 A major contribution made by Kūkai for the orthodoxy of Nara Buddhism with his systematization of esoteric doctrines, was to bridge the gap between textual study and ritual practice. Kūkai’s works provided for the first time a theoretical grounding for the incantation of mantras and dhāranīs and other esoteric practices already present in Nara Buddhism. It did this by explicating their relationship to the doctrines expressed in the scriptural texts. While esoteric elements were already present in Nara Buddhism, their very raison d’etre, other than as forms of magic, and their very connection to Buddhist doctrines had been left in the dark. Kūkai’s success may be attributable to his ability to provide a sound and intelligible systematic exposition of the meanings of the esoteric elements of Buddhism and of the interrelationships between text, ritual, and icon. In doing so it succeeded in bridging the gap between esoteric rituals and scriptural doctrines. (Abe 1999, 11) Kūkai had to work out such an exposition in order to establish and legitimize the independence and role of his Shingon Buddhism vis-à-vis the other forms of Buddhism already existent in Nara Japan.