 Causal independence (between votes or even individuals) by no means makes votes probabilistically independent, since common causes create correlations. This fact will be obvious to empirical scientists, statisticians, or causal-network theorists; see, for instance, the entry on   Reichenbach’s common cause principle, as well as Reichenbach (1956), Pearl (2000) and Dietrich and List (2004) on common causes in jury theorems. Common causes of votes are factors influencing two or more votes. They exist in abundance. Voters are usually exposed to