 The types of impartiality implied by both of these more demanding versions of the universalizability requirement are likely to be considerably more substantial than the formal consistency required by the minimal version. Kant, for instance, seems to hold that universalizability implies a certain level of altruism or charity, in the form of the imperfect duties we owe towards other individuals. There are problems, however, with Kant’s argument for this. In particular, it is not clear just how the universal willing of a maxim such as “When others are in need of help, I always ignore their needs” give rise to any sort of contradiction. It is true, of course, that, were we actually in a position to choose the universal maxims on which all rational persons would act, this would be a poor choice, for we might someday be in need of assistance from another. But to say that the willing of this maxim as a universal law would be imprudent is not to say that doing so is contradictory. Moreover, as David Wiggins (1978) points out, certain other actions that seem as if they ought to be morally permissible – the act, for instance, of releasing a debtor from his debt out of generosity – have maxims that seem to fail the universalizability test so conceived. These examples may point to a general problem with the attempt to derive impartiality from universalizability: whereas the latter, at least on a Kantian interpretation, is a formal property of moral judgments, moral impartiality, as we have seen, is a substantive rather than a formal concept. (See Herman 1993 and Korsgaard 1996 for attempts to respond to these problems.)