 This ki-oriented trend not only influenced the philosophy of Yulgok, as we observed above, but it also intensified after the two great wars and culminated in the philosophies of Hong Taeyong, Ch’oe Hangi (1803–1879 pen name: Hyegang) as well as Ch’oe Che-u (1824–1864). To begin with, Hong advocated a highly idiosyncratic Vital Force-oriented vision of the world that is neither absolutist nor relativist. Influenced by Zhang Zai, Daoism and Western ideas in his development of Vital Force, Hong argued that Vital Force is not only the metaphysical basis but also explanatory foundation of the nature of the myriad entities of the universe. Indeed, for him, there is nothing that is not permeated by Vital Force. As he puts it, Vital Force has no “inside or outside or beginning or end” (Hong Uisanmundap  [2011: 39–40]). Further, macroscopic objects in the world are generated by means of the “transformation of Vital Force (kihwa 氣化)”. For Hong, then, all entities, including humans, which are created naturally through the process of the transformation of Vital Force, arise from an ideal state, which he calls “a vastly harmonious world (t’aehwachisae 太和之世)”. From this general starting point, Hong moves on to an axiological suggestion that all things are on an equal footing as they all possess the power of living together in their own respective ways (Uisanmundap [2011: 34–36]). Clearly opposing the anthropocentric view, he advocates the view that all things are equal in value. Thus, we may say that he holds a holistic view of the world in which various things are organically and harmoniously integrated (Hong Simsŏngmun  [2008: 148–9]).