 Only at one point in his semantic work did Montague abandon his Fregean stance: in his essay ‘English as a formal language’ (1970a), he employed a one-level architecture of ‘Russellian’ denotations and expressed his doubts about the cogency of Frege’s motivation for non-propositional senses (ibid., sec. 9, remark xi), thereby foreshadowing Kaplan’s (1975) comparison between the frameworks of Frege 1892 and Russell 1905. Yet in his ‘Universal Grammar’, Montague commented: