 A second group of causal pathways is lifelong material living conditions (Mackenbach 2019: 68). Certain conditions of absolute material deprivation constitute well-recognized risks for ill health and mortality, including inadequate nutrition, lack of clean water and sanitation, and poor housing. A very plausible causal pathway runs from low levels of non-comparative individual income through these material risk factors to poor health outcomes (Aldabe et al. 2011). Low-income people are also more likely to work physically demanding jobs which expose them to dangerous chemicals (Clougherty, Souza, &amp; Cullen 2010), and reside in neighborhoods featuring poor access to amenities and increased exposure to environmental risks such as air pollution and toxic waste sites (Brulle &amp; Pellow 2006; Pickett &amp; Pearl 2001).