Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

As soon as it got out of port, the ship had moved to full speed with all four main planes pushing the ship forward.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

This machine order remained the same until the accident.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

By early evening, wind speeds were around 8—10 metres per second.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[13] When passing Osmussaari lighthouse, the ship was approximately on schedule.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The speed was about 19 knots (35km/h).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[14] Subsequently, conditions deteriorated rapidly without being exceptional in the Baltic Sea [15].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

When Estonia left coastal cover, the wind turned to the southwest and its speed increased to 15—20 metres per second.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The significant wave height was 3—4 metres.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The tilt of the ship increased and some of the passengers became seasick.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At about 0.25 a.m., the ship arrived at the pivot point of her route and resumed her journey northwest.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The speed was then 14 knots (26km/h).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Waves battered the ship's bow structures from the left, causing the pavement to turn out the fin stabilizers to equalize the passage.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[4] Breaking the bow visor During his regular inspection tour, the matrus Silver Linde heard a metallic bang from the bow area at the same time as the ship encountered a large wave.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Some of the passengers on the lower decks were already leaving their cabins towards the upper decks and rescue stations at this point.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Linde reported the bump to the second mate, who told him to find out what had caused the sound.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Linde stayed by the ramp to listen, and also checked the indicator lights on the ramp locking devices.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

He indicated that everything seemed normal.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Beginning at approximately 1:05am, over the next ten minutes, crew members in their cabins and several passengers heard several additional unusual metal bumps from the ship's hull [4].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

As Linde returned from his round after a change of watch, he saw Chief Arvo Andresson arrive at the bridge before him.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Shortly after this, he was ordered back down to the decks to find out what had caused the reported noises.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

However, due to crowding on the lower decks and the budding panic of the people, Linde failed to continue his journey all the way to the car deck.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Some of the passengers told him they saw water in the aisles.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At about 1:15 a.m., the metal from the bow visor locks gave way.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The visor tumbled forward and sank into the waves, also pulling the roadramp open with it, resulting in water entering the ship's car deck as the bow was running below the water level as the ship stamped.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[4] The free fluid surface caused by water entering the car deck caused the ship's stability to collapse, causing the ship to lose its ability to resist tilting transverse forces [16].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Too much tilt on the ro-ro ship (approximately 30° depending on the vessel) may cause the cargo attachments to break, displacement of the cargo and thus quickly capsize the vessel.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

When the bow visor broke, the ship quickly tilted well to the right, causing the ship's direction to the left and the speed reduced [17].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Panic and failure to evacuate Passengers began to scramble up the stairs and in many places a stampede ensued.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Several passengers were trapped in their cabins and had almost no chance of getting out in time.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

In public areas, game and drink vending machines and other bulk goods moved to the right edge of the ship crushing people [18].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

On the stairs, the railings were torn off by the weight of the people hanging on them [19].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At the dance restaurant on the sixth deck, people formed a chain to help each other onto the eighth deck, where the outside deck and lifeboats were located.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Only the fittest, mainly young and middle-aged men, survived to the outer deck.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Life jackets were spread all over the outside deck so that anyone coming on deck would get their vests on.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

As the ship tilted, more people climbed over the railings to the side of the ship.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The lifeboats could not be lowered due to the ship's large tilt.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

In addition, sea water from 10 to 11 degrees quickly enveloped the water.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Many suffer from underheat.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[6] As the situation became serious very quickly, there was no time to organise the evacuation of the vessel.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Time to evacuate would have been only about 10—20 minutes before the ship tilted so badly that it was almost impossible to get out.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

According to those rescued, the ship's crew did not attempt in any organized way to help people further up the ship's deck, and no operational instructions of any kind were issued through the ship's public address system.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Only at about 1:20am did a faint female voice sound “Häire, häire laeval is häire” () with some ambiguous instructions.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The alert came from the ship's information desk on the fifth deck.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Moments later, an alert and a lifeboat alert was issued for the crew.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

A rope ladder and ropes were lowered into the ship's aft staircase.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[20] The ship also issued a fire alarm directed to the crew with the symbols Mr. Skylight 1, Mr. Skylight 2.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[6] The distress call is sent out The ship's Estonian co-pilots Tormi Ainsalu and Andres Tammes sent the first Mayday message at 1:22 a.m. on Sea-VHF channel 16.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

A distress call was sent with the ship's emergency flow because the auxiliary and main planes had stopped at about 1:20 a.m. just before the distress call.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[21] The ship then suffered a power failure, and the emergency generator on the deck was powered only by the main items such as the bridge equipment and emergency lighting [22].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The first person trying to respond to the distress call was the Viking Linen M/S Mariella who travelled to Stockholm nearby.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[23] When Estonia called M/S Silja Europa, Mariella also heard Europa's response.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The second distress call was received by more than 14 ships.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The distress call reported that the ship has a bad tilt to the right side, more than 20—30 degrees.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

It is possible that the ship's tilt was much worse than reported.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Immediately after the distress call, all ships moving in the Baltic Sea set a course towards Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Esa Mäkelä, chief of Silja Europa, initially became the head of the accident site of the event (OSC, On Scene Commander).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

On their way towards Estonia, Mariella and Silja Europa reached out to Helsinki Radio and Turku Radio (the operator responsible for safety radio communications).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At 1:29 a.m., the last Mayday message was received from Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

On the last occasion with Silja Europa, Estonia announced her location.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The dramatic message ended with: “Really bad, really bad looks now here yes.” [24] The wind was blowing at an average of about 20 metres per second in the area [21].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Estonia sinks As Kallistuma increasingly increased, water began flooding the cabin decks.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

As the entry of water into the living quarters accelerated, the right flank of the ship was fully depressed underwater at about 1:30 a.m.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Even before its depressions below the surface, the ship's tilt was over 90 degrees and only the bow was no longer visible.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

A few of those who have been saved have reported walking in the area of the ship's bow on top of the bottom.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

One of them was Swede Mikael Õun, who took the last photographs from Estonia with his camera.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The purpose of Õun was not to take pictures, but to draw the attention of ships profane to the scene with a lightning light.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

However, photos taken by chance by Õun show Estonian Janno Aser sitting in two lifejackets wearing the bottom of the ship.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Shortly after the photo was taken, he fell into the sea but was saved.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At the time of the accident, Õun was on an aid trip to Estonia and also donated the money he received from his famous photographs to children at a children's home in Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[6] With the bow still visible, several people found the roadramp to be in a roughly closed position, but no bow visor could be seen.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The ship sank ever faster stern ahead, and waves washed the people out to sea from the top of the bottom.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Estonia disappeared from the radar of ships heading to the scene at 1:42 a.m., still returning to sight.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The last radar sighting was received at around 1:50 a.m. on Mariella, after which Estonia was finally lost from radar [25].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Rescuers arrive during the Estonia accident two dozen ships were moving in the Gulf of Finland.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

14 ships and coastal radio stations received the Estonian distress messages [26].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

All ships turned towards Estonia after receiving distress messages and word of the accident.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Due to a severe storm in the Gulf of Finland, the ships were unable to run full speed because it would have been a major safety risk.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Only a few ships coming from the west were able to travel at full speed towards Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Such were, among others, M/S Isabella (now.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

