 This is, perhaps, the leading problem for non-cognitivist or expressivist theories of value and a vast amount of ink has been spilt trying to solve it. (See, for instance, A. Miller, 2013, Contemporary Metaethics: an Introduction, 2nd edn: 6, 37–9, 53–67, 68, 70–1, 73, 79n23, 89–102, 118, 127–32 &amp; 245 and Schroeder, 2010, Non-Cognitivism in Ethics: chs. 3, 4 &amp; 7.) It would take me too far afield to discuss the matter in detail. Suffice to say that Russell’s theory faces ship-wreck unless this problem can be solved and, in my opinion, the problem is insoluble.