 Cautionary vs Covert: Officials have two options for dealing with hazardous waste. Under a Cautionary Policy, officials issue public warnings, erect barriers, and so on. Under a Covert Policy, officials remove the waste in secret, depriving the public of any knowledge of the risk. Suppose officials know that, while the Cautionary Policy will result in a larger number of lung damage cases, every afflicted person will be someone who heard the warnings and failed to heed them. By contrast, while the Covert Policy will result in a smaller number of lung damage cases, none of those people will have had any opportunity to avoid harm. Which policy should the officials choose? (Williams 2006, p. 253; Kumar 2015, p. 269)