 Further disruption of the application model came shortly afterwards from both Tom Beauchamp and Alasdair  MacIntyre.[5]  Beauchamp challenges the application model of applied ethics, defined largely as above: ethical theory develops general and fundamental principles, virtues, rules, and the like, and applied ethics treats particular contexts through less general, derived principles, virtues, and so on. In a 1984 issue of The Monist dedicated to “Ethics and the Modern World”, Beauchamp and MacIntyre each probe the relation between moral theory and applied ethics. Beauchamp argues for the elimination of the distinction between the two, citing the lack of significant difference between them in terms of philosophical activity or method. Philosophers doing applied ethics do what philosophers have always done, says Beauchamp—they analyze concepts, for instance, and submit to critical scrutiny various strategies that are used to justify beliefs, policies, and actions. The application model also problematically presumes a unilateral direction to the flow of ethical knowledge, from moral theory to practical cases and problems. But in fact, says Beauchamp, moral theory has much to learn from practical contexts (Beauchamp 1984).