fell in fighting or died from other causes during the war effort during the Russian Civil War, but only the identity of less than 500 is known.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[70] In November 1918, the St. Petersburg International Red Officers School began operation, from its courses dozens of former Red Guards graduates.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[69] Several of them subsequently created long careers in the Soviet Red Army.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The most illustrious Finnish Red Officers were Akseli Anttila, Eyolf Mattsson, Eemeli Toikka and Toivo Tommola, all of whom were former Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Eino Rahja, who also briefly served as Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Red Guard, rose to the rank of Army Commander of the Lieutenant-General.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[71] The most famous of the female Guardsmen who fled to Russia was Toini Mäkelä, who led a women's company fighting against the Finns in East Karelia.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[72] In August 1920, the so-called Kuusinen Club killings took place in Saint Petersburg, where Tuomas W. Hyrskymurto and Jukka Rahja, who held high positions in the Red Guard organisation, were killed during the civil war.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Later, at the end of the 1930s, a large number of Finnish Red officers were executed in connection with Stalin's persecutions.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Toivo Little, who survived, thinks that the Red Guards who remained in Soviet Russia would have once been worth returning to Finland because, according to him, “the decapitation of Mannerheim was no worse than Stalin's.” [73] The Red Guards who fled to Sweden besides Soviet Russia. Red Guards fled to Sweden, where, in the early stages of the civil war, several hundred Reds moved from White-dominated territory.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They journeyed to Sweden over the Kaarku or Tornion River.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The attitude on the part of the authorities was initially negative because the Revolutionary Red Guards were considered dangerous to social peace.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

There had already been unrest and rioting in northern Sweden, which was hit by food shortages.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

When information about the reality of the war in Finland hurried all the way to Sweden, the authorities withdrew the ban on entering the country later in the spring.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Nonetheless, border controls were tightened to prevent the entry of “unsuitable Finnish elements”.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Counting the members of the People's Delegation who sought asylum in Sweden after the end of the war, a total of about 700 Reds fled to the country.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[74] Furthermore, a smaller number of Red Guards fled to Ruija on the Norwegian side.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[75] In the autumn of 1918, Red Guards who fled to Sweden established a secret detachment called the Swedish Battalion of the Finnish Red Guard.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The intention was to form four companies of 125 men who, after military training, would take part in the revolution struggle in northern Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The battalion had time to train in northern Sweden and the Norwegian fells before its organisation was exposed by Swedish security officials during 1920.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

A total of about 200 men joined the battalion commanded by Jussi Railo.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[76] [77] The Red Guards of Northern Finland in Soviet Russia founded a special military organization in October—November 1918, which began to promote revolutionary activities in Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[78] The underground organization's military activities were concentrated in Lapland, where most of the Red Guards had fled to Sweden, Norway or Soviet Russia, and thus avoided punitive actions by whites.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were still ready to continue the revolution that had remained in southern Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, there was solid support for the labor movement and the left among the population of the province, which had often been further reinforced in some places by Civil War experience with whites.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The activities of the military organization initially aimed at starting the revolution with the help of the Red Guards in Lapland and northern Sweden, and later, from 1921 onwards, to establish an underground military organization under Comintern instruction.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[79] Lapland contacts were managed both from St. Petersburg through the Karelian Red Guards in Viena and from northern Sweden, where instructions came from former members of the People's Delegation in Stockholm.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Networks were established in the sparsely populated province, stretching from northern Sweden across Lapland to Karelia in Viena, as well as through Norway all the way to Murmansk.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition to the Red Refugees and the Reds of Lapland, the liaison men were sympathetic to them, such as reindeer and forestry workers and traders, who were naturally able to move around the frontier areas for their profession.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The network also smuggled underground printed matter as well as weapons and ammunition into Finland.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, the front men were tasked with observing border patrols and local patrons.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The operation was led by Aleksi Tuorila, a graduate of the St. Petersburg Red Officer School from Luleå, who grew up in Rovaniemi and Kemijärvi.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[80] Three war plans were made for armed operations in northern Finland, none of which were implemented.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

