 The rise of formalist approaches can be considered a normative upshot of this shift of perspective. According to formalist doctrines, it is inappropriate to the appreciation of music as an art to rely on the images it suggests, the emotions it arouses, or the concepts it may call to mind. Even philosophers who think music has a content are no longer satisfied with a musical semantics modeled after that of language or pictures. Arthur Schopenhauer is exemplary of this tendency (see  §1.2).