The penultimate step is surface realization, using knowledge about the syntax-semantics interface. In systems for restricted domains, this knowledge might consist of heuristic rules and templates (perhaps tree schemas) for verbalizing LFs. More broadly-aimed generators might make use of invertible grammars, ones formulated in rule-to-rule fashion and allowing transduction from logical forms to surface forms in much the same way as the “forward” transduction from surface phrase structure to logical form. Sophisticated generators also need to take account of pragmatic annotations, such as stress, mentioned above. Finally, the linguistically expressed content needs to be physically presented as spoken or written text, with due attention to articulation, stress, and intonation, or, for written text, punctuation, capitalization, choice of a or an as indefinite article, italics, line breaks, and so on.