  The three basic principles are (1) respect for persons, (2) beneficence, and (3) justice. In this context, the principle of beneficence is understood as an abstract norm that includes derivative rules such as "Do no harm," "Balance benefits against risks," and "Maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms." This principle is satisfied in the research context by intentionally refraining from causing injury and by assuring that risks stand in reasonable relation to probable benefits. As one major demand of beneficence, the National Commission required that during the course of the ethical review of research protocols there be arrayals of data pertaining to benefits and risks and of alternative ways of obtaining the benefits (if any) sought in the research. It also demanded that systematic and nonarbitrary presentations of risks and benefits be made to subjects, as part of the informed consent process, and that assessments of risks and safeguards be considered by ethics committees when they evaluate whether research protocols are justified.