 Distinguishing between successful and unsuccessful remembering requires identifying the difference between cases in which the memory process results in a genuine memory and cases in which it instead results a memory error such as confabulation (Hirstein 2009). The question of how to distinguish successful remembering from unsuccessful remembering resulting in memory errors is central to the theories of remembering discussed below, but philosophers have also begun to investigate memory errors in their own right. Some have considered the relationship between mnemonic confabulation and other forms of confabulation (Bortolotti &amp; Cox 2009; Hirstein 2005). Others have asked whether confabulation and other memory errors might not, counterintuitively, have beneficial effects. Fernández (2015b), for example, has argued that even wholly confabulated memories may sometimes have adaptive benefits (but see Otgaar, Howe, Clark, Wang, &amp; Merckelbach 2015), while Michaelian (2013) has argued that the misinformation effect, in which inaccurate information concerning an experienced event is incorporated into the subject’s memory of the event (Loftus 1996), can, under certain circumstances, have epistemic benefits (but see Shanton (2011)). And others have attempted to understand the relationships among memory errors of different types. Robins (2016a, a), for example, has explored the relationships among successful remembering, confabulating, and misremembering, characterizing remembering as involving both an accurate representation of an event and retention of information from experience of the event, confabulating as involving an inaccurate representation and no retention of information, and misremembering as involving an inaccurate representation and retention of information. Robins’ account is discussed in more detail below.