 A further complication concerns the fact that, despite being non-excludable in the sense that they cannot be selectively provided only to those who ask for them, many of the “open benefits” provided by states are not fairly distributed among all citizens. Even in societies that present themselves as liberal and egalitarian, minorities are often discriminated against and suffer serious injustice at the ends of their government. When this is the case, the idea that obedience might required as a way of doing one’s fair share in maintaining a cooperative scheme for reciprocal benefit surely lose much of its force (Shelby 2016; see also Kelly 2022 and Yankah 2022).