 In the middle of the last century, neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield and colleagues performed a set of direct electrical microstimulations during preoperative procedures (Penfield &amp; Perot 1963), and in certain cases induced hallucinations by stimulating primary sensory cortices such as V1 or S1 (see  figure 1).  This provided evidence that endogenous activity could be causally sufficient for phenomenal experiences. Penfield’s interventions, however, were not based on fine-grained targeting of specific neural representations. As Cohen and Newsome note, 