M/S Isabelle) and M/S Silja Symphony.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Those coming from the eastward direction, that is, the ships heading towards Sweden, Mariella and Silja Europa, were able to travel at an average speed of only 10 knots because of the wind from the southwest, that is, the waves hit directly on the bow of the ships.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

On the way towards the site of the crash in Estonia, the ships' masters discussed the seriousness of the situation and the fact that the lifeboats could not be lowered, which complicated the chances of people being rescued very much.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The first ship to arrive at the Estonia crash site was Mariella at 2:12 a.m.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Next arrived Silja Europa at 2.30am.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

As Silja Europa served as the lead vessel at the scene of the rescue, it drifted slightly sideways from other ships.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Within the next 20 minutes Isabella and Silja Symphony also arrived.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Isabella was ushered south of Mariella and next to Silja Symphony Europa.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The first rescue helicopter arrived at 3:05 a.m.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

3.20 GTS Finnjet arrived, followed by a number of other ships.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Life rafts were lowered from the ships to allow those on Estonian ferries to reach them.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Rescue slides were lowered from Isabella and Silja Symphony to help pull people onto the deck.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

It turned out to be a good idea.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The first survivors were raised to Mariella around 3 a.m.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Helicopters operated in the area for more than 15 hours and surface rescuers were able to rescue 104 people in them.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Mariella rescued 15 people from the water on her own ferries, Isabella 17 and Silja Europa one.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Twenty-one lives were brought to Silja Symphony, the same for Mariella.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Some of those brought on board were dead.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Rescuers who arrived at the scene: [27] M/S Mariella turned towards Estonia at 1.32am and arrived at 2.12 M/S Silja Europa turned towards Estonia at 1.40am and arrived at 2.30 M/S Silja Symphony turned towards Estonia at 1:50am and arrived at 2.40 M/S Isabella turned towards Estonia at 1:55am and arrived at 2:52am the GTS Finnjet turned towards Estonia at 1:33am and arrived at 3:20am.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Inquiry into the causes of the accident The Accident Investigation Branch opened an investigation into the accident immediately after the accident and the actual cause of the accident was revealed to be the failure of the bow visor to withstand the load caused by the impact of the waves, causing its locking devices to fail.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Crew members on the bridge also failed to reduce the ship's speed after receiving reports of metallic noises.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

A speedy reduction in speed at this point would likely have increased the chances of survival considerably.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

There was also no line of sight from the bridge to the bow visor.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[28] The Estonian shipyard in Papenburg was also accused of not having a separate watertight bulkhead built about five metres away behind the roadway ramp (which in Estonia served as a backward waterproof gate).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

This structure was first added to the ships for automobile decks during the Falklands War (1982).


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

These bulkheads were also built for passenger ferries even before Estonia was built, but for some reason it was not built in Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

This structure could have saved the ship.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

When the visor ripped while detaching the roadway ramp partially open, the water would not have been able to penetrate the ship's deck through a watertight bulkhead.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At the very least, it would have allowed more time to detect the visor missing.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The high casualty rate of the accident also contributed to the fact that a general lifeboat alert was issued only at the stage when the vessel had already tilted considerably and access from the cabins to the lifeboat decks was extremely difficult [29].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

In addition, the crew did not conduct almost any organised evacuation activities to rescue passengers [30].


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

There has been criticism that a distress call to other ships and authorities was also made too late.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

In 2009, Estonia's top Prosecutor General Margus Kurm expressed the hope that the Estonia wreck would be further thoroughly investigated.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Kurmi says a proper investigation of the wreckage is the only way to end speculation about the causes of the ship accident and ensure that no crime has occurred.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Kurm wondered in Postimees magazine why the first divers didn't go to the wreckage until two months after the accident.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

At the time, the wreck was only partially described.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Kurm, who headed the Estonian Government Commission of Inquiry into Estonia, considers it possible that the cause of the ship's sinking was a gap in the side of the ship.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Andrus Ansip, who was Prime Minister of Estonia at the time, rebuffed the proposal.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[31] Some of the passengers had heard sounds before the sinking, which they interpreted as coming from the bottom of the ship — as if something metal was scratching the bottom of the ship.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[6] Some passengers heard howling, squealing, squealing and scratching.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[6] Searches for the wreck began immediately on the day following the accident and was found by oblique sonar on 30 September 1994 a couple of kilometres away from the location given by Estonia in the mayday call.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

It lies at the bottom of the Baltic Sea at about 120 degrees tilted.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The bow is at a depth of about 85 metres and the stern at a depth of about 74 metres.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[32] The visor was found a mile and a half away, facing west, in the wreckage itself.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[33] Goods from the wreck have been found a few hundred metres west of the wreck.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[32] The bow visor was later lifted up for studies.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

It has been stored near Stockholm in a Swedish army storage area.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[34] At the time of discovery, the ship was in fairly good condition and there were almost no external signs of an accident, excluding damage to the bow.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The dives also made some progress to the interior of the ship to investigate the condition of the ship and retrieve the ship's navigation equipment and other research material.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

More than a hundred bodies were identified in the wreck by dives.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[35] More than 500 people are still missing elsewhere in the ship's furnaces.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Dives were particularly hampered by bulk and crushed cabin compartments.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Numerous locations on the ship, including the car deck, were not accessible.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

Diving there would have been too dangerous.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

[36] The wreck was later declared a burial place for the people who drowned there, although loved ones insist on lifting the bodies.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

In 1995, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Russia and Great Britain concluded an agreement that citizens of these countries should not operate in the ship's surroundings.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

The sinking of Estonia

The Treaty prohibits contracting countries from diving into a wreck, tampering with the wreck or its cargo, from taking anything from it or in the vicinity of the wreck, and in practice an improper approach to the site of the sinking is undesirable.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

The countries” coastguards have also, for example, sought to prevent investigations into the wreckage by a German-American diving team led by Jutta Rabe, although this is not outright forbidden to citizens of those countries.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

In this situation, the contracting countries have practically been left to monitor the activities of the research teams, in which case ships and helicopters from the contracting countries have been present.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

The grave site is guarded by the Finnish Border Guard Service and Swedish authorities.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

[37] Conspiracy theories relating to the scabies of the sinking of the Estonia have been put forward theories different from the final report of the Accident Investigation Commission.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

For example, Soviet weapons material that would have sunk the ship when it exploded has been suggested as alternative causes of sinking.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

The Russian mafia has also been suspected of deliberately sinking the ship with explosives.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

A few people who were part of the ship's crew have also been claimed to have disappeared after being rescued.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

In 2006, the Accident Investigation Branch issued a memorandum of responses to some of the above allegations.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

The claims have been proven to be incorrect, according to the Accident Investigation Centre.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Furthermore, the explosive theory has been proven wrong in investigations by the Finnish Central Criminal Police, which found no residue of explosives in the metal parts of the bow.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

The possible explosion was also not recorded on the equipment of the Porkkalanniemi measurement station of the Department of Seismology at the University of Helsinki or the Finnish maritime surveillance system.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

[38] See also Other major accidents in the Baltic Sea: The sinking of Wilhelm Gustloff on 29 January 1945 The Soviet passenger ship Josif Stalin sank on 3 December 1941 The tank ship Ilmarinen sank on 13 September 1941 The cargo ship M/S Jan Heweliusz sank on 14 January in 1993.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Sources Literature Citation error, replace with {{cite book| title = Final report on the investigation of the crash of a passenger car ferry in the Baltic Sea on 28 September 1994.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

