 How does intentionality arise? How do mental states come to be about anything, or to have semantic properties? Brentano (1874 [1973: 97]) maintained that intentionality is a hallmark of the mental as opposed to the physical: “The reference to something as an object is a distinguishing characteristic of all mental phenomena. No physical phenomenon exhibits anything similar”. In response, contemporary naturalists seek to naturalize intentionality. They want to explain in naturalistically acceptable terms what makes it the case that mental states have semantic properties. In effect, the goal is to reduce the intentional to the non-intentional. Beginning in the 1980s, philosophers have offered various proposals about how to naturalize intentionality. Most proposals emphasize causal or nomic links between mind and world (Aydede &amp; Güzeldere 2005; Dretske 1981; Fodor 1987, 1990; Stalnaker 1984), sometimes also invoking teleological factors (Millikan 1984, 1993; Neander 2017l; Papineau 1987; Dretske 1988) or historical lineages of mental states (Devitt 1995; Field 2001). Another approach, functional role semantics, emphasizes the functional role of a mental state: the cluster of causal or inferential relations that the state bears to other mental states. The idea is that meaning emerges at least partly through these causal and inferential relations. Some functional role theories cite causal relations to the external world (Block 1987; Loar 1982), and others do not (Cummins 1989).