At this point, it should be clear that the claim that perception is active or action-based is far from unambiguous. Perceiving may implicate action in the sense that it is taken constitutively to involve associations with touch (Berkeley 1709), kinaesthetic feedback from changes in eye position (Lotze 1887 [1879]), consciously experienced “effort of the will” (Helmholtz 2005 [1924]), or knowledge of the way reafferent sensory stimulation varies as a function of movement (Held 1961; O’Regan &amp; Noë  2001; Hurley &amp; Noë 2003).