MV Estonia| location = Helsinki| publisher = International Commission of Inquiry set by the governments of Estonia, Sweden and Finland, Oy Edita Ab| year = 2000| id = ISBN 951-836-033-2.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

ISBN 951-37-2951-6| format = [Final Report Web Version] (PDF) | accessdate = 8.4.2011}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Saari, Matti| title = Estonia 28.9.1994| location = Helsinki| publisher = Gummerus| year = 1995| id = ISBN 951-20-4690-3}} Literature Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Lobby, Jorma & Sugaro, Mikko | title = Estonia: It sinks every night| location = Helsinki| publisher = Polarleaves| year = 1995| id = ISBN 952-9762-10-0}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Ellermaa, Einar Pitsner, Inge| title = Estonian people: 20 years after the accident| others = Translated by Sanna Immanen| publisher = Publication Pilgrim| year = 2014| isbn = 978-9949-529-82-7}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Kopra, Ismo| title = Police tell: special print| number = Estonia| location = Helsinki| publisher = Nordic Police Book| year = 2004| id = ISBN 951-98801-3-5| pages = 7—28}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Kuosma, Tapio| title = Case Estonia| publisher = Livres “Belles-Lettres” | year = 2008| id = ISBN 978-978-52-99683-1-2}} Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Minkkinen, Tuula| title = M/S Estonia Haveri and Rescue Work: Rescue Workers' Experiences and Importance of Psychological Intervention| location = Tampere| publisher = Tampere University| year = 1999| id = ISBN 951-44-4565-1}} Nelson, Jack A. Flashes in the Night: The Sinking of the Estonia.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Citation error, replace with {{cite book| author = Samuelsson, Moa| title = Ringar på vattnet: Berättelser från Estoniakatfen| location = Stockholm| publisher = Printz| year = 2014| isbn = 978-91-87343-49-0}} On topic elsewhere Transclusion error: {{en} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Yle Living Archives.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Yle Living Archives.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

Aftenposten.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

style="background: #F99; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;” class="table-no"|No (in Swedish) Dagbladet.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia

style="background: #F99; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;” class="table-no"|No Helsingin Sanomat on 28 September 1994.


Question: What year did Estonia sink?

Sinking of Estonia


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle (; 384—322 BC)


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He is regarded, along with his teacher Plato, as one of the philosophers most influenced by Western thought.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[1] [2] Aristotle has been regarded as the father of all Western science and the founder of many individual disciplines.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He was the first to classify fields of human knowledge as their own fields of study, such as mathematics and biology.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Many of these classifications are still in use today.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[2] Aristotle's interests were very wide-ranging, and this is also reflected in his works dealing with many subjects.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[3] In the natural sciences, Aristotle studied subjects such as anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics, and zoology.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In philosophy, he wrote on topics such as aesthetics, economics, ethics, metaphysics, government, politics, psychology, rhetoric, and theology.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

His writings also touched on education, literature and poetry.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's works provided the basis for scholastic thinking in particular in the Middle Ages, both in the West and in the Arabic-speaking world.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The works were still used as university textbooks until the 17th century, the beginning of the New Age.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[4] At the same time, Aristotelian natural science and the conforming concept of reality dominated science for 2000 years until the so-called scientific revolution.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[5] Life Early life and studies at the Academy Aristotle was born in 384 BC.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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in Stageira, which belonged to the Ionian settlements of Khalkidike.


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His father Nikomakhos was a physician and friend of the Macedonian king Amyntas III, as well as the author of several natural science works.


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It has been believed that the doctor's act had been under the care of Aristotle's ancestors during the time of several Macedonian kings.


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His mother, Faistis, was of Khalkidikean ancestry.


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Aristotle was likely influenced by his father and was thus accustomed to looking at natural phenomena even before he began his extensive studies.


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The father died before Aristotle had reached the age of seventeen and was entrusted to the patronage of a certain Proxenos.


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In 367 BC, after turning seventeen, Aristotle moved to Athens to study at Plato's Academy.


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Plato was in Sicily at the time.


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After Plato's return to Athens in 365 BC.


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Aristotle became his pupil.


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[1] [2] [6] Aristotle was a pupil of Plato for about 20 years, until the age of 37, [7] and excelled as his most proficient pupil.


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However, there are different stories about the intervals between Plato and Aristotle, and they do not always flatter Aristotle.


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Clearly, there were at least major disagreements between them on many issues.


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Plato wanted to stick to his doctrine of ideas, while Aristotle was more interested in studying the facts and laws of nature.


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Plato preferred to hold back Aristotle than encourage him more.


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However, they were not openly broken between them; they still showed each other cordiality, longevity and agreement.


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This is also demonstrated by Aristotle's behaviour after Plato's death, as he continued to collaborate with Xenocrate and other Platonians, as well as references to Plato's doctrines in his writings.


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Legends denigrating Aristotle also originate from supporters of Isocrate, the Epicurans, and others of his enemies.


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[6] According to Aulus Gellius, Aristotle taught rhetoric during his last ten years of academia.


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Around this time he also wrote his first treatises on rhetoric.


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Aristotle was basically opposed to all the rhetoric of his own time before and of his own time.


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In particular, he wanted to distinguish himself from Isocrate, who was the most famous orator of that time.


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Aristotle wanted rhetoric to serve first and foremost the search for truth, while Isocrates cared primarily about style and wanted to know almost nothing about philosophy.


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While studying at the Academy, Aristotle maintained his connection with Macedonia.


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He once visited Athens as an envoy to the court of King Philip II and received a letter from the birth of the heir to the throne Alexander.


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[6] After Plato's death in 347 BC.


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The academy was inherited by Plato's nephew Speusippos and after him by Xenocrates.


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It has been thought that Plato felt that Aristotle was not dialectical enough to head the Academy but more of a lecturer type.


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Aristotle proceeded to the court of Hermia, the tyrant of Atarneus, who was based in Asia Minor, and married Pythias, who was Hermia's niece and adopted daughter.


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In 344 BC.


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Hermias was murdered, and Aristotle left with his family for Mytilene on Lesbos, where he conducted biological studies.


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Later, Aristotle erected a statue of Hermia in Delphi.


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[6] [8] With his wife Pythias, Aristotle had a daughter, also named Pythias.


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After the early death of his wife, greatly touched by Aristotle, he lived with his housekeeper, Herpyllis, a slave of his former wife.


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With this, Aristotle had a son, Nicomachus, to whom he therefore gave his father's name.


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[6] Aristotle and Alexander the Great In 342 BC.


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Aristotle travelled to the Macedonian capital, Pella, to the court of Philip II to teach, at his request, Alexander the heir to the throne, who later became Alexander the Great.


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Alexander was about 13 years old at the time.


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Plutarchus has written that Aristotle taught Alexander not only poetry, oratory skills, ethics and politics, but also a more profound philosophy.


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[6] It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's childhood friends.


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According to Plutarchus, they included, among others, Kassandros and Ptolemy.


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They may also have included Hephaestion and Harpalos.


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[9] When Alexander received the Macedonian crown at the age of 20, Aristotle practically acted as his unofficial adviser.


