 As our examples make clear, semantics, conceived as the study of the meaning of words and sentences, does not exhaust the study of meaning. The study of speaker meaning and implicature is included in pragmatics, which covers the broad range of speech acts performed by using words and sentences. Applied pragmatics arose from the recognition that second language learners cannot become fully proficient without mastering more than grammar and literal meaning (Kasper 2003). Clinical pragmatics studies communication disorders that arise from failure to master pragmatic rules (Cummings 2009, 2014). Formal pragmatics uses formal models of utterances, contexts, and discourse to state precise rules specifying the interpretation of an utterance in a context, including what is both said and implicated (Roberts 2006).