 Throughout this entry we have assumed knowledge of the causal facts pertinent to a situation. Scenarios in which an agent lacks such knowledge raise additional complications for decision theory. An agent typically cannot ensure that all confounders have been accounted for, and thus the possibility of repeated reversals raises questions about when one should adopt a promising policy that has not been experimentally tested (Peters, Janzing, &amp; Schölkopf 2017: 174–175). A distinct concern is that an agent may not be sure whether her action counts as an intervention (e.g., in Newcomb scenarios), since it might not be clear whether she can manipulate a variable to render it independent of its prior causes (Stern 2019). Whether Simpson’s Paradox raises novel difficulties in such decision-making contexts has not yet been explored. See the entries on  decision theory  and  causal decision theory  for further discussion.