Buddhism and Jainism, two so-called “heteroprax” (Veda-rejecting) traditions in India, put forward analyses of language which challenge the notion of a distinction between primary and secondary meaning, at least as drawn in the orthoprax schools. Significant textual work—as well as secondary scholarship—remains to be done in the area of how both of these traditions (especially Jainism) understand language, but there are some clear themes.