According to the first plan drawn up by Jussi Railio, armed struggle was supposed to start as early as 15 February 1919.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, it was completely unrealistic, as by the time there would have been no way to organise the troops and their armament.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The second plan, drawn up by Yrjö Karppanen, was to be implemented at the turn of July—August 1919.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Its aim was to launch a revolution in northern Finland with the support of the Swedish Battalion of the Finnish Red Guard, but eventually the intention was abandoned due to, among other things, the unfavourable development of the German and Hungarian revolutions and the changing military situation in the Muurmann region.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Third War Plan, completed at the end of 1919, was no longer intended to start a revolution in Finland; instead, a Swedish battalion would be sent to the Muurmann region to fight against British forces as well as the Russian White Army along with the Bolsheviks.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Swedish Battalion as well as Muurmann's Legion would also have jointly supported Edvard Gylling's plan for the establishment of the Karelian Commune and the Scandinavian Revolution.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, the war plan lost its relevance when the British left in the winter of 1920 and Gylling founded the Karelian Working People's Commune in May.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[81] The Red Guards began to be established since 1920, at least in Kemi, Rovaniemi, Sodankylä, Kemijärvi and Kuolajärvi.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Particularly active was the keeper of Kuolajärvi, known for his leftism, where more Guards were established in the villages of Kotala, Saijala and Tuutijärvi, among others.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Red Guards' activities were led by the Oulu Military Committee, whose chief was Leo Mäkelin, the Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

There is no precise information on the numbers of Red Guards, but several dozen persons were involved in the operation at Kola Lake, for example, although not all of whom were armed Guards, and the Red Guards at Kem included 20 men.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[80] In February 1922, a small-scale armed revolt of forestry workers called the Fat Rebellion took place in the area between Kuolajärvi and Savukoski, which ultimately remained the only rebellion plan of the SKP military organisation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Due to the settled situation in Soviet-Russia, the armed action eventually did not arouse much enthusiasm; instead, the Red Guards faded rapidly after the spring of 1922.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[80] Later decades Social status Germany's defeat in World War I also meant the end of the German trend in Finnish foreign policy, which mitigated the social rejection and even outright rejection of the Red Guards and other Reds persecution.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

This made possible the mass amnesties of the Reds, which began in 1919, as well as the restoration of civil rights, and at the same time the Social Democrats were also immediately involved in political activities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[82] Although the SDP emerged as a larger party already in the parliamentary elections of 1919 and as the Prime Minister Party in 1926, the division between white and red Finland remained in society for a long time.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

A “national defragmentation” between different social classes began to be talked about as early as the early 1920s, but in practice it began to materialise only after the right-wing radicalist phase at the end of the following decade with the growing threat of war and eventually the Winter War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[83] From former Red Guards, ministers Emil Skog, Valdemar Liljeström and Viljo Rantala emerged as prominent social influences.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, numerous Red Guard veterans served as MPs.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The Red Guards maimed in the war did not initially receive any compensation from the authorities, but had to be on the aid of poor aid and the support of their aid organisations until the end of the Winter War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

It was only afterwards that they were granted a so-called extra pension, and finally in 1948 the Red-Valids also became eligible for statutory compensation with the new War Injury Act.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, they were still granted one-time compensation by the state in 1961.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[84] Other major improvements, in turn, were the pension reforms of 1957 and 1969, when the widows of the Red Guards became covered by folk and survivor pensions.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In 1973, the State Council decided to pay compensation to those in prison camps.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Approximately 11,000 applications were submitted.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[85] The invitation to military service of men belonging to the Red Guards in the Winter and Continuation War was prohibited by the Conscription Act 1922.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, according to the memoirs of Minister Juho Niukkoen, a delegation assembled from former Red Guards chiefs proposed in October 1939 to Interior Minister Urho Kekkonen to create a troop detachment from the old Red Guards, with Major U.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

V. Rauanheimo.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The government welcomed the issue, after which Rauanheimo began planning to assemble it together with the chairman of SAK E.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

A.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Vuoren, SDP Party Secretary Aleksi Aaltonen and General Aarne Sihvo.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, preparations were interrupted by the start of the war until it became re-instituted in January 1940 at the initiative of MP Martti Peltonen, who was also a former Red Guardsman.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Commander-in-Chief C.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

