  With the hegemony of absolute idealism broken, Germany was awash with competing philosophical systems by the time Vaihinger habilitated in 1877. Three important movements are worth emphasizing (for detailed studies of the late nineteenth-century context, see Beiser [2013; 2014; 2015; 2017]). First, under the influence of Lange and others, Neo-Kantianism had become a major force on the intellectual scene. Second, due partly to Schopenhauer’s rising star, and partly to the continued influence of Hegel and Schelling, grand metaphysical theorizing after the idealist model was experiencing a resurgence in the work of Adolf Trendelenburg, Hermann Lotze, and Eduard von Hartmann. Finally, traditional materialism and empiricism, though very much on the defensive, had nevertheless gained back considerable ground since their nadir in early decades of the century.