 Because of these properties, learning theory for nonstatistical methods is a more straightforward framework than statistics for traditional philosophical discussions in epistemology, inductive inference, and the philosophy of science. For example, epistemological discussions of justified true belief concern a deductive concept of belief where the inquirer accepts a proposition, rather than assign a probability to data. Scientific theories typically make a deterministic prediction of future data from past observations (initial conditions), so an independence requirement makes it more difficult to apply a methodological framework to understand scientific inquiry (see our  case studies).