G.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

E. Mannerheim approved the motion, but in the end it did not materialize because it was no longer possible to take more trainables at Army training centers in February.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[86] Subsequently, the SDP and the patronage municipalities entered into an agreement that allowed former Red Guards and other members of the labour movement to join patronage municipalities.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[86] Former Red Guards were also eligible for the Continuation War which broke out in the summer of 1941.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Among them was also Arvid Janhunen, who was awarded with the Mannerheim Cross.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[87] In addition, the Winter and Continuation Wars involved a large number of sons of former Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[88] Veteran and Traditional Organizations White Veterans of the Civil War established their own veterans' organizations immediately after the end of the war, but for Red Guards it became possible only after the Winter War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In August 1940, a veteran organisation of leftist frontmen who participated in the Winter War was founded in Tampere, whose activities were later joined by Red Guard veterans.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, it was already disbanded by the authorities during November and December 1940.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[89] As the political situation changed after the end of the Continuation War, the left-wing frontmen were founded by the Finnish Union of Comrades in August 1944.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

It was also joined by former Red Guards who in May 1947 established their own commission inside the organisation.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Its status, in turn, was formalised in 1952, when the Central Organisation of Former Red Guards (EPK) was born for Red Guards.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The association ceased operations in 1980.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[90] The Former Red Guards Association, which separated from the EBA in 1953, continued until 1984.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[91] The Red Guard invalids had also tried to organise themselves as early as the end of the 1920s, but they were unable to start their activities, and the last organisation was dissolved by court order in the spring of 1932.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In January 1945, the Association of Red Invalids was founded in Helsinki, which after a year expanded nationwide and operated since 1948 under the name Red Valiids of the Year 1918.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The association ceased operations in 1986.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[84] In 2010, the Finnish Workers' Organisation Guard Traditional Association was established in Tampere, whose mission is to cherish the memory of the Red Guard.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[92] Research literature on the Red Guards began to appear immediately after the end of the Civil War.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were initially commemorative albums released by local labour associations, containing the personal details and photographs of a member killed in the war mostly.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In 1925, Mikhail Svetšnikov's work Revolution and Civil War in Finland appeared, which was a general representation of Red Warfare, but the first book on Red Guards was Alex Halonen's 1928 Finnish class war published in North America.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

It contained, in addition to the writings of figures belonging to the Red Guards, a wealth of reminiscences of Red Guards. A year later, the Red Guard front, supplied by Jukka Lehtosaari, appeared in the Soviet Union.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Until the late 1930s, these works represented politically coloured class war literature until the first critical works appeared.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were represented by the Finnish Red Guard (1938) written by Emil Saarinen under the pseudonym “Arvid Luhtakanta” and Jalmari Parika's memoir Last taisto (1938).


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[93] The actual history study represented the interpretation of white people until Juhani Paasivirta published in 1957 the work Finland in 1918.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

It used the term “Civil War” instead of the “War of Independence” for the first time, and the piece also presented right-leaning estimates of the losses suffered by the Reds for the first time.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In the late 1960s Jaakko Paavolainen published his research on civil war terror and prison camps.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[93] Eventually, in 1967, the Ministry of Education established the Red Guard History Committee, which became tasked with producing an independent account of the history of the Red Guards and the People's Mission.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Professor L.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

A committee headed by A. Puntila published four works in the 1980s, including Jussi T. Lappalainen's two-volume Red Guard War (1981) and Marja-Leena Salkola's dissertation on the genesis and development of the Workers' Guards into the Red Guard (1985).


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[94] However, more detailed research began only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, [93] when Heikki Ylikanka's 1993 edition of Tie to Tampere was the lead.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

After him, the Civil War and the Red Guards have been studied by numerous historians of the younger generation, including Marko Tikka, Aapo Roselius, Tuomas Hoppu and Teemu Middleweight.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[95] For example, Aapo Roselius published a study in 2006 funded by the Prime Minister's Office on frontal losses in the Civil War, which he showed as much as 65% higher than previously thought for reds.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[96] Tuomas Hoppu, on the other hand, published the first extensive study of the Red Female Guards in 2017.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[97] In 1998—2003, the Finnish War Slayings 1914—1922 project, launched on the initiative of Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen, was carried out with the task of investigating those killed in the wars of 1914—1922.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

