 Maudlin (2011) outlines a selection of problems that arise in Cramer’s theory as a result of the pseudotemporal account of the transaction mechanism: processes important to the completion of a transaction take place in pseudotime only (rather than in real time) and thus cannot be said to have taken place at all. Since a temporally bound observer can only ever perceive a completed transaction, i.e., a collapsed wavefunction, the uncollapsed wavefunction never actually exists. Since the initial offer wave is identical to the wavefunction of the quantum formalism, any ensuing exchange of advanced and retarded waves required to provide the quantum mechanical probabilities, according to Maudlin, also do not exist. Moreover, Cramer’s exposition of the transaction mechanism seems to suggest that the stimulation of sequential offer and confirmation waves occurs deterministically, leaving a gaping hole in any explanation the transactional interpretation might provide of the stochastic nature of quantum mechanics. Although these problems are significant, Maudlin admits that they may indeed be peculiar to Cramer’s theory. Maudlin also sets out a more general objection to retrocausal models of quantum mechanics which he claims to pose a problem for “any theory in which both backwards and forwards influences conspire to shape events” (2011: 184).