 One does not have to be a theist in order to be a theological voluntarist. One can affirm normative theological voluntarism or metaethical theological voluntarism while failing to affirm theism; atheists and agnostics can be theological voluntarists of either stripe. With respect to normative theological voluntarism: one might claim that while it is true that any being that merits the title of ‘God’ merits obedience, we should not believe that there is such a being. (Compare: if, through some glitch in promotions, there happened to be no lieutenants in the army at some time, it would not cease to be true that privates ought to obey lieutenants. One could believe that that there are no lieutenants while believing that privates ought to obey their lieutenants.) With respect to metaethical theological voluntarism: one might claim that, for example, the concept of obligation is ineliminably theistic, though there is no God; that God does not exist counts not against metaethical theological voluntarism but rather against the claim that the concept of obligation has application. (Compare: one might believe that ‘sin’ is properly defined as ‘offense against God.’ One can clearly affirm this definition while rejecting God’s existence; all that one is committed to thereby is that there really are no sins.)