As a result, a name file of some 40,000 people killed in war conditions was compiled, which was also posted on the internet in 2001.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[98] It was the first time that any attempt was made to explain the names of all the victims in the red.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[93] Also, Aapo Roselius' research published in 2006 is based on material compiled in connection with the project.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[96] Mass graves and memorials After the end of the war, congregations often did not agree to bury bodies that had ended up with relatives on consecrated ground, but were lowered outside the cemetery fences.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[61] Nor did a large number of priests agree to bless the deceased.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Gathering at graves, taking flowers or erecting tombstones was initially entirely forbidden.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[61] Later, the families of the fallen, as well as labour organisations, erected monuments, which were usually wooden crosses or simple memorial stones.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, graves were demarcated by various fencing.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[99] [100] Monuments, however, were often vandalized by whites or their supporters, might be toppled or even blown up.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[101] [102] In Varkaus, for example, a memorial stone erected by the local workers' association was stolen and submerged in the lake.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

In addition, landowners, parishes and authorities objected in many places to the monuments.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[103] Church councils could prohibit their erection and the police disposed of the already existing ones, as was the case in Hämeenlinna, for example.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[104] Tomb monuments did not become practically permitted until 1940, when Marshal C.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

G.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

E. Mannerheim issued an order for the Memorial Day of the Fallen to be celebrated in honor of the fallen of the Winter War as well as the fallen from both sides of the Civil War


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Both sides in the Civil War were named “fallen for their convictions”, but in practice the term was just attached to the Reds.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[105] More broadly, however, grave monuments began to be erected only after the political situation in the country changed after World War II.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

With the end of the Continuation War, 117 Reds memorials were unveiled across the country by the mid-1950s.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

They were erected mostly on mass graves and execution sites.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[106] [107] Furthermore, mass graves outside the cemeteries began at that time to be annexed to the Blessed Land, and at the same time the relocation of the deceased elsewhere to comrade graves.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[61] However, some of the relatives opposed the reburial of the deceased, since the old burial sites had already been sacred to them.


Question: What is meant by the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[105] Also, the church began blessing red mass graves generally only after the Winter War.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

During the Continuation War, a nationwide project was launched to ecclesiastical blessing of red burial sites.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[108] Nonetheless, blessing ceremonies have been held until recent years, such as in Huittis in 2008, when Bishop Kari Mäkinen blessed 241 red deceased.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[109] The largest mass grave of reds is located in Dragsvik, Tammisaari, where more than 3,000 reds who died in Tammisaari prison camp are buried.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[110] There are 1,500 to 3,000 buried in the large mass grave of Ahvenisto Cemetery in Hämeenlinna, [104] about 2,750 [111] in Kalevankangas in Tampere and more than 1,300 reds in Santahamina, Helsinki.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[112] There are large mass graves during the battle, among others, in what is now Russia, where up to 1,200 Reds and Russians fallen during the Battle of Raudu were buried.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[113] In addition to mass graves, there are numerous single graves across the country where the identity of the deceased resting is often unknown.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[104] There are also grave sites whose entry into the civil war is not fully assured.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

One such grave of four Red Guards came to light in connection with a homicide investigation from the Hikikikä village of Hausjärvi in the summer of 2017.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[114] [115] Similar forgotten graves may be dozens more in the forests of southern Finland.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Forest graves have been mapped, among others, at Hauho, where the remains of over forty deceased people were moved to a comrade grave in the early 1980s.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

However, establishing the identity of the deceased is almost impossible today.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[116] The Crescendo, a national monument to the Reds, is located at Helsinki Zoo.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Sculptor Taisto Martiskaisinen's sculpture was originally supposed to be a monument to the Revolution and the Red Guards, but it was only when it was made dedicated to the memory of all the red victims of the war that government power was brought behind the monument, as well as sufficiently wide civil circles that enabled the implementation of .


