 A challenge faced by appraisal theories concerns whether appraisals are causes of emotions, entailments of emotions, parts of emotions, or some combination of the above. These questions raise complex conceptual issues we cannot address here (see Moors 2013), but they are essential for assessing the evidentiary support for appraisal theory. A long-running critique of the research program (Oatley 1992; Parkinson &amp; Manstead 1992; Parkinson 1997; Russell 1987; Frijda 1993) has been that the self-report evidence commonly taken to support a causal interpretation of the relation between appraisals and emotions only supports a relation of conceptual entailment between them because it unveils people’s beliefs about what makes emotions appropriate rather than what causes emotions (see Scherer 2009 for a response). 