 Another way that manipulation might bypass rational deliberation would be for it to appeal to non-conscious motivations. Eric Cave explores this idea in a pair of papers (Cave 2007, 2014) on what he calls “motive manipulation.” Cave distinguishes between “concerns,” which are conscious pro-attitudes, and unconscious “non-concern motives.” He then defines motive manipulation as influence that operates by engaging unconscious non-concern motives. This theory clearly implies that appeals to non-conscious motives, as well as influences that operate via “quasi-hypnotic techniques” and “crude behavioral conditioning” are manipulative (Cave 2014: 188). Although Cave himself does not claim that all forms of manipulation are of this sort (Cave 2007: 130), would such a claim be plausible? Or could we add the appeal to non-conscious motives to the list of psychological mechanisms that bypass reason, and define manipulation in terms of exploiting such mechanisms?