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[117] The sculpture was unveiled at solemn expenditure in August 1970, when thousands of Red Guard veterans were also present.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[118] Other well-known reds memorials include sculpture by sculptor Jussi Hietanen at Kalevankankka mass grave in Tampere, [119] Erkki Kannosto's Red Prisoners Memorial in Lahti unveiled in 1978, 1988 unveiled in Tammisaari mass grave [110] and Marja Kanervo's 2004 environmental artwork commemorating the Suomenlinna prison camp.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[120] A monument to the Finnish Red Guards erected during Soviet times in 1961 is located in Vyborg.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

At least 600 Red Guards and Russians executed after the Battle of Vyborg are buried at the site.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[121] Monuments to reds, however, tend to be simple stone pases carved by unknown authors, often inscribed with the names of the dead reds of each locality.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

The traditions of labour organisations still include visits to comrades' graves especially at May Day, but candles and remembrance wreaths are also customary to be taken on Independence Day, Christmas and the anniversary of the start of the civil war.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[122] [123] In 2005, the Tampere-based Workers' Museum Werstas opened an online service where information on more than 250 monuments to red people from all over Finland has been collected.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[61] A new updated version of the site was introduced in September 2017.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[104] New monuments are also still being erected.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

For example, Pori's reds are due to have their own monument in Keski-Pori Church Park in 2018.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[124] Like the national monument in Helsinki, it becomes a monument to all reds.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[125] Another ongoing project is in Raahe, where a memorial to Red Guards transferred from the Tampere region and executed is planned.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

[126] Sources Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Apunen, Osmo| title = History of Independent Finland 1.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

From border country to republic| location = Helsinki| publisher = Weilin+Göös| year = 1991| isbn = 951-35515-7-1}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Kujala, Antti| title = Birth of Confrontation Society: Autumn 1905 Grand Strike in Helsinki and Rest of Finland| location = Helsinki| publisher = Society for Labour History and Tradition| year = 2016| isbn = 978-952-59764-9-6| format = [online version] (PDF)}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Salkola, Marja-Leena| title = Birth and Development of the Workers' Guards as Red Guards 1917—18 before the Civil War.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Part 1| location = Helsinki| publisher = Ministry of Education | year = 1985| isbn = 951-85973-9-1}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Soikkanen, Hannu| title = Entry of Socialism in Finland: until the first elections to a unicameral parliament | location = Porvoo; Helsinki | publisher = WSOY| year = 1961| format = [online version] (PDF)}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Ed.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Halonen Alex| title = Finnish Class War| publisher = American Finland. Sos.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Publisher Union| year = 1928}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Roos, Sigurd| title = Finnish National Strike.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

I Helsinki| location = Helsinki| publisher = Alex F. Lindberg| year = 1907}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = ed.


Question: What is the meaning of the generic term 'Red Guard'?

Red Guard

Matti Klinge| title = National Biography of Finland 6. part| location = Helsinki| publisher = Society of Finnish Literature| year = 2005}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| title = From You: Tenth Anniversary Memoria| location = Hämeenlinna| publisher = Hämeenland| year = 1928}} References On Topic Elsewhere * Category:Key Articles of Screening


Question: How many states does India have?

States and territories of India

India is divided into 29 states and seven federal territories, which include the Delhi Capital Region [1].


Question: How many states does India have?

States and territories of India

Indian States Indian Territories Sources References *


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Scientific revolution (also revolution in science or natural sciences) is a designation used in the history of science for advances in the natural sciences that took place between about the years 1500—1700.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The time was characterized by the use of experimental methods to acquire knowledge.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Efforts were made to describe the phenomena of nature as accurately as possible by mathematical means.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The scientific revolution thus saw the abandonment of the position of authority attained by Aristotle and other authors of antiquity before then and moved to using those basic methods which are still used in research.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

With the development of rational thought and detachment from the Church, the Church's position as an authority on science also disappeared.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

There was a tension between the science that critiques religious texts and the science that is based on religious texts, which has not yet disappeared.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Geographically, the events of the time are set in Europe, and in the social hierarchy the events concerned an elite made up of scholars; achievements for the people as a whole came largely only with the Industrial Revolution.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The changes and legacy of the scientific revolution are so central that it is said to have given rise to the modern model of science.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Equally, the scientific revolution has been seen as a stage in the liberation of Western thought along the lines of the Reformation and Renaissance.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[1] With the revolution, scientific circles were organised into communities dedicated to the development of science, the most illustrious of which are the British Royal Society and the French Académie des sciences.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Among the greatest observations of the time were Copernicus' solar-centric worldview, Isaac Newton's fundamental laws of mechanics, and differential and integral calculus developed at the same time by him and Gottfried Leibniz.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

