 A second approach assumes—quite realistically—that individual competence levels are unknown. Even if additional group members were objectively less competent, this fact would be insufficiently known or established (cf. Romeijn &amp; Atkinson 2011). The institutional designer can consider three kinds of justification for a large, inclusive group. An epistemic justification points out that any proxy used for competence might be misleading. For instance, it would seem unjustified to exclude citizens without university education because they might be just as competent or more competent; excluding them might lower collective competence. One procedural justification holds that it is unfair to exclude individuals from democratic decision-making even if their incompetence were established beyond reasonable doubt. Such procedural reasons for inclusion could, for example, be based on the democratic right to equal opportunity for influence. Another, more nuanced procedural view does not generally oppose voter exclusion, but requires the incompetence to be established to a high standard, as those excluded are owed reasons for being ruled by others.