 Graham (1997: 227) offers a different account of testimony based on conveying information, i.e., a speaker, S, testifies that p if, and only if, (i) S’s stating that p is offered as evidence that p (ii) S intends that his audience believe that he has the relevant competence, authority, or credentials to state truly that p and (iii) S’s statement that p is believed by S to be relevant to some question that he believes is disputed or unresolved (which may or may not be whether p) and is directed at those whom he believes to be in need of evidence on the matter. (J. Ross 1975 and Elgin (2002) also offer accounts that crucially hinge on the speaker’s statement purporting to convey information).