In astronomy about the period, the name Copernican Revolution is often used.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

After the Scientific Revolution, the era referred to as the Enlightenment period (18th century) was influenced in European history, with an emphasis on rational thought and criticism of prevailing conditions.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Thanks to the scientific revolution, the level of European science overtook the rest of the world.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The argument for the revolutionary development of science has been under constant debate.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Many historians of science take the view that science did not develop suddenly at the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age; rather, its development continued in a steady stream.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

A lot of people think science doesn't even develop revolutionarily.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The argument used by those questioning the event is known as the continuity thesis.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Milestones Below are listed the greatest achievements and inventions of various disciplines in chronological order during the scientific revolution with their inventors and their lifetime knowledge.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Nikolaus Copernicus (1473—1543) published “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” in 1543, in which he defended a solar-centric worldview.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Andreas Vesalius (1514—1564) published in 1543 the work De Humani Corporis Fabrica, which rejected Galenos' views of the human body.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Among other things, he found that blood circulation is caused by the pumping function of the heart.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

William Gilbert (1544—1603) studied magnetism and the Earth's magnetic field.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Tyko Brahe (1546—1601) made extensive and more precise observations of celestial bodies in the latter part of the 16th century, laying the groundwork for Kepler's work.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Francis Bacon (1561—1626) developed inductive reasoning, a progression from observations and experiments to theories.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

He made no significant achievements as a scientist, but he had a great influence on the philosophy of science of his time.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Galileo Galilei (1564—1642) developed the telescope and made several cataclysmic astronomical observations regarding, among others, the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, publishing them in 1610.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

He developed laws regarding falling bodies based on experiments analyzed mathematically.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Johannes Kepler (1571—1630) published the first two of his three planetary movements in 1609.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

William Harvey (1578—1657) illustrated the circulation with cuts and other experiments.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

René Descartes (1596—1650) developed deductive reasoning, publishing in 1637 the work A Presentation of Method.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Developed analytical geometry and studied momentum.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723) built microscopes and published his findings in 1660, which opened the way to microbiology.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Robert Boyle (1627—1691) experimented with an air pump and presented Boyle's law, used in thermodynamics, in 1662.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Isaac Newton (1642—1727) developed mathematical analysis, opening up new possibilities for the exploitation of mathematics for science.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

He developed the fundamental laws of mechanics and showed that gravity explained the elliptical trajectories of planets.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Background Science in the Middle Ages In the Early Middle Ages erudition had focused on monastic institutions where monks and nuns translated and studied texts from ancient times.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

An educational system had taken shape in the monasteries, where new monks and nuns were taught to be literate and writing skills.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Occasionally, outsiders could also enter monasteries, but this was not very common.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The need arose to establish their own educational institution for those unable to enter the monasteries.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

With the reforms adopted by Charles the Great, the educational system expanded so that a school institution had to be established within each monastery and cathedral for teaching priests.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Cathedral schools gained professional features, and masters who graduated from schools were granted teaching licences.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

At the beginning of the 10th century, the cathedral school was able to set up his own school and teach a wide range of uncultured townspeople.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Around this time — the so-called 12th-century Renaissance — a large number of ancient Greek texts were translated either directly from Greek or then from Arabic translations.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

For example, a number of Aristotle's works re-entered the consciousness of Europeans.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

It was on the works of Aristotle that the scholastic science that dominated the universities of Europe was built.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The Islamic world was influenced by a strong boom in scientific research.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Christians and Muslims were in close contact with each other in areas such as commerce, and present-day Spain was under Arab control.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[2] In the Middle Ages, a university institution arose in Europe, where scholars shared knowledge with students.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Nowadays speaking of medieval university means medieval studium generale</i>a.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The faculties of the Middle Ages were referred to as universitas.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[2] Since the 15th century, the University of the Middle Ages consisted of basically four faculties.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Previously, the university had mainly had one to three faculties.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[3] Everyone had to study philosophy until their master's degree.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The completion of a master's degree then made it possible to specialize in medicine, law, or theology.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Theology was the most prestigious, but at the same time the rarest faculty because the popes wanted to maintain strict control over priestly studies.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The excerpt loosened since the 15th century.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

