  Although not as well known, Philip’s psychology also exhibits some innovative features and influenced later thinkers, in particular, Albert the Great. In the early thirteenth century, theorists accounted for human abilities by arguing that in order to do what they do, agents must possess certain capacities or powers. Thus for every ability, there must be a corresponding and separate power. Human beings have the ability to think; therefore, they must have a cognitive power, often called intellect or reason. Medieval philosophers also adopted Aristotle’s distinction between practical intellect, which discerns what to do, and speculative intellect, which discerns the truth about the way things are. Human beings have the capacity for desire; therefore, they must have appetitive powers. Medieval philosophers distinguish between two kinds of appetite; a rational appetite, called the will, that is responsive to the dictates of the intellect, and an appetite that is responsive to sensory apprehension, called the sensory appetite. Since activities such as thinking and desiring are different sorts of activities, most theorists thought of their corresponding powers, the (practical) intellect and the will, as separate. However, on Philip’s account, the practical intellect and the will are not separate powers (see McCluskey 2001). He argues that with respect to the capacity for performing actions, there is only one power with two separate acts. Philip gives a number of arguments for this position. One of them is particularly interesting because Philip uses the doctrine of the transcendentals to establish his conclusion that the practical intellect and will are one and the same power. Philip first notes that the intellect and the will have different ends. The intellect, even as practical intellect, has truth as its goal or end since its job, so to speak, is to ascertain the way things are, to make judgments about the state of reality, including what alternatives for action are available for the agent. The will, on the other hand, is an appetite for the good; it inclines the agent toward what she judges to be good. Thus, its end is the good. But according to the doctrine of the transcendentals, the true and the good differ only intensionally, not extensionally. Philip thinks that if the ends of the powers do not differ extensionally, then the powers themselves do not differ extensionally as well. Thus, with respect to action, there is only one power with two different acts, acts of conceiving and judging on the one hand, and acts of desiring (the good) and willing on the other. Talking about the will is merely shorthand for referring to acts of willing or desiring. Talking about the intellect is merely shorthand for referring to certain cognitive judgments about what to do or how to act. 