The National Commission demanded that, to fulfill obligations of beneficence, research subjects not be asked or allowed to consent to more risk than is warranted by anticipated benefits and that forms of risk incommensurate with participants’ previous experience not be imposed in the case of groups such as children. The moral concern is that some subjects, notably children, would be overburdened and possibly disturbed or terrified. However, the commission recognized that risks must be permitted during the course of many forms of research, including pediatric research, in order for investigators to be positioned to distinguish harmful from beneficial outcomes. Today, the problem might be expressed in terms of the need for investigators to determine the safety or effectiveness of a therapy or diagnostic tool under investigation in a study.