 Others have gone further and argued that disgust might itself cause or comprise a part of moral judgment (Haidt 2001; Wheatley &amp; Haidt 2005). If this is true, critics argue, we ought to be wary of those judgments, because disgust has a checkered past in multiple senses. First, it’s historically (and currently) associated with racism, sexism, homophobia and xenophobia; the language of disgust is often used in campaigns of discrimination and even genocide. Secondly, disgust’s evolutionary history gives us reason to doubt it. Kelly (2011) argues that the universal bodily manifestations of disgust evolved to help humans avoid ingesting toxins and other harmful substances, while the more cognitive or symbolic sense of offensiveness and contamination associated with disgust evolved to help humans avoid diseases and parasites. This system is later recruited for an entirely distinct purpose: to help mark the boundaries between in-group and out-group, and thus to motivate cooperation with in-group members, punishment of in-group defectors, and exclusion of out-group members.