 Newton’s ideas and methods were certainly most influential in Britain, where there grew to be a strong “Newtonian” movement—also called the “experimental philosophy” program—by roughly 1700. By the fin de siecle, it is probably safe to say that natural philosophy had become heavily Newtonian in England, at least in the sense that it had eclipsed both Cartesianism (Henry 2013: 124 and introduction to Voltaire 1738 [1992, 7]), and other local movements, such as Cambridge Platonism, which had exhibited a strong influence during the previous generation. One might put the point somewhat differently: to the extent that there was a dominant strand in England by 1700, it was the “experimental philosophy”, a view that was associated strongly with figures such as Boyle, Newton and Locke. Figures such as Hobbes had opposed this approach to solving philosophical problems, but had failed to gain nearly as much influence. Perhaps more importantly, Newton’s view of motion, his understanding of space and time, and his approach to achieving knowledge of natural phenomena, helped to shape the agenda of British philosophy for the next fifty years. In addition to Newton’s influence on Locke’s thinking about matter and causation, explored above, both Berkeley and Hume expended considerable energy grappling with the wider consequences and implications of the Newtonian version of the experimental philosophy. For his part, Berkeley famously derided many Newtonians methods and ideas—sometimes exempting Newton himself from his conception of the worst philosophical excesses of his followers—including the rise of the calculus among mathematicians (in The Analyst) and the use of the idea of a force as the basic causal concept in natural philosophy (in De Motu—both reprinted in Berkeley 1992). Berkeley’s theory of ideas, which arose in part from his reflections of what we would now call Locke’s “empiricist” notion of representation, suggested to him that no idea can be abstract: each idea must represent a particular rather than a universal. Hence we can have an idea of a particular car, say a yellow two-door sports car, but not of a car in general, one with no specific characteristics. Similarly, we can have an idea of a particular shade of yellow, perhaps because we’ve just seen a lovely yellow rose at the florist, but not of yellow in general; and so on. Berkeley then argued that modern mathematics, especially the calculus, and modern natural philosophy, especially Newtonian versions of it, were often reliant on abstract ideas, and therefore philosophically suspect. For instance, he contended that the very idea of absolute motion was suspect because we can represent to ourselves only various motions with particular features related to particular bodies in motion, but “absolute” motion cannot be rendered particular in anything like this way; it remains abstract (Downing 2005: 235). Thus although Newtonian views were considered to be essential to the rise of experimental philosophy in Britain, Berkeley derided them as insufficiently experimental, or empirical, as overly reliant on representations of universals and of universal quantities, rather than on the representation of particulars. In a reflection of Malebranche’s influence, Berkeley also argued that some Newtonians wrongly attributed genuine causal powers to ordinary material objects through their use of the concept of impressed force; wrongly, because Berkeley firmly rejected the notion that any body could exert any causal power. All causation in Berkeley’s system is due either to the intervention of the divine in the course of history, or to spirits or minds, which are genuinely causally active. Finally, in an argument that would prefigure Mach’s reactions to Newtonian conceptions of space, time and motion in the late nineteenth century—which were expressive of a broad commitment to “empiricism”—Berkeley contended that absolute space is a metaphysical aberration: philosophers should not posit any entity or thing that is beyond all possible perception. In sum, Berkeley was highly critical of many aspects of the Newtonian program, but for that very reason, it was Newton’s ideas that helped to shape many of his philosophical projects.