 Duhem (he himself a supporter of the HD view) pointed out that in mature sciences such as physics most hypotheses or theories of real interest can not be contradicted by any statement describing observable states of affairs. Taken in isolation, they simply do not logically imply, nor rule out, any observable fact, essentially because (unlike “all ravens are black”) they involve the mention of unobservable entities and processes. So, in effect, Duhem emphasized that, typically, scientific hypotheses or theories are logically consistent with any piece of checkable evidence. Unless, of course, the logical connection is underpinned by auxiliary hypotheses and assumptions suitably bridging the gap between the observational and non-observational vocabulary, as it were. But then, once auxiliaries are in play, logic alone guarantees that some \(k\) exists such that \(h\wedge k\) is consistent, \(h\wedge k \vDash e\), and \(k \not\vDash e\), so that confirmation holds in naïve HD terms (that’s just the UT result above). Apparently, when Duhem’s point applies, the uncritical supporter of whatever hypothesis \(h\) can legitimately claim (naïve HD) confirmation from any \(e\) by simply shaping \(k\) conveniently. In this sense, hypothesis assessment would be radically “underdetermined” by any amount of evidence practically available.