European scholars gained knowledge and sought to understand nature mainly through humanities, and ideas developed by the rediscovered Aristotle during antiquity were used in understanding nature thanks to translations of Islamic and Byzantine scriptures.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The Bible also played an important part in teaching the events of the world around us.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The cornerstone of teaching law, on the other hand, was the Corpus Juris Civilis law collection, and the doctrines of medicine, along with Aristotle, leaned on the ideas of the Roman physician Galenos.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[4] Practical experiments were not practised at the university or in the Middle Ages, because there was a firm belief in the reliability of the scholastic method.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Believing in authority and unwillingness to take initiative is illustrated by a 17th-century scholar's utterance when asked his opinion on the sunspots detected by Galilei with the telescope: I have read through Aristotle's works twice and have not found a word about sunspots.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

There are no such things.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The fault is either in the telescope or in your eyes.” [5] Aristotle also set out precise methods of how nature should be studied.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Mathematics did not qualify for it, because in his view, nature must be described on the basis of the real causes of the phenomenon and mathematics therefore does not qualify because of its abstract nature.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Even disciplines such as optics and astronomy didn't qualify because they confused describing nature and geometric thinking with each other.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Thus, in the opinion of Aristotle, such sciences cannot achieve any knowledge of nature.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[4] Mathematics, such as arithmetics and geometry, yes, were part of the curricula of early European universities, but it was explained in detail that these were “inferior” methods compared to natural philosophy, which was therefore taught in philosophical and theological in faculties.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

European science was also paralysed by the Black Death and the Hundred Years' War.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[6] According to the diagram presented in the Book of Science and Technology in World History (p. 193), the number of European scientists had been in an increasing direction until the 1350s, but due to an epidemic that their numbers plummeted.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

It was not until a century later that the number of scientists surpassed the level of 1325—1350.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

In the Middle Ages, universities were by no means the only doctrinal centres.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Intellectual activity also took place in monasteries and, above all, at the courts of royalty or other high-ranking mesenates.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

In Italy, admission to the court of the Medici family was the dream come true of many scientists and artists.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Renaissance — Reasons for Revolution Humanism and traditions of natural philosophy The doctrinal atmosphere was dominated during the Renaissance by humanism, which emphasized anthropocentricity and disparaged the knowledge of the rest of nature.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The 15th-century humanists considered Francesco Petrarca, the first humanist, to reject the scholasticism he considered barbaric and pedantic.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

He wondered greatly about the benefits of understanding the finest qualities of nature, when our understanding of human beings was not at a high level either.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Petrarca considered the secrets of nature to be mysteries created by God, the study of which was not only futile but also a waste of time.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Salat just had to be humbly accepted.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[7] To Aristotle, deeply revered by scholastic philosophers, Petrarca was viewed with quite disdain, but Plato's depth persuaded him.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Within the humanist circle, Plato became Aristotle of the scholastics, but pages of Cicero's texts were also painstakingly translated.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Aristotle, however, was not forgotten.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

According to traditional historiography, Renaissance humanism and the scientific revolution had no connection because humanists were interested in such fields as rhetoric, dialectics, history, and ethics.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

At the same time, it was argued that humanists were not willing to learn natural sciences, mathematics, or other practical skills (artes mechanicae).


