  On the other hand, cancer research has led to important innovations in science and medicine with impacts much wider than cancer itself. Moreover, particularly in the U.S., regulations on research by, e.g., the FDA on the design and conduct of clinical trials for approval of drugs, for instance, may in part be slowing research and leading to excessive costs. Some argue that we ought to lift restrictions on such tests for novel and more “precise” (or targeted) drugs that might benefit very few. Such matters are of course intertwined with larger debates among both clinician-researchers and philosophers of medicine around when and whether we have sufficient evidence to claim that, e.g., this or that mode of intervention is effective. In part, such debates are shaped by the economic costs of large clinical trials, and in part, by epistemic issues around what and how we can and should measure, in making claims to “effective” intervention (Ashcroft 2002; Cartwright 2011; Howick 2011; Stegenga 2015; Teira 2011; Teira, et al. 2015; González-Moreno, et al. 2015; Deaton, et al. 2018).