 While we may think of these as two forms of inference, Sextus denied that reliance on commemorative signs involves any inference at all, since it does not involve making a judgement. He argued that if it did involve an inference, you would expect those who had no knowledge of logic to be less skilled in this respect. But, as he writes, “illiterate helmsmen and farmers with no experience of dialectical principles are expert judges of signs [akrōs sēmeiountai]”, being able to predict (in one case) a coming storm or calm weather and (in the other) a good or a poor harvest (Sextus M VII 2.270). Indeed, even non-human animals gain knowledge in this way. As Sextus writes, “the dog, when it tracks an animal by its footprints, is actually using signs [sēmeioutai],” but it is not making inferences. In Sextus’s words, “it does not formulate the judgement ‘if this is a footprint, a beast is here’” (Sextus M VII 2.271). This deflationary view may be what allows Sextus to reconcile a reliance on commemorative signs with his scepticism.