 In addition to these formal legal consequences of a conviction, people with criminal records also face a range of informal collateral consequences, such as social stigma, family tensions, discrimination by employers and housing authorities, and financial challenges. These consequences are not imposed by positive law, but they may be permitted by formal legal provisions (such as those that grant broad discretion to public housing authorities in the United States making admission decisions) or facilitated by them (such as when laws making criminal records widely accessible enable employers or landlords to discriminate against those with criminal histories). There are also widely documented burdensome consequences of a conviction to the family members or loved ones of those who are convicted, and to their communities. These sorts of informal consequences of criminal convictions appear less likely than the formal legal consequences to constitute legal punishment, insofar as they are not intentionally imposed by the state (but see Kolber 2012). Still, the informal collateral consequences of a conviction are arguably relevant to theorising about punishment, and we should examine when, if ever, such burdens are relevant to sentencing determinations (on sentencing, see s. 10), or whether the state has obligations to ensure that the burdens of punishment do not spill over beyond the intended burdens of the criminal sentence (see Manning 2011; Bülow 2014; Lippke 2017).