 A second reason Harris provides for doubting that we can know what kind of ethical theory to attribute to Śāntideva rests on the central role of the concept of upāya in Mahāyāna Buddhism in general, and in Śāntideva’s writings in particular (see Harris 2015: 253). Upāya, a Sanskrit word often translated as “skillful means” or “expedient means”, refers to an approach to teaching allegedly adopted by Buddhas and other highly advanced spiritual teachers towards those who have not yet reached the highest stages of their own spiritual paths. The idea is that the Buddhas don’t always tell such people the final truth; instead, they tell them whatever they need to hear at the time, including even falsehoods, if doing so will be the most effective way to support their progress towards spiritual maturity. But since this is the case, it may be difficult to know whether, in any given passage, Śāntideva is expressing what he takes to be the right view, or whether he is offering falsehoods that may nevertheless be helpful to some readers, depending on their own level of meditative practice and philosophical training. (For more on upāya, see, e.g., Pye 1978 [2003], cited by Harris 2015, and Goodman 2011.)