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

This perception is fading, and historians have drawn attention to the fact that in the 16th century humanists considered the science of their time to be well below that of ancient science.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

A flow arose that wanted to reach a similar level in different fields of science through the discovery of ancient writings or thanks to new interpretations.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[8] Even the influence of the nominalists of the Middle Ages should not be understated on the scientific revolution, for it was they who were early in shaping the concept of science.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Where the Aristotelian conception considered it important to possess knowledge and truth, the nominalists emphasized the search for truth in the form of experimental research, for example.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[9] According to traditional interpretation, the 1453 takeover of Constantinople played an important role for Renaissance humanism, as it prompted the Greek civilisation to move to Italy and bring with them old manuscripts.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

On the other hand, this view has been challenged by arguing that the takeover meant Western Europeans could no longer rely on Byzantium, which had been a haven of ancient literary sources, thereby axed the scholastic knowledge recovering from the 14th-century crisis for research.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[10] The scientific revolution was also led by the discovery of unknown sources of antiquity as a result of the search by humanists.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The rendering of these texts known gave rise to a variegated range of doctrines within Renaissance philosophy of nature.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

One of the most important was the skeptical movement spawned by texts of ancient skeptics.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Skeptics won over a considerable group of supporters with the dare and willingness to question the prevailing bones.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

According to their perspective, it was impossible to obtain certain information about the world with the help of the senses.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Other important traditions were Epicurolism and Platonism.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Book Printing Skills and the Discovery of America Along with the new interpretation of Humanism, the earliest and most fundamental causes include a printmaking based on metallic bulk letters invented by Johannes Gutenberg.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The invention was adopted surprisingly quickly across Europe and its invention was rewarding for humanists because, at the end of their search for diligent sources, the results could be printed into books.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Thanks to the printing of books, a lot of books were available for sale, and their price was cheap.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The reduction in price was also affected by the use of material such as paper.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

It was considerably cheaper than parchment obtained from cow or sheep skin.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

For example, it has been calculated that printing the Bible would have required the skins of about 170 cows.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[11] In the 15th century, a new type of ink was invented, which was ideally suited to printing.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The decline in book prices was tangibly reflected in the fact that readership could buy more books per year.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Some people accrued their own library's worth of reading.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The invention of the printer, therefore, allowed scholars to become more diverse acquainted with the subject when there were works by different authors at hand.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

On the other hand, the greater range made it difficult to find information.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[12] The importance of inventing a printer has often been overemphasized.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

In reality, the readership could only consist of scholars because the ordinary population could not afford to buy books.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Moreover, at that time, especially in the circle of ordinary folk, almost not everyone could read.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The new situation proved quite embarrassing for the Roman Catholic Church, as many ideas considered heretical gained new strength.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The Church did try to prevent the spread of “evil knowledge” by maintaining a list of banned books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum), but it did not work very effectively in all cases.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The world view was expanded by the great voyages of discovery launched at the same time as the art of printing, enabling knowledge of new previously unknown continents.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Christopher Columbus, when planning his voyage, had used Ptolemy's work on Geographia, the error of measurement contained in which caused Columbus to choose a western sea route to India.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Into India he did not reach, but found a “new continent” in which vibrant high cultures lived.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Europeans were disturbed by these new acquaintances, there was no mention of them in the Bible or other sources.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

At the same time, animal and botany received new material, creating a need for empirical research.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[13] Historian of science Reijer Hooykaas elevates discoveries as one of the most important lines of development, since the discovery of new areas clearly showed that ancient knowledge was incomplete and that further knowledge was obtained through his own experience.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[14] The discovery of new territories was a great shook for some, partly because the philosophers of antiquity were believed to have lost their reputation and partly because such a great discovery had been made by uncivilized sailors.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

[15] Change in the description of nature Experimentation and scientific knowledge One of the most essential ideas of the scientific revolution was the acquisition and certification of knowledge based on experimentation.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

A knowledge-theoretic school emphasizing empiricism emerged in the British Isles in the 17th century.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Its leading figures included John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume and Thomas Hobbes, as well as Francis Bacon.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

However, the history of the experimental nature of science runs deeper in history.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

In fact, the experimental method has its roots in the haunted hermetic based on the writings of ancient magicians such as Hermes Trismegistos, rediscovered in the Middle Ages, and in the Kabbalistic tradition that worked alongside it.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

The more scientific empiricism of the Middle Ages was represented by Merton College mathematicians Robert Grosseteste, Robert Bacon and Petrus Peregrinus, who influenced the 13th to 13th centuries.


Question: When was arithmetics started to be used?

Scientific revolution

Kabbalism and Hermetism strongly influenced Neo-Platonian and Pythagorean conception of science.