 The counterintuitive implication that emotions do not cause their manifestations but rather emerge from them struck many as problematic, because it seemed to undermine the idea that emotions are important to us. How could they be so important, critics like Dewey (1894, 1895) asked, if they have no causal import with respect to actions? And why, one might add, does science not first seek to explain the cause and function of those original “bodily changes”, namely why the emotion is elicited in the first place? (Arnold 1960). 