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There is evidence that Alexander benefited greatly from his connections with the great philosopher.


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Similarly, Aristotle gently used his influence on the young monarch to his advantage.


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He gained wide opportunities for obtaining literature and conducting scientific studies.


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Plutarchus and Diogenes Laertios also report that Philip had burned Aristotle's hometown of Stageira in the 340s, and Aristotle convinced Alexander to rebuild the city.


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[8] However, Bertrand Russell, among others, has denied that Aristotle and his teachings had any great influence on Alexander — he behaved brazenly and cruelly, far from the golden mean taught by Aristotle.


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Likewise, Alexander's expeditions of conquest seem to have had no effect, at least on Aristotle's politics, as this takes no account of the end of the city-states period and the emergence of empires.


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[10] Founder and Master of Lykeion When Alexander began his own war expeditions in Asia around the year 335 BCE, Aristotle returned to Athens.


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The city apparently invited him.


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Aristotle had likely hoped and expected to become head of the Academy after Speusippos.


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The choice of xenocracy was a definitive setback for him, after which he followed Plato's example and founded his own school of philosophers.


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Aristotle began to teach philosophy in the gymnastic hall handed over by the city, which was dedicated to Lyceios of Apollo and was located in the vicinity of this temple.


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From this the school received the name Lykeion.


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[6] The school of Aristotle was also referred to as the Peripatetic School.


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The denomination comes from the fact that Aristotle happily walked (in Greek, peripateo) and philosophized with his students in the pillared corridors of the school, instead of sitting, as philosophers had usually been customary.


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Aristotle soon gathered around him a large group of students from the whole Hellenic world, and the school soon rose in fame to the level of the Academy.


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Aristotle taught at Lykeion for thirteen years (335—323 BCE).


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He tended to teach by lecturing rather than conversing; he gave one lecture in the mornings and one in the afternoons.


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[6] [8] In this case, Aristotle also wrote most of his works.


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They show how well he used the resources provided by Alexander and how widely he engaged in studies in the world of natural phenomena.


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Aristotle was well versed in the teachings of all his predecessors, and he was capable of bringing together their thinking.


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Strabon has written that Aristotle was the first to assemble a large library.


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[11] According to Pliny the Elder, Alexander placed at Aristotle's disposal all the hunters, fishermen and birdmen of the Kingdom, as well as all overseers of royal forests, lakes and ranches.


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[12] Aristotle's achievements in animal doctrine make this narrative plausible.


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Athenaios, on the other hand, reports that Alexander donated 800 talents to the school, which would have been a considerable sum.


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[13] [14] Exile and death towards the end of Aristotle's life became tighter between him and Alexander.


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Aristotle had introduced to the king his kinsman Kallisthene, who, however, soon fell out of favour.


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Eventually Kallistheneen was suspected of committing a conspiracy against the king, and was fed to the lions.


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[8] Alexander never showed outright hostility towards his former teacher, but their heartfelt intervals were not the same.


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[6] In any case, Aristotle was linked in the minds of the Athenians to Alexander, and he was considered the representative of Macedonia.


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He had good relations with Antipatros, Viceroy of Macedonia, among others.


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When Alexander died, unrest broke out, and Aristotle fell out of favour with other Macedonians.


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But it was not easy to bring charges against him on political grounds alone.


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Eventually, Aristotle began to be accused, like Anaxagoras and Socrates, of being wicked, and the grounds were even lesser: according to an indictment written by the hierophant Eurymedon, he had written a certain type of hymn, the paian, to his apex Hermiah.


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However, the Paians were only allowed to write to Apollon.


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Also, some of Aristotle's teachings were used against him.


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[8] [6] [9] [15] As a result, Aristotle was forced to go into exile.


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According to several sources in antiquity, he would have said, referring to the fates of his predecessors, that he would not give the Athenians a third chance to break against philosophy, and fled before the trial.


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Aristotle moved the year 322 BCE.


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early to his rural residence Khalkis in Euboia.


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He died there still in early August of the same year at the age of about 63 years, broken by a long illness.


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Some accounts suggest he would have committed suicide either because of blasphemy charges or because he could not explain the tidal phenomenon, but neither is likely to be true.


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His body was transported to Stageira, and annual celebrations were held in his memory.


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[6] [16] Not much is known about Aristotle's person.


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Statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly made in the early years of the Peripatetic school, present him as tuimal, slightly shorter than normal.


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He is reported to have been a remarkably good orator despite some sort of speech defect.


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She is also reported to have paid close attention to her external essence, such as her clothing.


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[6] [8] [16] The works of Aristotle, the will, the surviving fragments of his letters, as well as comments by impartial contemporaries, suggest that he was by nature lofty, kind-hearted and just, and is reported to have been devoted to his family and friends.


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With the resurgence of Aristotelism in the Middle Ages, Aristotle appeared to Christian writers of the era as a “master of the wise men”, [17] as a calm and majestic figure devoid of moral frailties.


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Thus Aristotle is often presented as the embodiment of his philosophy.


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[16] Philosophy Aristotle taught that man is a rational, knowledgeable, inquisitive and docile animal, approaching his own ideal and species-typical nature in acquiring theoretical scientific knowledge of the world and practical moral knowledge of the right and from the wrong one.


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According to Aristotle, philosophy and all research originates from wonder, and therefore people tend to explain the things they have experienced and proceed to increasingly new problems.


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[18] [1] Aristotle himself explored both fundamental questions of philosophy and sought to outline the main characteristics of knowledge concerning different fields.


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[4] He believed that our powers of perception and understanding can get a direct view of the world.


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Similarly, he proceeded in all areas of research in the manner of a modern naturalist, making observations, using his sense to try to explain them, and when confronted with problems, seeking to find out what others have said about the same things in the past.


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[1] Thus Aristotle sought in his works to progress from various observations and conceptions of predecessors towards a more scientific understanding of things.


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[19] In both metaphysics and natural sciences, Aristotle was especially an avid seeker of causes, wanting to find a reason for all the things he observed.


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[20] He sought to find explanatory factors that would exhaustively explain the phenomenon studied or determine the essence traits of the species studied.


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[19] Aristotle's philosophy can be divided according to the classical division into two parts, theoretical and practical philosophy or “science”.


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Theoretical philosophy includes physics and metaphysics and logic that serves as their tool, and practical philosophy includes ethics, politics, and aesthetics (such as rhetoric and poetics).


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For disciplines, Aristotle read not only the two but also the productive sciences or skills such as medicine, shipbuilding, and music and other arts.


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[1] [20] Aristotle's philosophy was strongly based on the thinking of the Greek philosophers who preceded him.


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Among the most notable aspects of Aristotle's work was the systematization and highly systematic presentation of Greek science of his day, as well as expansion in almost every aspect.


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Unlike his predecessors, especially Plato, Aristotle can be considered if not modern then at least an empirist of his own time, and can be seen to have laid the foundations of what centuries later developed into the scientific method.


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[21] However, Aristotle did not consider that obtaining knowledge was possible through perceptual experience alone; not only that, but also the use of the ability to generalize reason and encompass explanations is also needed.


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[19] A later philosophy based on Aristotle's own thinking is called Aristotelism.


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Logic Aristotle is said to be the father of all logic, and his works form the foundation of Western logic and science theory.


