 In spite of the fact that we have more evidence for these Roman Stoics, scholarship has treated these philosophers – and particularly Seneca – primarily as sources of evidence for early Stoicism. Happily this situation has changed significantly over the last decade so that Marcus Aurelius and Seneca are being read as thinkers in their own right. (Epictetus has always been treated somewhat more seriously.) In what follows I will simply gesture toward some of excellent work being done on Roman Stoicism. The detailed work of scholarship has shown the dangers of generalising about Roman Stoicism in opposition to the original Stoic philosophy of Zeno, Cleanthes and Chrysippus. In spite of this, it is perhaps not too rash for the purposes of this encyclopedia entry to say the following: (1) Epictetus, Seneca and other Roman Stoics are less interested in what we might call the metaphysical theory of the mind or soul in relation to the body and more interested in the psychological and moral category of the self. This is not to say that the Roman Stoics retreat from the earlier Stoic materialism. It is rather that they were more interested in notions that we might call self-hood or personality. See Gill (2006) and, more broadly, Sorabji (2006). (2) The Roman Stoics may or may not have resiled from the earlier absolute distinction between the sage (who alone is wise, virtuous and happy) and everyone else (who are all equally ignorant, equally vicious, and equally unhappy). But, in any case, the writings that we have from them show much more interest in the problems that confront the person who is still making progress toward wisdom. The central theme of Reydams-Schils (2005) is that their notion of the self provides the bridge between the ideal of the Stoic sage and the actual world of less-than-ideal communities and families. (3) While it seems unlikely that any of the Roman Stoics retreated from the causal determinism and compatibilism of the Old Stoa, they were much more interested in a psychological notion of freedom. This ideal of freedom stands in opposition, not to universal causation, but rather to a self-imposed slavery that is the result of taking external things to be genuine goods. See Stephens (2007). (4) A significant portion of the writings of the Roman Stoics concern how one might move from the abstract recognition that, for instance, anger is a mistake to the condition of being immune to anger. Recent scholarship has considered these techniques, often under the label of ‘spiritual exercises’ For an example, see the careful reading of Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations in Hadot (1998). Against the assimilation of Stoic techniques of emotional ‘therapy’ to Christian ‘spiritual exercises’, see Cooper 2012.)