 As already discussed above (Sections  7  and  8.1),  theory and measurement are interdependent both historically and conceptually. On the historical side, the development of theory and measurement proceeds through iterative and mutual refinements. On the conceptual side, the specification of measurement procedures shapes the empirical content of theoretical concepts, while theory provides a systematic interpretation for the indications of measuring instruments. This interdependence of measurement and theory may seem like a threat to the evidential role that measurement is supposed to play in the scientific enterprise. After all, measurement outcomes are thought to be able to test theoretical hypotheses, and this seems to require some degree of independence of measurement from theory. This threat is especially clear when the theoretical hypothesis being tested is already presupposed as part of the model of the measuring instrument. To cite an example from Franklin et al. (1989: 230): 