  Now, if the neurosurgeon’s son because of his race can advance each of these goals and the coal miner’s son, because of his race, cannot, then isn’t the selection decision easy? Pick the African-American neurosurgeon’s son (however advantaged he may be) over the white coal miner’s son (even if he is the most deserving creature imaginable). The aims of real world affirmative action make race and ethnicity (and sometimes gender) salient, not personal desert or merit. The test of real world affirmative action lies in the urgency of its ends (preventing discrimination, promoting diversity or integration) and the aptness (moral and causal) of its means (racial, ethnic, and gender preferences).  Both remain much in dispute. 