  Crummell's Moral Change Argument begins with a tension. He claims that moral enlightenment cannot be caused by non-enlightenment. No “rude, heathen people” have ever “raised themselves by their own spontaneous energy” to a “morally elevated” state, he argues (“The Regeneration of Africa” [AA], 435); the efforts of those “superior” in “letters or grace” are generally required. This implies that moral enlightenment cannot be indigenous. Against this restriction on the cause of enlightenment is his concern that, to be effective, the enlightening influence has to become indigenous. The heathen cannot enlighten themselves, yet, since no one can become enlightened by non-indigenous agents, enlightened agents have to become indigenous—that is, some heathen have to be enlightened—as a condition for the enlightenment of the heathen. So how can any heathen be enlightened, unless they are already enlightened?