 Beginning in the late 8th century CE/2nd century AH), different versions of atomism were adopted and developed by many adherents of the Islamic schools of kalām or theology. The most important of these early atomist schools were located in Basra and Baghdad. The philosopher-physician Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (d. 313/925) also developed an atomist theory (Pines 1997; Baffioni 1982; Adamson 2014; Koetschet 2019), although adherents of the philosophical schools known as falsafa more commonly adhered to a philosophical picture based on Neoplatonic continuum metaphysics. Some medieval Jewish philosophers of the Karaite school, writing in Arabic and influenced by kalām thought, adopted atomist views (Ben-Shammai, 1985). Critics of kalām atomism include Ibn Sīnā, the 11th/5th century philosopher known as Avicenna in the West, and Maimonides (12th/6th C) in his Guide for the Perplexed. Fakhr al-dīn al-Rāzī responded to Ibn Sīnā’s criticisms in the 12th/6th century (Dhanani 2015), and atomist ideas were publicized by the work of al-Ijī (d. 1355 CE) and his student al-Taftazani, which present arguments from earlier kalam and falsafa natural philosophy and were used for teaching purposes (Dhanani 2017).