 First, the reasons mentioned in sections 2.1–2.3 ought to be understood as independent of special relationships, contracts, and joint commitments. They are impartial reasons, that is, every moral agent (human, intelligent Martian, etc.) has reason to act or forbear acting in the ways thus far discussed (McMahan 2005). So, for instance, a parent has at least two reasons not to kill his own child: a reason in virtue of the child’s FMS, and a reason in virtue of the parental relationship, which generates a special obligation for this particular agent not to kill this particular child. In addition, these reasons are independent of other facts about the action, for example, the action’s possible bad long-term effects. Instead, they are reasons to treat the being this way for the being’s own sake.