 Recently, some authors developed critiques of the normative validity of EDU. Hedden (2015) argues that defending EDU would force one to make untestable distinctions between actual and ultimate preferences. Callender (2021, see also replies in this special issue) argues that EDU is not a universally valid standard, but instead is dependent on contextual factors as yet unspecified; and that many of the current policy recommendations derived from this purported normative standard are questionable. 