 The development of model-based accounts discussed in the previous section is part of a larger, “epistemic turn” in the philosophy of measurement that occurred in the early 2000s. Rather than emphasizing the mathematical foundations, metaphysics or semantics of measurement, philosophical work in recent years tends to focus on the presuppositions and inferential patterns involved in concrete practices of measurement, and on the historical, social and material dimensions of measuring. The philosophical study of these topics has been referred to as the “epistemology of measurement” (Mari 2003, 2005a; Leplège 2003; Tal 2017a). In the broadest sense, the epistemology of measurement is the study of the relationships between measurement and knowledge. Central topics that fall under the purview of the epistemology of measurement include the conditions under which measurement produces knowledge; the content, scope, justification and limits of such knowledge; the reasons why particular methodologies of measurement and standardization succeed or fail in supporting particular knowledge claims, and the relationships between measurement and other knowledge-producing activities such as observation, theorizing, experimentation, modelling and calculation. In pursuing these objectives, philosophers are drawing on the work of historians and sociologists of science, who have been investigating measurement practices for a longer period (Wise and Smith 1986; Latour 1987: Ch. 6; Schaffer 1992; Porter 1995, 2007; Wise 1995; Alder 2002; Galison 2003; Gooday 2004; Crease 2011), as well as on the history and philosophy of scientific experimentation (Harré 1981; Hacking 1983; Franklin 1986; Cartwright 1999). The following subsections survey some of the topics discussed in this burgeoning body of literature.