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His main work on logic is referred to as Organon (Instrument) because mastery of its aspects is considered to give the philosopher the tools of thought necessary to deal with all other things, both in science and in all rational thought and debate in general.


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[22] The deductive logic developed by Aristotle is said to be a syllogistic.


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[23] Syllogistics can be used to classify things through simple, single-place (subject-predicate-object) doctoral theorems.


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A classic example of such logical reasoning, or syllogism, is: [24] Premissi 1: All humans are mortal.


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Premissi 2: Socrates is human.


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Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.


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In addition to writings directly in the field of logic, Organon includes writings related to analytics and dialectics.


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They make it possible in a debate, on the one hand, to come up with convincing arguments and, on the other hand, to evaluate the arguments of the opponent and identify the error conclusions he has drawn.


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[22] Aristotle probably developed his logic on the basis of his experiences at the Academy.


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Plato had already developed the method of Socrates into a dialectical philosophy in which truth is sought to be found out at the same time through questions and answers.


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Aristotle continued this work, and the principle he had was that by such logic, a debater (originally: a participant in a Socratic debate) can defend and criticize various claims based solely on their logical truth value, without regard to what one thinks the self holds of the claims in question.


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[22] In the Hellenistic period, Aristotelian logic was overshadowed by Stoic logic, but gained dominance during Late Antiquity.


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[23] Metaphysics Metaphysics was, in Aristotle's view, the “first philosophy” (prote philosophy), that is, the most supreme science, because it sought to approach divine knowledge of the causes and foundations of the functioning of the world, that is, those things that come from physics, namely the natural sciences ( physic) after (meta).


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[25] Such knowledge, in his view, was not sought for some other benefit, but merely because of its self, as the only free kind of knowledge not dependent on any other knowledge.


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[26] To Aristotle, wisdom was just such knowledge of the princesses and causes of things.


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The purpose of metaphysics was to study ontology, being, and to define the various general principles that the special sciences may then use, without actually having to study them.


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In explaining the world through basic principles and causes, metaphysics also came closest to the greatest wisdom of all.


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In his metaphysics, Aristotle wanted above all else to avoid the Platonic doctrine of ideas.


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Key concepts in Aristotle's metaphysics include substance and accidence, essence, universals, and actuality and potentiality.


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[27] Aristotle also linked metaphysics to theology in many respects, though he used the word in a somewhat different sense than it is today.


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For him, theology was that part of metaphysics that explores the “first exerciser” outside sensory perceptions.


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He taught that everything works as chains of cause and effect, but that at the beginning of everything there must also be someone who causes consequences, without moving himself.


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This he called the first immobile exerciser, [4] [25] or god.


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Like Plato, he considered god intangible.


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Thus metaphysics differed from physics specifically in that when the natural sciences studied changing, moving, and material objects, metaphysics in turn also studied eternal, immutable, immobile, and objects distinct from matter.


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[27] In all, Aristotle defined four reasons for something to happen or something.


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These categories of reasons were: [28] [29] Material, or material cause, that is, the substance of which things are made.


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Formal, or formal reason, that is, form or essence, which is a model of what a thing should be like.


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The causative cause, the causative agent, that's where the change originated.


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This is consistent with the current perception of causal reason.


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The goal cause, that is, the purpose or the end to which it is to be reached.


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Aristotle's main metaphysical work is called Metaphysics.


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Ethics At the centre of Aristotle's ethics were virtues and proper action.


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According to him, the individual should constantly behave virtuously and develop virtues instead of simply doing individual good deeds.


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Aristotle stated that the ultimate goal of all human endeavour is eudaimonia, happiness, flourishing, or perhaps more accurately a good life.


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This is something that is pursued for its own sake and not for the sake of achieving something else.


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Aristotle's second premise was the principle that the highest good of every acting being is the full development of his possibilities, teleological purposefulness.


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When applied to man, happiness arises from the highest degree of activity of the mind, the ability to think, for human being is specifically distinguished from the animal by reason.


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A good life thus consists of exercising this ability together with virtuous activity.


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[30] However, according to Aristotle, other things were also required for perfect happiness.


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He taught human happiness to consist of three kinds of good, all contributing to a perfect life.


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These included: [20] Good things concerning the soul: intellectual and moral virtues.


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Good things about the body: health, beauty, power.


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External good things: wealth, good reputation, good ancestry.


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Aristotle thus made a distinction between intellectual and moral virtues.


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Intellectual virtues are above moral ones.


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A wise person chooses the highest possible virtue, which is formed by the highest degree of activity, intellectual contemplation.


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Contemplative life is thus the way of living that brings the greatest happiness to man.


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[30] [31] Moral virtues, in turn, are relevant to the correctness of the action.


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Every virtue lies in the middle ground of two extremes.


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This is where Aristotle taught the golden mean.


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For example, courage is the middle ground between defiance (too much) and cowardice (too little).


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Correct action requires a choice in which all factors affecting the situation are taken into account.


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Such factors include, but are not limited to, person, time, place and circumstances.


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[30] The main work of Aristotle's ethics is the ethics of Nicomakhus, possibly taking its name from having been edited later by his son.


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Apart from that, ethics in Aristotle's production are also dealt with by the Ethics of Eudemos, which accordingly derives its name from its would-be editor Eudemos, as well as the Great Moral Doctrine.


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[32] Politics Aristotle said on the one hand about metaphysics that it is the most supreme science, the “first philosophy”, but on the other, in the ethics of Nicomachus, that the science of politics is the most important and determines other sciences.


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This describes the ambivalence of Aristotle's philosophy, in which, on the one hand, the highest form of ethical life is the theoretical contemplation of metaphysical, divine, things, but on the other hand, in practical life, ethics is nevertheless best realized in good politics — that “the success of the individual person in a good life is precious, but for an entire people or state to succeed in it is better and more divine”.


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[33] [34] According to Aristotle, politics and ethics cannot be specifically separated.


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Man is an inherently communal being, the zōon politikon (), which strives to live in a community and can only develop as a human being as a member of a community.


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By community, Aristotle meant a small city-state (in Greek, polis).


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[15] [35] [36] Since man can achieve his highest goal in life only as a member of a political community, the state has a great influence on man's moral life.


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According to Aristotle, the state is not only a consortium, but a natural entity, as it originates from the natural need of individuals to live together.


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An individual's own goals in life are not subordinated to the state: the state exists for the good life, so that the individual can fully develop himself.


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[15] [35] [36] Thus politics is therefore a practical science closely related to ethics, dealing with the good life in a city-state such as the aforementioned.


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In addition to state affairs, Aristotle also counted as part of politics the household affairs, because the family kingdom with its slaves is as if the state was miniature.


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[15] [35] The main work of Aristotle's politics is called simply Politics.


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In addition to that, his school collected extensive material on all possible constitutions of Greek city-states, the vernacular, oligarchy, best-dominated and tyrannical statesmanship of 158 cities by species.


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[37] Of these, the only surviving work is the Athenian Statesmanship.


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The policy, however, embodies the extensive knowledge of the constitutions of Greek city-states derived from this research work.


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[38] Aristotle could not participate in Athenian politics in practice because he was a foreigner.


