 In the last line, Nietzsche must mean only that there are no conscious mental causes. Indeed, in other passages, he is explicit that the target of this critique is the picture of conscious motives as adequate to account for action. (For competing views of the scope of Nietzsche’s epiphenomenalism about consciousness, see, on the one hand, Katsafanas 2005 and, on the other, Riccardi 2019, Fowles 2019 and Leiter 2019: 135–139; more generally, on how Nietzsche views consciousness, see Abel 2001 and Welshon 2014). As he writes in Daybreak, “we are accustomed to exclude all [the] unconscious processes from the accounting and to reflect on the preparation for an act only to the extent that it is conscious” (D 129), a view which Nietzsche plainly regards as mistaken, both here and in the passage quoted above. Indeed, the theme of the “ridiculous overestimation and misunderstanding of consciousness” (GS 11) is a recurring one in Nietzsche. “[B]y far the greatest part of our spirit’s activity,” says Nietzsche, “remains unconscious and unfelt” (GS 333; cf. GS 354).