 Medical genetics faced other criticisms as well. The standardization of genetic technologies contributed to the medicalization of conception, pregnancy, and birth; this altered the relationship between expecting parents and fetuses because a pregnancy became thought of as “tentative” until screening was complete, and it also impacted the way expecting parents prepared for and communicated about a pregnancy (Duden 1993). Racial health disparity scholars also criticized biomedical research investment in medical genetics because it pulled resources away from known causes of health disparities in the environment that had a bigger impact on the problem (Roberts 2011). In some cases, the concerns about medicalization and the concerns about racial health disparities converged; for example, Dorothy Roberts warned that it takes social and economic resources to access the sorts of genetic technologies that hospitals offer (at least in the United States), and so medical genetics only exacerbated health disparities (Roberts 2009; entries:  feminist bioethics;  the human genome project). 