  In the psychological literature, De Houwer and colleagues defend a view that can be thought of as supporting Contradictory Belief (Mitchell et al. 2009; Hughes et al. 2011; De Houwer 2014). On this model,  propositions[10] have three defining features: (1) propositions are statements about the world that specify the nature of the relation between concepts (e.g., “I am good” and “I want to be good” are propositions that involve the same two concepts—“me” and “good”—but differ in the way that the concepts are related); (2) propositions can be formed rapidly on the basis of instructions or inferences; and (3) subjects are conscious of propositions (De Houwer 2014). On the basis of data consistent with these criteria—for example, responses on implicit measures are affected by one-shot instruction—De Houwer (2014) argues that implicit measures capture propositional states (i.e.,  beliefs).[11] This claim represents an application of Mitchell and colleagues’ (2009) broader argument that all learning is propositional (i.e., there is no case in which learning is the result of the automatic associative linking of mental representations). One reason philosophers have been interested in this view is due to its resonance with classic debates in the philosophy of mind between empiricists and rationalists, behaviorists and cognitivists, and so on.