 In light of these problems, many researchers have abandoned first-order content-based approaches in favour of the second-order content-based and phenomenological approaches discussed below. Some researchers, however, particularly those interested in animal memory, continue to employ first-order content-based approaches. The second-order content-based approach, as we will see, imposes significant conceptual demands on rememberers, demands which animals are unlikely to meet. And the phenomenological approach is straightforwardly inapplicable to animal memory, since we lack access to animal phenomenology.  The what-where-when criterion of episodicity, in contrast, is experimentally tractable, and research employing it has furnished important insights into the abilities of various nonhuman species to remember past events. Some researchers have found it expedient to introduce a concept of episodic-like memory meant to be free of any phenomenological connotations (Clayton &amp; Dickinson 1998). The concept of episodic-like memory may provide a means of reconciling research on animal episodic memory with the influential Bischof-Köhler hypothesis (Suddendorf &amp; Corballis 2007), according to which animals are “stuck in time”. The Bischof-Köhler hypothesis is itself controversial (Hoerl 2008), however, and the legitimacy of the concept of episodic-like memory remains a matter of contention (Droege 2012; Keven 2016; Malanowski 2016; J. Russell &amp; Hanna 2012).