 Hosein also argues, more fundamentally, that a policy of profiling blacks and other groups gives the members of those groups good reason to think that the government “substantially discounts [their] rights and interests” relative to the rest of society and is thereby consigning them to an “inferior political status” (e5). In opposition to utilitarian defenses of profiling, he holds that government has a duty of justice to avoid actions that make it reasonable for members of the political community to believe that they are being consigned to such a status: equal citizenship must be secured by government, and all citizens must have sufficient grounds for confidence that equality is secured for them. 