 Critics of Risse and Zeckhauser argue that profiling is not only a symbol of society’s underlying racism but that it also contributes materially to such racism and its harmful effects. Eidelson argues that “the use of race as a proxy for criminality is likely to be taken as validation for racist assumptions, and thereby to nurture the very prejudices which contribute most directly to [racially] oppressive relationships” (2015: 215). In a similar vein, Lever contends that profiling “encourages us to see black people as perpetrators” and that “racial profiling exacerbates problems of police abuse” because such profiling “conveys a message that black people are … dangerous” (2007: 24). And Hosein contends that blacks and certain other groups, such as Muslims and persons of Middle Eastern descent, “can reasonably assume that profiling contributes to police abuse in so far as police officers (even if mistakenly) take it to license harsh treatment of those groups” (2018: e17; emphasis in original).