 The early perceptual theorists, especially direct realists, were cognitivist about pain’s negative affect. They claimed, roughly, that it consists of the experiencer’s spontaneous cognitive/conative reactions to their own pain experiences. These reactions were conceived as forming conative or evaluative propositional attitudes. In other words, the painfulness of pains was constituted by their power to immediately “evoke in [one] the peremptory desire that the [pain] perception should cease” (Armstrong 1968, pp. 314–16). (See also, Stephens and Graham 1985, 1987; Nelkin 1986, 1994; Hall 1989. Cf. Parfit 1984. According to Chisholm’s 1987 presentation, Brentano also held that pains and pleasures are partly conative reactions to sensory elements.)