 The Fāng biàn xīn lùn, or Upāya-hṛdaya, purports to be a primer on argument and reasoning, listing and defining many terms. It also contains many arguments, several of which are analogical arguments both through similarity and through dissimilarity. The author of the text neither states what an argument is nor what its parts are. Yet, in the first chapter, he speaks of excessive and deficient statements and says that there are three kinds: deficiency of reason, deficiency of proposition and deficiency of example. (T1632 24.3.14–18; Gillon and Katsura 2017 p. 215). Arguments which are not deficient in any of these ways is said to be complete. From the illustrations, it is clear that a nondeficient argument has the form: p has S, because of having H, like d, where d is assumed to have both H and S. In other words, a complete argument could be spelled out in the form whose explicit counterpart would be that of an analogical syllogism using similarity of the kind found in the polemical texts discussed earlier.