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Rhetoric Politics is also closely related to rhetoric, as one could not operate successfully in a city-state without the skill of persuasion.


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Although Aristotle favoured logical argumentations based on reason, he also acknowledged that the general public cannot always keep up with such chains of evidence.


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The skills of rhetoric are needed so that truth could always prevail.


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[39] In his book Rhetoric, Aristotle sought to give a broader account of his predecessors on the subject and consistent with his own vision.


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He distinguished three reasons that induce persuasiveness of speech: speech itself and its logical arguments (logos), the speaker's own character (ethos), and the speaker's state of mind or expression of emotions, and appealing to the feelings of the listeners (pathos).


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Aristotle also divided rhetoric into three parts: political, legal, and representational (epideictic).


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Political speeches deal with which measures should or should not be taken in the future.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Legal speeches seek to find out the truth about measures taken in the past.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Performing speeches focus on praising or blaming some person or thing in the present.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Speech belonging to each species should be different in nature and take into account different aspects.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[39] Poetics Poetics, or poetry doctrine, is in turn closely related to rhetoric, as it deals with the style of speech and good parsing.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle also elucidated the stylistic directions of tragedy, comedy and epics, as well as the concept of metaphor, among other things.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

According to him, most central to poetry and all narrative was imitation.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Tragedy and epiphany imitated high-status and in comedy, in turn, lesser people.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristoles developed the theory of tragedy in particular.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In his view, tragedy forms a plotted whole, with a clear beginning, middle and end.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Central to that was katharsis, an emotional cleansing in which viewers could be cleared of different emotions while watching the persons in the play suffer.


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Aristotle

[40] Aristotle's main work on the subject is called Poetry Doctrine.


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It can be seen as an early literary theoretical work.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[3] The work has contributed significantly to the classical narrative of European literature and continues to influence, for example, the narrative of Hollywood films.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[41] Natural sciences Physics and mathematics Physics is by definition the science of nature (physis).


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle understood physics more broadly than it is understood today: it included everything that falls within the scope of research in natural philosophy.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He himself studied natural phenomena extensively, seeking not only to understand general topics such as motion, causation, time and place, and emergence and loss, but also to observe and explain various individual natural phenomena.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

According to Aristotle, nature is the inner principle of change and of being at rest, [42] that is, everything — such as the emergence, loss, change, and movement of things — has a natural cause.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[29] In his works, Aristotle commented extensively on the theories of his predecessors, such as the Ionian (principally Anaxagorean) and Pythagorean natural philosophers, on the genesis and functioning of the world.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[43] Beyond that, he set out his own views.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The field of physics covered, according to Aristotle, almost everything there was.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Unless intangible forms such as the motionless exerciser existed, physics would be a “first philosophy” instead of metaphysics.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Since such exist, physics is dependent on them, and because of this only “another philosophy”.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[44] Thus metaphysics and physics are closely related.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[29] Aristotle's main work on physics is Physics.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The work explores the composition of nature, the principes, that is, its ultimate building elements, and the causes of movements and changes.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Other works in the field of physics include: On Heaven, which deals with celestial mechanics; On Birth and Loss, which deals with the transformation of elements into another; and Meteorology, which deals with various atmospheric and soil phenomena.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[6] [29] In cosmology, Aristotle elucidated matters relating to the workings, composition, size, and shape of the universe.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He taught that the sky consists of nested spheres, spheres that are in constant rotating motion.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Below them lies the world below the moon, which again consists of four basic elements, earth, water, air and fire.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

These have four characteristics: hot, cold, dry and humid.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

As these properties change in some element, it can turn into any other element.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In addition to these, there was a fifth element from which celestial bodies were formed and whose motion was precisely circular motion.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[29] [20] Aristotle also clarified the origin and age of the universe.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In his view, the universe has always existed, and it is eternal as well — if the universe had come into existence, it should also disappear.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Instead of emergence and loss, celestial bodies are on the one hand in said perpetual spherical rotational motion, and on the other hand its elements in perpetual changing motion.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[29] Aristotle applied mathematics in several of his works and, among other things, addressed the nature of mathematical entities in his Metaphysics.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[45] Aristotle seems to have been aware to many, if not all, of the latest mathematics of his time.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[46] Among the works of Aristotle are also works on mathematical problems on indivisible lines and problems of mechanics.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[6] Biology from Aristotle can be considered the first biologist of Western science.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He saw the study of living beings, and animals in particular, as a key part of the theoretical study of nature, and so a substantial number, about a third, of his surviving works deal with biology and about a quarter of animal doctrine.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The base created by Aristotle for these sciences remained almost as such for almost 2000 years, until it was only during the Renaissance that things began to be studied on a new basis.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[47] [48] Aristotle's most significant biological treatises probably date from his earlier years, when he conducted natural science studies on Lesbos, among others.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle wrote extensively on the species, structure, emergence and evolution of animals, among other works on Animal Doctrine, Birth of Animals, and Parts of Animals.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He developed a system of classification of animal species in which he was the first to use functional properties and body parts of animals as a basis for classification.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He also presented some general pupils on plants.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Knowing Aristotle's biology helps to understand his philosophy as well, as he uses the concepts of biology extensively in his works on topics such as psychology, ethics, and metaphysics.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[47] [48] Psychology Aristotle defined psychology as the science that studies the soul (in Greek psychhe) and its properties.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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Its most central features include the view of the soul as the enlivening factor of all living beings.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's psychological views are likely to have taken shape during his more mature period, when he ran his own Lykeion Peripatetic School.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[49] [50] Aristotle wrote about the workings of the soul especially in his main psychological work on the Soul.


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His goal was to find out which way the soul works and what parts it consists of.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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His conclusion was that it is the soul that makes the body a living being.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He taught that the soul is intangible and its relation to the body is the same as the ratio of form to matter: it is the first actuality (i.e., intangible form) of a natural, organic, and potentially living body (i.e., material form).


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[51] He objected to some extent to Plato's view that the soul could exist and function completely separate from the body.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[49] [50] In addition to this, Aristotle wrote about the function of the senses, the remembrance and dreams, and the connection of all this to the soul, among others, in the works of Senses and Sensation, Memory and Remembrance, Dream and Wakefulness, and Dream divination.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Psychological matters are also referenced in many more philosophical works, as well as in some natural science, such as zoological works.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[49] Works History of works The works of Aristotle can be divided into two main groups.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

While studying at the Academy, Aristotle wrote dialogues in Plato's style intended for the general public and in which he described his teachings in an easy-to-understand language.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Of these dialogues of Aristotle, among which Eudemos, Exhortation and Philosophy are best known, only fragments and descriptions have survived.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Cicero, for example, praised the eloquence of the dialogues, calling the author a “flurry of gold”, [52] thus giving a glimpse into these otherwise almost entirely lost works.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[1] [53] [54] Largely teaching at Lykeion, Aristotle wrote his numerous treatises on the fields of philosophy and natural sciences.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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The treatises probably consist of both Aristotle's own and lecture notes and drafts made by students.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

They were likely to have been edited repeatedly over the years and were intended mostly for in-school use.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Therefore, their content is sometimes rather variegated, the presentation more concise and didactic, and the language much more technical and difficult to read than the dialogues.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In particular, the abundant technical terminology of treatises often presents problems for those who are in the early stages of familiarizing themselves with Aristotle's thinking.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[1] From the works of Aristotle, it is difficult to define chronologically his philosophical development.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

