 It is difficult to evaluate criticisms of the last kind. There is no doubt that enthusiasm for the HGP and many other successor projects in genomics has often been grounded in simplistic assumptions about the power of DNA and its pre-eminent role in biological systems. On the other hand it is arguable that many unanticipated benefits have derived from genomics quite independently of such assumptions. For instance the ability to make very precise comparisons of genome sequences has led to major advances in unraveling the details of evolutionary history, not to mention its application to technologies such as forensic DNA testing. Moreover, it can be argued with Waters (2007b) that what makes genomes so central to biological research is not the erroneous belief that they are the ultimate causes of everything, but rather the unique possibilities they present for precise intervention in organisms or cells.