 Historically, neuroscientific discoveries exerted little influence on the details of materialist philosophies of mind. The “neuroscientific milieu” of the past half-century has made it harder for philosophers to adopt substantive dualisms about mind. But even the “type-type” or “central state” identity theories that rose to brief prominence in the late 1950s (Place 1956; Smart 1959) drew upon few actual details of the emerging neurosciences. Recall the favorite early example of a psychoneural identity claim: “pain is identical to C-fiber firing”. The “C-fibers” turned out to be related to only a single aspect of pain transmission (Hardcastle 1997). Early identity theorists did not emphasize psychoneural identity hypotheses. Their “neuro” terms were admittedly placeholders for concepts from future neuroscience. Their arguments and motivations were philosophical, even if the ultimate justification of the program was held to be empirical.