 The problem of induction also plays a role in Ashʿarite attacks on Aristotelian accounts of causation in nature. As we have seen, Aristotelian natural philosophy relies in part on repeated observation in its attribution of causal powers to natural bodies. Ashʿarite theologians attack this aspect of Aristotelian natural philosophy on the ground that repeated observation of concomitance is not evidence of causation. A version of this argument appears in al-Ghazālī’s Incoherence of the Philosophers.