   The debate over adaptationism contains claims and counterclaims about what hypotheses should be included in an analysis of the adaptiveness of a trait. This is crucial because assessments of evidentiary support depend on what hypotheses we consider (see Sober 1990, Earman 1992). We must consider all the relevant hypotheses in order to provide good evidence for a hypothesis (Stanford 2006, Forber 2010). One common pluralist complaint is that adaptationists neglect this standard of evidence. Such an inclusive standard is essential because many different evolutionary trajectories can lead to the same outcome. As Gould and Lewontin (1979) wrote, “One must not confuse the fact that a structure is used in some way…with the primary evolutionary reason for its existence and conformation”. In addition, subtle differences in evolutionary history may lead to different evolutionary outcomes (Beatty and Desjardins 2009). Thus, we cannot conclude that natural selection played an important role in the evolution of some trait just because we have a plausible adaptive hypothesis in mind. Indeed, finding suitable evidence for an adaptive (or non-adaptive) hypothesis is difficult because we lack good epistemic access to evolutionary history. This lack of access is a premise of Gould and Lewontin's critique, and it motivates their call to evaluate testing methods in evolutionary biology, especially those methods that consider only adaptive hypotheses with no regard for non-adaptive rivals. Biologists have continued to develop new testing methods that do this (see, e.g., Rose and Lauder 1996, Hansen et al. 2008).