 Johan Mackenbach (2019: 62–73) helpfully identifies three groups of causal pathways between social determinants and health outcomes. The first is childhood environment. Socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers are more likely to have impaired health, have greater psychosocial stress, and to engage in unhealthy behaviors during pregnancy (Mackenbach 2019: 66). Their children are therefore more likely to experience impaired fetal growth, low birth weight, and premature birth. Children with disadvantaged parents are also more likely to be exposed to unfavorable conditions after birth, including inadequate nutrition and harmful levels of air pollution, which may explain why they have worse health outcomes compared to children of high-income parents (Currie 2009; Case, Lubotsky, &amp; Paxson 2002).