 In The Language of Music (1959), Cooke proposes that Western classical composers have utilized an identifiable stock of melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic structures in order to convey emotion through their works. Cooke’s model is linguistic not only in that it attempts to identify a vocabulary of musical expressiveness, but also because it conceives of music as a form of communication, and specifically as the composer’s communication of emotional states to the listener. It is thus a version of the expression theory (see  §1.1;  Gabriel 1978 provides empirical evidence against Cooke’s view).