The basic associative learning theories imply, either explicitly or implicitly, slow, gradual learning of associations (Baeyens et al. 1995). The learning process can be summarized in a learning curve which plots the frequency (or magnitude) of the conditioned response as a function of the number of reinforcements (Gallistel et al. 2004: 13124). Mappings between CRs and USs are gradually built up over numerous trials (in the lab) or experiences (in the world). Gradual, slow learning has come under fire from a variety of areas (see sections 9.3 and 9.4.1). However, here we just focus on the behavioral data. In a series of works re-analyzing animal behavior, Gallistel (Gallistel et al. 2004; Gallistel and King 2009) has argued that although group-level learning curves do display the properties of being negatively accelerated and gradually developing, these curves are misleading because no individual’s learning curve has these properties. Gallistel has argued that learning for individuals is generally step-like, rapid, and abrupt. An individual’s learning from a low-level of responding to asymptotic responding is very quick. Sometimes, the learning is so quick that it is literally one-shot learning. For example, after analyzing multiple experiments of animal learning of spatial location Gallistel writes