 Some of the deepest criticisms of progress were produced during and after the catastrophes and upheavals of the 20th century.  Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) wrote Minima Moralia, a collection of short pieces, during World War II and its aftermath.  This work addresses a variety of interlocking topics relating to fascism, capitalism, and the war.  As a German and a Jew in exile, Adorno is concerned to confront Nazism and the Holocaust.  Given his intellectual background as a scholar of Hegel and Marx, this confrontation takes the shape of a critique of Hegel's philosophy of history.  Recall that Hegel claims that a reflective individual who surveys the course of history will be reconciled to tragedies when he understands their contribution to progress overall.  Adorno is viscerally repulsed by this notion. He notes with indignation: “Millions of Jews have been murdered, and this is to be seen as an interlude and not as the catastrophe itself” (1951, 55). 