 Fodor’s claim about the modularity of input systems has been disputed by a number of philosophers and psychologists (Churchland, 1988; Arbib, 1987; Marslen-Wilson &amp; Tyler, 1987; McCauley &amp; Henrich, 2006). The most wide-ranging philosophical critique is due to Prinz (2006), who argues that perceptual and linguistic systems rarely exhibit the features characteristic of modularity. In particular, he argues that such systems are not informationally encapsulated. To this end, Prinz adduces two types of evidence. First, there appear to be cross-modal effects in perception, which would tell against encapsulation at the level of input systems. The classic example of this, also from the speech perception literature, is the McGurk effect (McGurk &amp; MacDonald, 1976). Here, subjects watching a video of one phoneme being spoken (e.g., /ga/) dubbed with a sound recording of a different phoneme (/ba/) hear a third, altogether different phoneme (/da/). Second, he points to what look to be top-down effects on visual and linguistic processing, the existence of which would tell against cognitive impenetrability, i.e., encapsulation relative to central systems. Some of the most striking examples of such effects come from research on speech perception. Probably the best-known is the phoneme restoration effect, as in the case where listeners ‘fill in’ a missing phoneme in a spoken sentence (The state governors met with their respective legi*latures convening in the capital city) from which the missing phoneme (the /s/ sound in legislatures) has been deleted and replaced with the sound of a cough (Warren, 1970). By hypothesis, this filling-in is driven by listeners’ understanding of the linguistic context. 