 Unfortunately for friends of massive modularity, this argument, like the argument from design, is vulnerable to a number of objections (Wilson, 2008). We’ll mention two of them here. First, it’s not easy to motivate the claim that animal minds are massively modular in the operative sense. Though Carruthers (2006) goes to heroic lengths to do so, the evidence he cites—e.g., for the domain specificity of animal learning mechanisms, à la Gallistel, 1990—adds up to less than what’s needed. The problem is that domain specificity is not sufficient for Carruthers-style modularity; indeed, it is not even one of the central characteristics of modularity in Carruthers’ account. So the argument falters at the first step. Second, even if animal minds are massively modular, and even if single incremental extensions of the animal mind preserve that feature, it’s quite possible that a series of such extensions of animal minds might have led to its loss. In other words, as Wilson (2008) puts it, it can’t be assumed that the conservation of massive modularity is transitive. And without this assumption, the argument from animals can’t go through.