 Let consider an argument from inductive risk (Douglas 2000; Hempel 1965; Rudner 1953, and in the context of conservation biology see Shrader-Frechette &amp; McCoy 1993: Ch. 6). In standard Neyman-Pearson hypothesis testing we formulate a null hypothesis \(H_0\) and an alternate \(H_1\) (Gotelli &amp; Ellison 2013). The null states that, “\(C\) does not have an effect \(E\)”. The alternate is the negation, which states that “\(C\) has an effect \(E\)”. Thus there are two relevant probabilities of error.