 Some historically especially important precursors to modern fictionalism are Jeremy Bentham (see Ogden 1932), who defended the view that many entities referred to in ordinary discourse are “fictitious”, Hans Vaihinger, with his philosophy of the “as if”, and, specifically in the moral case, Friedrich Nietzsche, whose view has been argued to amount to moral fictionalism. Voltaire’s famous “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him” can be seen as expressing a fictionalist stance toward theism. Moreover, George Berkeley’s advice to think with the learned and speak with the vulgar is often taken to express a fictionalist stance (from §51 of A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, defending his immaterialism from the charge that it does not fit the way we speak). Sometimes Hume is mentioned as an early fictionalist (see for example Varzi 2013). There are arguably earlier predecessors as well. One possible example is the Pyrrhonist view that we should live without belief (see Sextus Empiricus, “Outlines of Scepticism”). Moreover, the doctrine of the two truths in Buddhist philosophy has been interpreted as a distinction between fictional truth and real truth (see Garfield 2006). Pierre Duhem (1913) argues that the dominant view on astronomy before the advent of modern physics was that a fictionalist attitude was appropriate. For some discussion of these historical precursors, see Gideon Rosen (2005) (for a discussion of Pyrrhonism, the early history of astronomy, and Bentham), Arthur Fine (1993) (for a discussion of Vaihinger), and Nadeem Hussain (2007) (for a discussion of Nietzsche and other 19th century German philosophers with fictionalist tendencies).