  (NKS1)  is to be taken at face value. It entails that the concepts involved were not previously known. Wolfram talks in terms of “the single most surprising scientific discovery I have ever made” (Wolfram 2002: 27). Is  (NKS1)  true? For sure, the idea that a deterministic and simple system may produce unpredictable behavior started circulating in the scientific community well before Wolfram’s work. Signs of what is now chaos theory can be traced back to the 19th and early 20th century, e.g., to the work of Poincaré 1914. One might grant that CA allowed the discovery that simple systems may produce complex behavior via the proof that they have unpredictable emergent computational complexity (although this discovery itself, as outlined in our brief historical section, was not made but only greatly publicized by Wolfram). Why was this discovery not made earlier? Wolfram’s own diagnosis is twofold: on the one hand, we have the “engineering” intuition that to produce something complex we should build something complex—that is because this is how ordinary machines work. On the other, CA were not obviously connected to any established discipline, and therefore they were not studied in academic circles. 