He likely worked on several subjects simultaneously, may have returned more than once to the same issues, and added new insights to his earlier treatises.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Similarly, many of Aristotle's works seem more like working diaries or notes of conversations than works intended for publication.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Thus the works can be seen to reflect more of the philosopher's thought process itself than any fixed views.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[55] The history of Aristotle's works between his death and the first century is partly unclear.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[3] He bequeathed his extensive library and manuscripts to Theophrastus, who became his successor at the head of Lykeion, and were later hidden for fear of confiscation or destruction.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

However, it is also reported that at some point Aristotle's entire library would have ended up in the Library of Alexandria.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[6] The works were rediscovered in the 70s BCE.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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The top works were compiled by Tyrannion.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Andronikos Rhodoslaine edited and published the institutions compiled from the works, the so-called Corpus Aristotelicum listed above, in 40—20 BCE.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Even in the interim, Aristotle's works have hardly been lost in their entirety from the Peripatetic school.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The Corpus, assembled by Andronikos, was in use in the school in the first centuries after the beginning of the period.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[16] Most of Aristotle's works have been lost, mainly since antiquity.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The list of books given by Diogenes Laertios in his biography of Aristotle — 155 works, 445270 lines of text — shows that we know only a small part of his production.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[56] The list may have originated precisely in the Library of Alexandria.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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Lukács has calculated that about one in four of the works, 110,000 lines, have survived.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[57] Virtually no manuscript of Aristotle's works surviving into modern times is earlier than the 8th century.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The corpus of works has thus been conveyed to us through complex manuscript history.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[54] It is speculated that some of Aristotle's lost works, especially the very dialogues or snippets thereof, might have been preserved in the Villa of the Papyruses at Herculaneum, where excavations have been carried out in recent years.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The city was covered in ash and lava when Vesuvius erupted in 79, but charred papyri preserved in libraries are able to be read using modern technology.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[58] [59] Corpus Aristotelicum Below is a list of Aristotle's most notable surviving works.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

All the most important of them have been translated (See: Finnish works).


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle also wrote many other works, most of which, however, have been lost.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The surviving works are divided into five groups according to how they were broken down in the original collection of Aristotle's works, the Corpus Aristotelicum.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Latin names are often used for works because various inscriptions were compiled into current works only during later antiquity.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

When referring to works, the so-called Bekker numbering is used.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[60] Not all works are considered to have been written by Aristotle himself, but may be either products of his school written under his supervision or instruction, such as the Athenian statesmanship, or those of his pupils, such as Theophrastus and Straton, and Lykeion's later teachers' and students' writings, such as Colors.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[61] Some works may, in turn, have ended up in the name of Aristotle because of their resemblance to Aristotle's works on behalf of their methods or content, or because of the desire to gain additional prestige for them.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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Such is, among other things, Rhetoric for Alexander.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[62] As to the authenticity of some works, scholars remain in disagreement; such as the Great Moral Doctrine and the Universe.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[61] Works often attributed to Corpus, inauthentic or suspected as such, are marked with an asterisk (*) in the catalogue.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Various inauthentic works also include a number of works from the period of Late Antiquity or the Middle Ages, such as Aristotle's Theology, Liber de causis, and De boss.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The authors of such inauthentic works are often referred to as Pseudo-Aristotle.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's name may have been associated with the works, for example, because they could be given credibility by suggesting that the work was very old in origin.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[63] [64] Such works do not naturally belong to the Corpus compiled in antiquity and are not catalogued here.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Writings on logic Organon (“Instrument”) Categories (Categoriae) Interpretation (De interpretatione) First analytics (Analytica priora) Second analytics (Analytica posteriora) Topica (Topica) Sophistic refutations (Sophistici elenchi) Writings on physics and Natural Sciences Physics (Physica) About Heaven (De caelo) Birth and Loss (De generatione et corruptione) Meteorology (Meteorologica) About the Universe (De mundo) * On the Soul (De anima) Minor Treatises (Parva naturalia) On the Sense and Sense (De sensu About memory and recalling (De memoria et reminiscentia) Sleep and wakefulness (De somno et vigilia) Dreams (De insomniis) * Forecasting during sleep (De divinatione per somnum) Longevity and short-lived Brevitate vitae) From youth and old age (De juventute et senectute) Life and death (De vita et morte) Breathing (De respiratione) The spirit (De spiritu) * Animal doctrine (De animalium history) From animal parts (De partibus animalium) On the movement of animals (De motu animalium) On the evolution of animals (De incessu animalium) From the birth of animals (De generatione animalium) * From colours (De coloribus) * Hearing (De audibilibus) Physiognomy (Physiognomonica) * Plants (De plantis) * Wonderful things heard (De mirabilibus) auscultationibus) * Problems of mechanics (Mechanica) * Problems (Problemata) * Of indivisible lines (De lineis insecabilibus) * Locations and names of winds (Ventorum situs et cognomina) * Writings on Metaphysics Metaphysics (Metaphysica) Writings on Ethics Nicomachus Ethics (Ethica Nicomachea) The Great Moral Doctrine (Magna moralia) * Ethics of Eudemos (Ethica Eudemia) On virtues and vices (De virtutibus et vitiis) Politics (Politica) On housekeeping (Oeconomica) Writings on aesthetics Rhetoric (Rhetorica) For Alexander (Rhetorica ad Alexandrum) * Poetry Doctrine (Poetica) Missing from Corpus Aristotelicum Preserved Works Athenian Statesmanship (Athēnaiō politeia) of Melissos, Xenophane, Gorgiaa (De Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia) * Lost Works Part of Aristotle's Lost works are known through mentions made by other writers of antiquity, or through snippets preserved in these works.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Some works known in this way include: Aristotle's dialogues, e.g.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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: Eudemos Exhortation (Protreptikos) On Philosophy (Peri philosophias) Didactic Works of Good (Peri tagathou) Ideas (Peri ideōn) Summary of Manuals (Tekhnōn synagōgē) Theodekteen Handbook Summary (Tekhnēs tēs Theodektou synagōgē) descriptions of Arkhyta philosophy (Peri tēs Arkhyteiou philosophias) Demokritos (Peri Demokritou) Pythagoreans (Peri tōn Pythagoreiōn) Laws, customs, decisions, etc.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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collections of 158 cities vernacular, oligarchy, best-dominated and tyrannical statesmanship by species Nomima barbarika Claims for Justice (Dikaiōmata (poleōn)) Lists of historical topics Triumphs of Dionysia celebrations (Nikai Dionysiakai) Lists of plays (Didaskaliai) Olympian Games victories (Olympionikai) Python Games victories (Pythionikai) Influence and criticism Aristotle is one of the two most prominent thinkers of antiquity along with Plato and also one of the most prominent philosophers through the whole of philosophy of history.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

However, the direct influence of Aristotle's ideas has varied at different times.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[1] [65] [66] While Aristotle was alive and for some time after his death, Lykeion had a reputation as a place at the forefront of science.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

