 Johann Mattheson (1681–1764), the chief Affektenlehre theorist, embraces a Cartesian, physiological explanation of musical expression as the arousal of emotion produced by music’s action on the animal spirits (this is the standard view of Mattheson’s theory—see Lippman 1992: 115–116; for an alternative interpretation, see Kivy 1984). Thus, the musician who wishes to compose music expressive of an emotion will have to conform to the movements of the animal spirits associated with that emotion. This view alters the connection between emotional expression and imitation, as expression is no longer dependent on the imitation of impassioned speech.