 A version of the last view is defended by Estlund (2008). He grants that some individuals can be more competent than others, thereby opening the door to arguments for “epistocracy” (decision by small bodies of competent citizens) rather than democracy (decision by all or most citizens, directly or indirectly). However, Estlund rejects epistocracy on grounds that competence levels cannot be identified beyond reasonable doubt. Individuals excluded from decision-making could rightfully object to being ruled by others (Estlund 2008: ch. 11). Estlund’s proposal has led to a lively debate on arguments for and against epistocracy and the role of uncertainty about competence (Lippert-Rasmussen 2012; Brennan 2018; Goodin &amp; Spiekermann 2018: ch. 15; Gunn 2019).