 The idea that markets have anything to do with “desert” has also been criticized, especially from the perspective of Marxian theories of exploitation. They hold that, to the contrary, laborers are systematically deprived of their rightful contribution, as their wages are lower than the value they create through their labour (e.g., Marx, Capital, vol. I, ch. 7–8; for a discussion see e.g., Buchanan 1985, 87–95). As has also been pointed out, the idea of desert can easily serve as an ideological smokescreen for those who are successful in markets (cf. e.g., Hayek 1978, 74f.). Markets have been criticized for cementing inequality and social division, thus undermining equality of opportunity (cf., e.g., Barry 2005, parts II-IV). This leads to the question whether other institutions, for example a system of public education, can help to mitigate these problems, so that a combined system could be justified.