 Grounding is anti-transitive: If \(\Gamma\) is the ground of \(\Delta\) and \(\Delta\) in turn the ground of \(E\), then \(\Gamma\) is not the ground of \(E\), though we can speak of supporting truths or, improperly, of remote grounds in such cases. Grounding is also anti-symmetrical and anti-reflexive. It should not be confused with either deducibility or causality. Not with the former because deducibility holds among false as well as true propositions, is reflexive (for propositions that are not universally invalid wrt to the variables of deduction), merely asymmetrical, and merely intransitive (being transitive, notably, in cases where the variables are the same). Nor with the latter, because the causal relation holds between actual objects, while grounding relates non-actual objects, namely, true propositions in themselves. Causality and grounding are nonetheless connected, Bolzano thinks, taking claims of the form ‘A causes B’ to be analyzable as follows: ‘[A exists] (partially) grounds [B exists]’ (TS, §168).