 Ethical issues also attend doing neuroscientific research on nonhumans. Like traditional bioethics, neuroethics must address questions about the ethical use of animals for experimental purposes in neuroscience. In addition, however, it ought to consider questions regarding the use of animals as model systems for understanding the human brain and human cognition (Johnson et al., 2020). Animal studies have given us the bulk of our understanding of neural physiology and anatomy and have provided significant insight into function of conserved biological capacities. However, the further we push into unknown territory about higher cognitive functions, the more we will have to attend to the specifics of similarities and differences between humans and other species and evaluating the model system may involve considerable philosophical work. In some cases, the dissimilarities may not warrant animal experiments.