 These arguments of Fullinwider and Bittker are clear improvements on the original harm argument. But they seem to assume that post-Civil War governments committed only one transgression against their black populations, namely those governments failed to protect the civil rights of the members of those populations. In fact, however, these governments committed another and quite distinct transgression against their black populations; they failed to make reparations to those populations. These two transgressions are not the same thing. The duty of government to protect its citizens’ civil and political rights is one thing; its duty to pay and/or make reparations to them if it has wrongly injured them is quite another.