When Aristotle was forced to leave Athens and died, Theophrastos continued at the head of the peripatetic school.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[3] However, only a few generations of mentionable thinkers were active in the school; these included, along with Theophrastus, Straton among others.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In the Hellenistic period, the school found itself sidelined in Greek philosophical discourse: the thinking of Aristotle was almost no longer discussed, and his works were hardly borrowed.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] [19] Aristotle's thinking did not return to wider discourse until the first century BCE, when his works were more widely published.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

This was followed by a number of philosophers advocating some form of aristotelism, often combining it with Platonism and Stoicism, but sometimes setting it squarely against the schoolships of the Hellenistic period.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

However, the role of Aristotle was not yet particularly significant in antiquity: Plato was generally regarded as the most significant and imitated philosopher.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The importance of Aristotle gradually rose in the course of Late Antiquity, culminating in the scholastic thought of the Middle Ages.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

With the Renaissance, opposition to Aristotelian thought increased.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[65] [67] Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages In the second and third centuries, extensive commentary work began on the works of Aristotle, which lasted until the 5th century; many of these commentators were Neo-Platonians.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[65] The work involved several of the most prominent philosophers of late antiquity, among them Porfyrios, Iamblikhos, Simplikios and Boëthius.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

This work played a large part in the formation of Aristotle's later fame.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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Boëthius also took up the translation of works from Greek into Latin for a living, as Greek was no longer taught in the West at that time.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Boëthius's translations and commentaries and the Isagoge of Porphyrios were practically the only Aristotelian works known in the West for centuries.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[16] Some early Christian thinkers, such as Tertullian, rejected philosophy as a whole as pagan and supplanted by the Gospels.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In the 4th century, the Church Father Augustine used Platonic and Neo-Platonian philosophy as the basis for his theology, but found no use for Aristotle, despite praising this in the State of God as one of Plato's most gifted and diligent pupils.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[68] Between the 5th and 13th centuries, Aristotle's works were not available in the West and were thus little known.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

However, Aristotle continued to be studied in the Byzantine world as well as in the Islamic cultural sphere, [65] as the philosophical heritage of ancient Greece ended up in the possession of the Muslims after their conquest of Alexandria, Syria and the Gundishapur Academy located in the Sassanid Empire.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's works were translated into Arabic and Syriac languages, [16] and Islamic scholars, most famously Averroës (Ibn Rušd) and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), commented extensively on the works in an effort to combine them with Islamic theology.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The pastime of Aristotelism also spread among the Jewish scholars of the Islamic world, who in turn sought to combine Aristotle's teachings with the writings of their own faith.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The most famous Jewish Aristotle scholar of the era was Rabbi Maimonides.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In the 13th century, interest in Aristotle's philosophy was resurrected in Christian Europe.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

The two most prominent figures in the new coming of Aristotle in the West were Wilhelm Moerbekelainen, who translated Aristotle's works into Latin from both the Greek and Arabic languages; and Thomas Aquinese, who commented on his works extensively and made extensive use of them in his major work Summa theologiae.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] To bring the effort to combine aristotelism with orthodox Christian theology first met opposition from church authority figures, but was eventually accepted.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] To bring approach, tomism, became the most standard philosophical approach of cardiac and late medieval scholastics, and a downright established dogma of the Catholic Church.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle was held in such esteem that Thomas and others referred to him simply as “The Philosopher”, as if personified by philosophy as a whole.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[2] [69] Dante, in turn, called Aristotle the “Master of the Philosopher” and placed him, in the Divine play, in Limbus, the foreyard of Hell reserved for “virtuous pagans”.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Many other philosophers of antiquity, such as Socrates and Plato, were also found in the same place.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[17] [70] By the 14th century, Aristotle's authority in philosophical and natural science matters was already almost undisputed in many places, and he was regarded as an authority in several fields.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] [67] New universities in Prague, Vienna, Cologne and Heidelberg, among others, were Aristotelian.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

At the same time, however, anti-aristotelism movements were also developing at the universities of Oxford and Paris, among others, and opposition now was no longer based only on theological but also, for example, on knowledge-theoretical and natural-philosophical grounds.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

One step away from Aristotelian physics was impetus theory.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[67] Renaissance and New Age Western aristotelism has sometimes been considered to have fallen into an outright belief in authority in the Middle Ages, and on an Aristotelian basis was not capable of new innovations.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[67] Bertrand Russell, in his book History of Western Philosophy, has written that, although the merits of Aristotle compared to his predecessors are immense, equally great have been the harm caused by him to his successors.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

His authority grew so high that it even became an obstacle to progress.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

According to Russell, it took nearly two thousand years since Aristotle's death for philosophers of his peers to emerge, and almost every advance since the Renaissance has involved opposing some doctrine derived from Aristotle.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[10] At the beginning of the New Age, many philosophers and scientists sought to distance themselves from and oppose the aristotelism of the Middle Ages.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[19] For example, Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke rejected the dogmas of scholastic philosophy in philosophy and the natural sciences in many aspects.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] Descartes wrote, “The erroneity of Aristotle's principles cannot be proved better than by stating that no progress has been made by them at all over the many centuries in which they have been followed”.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[71] Giordano Bruno said that a couple of chapters on Copernicus offer more information than Aristotle and all the Peripatetes combined.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[67] In addition to the excessive dogmatic aftermath, Aristotle has also been criticized for his lack of empiricism and for being contrary to the scientific method.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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In the new age, he was attacked especially by representatives of the empirical natural sciences.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[67] [72] As one example of the lack of empiricism, Aristotle's erroneous view that women have fewer teeth than men is often cited, which served in turn as a form of justification for men being superior to women; [73] it has been assumed that he would not have ended up with such insight if careful empirical research on the subject had been carried out.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Even if Aristotle did studies in both animals and humans, there may not have been enough observations or all the women studied have for some reason just had fewer teeth.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

However, the prior assumption of women's inferiority may have influenced the interpretation of the findings.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

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[74] The posthumous judgment Aristotle received in these matters was sometimes almost as exaggerating as the aftermath.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In Russell's words, the correct assessment of Aristotle requires forgetting both excessive aftermath and excessive posthumous judgment.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[10] Aristotle can be said to have suffered from his popularity: because he at a certain point was regarded as an authority in several fields, he has often been allowed to represent a traditional position opposed by reformers.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Furthermore, critics did not always distinguish Aristotle's own thinking from later scholastic thinking and at times seem to criticize more of what was put in Aristotle's name than Aristotle's own thinking.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's reputation can be considered to have suffered mainly because later Aristoteelists sought to defend all features of his theories in a single-eyed and ultra-conservative manner.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

In addition, however, it is evident in the thinking and concepts of many new-age thinkers who have rejected aristotelism that it often draws on aristotelism.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[65] [67] [72] Although Aristotle's metaphysical and naturalist views were widely rejected, even in the new era his influence continued in many other fields.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Philipp Melanchthon made the ethics of Nicomakhus a foundational work in the field of ethics in German universities.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle's theories on drama, especially its various parts, influenced playwrights, particularly in 17th-century France.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

Aristotle himself had said that he was mainly depicting Greek theatre, but his works were treated like a recipe for writing plays: Pierre Corneille even said that the principles of drama described by Aristotle were fair “to all men and at all times”.


Question: How many works did Aristotle do?

Aristotle

[72] In the 19th century G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx were avid scholars of Aristotle; Marx has sometimes been described as a left-wing Aristotelian.